From 27c9f305310f2025ae34be905589613d5c1f47e7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: uakci Date: Fri, 18 Sep 2020 02:23:27 +0200 Subject: 2004-en, 2004-ru, 2011-en --- 2004-en/00_intro.html | 430 + 2004-en/00_intro.html.orig | 430 + 2004-en/01_phonology.html | 1122 +++ 2004-en/01_phonology.html.orig | 1122 +++ 2004-en/02_morpho-phonology.html | 1123 +++ 2004-en/02_morpho-phonology.html.orig | 1123 +++ 2004-en/03_morphology.html | 5189 +++++++++++ 2004-en/03_morphology.html.orig | 5189 +++++++++++ 2004-en/04_case.html | 3448 +++++++ 2004-en/04_case.html.orig | 3448 +++++++ 2004-en/05_verbs_1.html | 5675 ++++++++++++ 2004-en/05_verbs_1.html.orig | 5676 ++++++++++++ 2004-en/06_verbs_2.html | 2920 ++++++ 2004-en/06_verbs_2.html.orig | 2920 ++++++ 2004-en/07_suffixes.html | 8434 +++++++++++++++++ 2004-en/07_suffixes.html.orig | 8434 +++++++++++++++++ 2004-en/08_adjuncts.html | 2384 +++++ 2004-en/08_adjuncts.html.orig | 2384 +++++ 2004-en/09_syntax.html | 653 ++ 2004-en/09_syntax.html.orig | 653 ++ 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Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+

+ + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQshttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
Links ohttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/f Interest 2 Morpho-Phonologyhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantichttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/sThe Lexicon
Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 SuffixesTexts
+

 

+

 

+

Introduction

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https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ +These webpages present the grammar of an artificially constructed human languaghttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/e, Ithkuil.  It has been designed with the following goals in mind:

https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ +
    +
  1. +
    The fhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/indings of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics since the 1980s show that human cognition gives rihttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/se to and processes far more information than is overtly expressed by natural human languages.https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/  Theoretically, it should be possible to design a human-usable language that overtly expresses more (or “deeper”) levels/aspects of human cognition than are found in natural human languages.
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    2. +
+
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  1. Natural human languages are notorious for their semantic ambiguity, polysemy (multiple meanings for a given word), semantic vagueness, inexactitude, illogic, redundancy, and overall arbitrariness.  Theoretically, it should be possible to design the language to minimize these various characteristics in favor of greater semantic precision, exactitude, and specification of a speaker’s cognitive intent.
    2. +
+
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  1. The above two goals would seemingly demand that the resulting language be long-winded, since individual words of the language (or at least any sentence as a whole) would have to convey much more morpho-semantic content than their natural language counterparts.  Nevertheless, it should theoretically be possible to accomplish the above two goals while achieving relatively concise morpho-phonological forms for words.  In other words, to be able to pack a lot of meaning and information into a relatively small number of syllables.
    2. +
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Ithkuil represents the culmination of my attempts over a period of thirty years or so to achieve the above goals. It should be noted that Ithkuil is NOT intended to function like a “natural” human language. + Ithkuil exists as an exercise in exploring how human languages could function, +not how human languages do function.

+

 

+ + + + + + +

How the Language Works

+

Ithkuil’s ability to express extensive cognitive detail in a concise manner is possible due to the design of the grammar, essentially a matrix of grammatical concepts and structures designed for compactness, cross-functionality and reusability. This matrix-like grammar is combined with a vocabulary/lexicon of semantic stems which (1) are capable of a high degree of flexibility and synergism within that matrix, (2) have been completely reconceptualized from the cognitive level up regardless of their correspondence to actual word roots and grammatical categories in existing languages, and (3) reflect the inherent dependencies and interrelationships between one semantic concept and another. Therefore, the morphemes of the language (i.e., word-roots, suffixes, prefixes, grammatical categories, etc.) are as phonetically brief as possible, function in multiple roles with one another, and correspond more closely to human cognitive categories than in natural languages. In this fashion, a limited number of sounds and word-roots can be made to generate a vast array of variations and derivations corresponding to and even surpassing all of the grammatical and semantic functions of the usual stock of words, phrases, and idiomatic constructions in natural languages.

+

Additionally, the particular grammatical categories of the language, combined with a systematic and hierarchical derivational morphology, allow for extreme transparency and flexibility in:

+ +


+As an example of the morphological richness and efficiency possible in this language, examine the following Ithkuil sentence, comparing it to its literal English translation:

+
+


+ Tram-mļöi  hhâsmařpţuktôx.

+

TRANSLATION:
+ ‘On the contrary, I think it may turn out that this rugged mountain range trails off at some point.’ +   

+

NOTE: See Phonology, Section 1.2 on how to pronounce the Romanized orthography used to transliterate the Ithkuil characters.

+
+

The reader may well wonder why it takes a 19-word sentence in English to translate a two-word Ithkuil sentence. One might assume the sentence “cheats” in that the two Ithkuil words simply have innately intricate and specialized meanings. While it is true that the first word, tram-mļöi, translates as ‘on the contrary, it may turn out at some point (that...),’ and https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/the second word, hhâsmařpţuktôx, means ‘I have a feeling this unevenly high range of mountains trails off,’ it would be quite erroneous to conclude that these are simply autonomous words one might theoretically find in an Ithkuil dictionary. Indeed, the only part of the sentence that represents any sort of “root” word is -âsm-, a stem more or less meaning ‘hill’ or ‘upland.’ The remainder of the sentence is made up entirely of morphological, not lexical components, i.e., prefixes, suffixes, infixes, vowel permutations, shifts in stress and tone, etc. For example, the first word, tram-mļöi, has three parts to it as shown below:

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+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

 

1.

tr(a)-

=

an affix indicating a rebuttal to an allegation, translatable as ‘on the contrary...’

 

2.

m-mļ-

=

an infix which conveys both aspectual information translatable as ‘it turns out (to be) that’ or ‘it is revealed that,’ plus subjunctive mood, translatable as  ‘(it) may (be that)...’

 

3.

-öi

=

an aspectual suffix translatable as ‘at some point’ or ‘somewhere along the way’

+


+ The second word, hhâsmařpţuktôx, breaks down morphologically as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

 

1.

hh-

=

an affix indicating a conclusion based on the speaker’s intuition, translatable as ‘I have a feeling (that)...’

 

2.

-âsm(a)-

=

a stem meaning ‘hill, upland,’ in turn derived from the root -sm- indicating the level of a landscape

 

3.

-řpţ-

=

an affix indicating (1) that the stem is to be re-interpreted as comprising a composite entity of non-identical members consolidated together into a single segmented whole (i.e., ‘hill’ becomes ‘uneven range of hills’), and (2) that the entity displays depletion (i.e., ‘trailing off’ or ‘petering out’)

 

4.

-ukt-

=

a demonstrative suffix translatable as ‘this’ (= ‘the one in question’ or ‘the one at hand’)

 

5.

-ôx

=

a suffix indicating that the stem is to be interpreted as being very large in size, and furthermore, that the increase in size creates a new gestalt entity, i.e., not simply a ‘very large hill or upland’ but rather a ‘mountain’

 

6.

stress on penultimate (i.e., second-from-last) syllable

=

provides partial information on how the stem specifically derives from its semantic root

 

7.

falling tone (unmarked)

=

statement reflects an end-in-itself rather than a goal-oriented situation

+

 

+

In addition to its morphology, Ithkuil is different from other languages in the way its lexicon (stock of word-roots) has been created as well as in the principles underlying its lexico-semantics (the relationship between words and meaning). In natural languages, the choice as to what mental concepts and categories will be overtly reflected as word-roots and stems is arbitrary and unsystematic (while in most invented languages, the lexicon is by and large consciously or sub-consciously patterned after that of natural languages). While it is true that virtually all languages reflect certain basic universals of word choice (e.g., all have words for sun, moon, speak, mother, father, laugh, I, you, one, two, water, blood, black, white, hot, cold, etc.), the manner in which these words are created is haphazard and with little regard for basic conceptual interrelationships. The result, in most cases, is a plethora of separate, distinct word roots which bear no morpho-phonological, or morpho-semantic relation to one another (i.e., the patterns of sounds used to create particular words are unsystematic and independent for each word-root regardless of whether those word-roots are semantically or cognitively related to one another). Ithkuil word-roots have been created in a more efficient and systematic manner, with a recognition that the interrelatedness between what are large sets of discrete words in other languages can be formalized and systematized into a vast array or matrix of derivational rules, the result being a drastic reduction in the number of basic word-roots, which in turn allows all individual stems to be extremely compact phonologically-speaking.

+

For example, consider the following series of English words: see, sight, vision, glimpse, stare, gawk, view, panorama, look, eye, glance, visualize. Note how each of these is a separate, autonomous word despite the fact that it shares a single underlying semantic concept with the others (a concept which we can conveniently refer to as SIGHT/VISION), each representing a mere manipulation of either durational aspect, situational perspective, or manner of participation relating to that underlying concept. What is more, these manipulations are, by and large, haphazardly applied, vague, subjective, and particular to the specific underlying concept (i.e., the aspectual/perspectival manipulations applied to SIGHT/VISION do not parallel those manipulations applied to the concept TRANSFERENCE OF POSSESSION by which we derive the series give, take, receive, steal, donate, lend, borrow, send, etc.).

+

In Ithkuil, it is the seminal underlying concept which is lexified into a word-root which then undergoes a series of regular, predictable, and universally applicable modifications at the morphological (i.e., grammatical) level to generate new words that, in some cases, parallel such series of English words, but in most cases, far exceed the dynamism and range of such English word series.

+

Another principle underlying the formation of words in Ithkuil is complementarity. Western thought and language generally reflect Aristotelian logic in the way they conceptualize the world and the interrelationships between discrete entities in that world. Ithkuil, on the other hand, views the world as being based on complementary principles, where, instead of discrete independence between related entities, such concepts are seen as complementary aspects of a single holistic entity. Such complementarity is in turn reflected in the derivation of word-roots. By “complementarity” is meant that the manifestation of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered to be a discrete whole without the existence of the other. A simple illustration of complementarity is the flip of a coin: the coin can only land on one side or the other, yet without both sides being part of the coin, any given coin toss has no meaning or contextual relevance no matter which side is face-up.

+

For example, in Western languages, words such as male, night, limb, sit, and happen are all autonomous words, linguistically representing what are inherently considered to be basic mental concepts or semantic primitives. However, in Ithkuil, none of these words is considered to be a semantic primitive. Instead, they are seen to be parts of greater, more holistic semantic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another part, the two together making up the whole.

+

Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) from the underlying concept translatable as day (24-hour period), while limb, along with its complement trunk or torso, derives from the stem (corporeal) body.

+

Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon automatically functions as a seat. We see the awkward attempt of English to convey these jointly dependent but mutually exclusive perspectives when comparing the sentences Please sit down and Please be seated. Another example involves the word happen or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as event or situation.

+

The Ithkuil word for hole illustrates another instance of complementarity. Holes can be looked at from two different, but interrelated perspectives: either as an opening connecting two different spaces (or access point to a previously unavailable space, i.e., a pit), or as a discontinuity in the surface or structural integrity of the dividing entity separating the two realms. In other words, one can focus on the potential function or consequences of the hole, or on the structural nature of the hole. Either of these two perspectives represents a legitimate, but complementary way to consider a hole or puncture. Thus, the Ithkuil word would have two derivative roots each indicating one of these two perspectives. One such root would be used when saying There’s a hole in your shirt, while the other would be used when saying She saw me through a hole in the fence.

+

Ithkuil recognizes that such complementarity exists for virtually any concept, in fact that it is one of the foundational principles of the universe itself. No beam of light can be spoken of without implicit recognition of its source. No signal can be described without accounting for the signaling device. Indeed, in Ithkuil no river is without its channel, no surface without its firmament, no message without its medium, no sense impression without its sense faculty, no contents without their container, no occurrence without its consequence, no memory without its present effect, no plan without its purpose, no music without its playing, no relief without prerequisite deprivation, no pleasure without its absence, no motion without space in which to move.

+

Other principles underlying Ithkuil word-derivation include the interrelated principles of fuzzy logic, prototype theory, and radial categorization. Incorporation of these principles into the architecture for word-formation allows roots to be grouped into various types of affiliated sets, each of which then functions as a conceptual gestalt, the individual members of which being marked as having varying degrees and kinds of relatedness or similarity to a hypothetical prototype member or archetype. Thus, Ithkuil is able to systematically derive words such as crowd, mob, group, troop, club, association, assembly, and gathering all from the single root-word person. Similarly, words such as grove, orchard, forest, woods, jungle, and copse can all be derived from the single root-word tree.

+

As one last example exemplifying the dynamism and conciseness of Ithkuil lexico-semantics, consider the following list of English words and phrases: drenched, wet, damp, moist, near-dry, dry, parched. Rather than provide separate autonomous words for these concepts, Ithkuil recognizes that these terms all indicate relative degrees of moisture along a continuous range. Such continua would be addressed by a single root whose meaning more or less corresponds to [DEGREE OF] MOISTURE to which an array of simple suffixes would be added to specify the particular degree along that range, all the way from bone dry (or parched) through drenched to saturated. All such phenomena which Western languages tend to semantically delineate into binary oppositions (e.g., hard/soft, light/dark, shallow/deep, etc.) are recognized and lexified in Ithkuil as single roots which then systematically use suffixes to specify the particular degree along a continuous range.

+

The above paragraphs illustrate how Ithkuil is able to capture and systematically present at the morphological level what other languages accomplish haphazardly at the lexical level. By systematically finding and structuring the covert dependencies and interrelationships between what are disparate words in other languages, the hundreds of thousands of words in a language like English are drastically reduced down to the approximately 3600 word-roots of Ithkuil. This is morpho-lexical efficiency on a grand scale. Nevertheless, by means of the matrix-like morphological scheme previously described, each of these roots can in turn generate thousands of permutations to convey complex and subtle semantic distinctions and operations which dwarf the capacity of existing languages to convey without resorting to cumbersome paraphrase. This is lexico-semantic and morpho-semantic efficiency on an equally grand scale. Such a synergistic design for grammar lends a dynamism that allows the Ithkuil language to describe reality to a minute level of detail and exactitude despite a limited number of word-roots. This dynamism is visible throughout this work, but is discussed in systematic detail in Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics.

+

 

+ + + + + + +

Addressing the Vagueness Inherent in Natural Languages

+

To further illustrate the cognitive depth at which Ithkuil operates, consider one of the most pervasive aspects of natural human languages: semantic vagueness. For example, consider the following four English sentences:

+
+
+

(a) The boy rolled down the hill.
+ (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking.
+ (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday.
+ (d) There is a dog on my porch.

+
+
+

In examining these four sentences most native English speakers would deny that any vagueness exists. This is because the vagueness does not exist in terms of the overt meanings of the words themselves. Rather, the vagueness lies at the nearly subconscious level of their grammatical (or syntactical) relations and cognitive intent. For example, in sentence (a) we have no idea whether the boy chose to roll himself down the hill or whether he was pushed against his will. (In formal linguistic terms we would say it is unknown whether the semantic role of the subject ‘boy’ is as agent or patient.) And yet knowing which scenario is correct is crucial to understanding the speaker’s intent in describing the action.

+

Imagine sentence (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking being spoken as an answer to the question ‘Why does she seem so irritable?’ In interpreting sentence (b), we have no idea whether the subject is indeed a smoker or not; i.e., is the speaker offering this speculation because he/she knows the subject to be a smoker, or as mere conjecture without knowledge one way or the other whether the subject smokes or not?

+

Sentence (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday illustrates four-way ambiguity. Joe’s failure to win the lottery could be either because: the speaker knows Joe didn’t play; because the speaker knows Joe did play but lost; because the speaker doesn’t know whether Joe played or not and is simply voicing a conjecture; or because the statement is an inference based on some indirect clue (e.g., since Joe showed up for work today, he must not have won the lottery).

+

And while sentence (d) There is a dog on my porch seems on its surface to be the most straightforward of the four, is the intent of the speaker to simply describe and identify the participants to a scene, or does she wish to convey the idea that the scene has personal significance to her, e.g., because she has a phobia of dogs or has been waiting for a long-lost pet dog to return home? In other words, the sentence itself does not convey the intent behind the utterance, only the static description of the scene.

+

In all four instances, such vagueness exists unless and until the audience can ascertain information from the surrounding context of other sentences. This shows that, despite the fact that all four sentences are grammatically well-formed English sentences whose words in and of themselves are unambiguous, their grammar alone is insufficient to convey the cognitive information necessary to fully comprehend the intent of the speaker’s utterance. This failure of grammar to inherently convey the requisite information necessary to understand a speaker’s cognitive intent is a functional pitfall of human language in general which Ithkuil grammar has been designed to avoid. The Ithkuil equivalents to the above four sentences would mandatorily convey all of the “missing” information noted above without requiring any extra words not corresponding to the English originals. The grammatical elements of the words themselves (word-selection, declensions, conjugations, prefixes, suffixes, etc.) would convey all the elements mentioned.

+

Similar examples can be given to show the extent to which natural languages such as English must often resort to idiomatic expressions, metaphor, paraphrase, circumlocution and “supra-segmental” phenomena (e.g., changing the pitch of one’s voice) in their attempts to convey a speaker’s intended meaning. Ithkuil grammar has been designed to overtly and unambiguously reflect the intention of a speaker with a minimum of such phenomena.

+

 

+ + + + + + +

Comparison to Other Constructed Languages

+

Those readers familiar with the history of artificial language construction might think this endeavor belated or unnecessary, in that logical languages such as James Cooke Brown’s renowned Loglan (or its popular derivative, Lojban) already exist. This serves to illustrate exactly what distinguishes Ithkuil from such previous attempts. Loglan was published in the 1950s as a spoken/written language based on symbolic logic (formally known as the first-order predicate calculus), an algorithmic system of symbol manipulation devised by mathematicians and logicians. As a rehttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/sult, one might think that such a language is the most capable means of achieving logical, unambiguous linguistic communication. However, Loglan and its derivatives are merely sophisticated tools for symbol manipulation, i.e., the levels of language known as morphology and syntax. It is not within the scope of such languages to address any reorganization of the semantic realm. This means that symbolic logic simply manipulates arguments which are input into the system, they do not analyze the origin of those arguments in terms of meaning, nor are they capable of analyzing or formalizing the structure of the cognitive or semantic realm of the human mind in terms of how meaning itself is assigned to arguments. (Indeed, Lojban derives its roots via statistical “sampling” of the most frequent roots in the six most spoken natural languages, a method virtually guaranteed to carry over into the Lojban lexicon all of the lexico-semantic inefficiencies previously described.) By not addressing these components of language, Loglan and similar efforts fail to address the inconsistencies and inefficiency inherent in language at the lexico-semantic level. Ithkuil has been designed to systematically address this issue.

+

Other readers might think of international languages (or “interlanguages”) such as Esperanto, Interlingua, or Ido, as being logical and efficient representations of language. However, these languages are merely simplified, regularized amalgamations of existing languages (usually Indo-European), designed for ease of learning. While addressing many overt irregularities, inconsistencies, and redundancies of language found at the morpho-phonological and morpho-syntactic levels, they do little to address the problems found within the other components of language, especially the lexico-semantic. For example, while Esperanto admirably employs systematic rules for word derivation as knabo ‘boy’ versus knabino ‘girl,’ it preserves the basic lexico-semantic categorization scheme of Indo-European languages in general, rather than seeking opportunities to expand such word derivation schemes into multidimensional arrays as is done in Ithkuil.

+

All in all, neither logical languages such as Loglan nor interlanguages such as Esperanto, are designed specifically to achieve the purpose of cognitive exactness and conciseness of communication which is the goal of Ithkuil. Actually, Ithkuil might more readily be compared with the analytical language of John Wilkins of the Royal Society of London, published in 1668, in which he divided the realm of human conception into forty categories, each containing a hierarchy of subcategories and sub-subcategories, each in turn systematically represented in the phonological structure of an individual word. While unworkable in terms of specifics, Wilkins’ underlying principles are similar in a simplistic way to some of the abstract derivational principles employed in Ithkuil lexico-morphology and lehttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/xico-semantics. Another comparable predecessor in a simplistic sense is the musical language, Solresol, created by Jean François Sudre and published in 1866.

+

 

+ + + + + + +

A Brief History of the Language’s Development

+

The design of Ithkuil has slowly and painstakingly evolved from my early attempts as a teenager (following my introduction to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and Charles Fillmore’s seminal 1968 article on case grammar) to explore beyond the boundaries of Western Indo-European languages to a complex, intricate array of interwoven grammatical concepts, many of which are wholly of my own creation, others of which have been inspired by such obscure linguistic sources as the morpho-phonology of Abkhaz verb complexes, the moods of verbs in certain American Indian languages, the aspectual system of Niger-Kordofanian languages, the nominal case systems of Basque and the Dagestanian languages, the enclitic system of Wakashan languages, the positional orientation systems of Tzeltal and Guugu Yimidhirr, the Semitic triliteral root morphology, and the hearsay and possessive categories of Suzette Elgin’s Láadan language, not to mention ideas inspired by countless hours studying texts in theoretical linguistics, cognitive grammar, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, linguistic relativity, semantics, semiotics, philosophy, fuzzy set theory, and even quantum physics. The writings of the American cognitive linguists George Lakoff, Ronald Langacker, Gilles Fauconnier, and Len Talmy have been particularly influential on Ithkuil’s design.

+

The Ithkuil writing system likewise derives from both original and inspired sources: it employs a unique “morpho-phonemic” principle of my own invention, its logical design borrows from the mutational principles underlying the Ethiopic and Brahmi scripts, and its aesthetic visual design bears a superficial resemblance to Hebrew square script and the various Klingon fonts.

+

The first version of Ithkuil was originally posted to the Internet in early 2004.  A second, alternative version of the language called Ilaksh was posted during mid-2007, designed specifically to address the many requests for a version of the language with a simpler phonology (sound system). During the course of modifying the original version of Ithkuil into Ilaksh, I realized there were many aspects of Ilaksh design that could be incorporated back into Ithkuil without the constraints of Ilaksh on the number of consonants and vowels. This would (hopefully) allow the language to be more euphonic to the ear while maintaining its morpho-phonological conciseness. Additionally, hindsight has caused me to re-think a few fine points of the grammar, which this latest design allows me to incorporate into the language. 

+

Introduced in July 2011, this third incarnation of the language (which shall retain the name “Ithkuil” out of convenience and continuity with the original version), reflects these ideas and now constitutes what I consider to be the definitive (or “official”) version of the language. The name of the language is an anglicized form of the word iţkuîl, which means more or less “hypothetical representation of a language” in the original version of Ithkuil.

+

 

+ + + + + + +

About the Grammar Presentation

+

This website provides a systematic presentation of the grammar of the language. In addition to a description of the various components of the grammar, the reader will find example phrases or sentences illustrating those components. The navigational links at the top and bottom of this page lead to chapters on the major grammatical components of the language and should be preferably read in sequence, as each chapter is cumulative and assumes knowledge of the preceding. While this grammar assumes only a basic knowledge of linguistic concepts, it will be helpful to briefly familiarize the reader with the hierarchical/schematic structure of human language in general, as the organization of this grammar is somewhat based around this structure. The analysis of human language can be organized into the following hierarchical schema of primary concepts:

+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The above components of language in turn operate in an interrelated fashion, combining to designate several additional or secondary levels of analysis. For example:
+
+ +
+

The interrelationships between these components can be illustrated by the following diagram.

+

+

 

+

Each example comprises an Ithkuil word, phrase, or sentence written in native Ithkuil script, accompanied by a Romanized transliteration, an English translation (sometimes divided into a “natural” versus literal translation), and a morphological analysis. The morphological analysis is presented serially, morpheme-by-morpheme, using three-letter abbreviations or labels for Ithkuil morphological categories. These labels are presented within the body of the work https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/in conjunction with the explanation of each morphological category. A list of these abbreviations is also available on the main naviagtional menu at the top and bottom of each page of the site.

+

This work is not meant as a primer or means of self-instruction in speaking the language, a task beyond even its creator, given that Ithkuil may be perhaps the most grammatically complex language ever devised. Simplicity was not my purpose, but rather bridging the gap between extreme morphological dynamism, the overt reflection of human cognitive processes via language, and extreme morpho-semantic economy and efficienhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/cy. I believe I have achieved a result which is close to the ideal I sought. I leave it to the reader to explore that result.

+

My work on Ithkuil is dedicated to my brother Paul, in fond remembrance of Kccoj, Mbozo, and all the fun times we had growing up playing with language and linguistics. Aniamtrexu tanskbitero!

+

And I dedicate this new 2011 version of the language to Ms. Alla Vishneva, who teaches students about Ithkuil in Kyiv, Ukraine, and to whom my work is as important as it is to me. Дякую, Алла. Ти маєш рацію!

+

                                                                              —John Quijada
+                                                                             July, 2011

+

 

+

 

+

Proceed to Chapter 1: Phonology >>

+

 

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 10 Lexico-Semantics + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQs +  1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
Links of Inhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/terest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb MorphologyThe Lexicon
Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+
+ + + + + + +
Cover of https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Ithkuil Grammar book

 

+

For those who would like a copy of thhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023915id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/e Ithkuil Grammar
+ in book form, it is now available!

+

And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
+ wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

+

(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
+ philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
+ Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

+

 

+

 

+

 

+
+

©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

+

+ + + + + +

+
+ + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/00_intro.html.orig b/2004-en/00_intro.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fdf2272 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/00_intro.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,430 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Introduction + + + + + +

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+

 

+

Introduction

+


+These webpages present the grammar of an artificially constructed human language, Ithkuil.  It has been designed with the following goals in mind:

+
    +
  1. +
    The findings of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics since the 1980s show that human cognition gives rise to and processes far more information than is overtly expressed by natural human languages.  Theoretically, it should be possible to design a human-usable language that overtly expresses more (or “deeper”) levels/aspects of human cognition than are found in natural human languages.
    +
    2. +
+
+
    +
  1. Natural human languages are notorious for their semantic ambiguity, polysemy (multiple meanings for a given word), semantic vagueness, inexactitude, illogic, redundancy, and overall arbitrariness.  Theoretically, it should be possible to design the language to minimize these various characteristics in favor of greater semantic precision, exactitude, and specification of a speaker’s cognitive intent.
    2. +
+
    +
  1. The above two goals would seemingly demand that the resulting language be long-winded, since individual words of the language (or at least any sentence as a whole) would have to convey much more morpho-semantic content than their natural language counterparts.  Nevertheless, it should theoretically be possible to accomplish the above two goals while achieving relatively concise morpho-phonological forms for words.  In other words, to be able to pack a lot of meaning and information into a relatively small number of syllables.
    2. +
+
+

Ithkuil represents the culmination of my attempts over a period of thirty years or so to achieve the above goals. It should be noted that Ithkuil is NOT intended to function like a “natural” human language. + Ithkuil exists as an exercise in exploring how human languages could function, +not how human languages do function.

+

 

+ + + + + + +

How the Language Works

+

Ithkuil’s ability to express extensive cognitive detail in a concise manner is possible due to the design of the grammar, essentially a matrix of grammatical concepts and structures designed for compactness, cross-functionality and reusability. This matrix-like grammar is combined with a vocabulary/lexicon of semantic stems which (1) are capable of a high degree of flexibility and synergism within that matrix, (2) have been completely reconceptualized from the cognitive level up regardless of their correspondence to actual word roots and grammatical categories in existing languages, and (3) reflect the inherent dependencies and interrelationships between one semantic concept and another. Therefore, the morphemes of the language (i.e., word-roots, suffixes, prefixes, grammatical categories, etc.) are as phonetically brief as possible, function in multiple roles with one another, and correspond more closely to human cognitive categories than in natural languages. In this fashion, a limited number of sounds and word-roots can be made to generate a vast array of variations and derivations corresponding to and even surpassing all of the grammatical and semantic functions of the usual stock of words, phrases, and idiomatic constructions in natural languages.

+

Additionally, the particular grammatical categories of the language, combined with a systematic and hierarchical derivational morphology, allow for extreme transparency and flexibility in:

+ +


+As an example of the morphological richness and efficiency possible in this language, examine the following Ithkuil sentence, comparing it to its literal English translation:

+
+


+ Tram-mļöi  hhâsmařpţuktôx.

+

TRANSLATION:
+ ‘On the contrary, I think it may turn out that this rugged mountain range trails off at some point.’ +   

+

NOTE: See Phonology, Section 1.2 on how to pronounce the Romanized orthography used to transliterate the Ithkuil characters.

+
+

The reader may well wonder why it takes a 19-word sentence in English to translate a two-word Ithkuil sentence. One might assume the sentence “cheats” in that the two Ithkuil words simply have innately intricate and specialized meanings. While it is true that the first word, tram-mļöi, translates as ‘on the contrary, it may turn out at some point (that...),’ and the second word, hhâsmařpţuktôx, means ‘I have a feeling this unevenly high range of mountains trails off,’ it would be quite erroneous to conclude that these are simply autonomous words one might theoretically find in an Ithkuil dictionary. Indeed, the only part of the sentence that represents any sort of “root” word is -âsm-, a stem more or less meaning ‘hill’ or ‘upland.’ The remainder of the sentence is made up entirely of morphological, not lexical components, i.e., prefixes, suffixes, infixes, vowel permutations, shifts in stress and tone, etc. For example, the first word, tram-mļöi, has three parts to it as shown below:

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

 

1.

tr(a)-

=

an affix indicating a rebuttal to an allegation, translatable as ‘on the contrary...’

 

2.

m-mļ-

=

an infix which conveys both aspectual information translatable as ‘it turns out (to be) that’ or ‘it is revealed that,’ plus subjunctive mood, translatable as  ‘(it) may (be that)...’

 

3.

-öi

=

an aspectual suffix translatable as ‘at some point’ or ‘somewhere along the way’

+


+ The second word, hhâsmařpţuktôx, breaks down morphologically as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

 

1.

hh-

=

an affix indicating a conclusion based on the speaker’s intuition, translatable as ‘I have a feeling (that)...’

 

2.

-âsm(a)-

=

a stem meaning ‘hill, upland,’ in turn derived from the root -sm- indicating the level of a landscape

 

3.

-řpţ-

=

an affix indicating (1) that the stem is to be re-interpreted as comprising a composite entity of non-identical members consolidated together into a single segmented whole (i.e., ‘hill’ becomes ‘uneven range of hills’), and (2) that the entity displays depletion (i.e., ‘trailing off’ or ‘petering out’)

 

4.

-ukt-

=

a demonstrative suffix translatable as ‘this’ (= ‘the one in question’ or ‘the one at hand’)

 

5.

-ôx

=

a suffix indicating that the stem is to be interpreted as being very large in size, and furthermore, that the increase in size creates a new gestalt entity, i.e., not simply a ‘very large hill or upland’ but rather a ‘mountain’

 

6.

stress on penultimate (i.e., second-from-last) syllable

=

provides partial information on how the stem specifically derives from its semantic root

 

7.

falling tone (unmarked)

=

statement reflects an end-in-itself rather than a goal-oriented situation

+

 

+

In addition to its morphology, Ithkuil is different from other languages in the way its lexicon (stock of word-roots) has been created as well as in the principles underlying its lexico-semantics (the relationship between words and meaning). In natural languages, the choice as to what mental concepts and categories will be overtly reflected as word-roots and stems is arbitrary and unsystematic (while in most invented languages, the lexicon is by and large consciously or sub-consciously patterned after that of natural languages). While it is true that virtually all languages reflect certain basic universals of word choice (e.g., all have words for sun, moon, speak, mother, father, laugh, I, you, one, two, water, blood, black, white, hot, cold, etc.), the manner in which these words are created is haphazard and with little regard for basic conceptual interrelationships. The result, in most cases, is a plethora of separate, distinct word roots which bear no morpho-phonological, or morpho-semantic relation to one another (i.e., the patterns of sounds used to create particular words are unsystematic and independent for each word-root regardless of whether those word-roots are semantically or cognitively related to one another). Ithkuil word-roots have been created in a more efficient and systematic manner, with a recognition that the interrelatedness between what are large sets of discrete words in other languages can be formalized and systematized into a vast array or matrix of derivational rules, the result being a drastic reduction in the number of basic word-roots, which in turn allows all individual stems to be extremely compact phonologically-speaking.

+

For example, consider the following series of English words: see, sight, vision, glimpse, stare, gawk, view, panorama, look, eye, glance, visualize. Note how each of these is a separate, autonomous word despite the fact that it shares a single underlying semantic concept with the others (a concept which we can conveniently refer to as SIGHT/VISION), each representing a mere manipulation of either durational aspect, situational perspective, or manner of participation relating to that underlying concept. What is more, these manipulations are, by and large, haphazardly applied, vague, subjective, and particular to the specific underlying concept (i.e., the aspectual/perspectival manipulations applied to SIGHT/VISION do not parallel those manipulations applied to the concept TRANSFERENCE OF POSSESSION by which we derive the series give, take, receive, steal, donate, lend, borrow, send, etc.).

+

In Ithkuil, it is the seminal underlying concept which is lexified into a word-root which then undergoes a series of regular, predictable, and universally applicable modifications at the morphological (i.e., grammatical) level to generate new words that, in some cases, parallel such series of English words, but in most cases, far exceed the dynamism and range of such English word series.

+

Another principle underlying the formation of words in Ithkuil is complementarity. Western thought and language generally reflect Aristotelian logic in the way they conceptualize the world and the interrelationships between discrete entities in that world. Ithkuil, on the other hand, views the world as being based on complementary principles, where, instead of discrete independence between related entities, such concepts are seen as complementary aspects of a single holistic entity. Such complementarity is in turn reflected in the derivation of word-roots. By “complementarity” is meant that the manifestation of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered to be a discrete whole without the existence of the other. A simple illustration of complementarity is the flip of a coin: the coin can only land on one side or the other, yet without both sides being part of the coin, any given coin toss has no meaning or contextual relevance no matter which side is face-up.

+

For example, in Western languages, words such as male, night, limb, sit, and happen are all autonomous words, linguistically representing what are inherently considered to be basic mental concepts or semantic primitives. However, in Ithkuil, none of these words is considered to be a semantic primitive. Instead, they are seen to be parts of greater, more holistic semantic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another part, the two together making up the whole.

+

Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) from the underlying concept translatable as day (24-hour period), while limb, along with its complement trunk or torso, derives from the stem (corporeal) body.

+

Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon automatically functions as a seat. We see the awkward attempt of English to convey these jointly dependent but mutually exclusive perspectives when comparing the sentences Please sit down and Please be seated. Another example involves the word happen or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as event or situation.

+

The Ithkuil word for hole illustrates another instance of complementarity. Holes can be looked at from two different, but interrelated perspectives: either as an opening connecting two different spaces (or access point to a previously unavailable space, i.e., a pit), or as a discontinuity in the surface or structural integrity of the dividing entity separating the two realms. In other words, one can focus on the potential function or consequences of the hole, or on the structural nature of the hole. Either of these two perspectives represents a legitimate, but complementary way to consider a hole or puncture. Thus, the Ithkuil word would have two derivative roots each indicating one of these two perspectives. One such root would be used when saying There’s a hole in your shirt, while the other would be used when saying She saw me through a hole in the fence.

+

Ithkuil recognizes that such complementarity exists for virtually any concept, in fact that it is one of the foundational principles of the universe itself. No beam of light can be spoken of without implicit recognition of its source. No signal can be described without accounting for the signaling device. Indeed, in Ithkuil no river is without its channel, no surface without its firmament, no message without its medium, no sense impression without its sense faculty, no contents without their container, no occurrence without its consequence, no memory without its present effect, no plan without its purpose, no music without its playing, no relief without prerequisite deprivation, no pleasure without its absence, no motion without space in which to move.

+

Other principles underlying Ithkuil word-derivation include the interrelated principles of fuzzy logic, prototype theory, and radial categorization. Incorporation of these principles into the architecture for word-formation allows roots to be grouped into various types of affiliated sets, each of which then functions as a conceptual gestalt, the individual members of which being marked as having varying degrees and kinds of relatedness or similarity to a hypothetical prototype member or archetype. Thus, Ithkuil is able to systematically derive words such as crowd, mob, group, troop, club, association, assembly, and gathering all from the single root-word person. Similarly, words such as grove, orchard, forest, woods, jungle, and copse can all be derived from the single root-word tree.

+

As one last example exemplifying the dynamism and conciseness of Ithkuil lexico-semantics, consider the following list of English words and phrases: drenched, wet, damp, moist, near-dry, dry, parched. Rather than provide separate autonomous words for these concepts, Ithkuil recognizes that these terms all indicate relative degrees of moisture along a continuous range. Such continua would be addressed by a single root whose meaning more or less corresponds to [DEGREE OF] MOISTURE to which an array of simple suffixes would be added to specify the particular degree along that range, all the way from bone dry (or parched) through drenched to saturated. All such phenomena which Western languages tend to semantically delineate into binary oppositions (e.g., hard/soft, light/dark, shallow/deep, etc.) are recognized and lexified in Ithkuil as single roots which then systematically use suffixes to specify the particular degree along a continuous range.

+

The above paragraphs illustrate how Ithkuil is able to capture and systematically present at the morphological level what other languages accomplish haphazardly at the lexical level. By systematically finding and structuring the covert dependencies and interrelationships between what are disparate words in other languages, the hundreds of thousands of words in a language like English are drastically reduced down to the approximately 3600 word-roots of Ithkuil. This is morpho-lexical efficiency on a grand scale. Nevertheless, by means of the matrix-like morphological scheme previously described, each of these roots can in turn generate thousands of permutations to convey complex and subtle semantic distinctions and operations which dwarf the capacity of existing languages to convey without resorting to cumbersome paraphrase. This is lexico-semantic and morpho-semantic efficiency on an equally grand scale. Such a synergistic design for grammar lends a dynamism that allows the Ithkuil language to describe reality to a minute level of detail and exactitude despite a limited number of word-roots. This dynamism is visible throughout this work, but is discussed in systematic detail in Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics.

+

 

+ + + + + + +

Addressing the Vagueness Inherent in Natural Languages

+

To further illustrate the cognitive depth at which Ithkuil operates, consider one of the most pervasive aspects of natural human languages: semantic vagueness. For example, consider the following four English sentences:

+
+
+

(a) The boy rolled down the hill.
+ (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking.
+ (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday.
+ (d) There is a dog on my porch.

+
+
+

In examining these four sentences most native English speakers would deny that any vagueness exists. This is because the vagueness does not exist in terms of the overt meanings of the words themselves. Rather, the vagueness lies at the nearly subconscious level of their grammatical (or syntactical) relations and cognitive intent. For example, in sentence (a) we have no idea whether the boy chose to roll himself down the hill or whether he was pushed against his will. (In formal linguistic terms we would say it is unknown whether the semantic role of the subject ‘boy’ is as agent or patient.) And yet knowing which scenario is correct is crucial to understanding the speaker’s intent in describing the action.

+

Imagine sentence (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking being spoken as an answer to the question ‘Why does she seem so irritable?’ In interpreting sentence (b), we have no idea whether the subject is indeed a smoker or not; i.e., is the speaker offering this speculation because he/she knows the subject to be a smoker, or as mere conjecture without knowledge one way or the other whether the subject smokes or not?

+

Sentence (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday illustrates four-way ambiguity. Joe’s failure to win the lottery could be either because: the speaker knows Joe didn’t play; because the speaker knows Joe did play but lost; because the speaker doesn’t know whether Joe played or not and is simply voicing a conjecture; or because the statement is an inference based on some indirect clue (e.g., since Joe showed up for work today, he must not have won the lottery).

+

And while sentence (d) There is a dog on my porch seems on its surface to be the most straightforward of the four, is the intent of the speaker to simply describe and identify the participants to a scene, or does she wish to convey the idea that the scene has personal significance to her, e.g., because she has a phobia of dogs or has been waiting for a long-lost pet dog to return home? In other words, the sentence itself does not convey the intent behind the utterance, only the static description of the scene.

+

In all four instances, such vagueness exists unless and until the audience can ascertain information from the surrounding context of other sentences. This shows that, despite the fact that all four sentences are grammatically well-formed English sentences whose words in and of themselves are unambiguous, their grammar alone is insufficient to convey the cognitive information necessary to fully comprehend the intent of the speaker’s utterance. This failure of grammar to inherently convey the requisite information necessary to understand a speaker’s cognitive intent is a functional pitfall of human language in general which Ithkuil grammar has been designed to avoid. The Ithkuil equivalents to the above four sentences would mandatorily convey all of the “missing” information noted above without requiring any extra words not corresponding to the English originals. The grammatical elements of the words themselves (word-selection, declensions, conjugations, prefixes, suffixes, etc.) would convey all the elements mentioned.

+

Similar examples can be given to show the extent to which natural languages such as English must often resort to idiomatic expressions, metaphor, paraphrase, circumlocution and “supra-segmental” phenomena (e.g., changing the pitch of one’s voice) in their attempts to convey a speaker’s intended meaning. Ithkuil grammar has been designed to overtly and unambiguously reflect the intention of a speaker with a minimum of such phenomena.

+

 

+ + + + + + +

Comparison to Other Constructed Languages

+

Those readers familiar with the history of artificial language construction might think this endeavor belated or unnecessary, in that logical languages such as James Cooke Brown’s renowned Loglan (or its popular derivative, Lojban) already exist. This serves to illustrate exactly what distinguishes Ithkuil from such previous attempts. Loglan was published in the 1950s as a spoken/written language based on symbolic logic (formally known as the first-order predicate calculus), an algorithmic system of symbol manipulation devised by mathematicians and logicians. As a result, one might think that such a language is the most capable means of achieving logical, unambiguous linguistic communication. However, Loglan and its derivatives are merely sophisticated tools for symbol manipulation, i.e., the levels of language known as morphology and syntax. It is not within the scope of such languages to address any reorganization of the semantic realm. This means that symbolic logic simply manipulates arguments which are input into the system, they do not analyze the origin of those arguments in terms of meaning, nor are they capable of analyzing or formalizing the structure of the cognitive or semantic realm of the human mind in terms of how meaning itself is assigned to arguments. (Indeed, Lojban derives its roots via statistical “sampling” of the most frequent roots in the six most spoken natural languages, a method virtually guaranteed to carry over into the Lojban lexicon all of the lexico-semantic inefficiencies previously described.) By not addressing these components of language, Loglan and similar efforts fail to address the inconsistencies and inefficiency inherent in language at the lexico-semantic level. Ithkuil has been designed to systematically address this issue.

+

Other readers might think of international languages (or “interlanguages”) such as Esperanto, Interlingua, or Ido, as being logical and efficient representations of language. However, these languages are merely simplified, regularized amalgamations of existing languages (usually Indo-European), designed for ease of learning. While addressing many overt irregularities, inconsistencies, and redundancies of language found at the morpho-phonological and morpho-syntactic levels, they do little to address the problems found within the other components of language, especially the lexico-semantic. For example, while Esperanto admirably employs systematic rules for word derivation as knabo ‘boy’ versus knabino ‘girl,’ it preserves the basic lexico-semantic categorization scheme of Indo-European languages in general, rather than seeking opportunities to expand such word derivation schemes into multidimensional arrays as is done in Ithkuil.

+

All in all, neither logical languages such as Loglan nor interlanguages such as Esperanto, are designed specifically to achieve the purpose of cognitive exactness and conciseness of communication which is the goal of Ithkuil. Actually, Ithkuil might more readily be compared with the analytical language of John Wilkins of the Royal Society of London, published in 1668, in which he divided the realm of human conception into forty categories, each containing a hierarchy of subcategories and sub-subcategories, each in turn systematically represented in the phonological structure of an individual word. While unworkable in terms of specifics, Wilkins’ underlying principles are similar in a simplistic way to some of the abstract derivational principles employed in Ithkuil lexico-morphology and lexico-semantics. Another comparable predecessor in a simplistic sense is the musical language, Solresol, created by Jean François Sudre and published in 1866.

+

 

+ + + + + + +

A Brief History of the Language’s Development

+

The design of Ithkuil has slowly and painstakingly evolved from my early attempts as a teenager (following my introduction to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and Charles Fillmore’s seminal 1968 article on case grammar) to explore beyond the boundaries of Western Indo-European languages to a complex, intricate array of interwoven grammatical concepts, many of which are wholly of my own creation, others of which have been inspired by such obscure linguistic sources as the morpho-phonology of Abkhaz verb complexes, the moods of verbs in certain American Indian languages, the aspectual system of Niger-Kordofanian languages, the nominal case systems of Basque and the Dagestanian languages, the enclitic system of Wakashan languages, the positional orientation systems of Tzeltal and Guugu Yimidhirr, the Semitic triliteral root morphology, and the hearsay and possessive categories of Suzette Elgin’s Láadan language, not to mention ideas inspired by countless hours studying texts in theoretical linguistics, cognitive grammar, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, linguistic relativity, semantics, semiotics, philosophy, fuzzy set theory, and even quantum physics. The writings of the American cognitive linguists George Lakoff, Ronald Langacker, Gilles Fauconnier, and Len Talmy have been particularly influential on Ithkuil’s design.

+

The Ithkuil writing system likewise derives from both original and inspired sources: it employs a unique “morpho-phonemic” principle of my own invention, its logical design borrows from the mutational principles underlying the Ethiopic and Brahmi scripts, and its aesthetic visual design bears a superficial resemblance to Hebrew square script and the various Klingon fonts.

+

The first version of Ithkuil was originally posted to the Internet in early 2004.  A second, alternative version of the language called Ilaksh was posted during mid-2007, designed specifically to address the many requests for a version of the language with a simpler phonology (sound system). During the course of modifying the original version of Ithkuil into Ilaksh, I realized there were many aspects of Ilaksh design that could be incorporated back into Ithkuil without the constraints of Ilaksh on the number of consonants and vowels. This would (hopefully) allow the language to be more euphonic to the ear while maintaining its morpho-phonological conciseness. Additionally, hindsight has caused me to re-think a few fine points of the grammar, which this latest design allows me to incorporate into the language. 

+

Introduced in July 2011, this third incarnation of the language (which shall retain the name “Ithkuil” out of convenience and continuity with the original version), reflects these ideas and now constitutes what I consider to be the definitive (or “official”) version of the language. The name of the language is an anglicized form of the word iţkuîl, which means more or less “hypothetical representation of a language” in the original version of Ithkuil.

+

 

+ + + + + + +

About the Grammar Presentation

+

This website provides a systematic presentation of the grammar of the language. In addition to a description of the various components of the grammar, the reader will find example phrases or sentences illustrating those components. The navigational links at the top and bottom of this page lead to chapters on the major grammatical components of the language and should be preferably read in sequence, as each chapter is cumulative and assumes knowledge of the preceding. While this grammar assumes only a basic knowledge of linguistic concepts, it will be helpful to briefly familiarize the reader with the hierarchical/schematic structure of human language in general, as the organization of this grammar is somewhat based around this structure. The analysis of human language can be organized into the following hierarchical schema of primary concepts:

+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The above components of language in turn operate in an interrelated fashion, combining to designate several additional or secondary levels of analysis. For example:
+
+ +
+

The interrelationships between these components can be illustrated by the following diagram.

+

+

 

+

Each example comprises an Ithkuil word, phrase, or sentence written in native Ithkuil script, accompanied by a Romanized transliteration, an English translation (sometimes divided into a “natural” versus literal translation), and a morphological analysis. The morphological analysis is presented serially, morpheme-by-morpheme, using three-letter abbreviations or labels for Ithkuil morphological categories. These labels are presented within the body of the work in conjunction with the explanation of each morphological category. A list of these abbreviations is also available on the main naviagtional menu at the top and bottom of each page of the site.

+

This work is not meant as a primer or means of self-instruction in speaking the language, a task beyond even its creator, given that Ithkuil may be perhaps the most grammatically complex language ever devised. Simplicity was not my purpose, but rather bridging the gap between extreme morphological dynamism, the overt reflection of human cognitive processes via language, and extreme morpho-semantic economy and efficiency. I believe I have achieved a result which is close to the ideal I sought. I leave it to the reader to explore that result.

+

My work on Ithkuil is dedicated to my brother Paul, in fond remembrance of Kccoj, Mbozo, and all the fun times we had growing up playing with language and linguistics. Aniamtrexu tanskbitero!

+

And I dedicate this new 2011 version of the language to Ms. Alla Vishneva, who teaches students about Ithkuil in Kyiv, Ukraine, and to whom my work is as important as it is to me. Дякую, Алла. Ти маєш рацію!

+

                                                                              —John Quijada
+                                                                             July, 2011

+

 

+

 

+

Proceed to Chapter 1: Phonology >>

+

 

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+
+ + + + + + +
Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

 

+

For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
+ in book form, it is now available!

+

And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
+ wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

+

(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
+ philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
+ Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

+

 

+

 

+

 

+
+

©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

+

+ + + + + +

+
+ + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/01_phonology.html b/2004-en/01_phonology.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7a3521c --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/01_phonology.html @@ -0,0 +1,1122 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 1: Phonology + + + + + +

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+

+ + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 6 More Verb Morphology +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
Linkhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/s of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology10 Lexico-Semanhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ticsThe Lexicon
Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+

Chapter 1: Phonology

+ + + + + + + + + +
1.1 Note On Orthography and Transliterathttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ion 1https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/.3 Phonological Processes and Rules
1.2 Phonemic Inventory 1.4 Phonotactic Rules
+


+The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound system, i.e., its syhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/stematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in ohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rder to physically convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system of Ithkuil is dethttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ailed in the sections below.

+

 

+

+ + + + +
1.1 NOTE ON ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION
+

The native script used to represent Ithkuil is both alien and complex. It is explained in Chapter 11. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic structure of Ithkuil words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in transliterating some of the phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ithkuil, various diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system. Additionally, there are two digraphs, dh and xh, which represent single sounds.

+

 

+

+ + + + +
1.2 PHONEMIC INVENTORY
+

Ithkuil has 45 consonants and 13 vowels. These phonemes are illustrated by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized orthography.
+

+


+Tables 1(a) and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory

+

Table 1(a): Consonantal Inventory + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
PLOSIVES
AFFRICATES
+
Fricatives
Nasals
Taps/
+ Trills
Liquids
Approximants
 
plain
aspirated
ejective
plain
aspirated
ejective
 
un-
+ voiced
+voice
+

un-
+ voiced

+
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
+voice
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
+voice
+voice
+voice
+voice
+voice
BILABIAL
p
b
ph
p’
_
_
_
_
_
_
m
_
_
_
LABIO-VELAR
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
w
LABIO-DENTAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
f
v
_
_
_
_
DENTAL
t
d
th
t’
_
_
_
_
ţ
dh
n
_
_
_
ALVEOLAR
_
_
_
_
c
ż
ch
c’
s
z
_
_
_
_
ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
r
_
_
POST-ALVEOLAR
_
_
_
_
č
j
čh
č’
š
ž
_
_
_
_
PALATAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
ç
_
_
_
_
y
VELAR
k
g
kh
k’
_
_
_
_
x
_
ň
_
_
_
UVULAR
q
_
qh
q’
_
_
_
_
xh
_
_
_
_
ř
GLOTTAL
’
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
h
_
_
_
_
_
LATERAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
ļ
_
_
_
l
_
+

 

+

Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
_
FRONT
CENTRAL
BACK
_
unrounded
rounded
unrounded
rounded
unrounded
rounded
High
î
(ü)
_
ü
_
û
Mid-High
i
_
_
_
_
u
Mid
ê
ö
ë
_
_
ô
Mid-Low
e
_
_
_
o
Low
_
_
a
_
â
_
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1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants

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The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal sounds of Ithkuil. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these phonetic representation systems.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
b
As in English. A voiced unaspirated bilabial plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [b].
+
+
c
+

As in English bits. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [ts]. X-SAMPA [ t_s ].
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+
č
As in English chin but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA []. X-SAMPA [ t_S ].
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ç
Like the initial sound in English human, huge, hue, or the sound in German ich. A voiceless dorhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/so-palatal non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [ç]. X-SAMPA [C].
+
+
d
Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An voiced unaspirated apico-dental plosive; IPA []. X-SAMPA [d_d].
+
+
dh
As in English this, bathe, weather. A voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [ð]. X-SAMPA [D].
+
+
f
As in English. A voiceless labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [f].
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+
g
Always as in English gag; never as in ginger. A voiced unaspirated dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [g].
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+
h
As in English hall. Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable in Ithkuil. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [h].
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+
j
As in English judge but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. A voiced unaspirated non-labialized lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA []. X-SAMPA [d_Z].
+
+
k
Similar to English k but without aspiration. Like the k-sound of the Romance languages, e.g., Spanish or Italian casa. A voiceless unaspiratehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/d dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [k].
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l
The “light” l-sound of the Romance languages, or as in British English leader; not the “dark” (velarized) l-sound of American English lull. A voiced apico-dental dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [l].
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+
ļ
No English equivalent. The voiceless dorso-bilateral fricative as found in Welsh llan. Can best be approximated by putting the tongue in position as if to say an l-sound, and while holding the position, make a forceful h-sound instead; IPA []. X-SAMPA [K].
m
As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [m].
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+
n
Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages, not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant obstruent; IPA []. X-SAMPA [n_d].
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ň
The English ng-sound as in song or ringer; NEVER as in finger. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nt obstruent;. IPA [ŋ]. X-SAMPA [N].
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p
Similar to English, but without aspiration. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [p].
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+
q
No English equivalent. The voiceless dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated k-sound but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. IPA and X-SAMPA [q].
r
This sound is a single flap of the tongue tip as in Spanish caro or pero. When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish carro or perro. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex flap/trill; IPA [], [r]. X-SAMPA [4], [r].
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ř
No English equivalent. Like the throaty or “gargled” r-sound found in colloquial French and German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/on-trilled); IPA []. X-SAMPA [R].
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s
As in English sister. A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [s].
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š
As in English shoeshine but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. X-SAMPA [S].
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t
Similar to English but without aspiration and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated apico-dental plosivhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e; IPA []. X-SAMPA [t_d].
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ţ
As in English thin, bath. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; IPA [θ]. X-SAMPA [T].
+ https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/
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v
As in English. A voiced labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [v].
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+
w
+

As in English well, worry. A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); IPA and X-SAMPA [w].
+

+
x
No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled x in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish j. Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce a k-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing an h-sound instead. IPA and X-SAMPA [x].
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xh
No English equivalent. The rough voiceless dorso-uvular fricative (or trill) found in German ach. Can be approximated by means of a dry gargle without vocal chord vibration. IPA [χ]. X-SAMPA [X].
y
As in English yet, yam. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); IPA and X-SAMPA [ j ].
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+
z
As in English zoo, wizard. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [z].
+
ż
Like an English d+z sound, as in roads, adze. A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [dz]. X-SAMPA [d_z].
+
ž
The voiced counterpart of š above. Similar to the sound in English pleasure or leisure, but without lip-rounding. A voiced lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. X-SAMPA [Z].
’
This sound is the glottal stop heard between the two vowels in English oh-oh or as the sound heard in the word fattening as pronounced by most American English speakers. This sound is very cohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/mmon in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA [].
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1.2.1.1 Aspirated Consonants: The consonants p, t, k, q, c and č are all unaspirated, i.e., without the accompanying puff of air characteristic of English voiceless stops and affricates. In Ithkuil each of these hashttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ an aspirated counterpart, pronounced like the unaspirated version but with a distinct expulsion of air, more so than in English. These aspirated counterparts are written with a following superscript h; thus: ph, th, kh, qh, ch and čh.

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+1.2.1.2 Ejective Consonants: The same six consonants immediately above also have ejective counterparts, which do not exist in any major Western language, but are found in languages such as Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: p’, t’, k’, q’, c’ and č’.

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+

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1.2.1.3 Syllabic consonants. The consonants, l, m, n, ň, and r can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants n and l as in the second syllable of words like button and little. In Ithkuil, these five syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant as in ntal. However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate syllable. These special dyssyllabic geminates are indicated by writing a hyphen between the two syllabic “halves,” e.g., hom-m, il-lui, tiň-ňax. Syllabic consonants count as full syllables for purposes of stress rules (see Sec. 1.3.3).
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+

 

+

+

1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels

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There are thirteen vowel phonemes, all of which are pure sounds, not glided into diphthongs as in English.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
a
A low unrounded central vowel as in Spanish or Italian. IPA or X-SAMPA [a].
+
â
A low unrounded back vowel as in Western U.S. all, or a conservative French pronunciation of pâte. IPA [ɑ];
e
The mid-low unrounded front vowel of English bet, Italian letto, or French être. IPA [ε] or X-SAMPA [E]. When followed by a vowel other than u, it is pronounced like the vowel ê immediately below, only shorter.
ê
The mid unrounded front vowel of Spanish este or Italian cadere or French déjà, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [e:]
i

The mid-high lax unrounded front vowel as in English sit, or German sitzen. IPA [I] or X-SAMPA [I]. At the end of a word, or when followed by a vowel other than u, it is pronounced like the vowel î immediately below, only shorter.

î
the high tense rounded vowel of Spanish or Italian libro, or Fench litre, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [i:]
o
The mid rounded back vowel of English short or Italian otto. IPA [] or X-SAMPA [O]. When followed by a vowel other than i, it is pronounced like the vowel ô immediately below, only shorter.
ô
The https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/mid-low rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian cosa, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [o:]
u
The mid-high lax rounded back vowel of English put or look or German putsch. IPA [] or X-SAMPA [U]. At the end of a word, or when followed by a vowel other than i, it is pronounced like the vowel û immediately below, only shorter.
û
the high tense rounded back vowel of Spanish or Italian puta or crudo, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [u:]
ë
The mid unrounded central vowel in American English cut or nut, IPA [ə] or X-SAMPA [@].
ö
This vowel may be pronounced either of two ways: (1) as the mid-low rounded front vowel of French feu, IPA [ø] or X-SAMPA [2]; or (2) as the mid rounded front vowel of French neuf, IPA [œ] or X-SAMPA [9].
ü
A high central rounded vowel, as found in Norwegian hus or the Highland Scottish pronunciation of English book or good; IPA [] or X-SAMPA [ }]. This vowel may alternately be pronounced as the high rounded front vowel of French du or German über, IPA or X-SAMPA [y], if this is easier for the speaker.
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1.2.2.1 Epenthetic Vowel Following a Glottal Stop. In Ithkuil words where a glottal stop (spelled ’) is followed by a consonant (e.g., as in the words ka’tal or morui’ss), the glottal stop is usually followed by a very briefly pronounced vowel sound before the following consonant is pronounced. This vowel may be pronounced in either of two ways, whichever is easier for the speaker. The first is as the high central unrounded vowel of Russian быть, IPA [] or X-SAMPA [1]. The second way is to pronounce it as the high back unrounded vowel found in Turkish (spelled with an undotted i), IPA [] or X-SAMPA [M]. Both of these vowels are extremely short in duration and may evenhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ be de-voiced if the following consonant is voiceless.

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1.2.3 Diphthongs

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An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination of thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/wo vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil diphthongs are “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 12 diphthongs in Ithkuil, described as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ai
Pronounced as in Spanish or Italian; like English i in white or ice.
ei
As in Spanish or Italian; like English ai in rain or ei in rein.
ëi
No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English y-sound. Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the i in ice.
oi
As in Spanish or Italian; as in English boy or voice.
öi
No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English y-sound. Much like the French word oeil.
ui
A combination of the Ithkuil vowel u [] + an English y-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the u-sound is reduced to a w- (the result sounding like English wee). This diphthong may also be pronounced as the high rounded back vowel /u/ + an English y-sound, as in Spanish or Italian.
au
As in Spanish or Italian; like English ou in loud or ow in cow.
eu
As in Spanish or Italian; no English equivalent. A combination of the Ithkuil vowel e + an English w-sound.
ëu
No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English w-sound. Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word oh!
iu
No English equivalent; a combination of the Ithkuil vowel i (IPA /I/) + an English w-sound. May also be pronounced as the high front unrounded vowel /i/ + an English w-sound, as in Portuguese partiu.
ou
Like the o + w-glide of English road or mode. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese roupa.
öu
No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English w-sound. Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the word oh!
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All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing the many two-vowel combinations beginning with u- and i- into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a w-sound or y-sound. This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives the syllabic stress.

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1.2.3.1 Separation of Diphthongs into Separate Syllables: When one of the above twelve diphthongs represent the Slot VIII Vc case infix (see Section 2.1.1 for an explanation), the diphthong may optionally be separated into two separate syllables in words with antepenultimate or preantepenultimate stress (see Section 1.3.3 below), in order to provide a sufficient number of syllables in the word for the stress rules to be applied. When diphthongs are broken up into separate syllables forhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ this purpose, the second character of the diphthong (i.e., either -i or -u) carries a circumflex accent above it to show the syllabification. In such instances, this circumflex does https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/not indicate a long vowel, but merely the separation of the syllables.

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1.2.4 Orthographic Representation of Dissyllabic Vowel Conjuncts

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Dissyllabic vowel conjuncts, wherever they might be confused with a diphthong, are written with a grave accent ( ` ) over the second vowel to indicate it is a separate syllable (unless this second vowel is, in fact, the stressed syllable – see Section 1.3.3 below for rules on indicating stress). For example, diphthong au is distingished from dissyllabic conjunct aù.

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+ 1.2.5 Allophonic Distinctions

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Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that phoneme occurs. These variances, known as allophones, while audible to a trained linguist, are often indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional role in the language. As an example, compare the two t-sounds in the English words top and stop. The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, the difference in the two t-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other Indic languages).

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Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without aspirating the initial t-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration in Romance languages.)

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+1.2.5.1 Consonantal Allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ithkuil consonants are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
dy
This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled gy and d´ respectively. Sort of like a g+y sound as in English big year pronounced rapidly, with the g-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate as opposed to the soft palate. IPA []. X-SAMPA [J\].
+
+
hh
The geminated version of Ithkuil h is pronounced in either of two waysindex.htmlbi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along their entire length; the resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English thin) as well as the English f-sound, however there is absolutely no contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound; no IPA equivalent; or (2) as the voiceless pharyngeal fricative found in Arabic (spelled + ح)and in various Northwest and Northeast Caucasian languages. This second allophone should not be employed if the resulting pharyngealization distorts the timbre of the adjacent vowels to the extent that their place of articulation changes (e.g., the vowel û being made to sound like ô).
+
+
ly
This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal lateral liquid continuant found in Castillian Spanish calle, Portuguese olhar, or Italian egli. For English speakers, this can best be approximated by placing the tongue in the position to say the y in yes, and while keeping the tongue in that position flat against the hard palate, pronouncing an l-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge behind the front teeth. IPA []. X-SAMPA [L].
ny
This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal nasal found in Spanish https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/año, Italian agnello, Portuguese caminho, or French champagne. For English speakers, this can best be approximated by placing the tongue in the position to say the y in yes, and while keeping the tongue in that position flat against the hard palate, pronouncing an n-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge behind the front teeth. IPA []. X-SAMPA [J].
ř
In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ar to the throaty r-sound found in colloquial French and German, IPA []. However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [R].
+
+
řx
The combination of ř before x causes the x to be pronounced as a voicelss uvular fricative, as in German Bach or the Castilian pronunciation of Spanish j.
ty
This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as a voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive, the unvoiced counterpart to dy above. Like a k-sound but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, not the soft palate as with English k. The result should sound somewhat like a k+y as in backyard when spoken rapidly. IPA and X-SAMPA [c].
+ bm, dn, km, kn, pm, tn
 
When in word-initial position, the first consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead.
+
hl, hm, hn, hň, hr, hw
+
 
Each of these consonant conjuncts, when word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct. To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce an Ithkuil l, m, n, ň, r, or w, and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear h-sound instead.
’
As previously described in Sec. 1.2.2.1, in Ithkuil words where a glottal stop is followed by a consonant (e.g., ka’tal or morui’ss), the glottal stop is usually followed by a very briefly pronounced epenthetic vowel sound before the following consonant is pronounced. This vowel may be pronounced in either of two ways, whichever is easier for the speaker. The first is as thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/he high central unrounded vowel of Russian быть, IPA [] or X-SAMPA [1]. The second way is to pronounce it as the high back unrounded vowel found in Turkish (spelled with an undotted i), IPA [] or X-SAMPA [M]. Both of these vowels are extremely short in duration and mayhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ even be de-voiced if the following consonant is voiceless.
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+1.2.5.2 Vocalic Allophones. As previously stated in Section 1.2.2, the Ithkuil vowels ihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ and u have two different pronunciations. Specifically, they are pronounced as the vowels in American English sit and put respectively if they appear by themselves, not adjacent to another vowel or not as part of a diphthong. However, when part of a dissyllabic vowel conjunct, their pronunciation is as follows:

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For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel i- (e.g., ia, ie, io, iù, etc.), the initial i- is pronounced as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i].

+

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is i, (e.g., aì, uì, öì, etc.), the i may be pronounced either as the lax vowel in English sit and German sitzen (IPA [I], or as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i].

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For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel u- (e.g., ua, ue, uo, uì, etc.), the initial u- is pronounced as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA or X-SAMPA [u].

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For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is u, (e.g., aù, iù, öù, etc.), the u may be pronounced either as the lax vowel in English put and German putsch (IPA [] or X-SAMPA [U], or as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA or X-SAMPA [u].

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In word-final position the vowel i, when not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i]. Similarly, the vowel u in word-final position and not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA or X-SAMPA [u].

+
+


+ Additional vocalic allophones:

+
+

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel e- and the second vowel is other than ì or ù (i.e., ea, eo, eö), the initial e- is pronounced as the mid unrounded front vowel of Spanish este or Italian cadere or French déjà; IPA or X-SAMPA [e].

+

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel o- and the second vowel is other than ì or ù (i.e., oa, oe), the initial o- is pronounced as the mid-low rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian cosa; IPA or X-SAMPA [o].

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+
+

+ + + + + + +
1.3 PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND RULES
+ +

Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ithkuil productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends.
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+ 1.3.1 Gemination

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Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, Finnish).

+

In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination:

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1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination. All consonants are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except for y, w and the glottal stop ’.

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1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination. The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: c, ç, č, j, l, m, n, ň, r, ř, s, š, z, ż and ž.

+ +

1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants. Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite duration), specifically ç, dh, f, l, m, n, r, ř, s, š, ţ, v, x, z, and ž, are simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated r is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like rr in Spanish or Italian.

+

The non-aspirated plosive consonants b, d, g, k, p, q and t, when geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two d-sounds in the English phrase bad dog when spoken rapidly. For their aspirated or ejective counterparts, the aspiration or ejectivization occurs upon release.

+

The pronunciation of affricates (c, č, j, and ż) when geminated depends on whether or not they are intervocalic (between two vowels) versus word-initial or word-final position. If intervocalic, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative or sibilant portion, e.g., čč is pronounced as [ttš]. For their aspirated or ejective counterparts, the aspiration or ejectivization occurs upon release into the fricative portion of the affricate. When in word-initial or word-final position, geminated pronunciation is achieved by simply lengthening the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of each affricate). Thus, čč in word-initial or word-final position is pronounced as [tšš].

+

1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates. Consonants written as single characters are simply written double when geminated, e.g., bb, čč, dd, nn, šš. Aspirates and ejectives indicate the following superscript-h or apostrophe diacritics only after the second character, e.g., čč’, tth. The two digraphs dh and xh are written ddh and xxh when geminated.

+


+ 1.3.2 Tone

+

Ithkuil is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages and some American Indian languages. This means that tone of voice is used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories).

+

There are seven tones used in Ithkuil, one of which, mid tone, is considered to be morpho-phonologically neutral. The other six tones are low, high, falling, rising, rising-falling and falling-rising, and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries one functionally significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid tone. Therefore, the function of mid tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid. Like natural tone languages, the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:

+

+

1.3.2.1 Indicating Tone in the Romanized Transliteration. The six significant tones are indicated in the Romanized transliteration by a diacritic mark placed immediately before the first letter of the word, as follows:

+ +


+

+


+ 1.3.3 Syllabic Stress

+

Stress normally falls on the penultimate (next-to-last) syllable but can shift to either the ultimate (last) syllable of a word, to the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable, and occasionally to the preantepenultimate (fourth-from-last) syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations.

+

When transliterating Ithkuil into Roman characters, the number of vowels in Ithkuil requires the use of diacritics due to the limited number of Roman vowel characters. As a result, the orthographic representation of stress using the system of romanization becomes complicated. It is explained as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1)
+

All monosyllabic words are unmarked for stress.

+

 

+
2)
+

The grave accent ( ` ) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted, e.g., in distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as au and ei from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts aù and eì.

+

 

+
3)
+

Penultimate stress. Polysyllabic words having penultimate stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing the dissyllabic phonemes ì or ù as the penultimate syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word iskoùt (stress on the o), if shifting to ultimate stress, becomes iskoút (stress on the u).

+

 

+
4)

Ultimate stress. Polysyllabic words which have ultimate stress indicate this in one of the following ways:
+
+

 
+
    +
  • the unmarked vowels a, e, i, o, u, and the marked disyllabic vowels ì and ù take an acute accent, e.g., á, é, í, ó, ú.
    • +
  • if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, or syllabic liquid or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., ròihnâl.
    • +
  • If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then a grave accent over the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress (as the grave accent would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress), e.g. òspâtlök.
    • +
  • if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate syllables already have diacritic marks (other than the grave accent), and there is no antepenultimate syllable (or it, too, carries a pre-existing diacritic), then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., ksûtpöör.
    • +
+

 

+
5)
Antepenultimate stress. To show antepenultimate stress (third syllable from the end):
 
+
    +
  • if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant) does not carry a diacritic (other than the grave accent), it takes the acute accent, e.g., áksiyor
    • +
  • if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack of acute accent on the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate stress, e.g., ëitlàrrun, ôrümzìl. (Note that the use of the grave accent over the i in ôrümzìl would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress, therefore its presence implies antepenultimate stress).
    • +
  • if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules, then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., öömolûk.
    • +
  • See Section 1.2.3.1 on the optional separation of diphthongs into separate syllables to increase the number of syllables for purposes of applying antepenultimate stress.
    • +
+

 

+
6)
Preantepenultimate stress. To show preantepenultimate stress (i.e., fourth syllable from the end) apply the same https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rules as for antepenultimate stress above, but to the preantepenultimate syllable. See Section 1.2.3.1 on the optional separation of diphthongs into separate syllables to increase the number of syllables for purposes of applying preantepenultimate stress.
+

NOTE: Monosyllabic words in Ithkuil are to be interpreted grammatically as having the equivalent of penultimate stress. When necessary to gramatically indicate the equivalent ultimate or antepenultimate stress on a monosyllabic https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/word, extra syllables (the vowel -a-) are added to the word in order to allow the necessary ultimate or antepenultimate syllable to be stressed, e.g., kust → kustá, kust → ákusta.

+

 

+

+ + + + + + +
1.4 PHONOTACTIC RULES
+ +

In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or word. This concept is called phonotaxis and such rules are known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain, for example, why sprelch could be a hypothetical word in English, while znatk could not be, even though znatk is as easily pronounced by a linguist as sprelch. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis

+

Equally important are the optional rules each language employs to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are described in the sections below.

+


+ 1.4.1 Syllable Structure

+

The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable, or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents a mandatory vowel or diphthong.

+


+ Table 2: Syllabic Structure

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Syllable Type
Structure
Examples
Consonantal Word
C(C)(C) where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless fricative continuant
s, h, ll, mm, pçç
Monosyllabic
(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
a, ui, öt, isk, du, tuil, kleb, tlips, pskarn, xxoršt
Word-initial
(C)(C)(C)V(C)- or l, m, n, ň
uran, tamin, uisá, prine, klâtma, kstollap, ltas, mpeisku
Word-medial
-(C)(C)V(C)(C)- or l, m, n, ň
kialùn, ruentik, isteixlom, okspûtkai, hen-nau
Word-final
-(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)- or l, m, n, ň
lua, entoi, tial, eifkés, poxšurn, erpsalks, ön-n
+ +

The following rules apply:

+ +
+ +
+ +


+ 1.4.2 Constraints on Vowels

+

All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts previously mentioned can occur in any syllable, however, the maximum number of dissyllabic vowels which can occur immediately next to each other is two. If one of the two syllables is a diphthong, the diphthong must be the second syllable. Any syllable immediately following a diphthong must begin with at least one consonant. Trisyllabic vowel conjuncts (or more) are not permitted. Thus, words such as dea or aitua or ruai are permissible, but words such as oia, tuoa, auem, and laúio are not.

+

+

1.4.3 Constraints on Consonants

+ + + +


+ Proceed to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >>

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+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 5 Verb Morphology + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + List of Abbreviations + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013041034id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + 7 Suffixes + + + +
  

 

 

  
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+ + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/01_phonology.html.orig b/2004-en/01_phonology.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c27d0bb --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/01_phonology.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,1122 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 1: Phonology + + + + + +

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+

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+

 

+

Chapter 1: Phonology

+ + + + + + + + + +
1.1 Note On Orthography and Transliteration 1.3 Phonological Processes and Rules
1.2 Phonemic Inventory 1.4 Phonotactic Rules
+


+The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system of Ithkuil is detailed in the sections below.

+

 

+

+ + + + +
1.1 NOTE ON ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION
+

The native script used to represent Ithkuil is both alien and complex. It is explained in Chapter 11. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic structure of Ithkuil words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in transliterating some of the phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ithkuil, various diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system. Additionally, there are two digraphs, dh and xh, which represent single sounds.

+

 

+

+ + + + +
1.2 PHONEMIC INVENTORY
+

Ithkuil has 45 consonants and 13 vowels. These phonemes are illustrated by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized orthography.
+

+


+Tables 1(a) and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory

+

Table 1(a): Consonantal Inventory + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
PLOSIVES
AFFRICATES
+
Fricatives
Nasals
Taps/
+ Trills
Liquids
Approximants
 
plain
aspirated
ejective
plain
aspirated
ejective
 
un-
+ voiced
+voice
+

un-
+ voiced

+
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
+voice
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
+voice
+voice
+voice
+voice
+voice
BILABIAL
p
b
ph
p’
_
_
_
_
_
_
m
_
_
_
LABIO-VELAR
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
w
LABIO-DENTAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
f
v
_
_
_
_
DENTAL
t
d
th
t’
_
_
_
_
ţ
dh
n
_
_
_
ALVEOLAR
_
_
_
_
c
ż
ch
c’
s
z
_
_
_
_
ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
r
_
_
POST-ALVEOLAR
_
_
_
_
č
j
čh
č’
š
ž
_
_
_
_
PALATAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
ç
_
_
_
_
y
VELAR
k
g
kh
k’
_
_
_
_
x
_
ň
_
_
_
UVULAR
q
_
qh
q’
_
_
_
_
xh
_
_
_
_
ř
GLOTTAL
’
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
h
_
_
_
_
_
LATERAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
ļ
_
_
_
l
_
+

 

+

Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
_
FRONT
CENTRAL
BACK
_
unrounded
rounded
unrounded
rounded
unrounded
rounded
High
î
(ü)
_
ü
_
û
Mid-High
i
_
_
_
_
u
Mid
ê
ö
ë
_
_
ô
Mid-Low
e
_
_
_
o
Low
_
_
a
_
â
_
+

 

+

1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants

+

The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal sounds of Ithkuil. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these phonetic representation systems.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
b
As in English. A voiced unaspirated bilabial plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [b].
+
+
c
+

As in English bits. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [ts]. X-SAMPA [ t_s ].
+

+
č
As in English chin but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA []. X-SAMPA [ t_S ].
+
+
ç
Like the initial sound in English human, huge, hue, or the sound in German ich. A voiceless dorso-palatal non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [ç]. X-SAMPA [C].
+
+
d
Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An voiced unaspirated apico-dental plosive; IPA []. X-SAMPA [d_d].
+
+
dh
As in English this, bathe, weather. A voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [ð]. X-SAMPA [D].
+
+
f
As in English. A voiceless labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [f].
+
+
g
Always as in English gag; never as in ginger. A voiced unaspirated dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [g].
+
+
h
As in English hall. Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable in Ithkuil. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [h].
+
+
j
As in English judge but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. A voiced unaspirated non-labialized lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA []. X-SAMPA [d_Z].
+
+
k
Similar to English k but without aspiration. Like the k-sound of the Romance languages, e.g., Spanish or Italian casa. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [k].
+
l
The “light” l-sound of the Romance languages, or as in British English leader; not the “dark” (velarized) l-sound of American English lull. A voiced apico-dental dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [l].
+
+
ļ
No English equivalent. The voiceless dorso-bilateral fricative as found in Welsh llan. Can best be approximated by putting the tongue in position as if to say an l-sound, and while holding the position, make a forceful h-sound instead; IPA []. X-SAMPA [K].
m
As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [m].
+
+
n
Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages, not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant obstruent; IPA []. X-SAMPA [n_d].
+
+
ň
The English ng-sound as in song or ringer; NEVER as in finger. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant obstruent;. IPA [ŋ]. X-SAMPA [N].
+
+
p
Similar to English, but without aspiration. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [p].
+
+
q
No English equivalent. The voiceless dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated k-sound but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. IPA and X-SAMPA [q].
r
This sound is a single flap of the tongue tip as in Spanish caro or pero. When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish carro or perro. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex flap/trill; IPA [], [r]. X-SAMPA [4], [r].
+
+
ř
No English equivalent. Like the throaty or “gargled” r-sound found in colloquial French and German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA []. X-SAMPA [R].
+
+
s
As in English sister. A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [s].
+
+
š
As in English shoeshine but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. X-SAMPA [S].
+
+
t
Similar to English but without aspiration and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated apico-dental plosive; IPA []. X-SAMPA [t_d].
+
+
ţ
As in English thin, bath. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; IPA [θ]. X-SAMPA [T].
+
+
v
As in English. A voiced labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [v].
+
+
w
+

As in English well, worry. A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); IPA and X-SAMPA [w].
+

+
x
No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled x in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish j. Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce a k-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing an h-sound instead. IPA and X-SAMPA [x].
+
+
xh
No English equivalent. The rough voiceless dorso-uvular fricative (or trill) found in German ach. Can be approximated by means of a dry gargle without vocal chord vibration. IPA [χ]. X-SAMPA [X].
y
As in English yet, yam. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); IPA and X-SAMPA [ j ].
+
+
z
As in English zoo, wizard. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [z].
+
ż
Like an English d+z sound, as in roads, adze. A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [dz]. X-SAMPA [d_z].
+
ž
The voiced counterpart of š above. Similar to the sound in English pleasure or leisure, but without lip-rounding. A voiced lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. X-SAMPA [Z].
’
This sound is the glottal stop heard between the two vowels in English oh-oh or as the sound heard in the word fattening as pronounced by most American English speakers. This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA [].
+
+
+

1.2.1.1 Aspirated Consonants: The consonants p, t, k, q, c and č are all unaspirated, i.e., without the accompanying puff of air characteristic of English voiceless stops and affricates. In Ithkuil each of these has an aspirated counterpart, pronounced like the unaspirated version but with a distinct expulsion of air, more so than in English. These aspirated counterparts are written with a following superscript h; thus: ph, th, kh, qh, ch and čh.

+


+1.2.1.2 Ejective Consonants: The same six consonants immediately above also have ejective counterparts, which do not exist in any major Western language, but are found in languages such as Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: p’, t’, k’, q’, c’ and č’.

+


+

+

1.2.1.3 Syllabic consonants. The consonants, l, m, n, ň, and r can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants n and l as in the second syllable of words like button and little. In Ithkuil, these five syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant as in ntal. However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate syllable. These special dyssyllabic geminates are indicated by writing a hyphen between the two syllabic “halves,” e.g., hom-m, il-lui, tiň-ňax. Syllabic consonants count as full syllables for purposes of stress rules (see Sec. 1.3.3).
+

+

 

+

+

1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels

+

There are thirteen vowel phonemes, all of which are pure sounds, not glided into diphthongs as in English.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
a
A low unrounded central vowel as in Spanish or Italian. IPA or X-SAMPA [a].
+
â
A low unrounded back vowel as in Western U.S. all, or a conservative French pronunciation of pâte. IPA [ɑ];
e
The mid-low unrounded front vowel of English bet, Italian letto, or French être. IPA [ε] or X-SAMPA [E]. When followed by a vowel other than u, it is pronounced like the vowel ê immediately below, only shorter.
ê
The mid unrounded front vowel of Spanish este or Italian cadere or French déjà, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [e:]
i

The mid-high lax unrounded front vowel as in English sit, or German sitzen. IPA [I] or X-SAMPA [I]. At the end of a word, or when followed by a vowel other than u, it is pronounced like the vowel î immediately below, only shorter.

î
the high tense rounded vowel of Spanish or Italian libro, or Fench litre, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [i:]
o
The mid rounded back vowel of English short or Italian otto. IPA [] or X-SAMPA [O]. When followed by a vowel other than i, it is pronounced like the vowel ô immediately below, only shorter.
ô
The mid-low rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian cosa, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [o:]
u
The mid-high lax rounded back vowel of English put or look or German putsch. IPA [] or X-SAMPA [U]. At the end of a word, or when followed by a vowel other than i, it is pronounced like the vowel û immediately below, only shorter.
û
the high tense rounded back vowel of Spanish or Italian puta or crudo, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [u:]
ë
The mid unrounded central vowel in American English cut or nut, IPA [ə] or X-SAMPA [@].
ö
This vowel may be pronounced either of two ways: (1) as the mid-low rounded front vowel of French feu, IPA [ø] or X-SAMPA [2]; or (2) as the mid rounded front vowel of French neuf, IPA [œ] or X-SAMPA [9].
ü
A high central rounded vowel, as found in Norwegian hus or the Highland Scottish pronunciation of English book or good; IPA [] or X-SAMPA [ }]. This vowel may alternately be pronounced as the high rounded front vowel of French du or German über, IPA or X-SAMPA [y], if this is easier for the speaker.
+

1.2.2.1 Epenthetic Vowel Following a Glottal Stop. In Ithkuil words where a glottal stop (spelled ’) is followed by a consonant (e.g., as in the words ka’tal or morui’ss), the glottal stop is usually followed by a very briefly pronounced vowel sound before the following consonant is pronounced. This vowel may be pronounced in either of two ways, whichever is easier for the speaker. The first is as the high central unrounded vowel of Russian быть, IPA [] or X-SAMPA [1]. The second way is to pronounce it as the high back unrounded vowel found in Turkish (spelled with an undotted i), IPA [] or X-SAMPA [M]. Both of these vowels are extremely short in duration and may even be de-voiced if the following consonant is voiceless.

+

 

+

1.2.3 Diphthongs

+

An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil diphthongs are “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 12 diphthongs in Ithkuil, described as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ai
Pronounced as in Spanish or Italian; like English i in white or ice.
ei
As in Spanish or Italian; like English ai in rain or ei in rein.
ëi
No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English y-sound. Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the i in ice.
oi
As in Spanish or Italian; as in English boy or voice.
öi
No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English y-sound. Much like the French word oeil.
ui
A combination of the Ithkuil vowel u [] + an English y-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the u-sound is reduced to a w- (the result sounding like English wee). This diphthong may also be pronounced as the high rounded back vowel /u/ + an English y-sound, as in Spanish or Italian.
au
As in Spanish or Italian; like English ou in loud or ow in cow.
eu
As in Spanish or Italian; no English equivalent. A combination of the Ithkuil vowel e + an English w-sound.
ëu
No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English w-sound. Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word oh!
iu
No English equivalent; a combination of the Ithkuil vowel i (IPA /I/) + an English w-sound. May also be pronounced as the high front unrounded vowel /i/ + an English w-sound, as in Portuguese partiu.
ou
Like the o + w-glide of English road or mode. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese roupa.
öu
No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English w-sound. Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the word oh!
+

All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing the many two-vowel combinations beginning with u- and i- into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a w-sound or y-sound. This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives the syllabic stress.

+

1.2.3.1 Separation of Diphthongs into Separate Syllables: When one of the above twelve diphthongs represent the Slot VIII Vc case infix (see Section 2.1.1 for an explanation), the diphthong may optionally be separated into two separate syllables in words with antepenultimate or preantepenultimate stress (see Section 1.3.3 below), in order to provide a sufficient number of syllables in the word for the stress rules to be applied. When diphthongs are broken up into separate syllables for this purpose, the second character of the diphthong (i.e., either -i or -u) carries a circumflex accent above it to show the syllabification. In such instances, this circumflex does not indicate a long vowel, but merely the separation of the syllables.

+

 

+

1.2.4 Orthographic Representation of Dissyllabic Vowel Conjuncts

+

Dissyllabic vowel conjuncts, wherever they might be confused with a diphthong, are written with a grave accent ( ` ) over the second vowel to indicate it is a separate syllable (unless this second vowel is, in fact, the stressed syllable – see Section 1.3.3 below for rules on indicating stress). For example, diphthong au is distingished from dissyllabic conjunct aù.

+

 

+

+ 1.2.5 Allophonic Distinctions

+

Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that phoneme occurs. These variances, known as allophones, while audible to a trained linguist, are often indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional role in the language. As an example, compare the two t-sounds in the English words top and stop. The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, the difference in the two t-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other Indic languages).

+

Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without aspirating the initial t-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration in Romance languages.)

+


+1.2.5.1 Consonantal Allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ithkuil consonants are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
dy
This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled gy and d´ respectively. Sort of like a g+y sound as in English big year pronounced rapidly, with the g-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate as opposed to the soft palate. IPA []. X-SAMPA [J\].
+
+
hh
The geminated version of Ithkuil h is pronounced in either of two ways: (1) as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along their entire length; the resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English thin) as well as the English f-sound, however there is absolutely no contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound; no IPA equivalent; or (2) as the voiceless pharyngeal fricative found in Arabic (spelled + ح)and in various Northwest and Northeast Caucasian languages. This second allophone should not be employed if the resulting pharyngealization distorts the timbre of the adjacent vowels to the extent that their place of articulation changes (e.g., the vowel û being made to sound like ô).
+
+
ly
This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal lateral liquid continuant found in Castillian Spanish calle, Portuguese olhar, or Italian egli. For English speakers, this can best be approximated by placing the tongue in the position to say the y in yes, and while keeping the tongue in that position flat against the hard palate, pronouncing an l-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge behind the front teeth. IPA []. X-SAMPA [L].
ny
This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal nasal found in Spanish año, Italian agnello, Portuguese caminho, or French champagne. For English speakers, this can best be approximated by placing the tongue in the position to say the y in yes, and while keeping the tongue in that position flat against the hard palate, pronouncing an n-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge behind the front teeth. IPA []. X-SAMPA [J].
ř
In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar to the throaty r-sound found in colloquial French and German, IPA []. However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [R].
+
+
řx
The combination of ř before x causes the x to be pronounced as a voicelss uvular fricative, as in German Bach or the Castilian pronunciation of Spanish j.
ty
This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as a voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive, the unvoiced counterpart to dy above. Like a k-sound but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, not the soft palate as with English k. The result should sound somewhat like a k+y as in backyard when spoken rapidly. IPA and X-SAMPA [c].
+ bm, dn, km, kn, pm, tn
 
When in word-initial position, the first consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead.
+
hl, hm, hn, hň, hr, hw
+
 
Each of these consonant conjuncts, when word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct. To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce an Ithkuil l, m, n, ň, r, or w, and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear h-sound instead.
’
As previously described in Sec. 1.2.2.1, in Ithkuil words where a glottal stop is followed by a consonant (e.g., ka’tal or morui’ss), the glottal stop is usually followed by a very briefly pronounced epenthetic vowel sound before the following consonant is pronounced. This vowel may be pronounced in either of two ways, whichever is easier for the speaker. The first is as the high central unrounded vowel of Russian быть, IPA [] or X-SAMPA [1]. The second way is to pronounce it as the high back unrounded vowel found in Turkish (spelled with an undotted i), IPA [] or X-SAMPA [M]. Both of these vowels are extremely short in duration and may even be de-voiced if the following consonant is voiceless.
+


+1.2.5.2 Vocalic Allophones. As previously stated in Section 1.2.2, the Ithkuil vowels i and u have two different pronunciations. Specifically, they are pronounced as the vowels in American English sit and put respectively if they appear by themselves, not adjacent to another vowel or not as part of a diphthong. However, when part of a dissyllabic vowel conjunct, their pronunciation is as follows:

+
+

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel i- (e.g., ia, ie, io, iù, etc.), the initial i- is pronounced as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i].

+

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is i, (e.g., aì, uì, öì, etc.), the i may be pronounced either as the lax vowel in English sit and German sitzen (IPA [I], or as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i].

+

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel u- (e.g., ua, ue, uo, uì, etc.), the initial u- is pronounced as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA or X-SAMPA [u].

+

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is u, (e.g., aù, iù, öù, etc.), the u may be pronounced either as the lax vowel in English put and German putsch (IPA [] or X-SAMPA [U], or as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA or X-SAMPA [u].

+

In word-final position the vowel i, when not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i]. Similarly, the vowel u in word-final position and not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA or X-SAMPA [u].

+
+


+ Additional vocalic allophones:

+
+

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel e- and the second vowel is other than ì or ù (i.e., ea, eo, eö), the initial e- is pronounced as the mid unrounded front vowel of Spanish este or Italian cadere or French déjà; IPA or X-SAMPA [e].

+

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel o- and the second vowel is other than ì or ù (i.e., oa, oe), the initial o- is pronounced as the mid-low rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian cosa; IPA or X-SAMPA [o].

+

 

+
+

+ + + + + + +
1.3 PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND RULES
+ +

Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ithkuil productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends.
+

+


+ 1.3.1 Gemination

+

Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, Finnish).

+

In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination:

+

1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination. All consonants are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except for y, w and the glottal stop ’.

+

1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination. The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: c, ç, č, j, l, m, n, ň, r, ř, s, š, z, ż and ž.

+ +

1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants. Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite duration), specifically ç, dh, f, l, m, n, r, ř, s, š, ţ, v, x, z, and ž, are simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated r is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like rr in Spanish or Italian.

+

The non-aspirated plosive consonants b, d, g, k, p, q and t, when geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two d-sounds in the English phrase bad dog when spoken rapidly. For their aspirated or ejective counterparts, the aspiration or ejectivization occurs upon release.

+

The pronunciation of affricates (c, č, j, and ż) when geminated depends on whether or not they are intervocalic (between two vowels) versus word-initial or word-final position. If intervocalic, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative or sibilant portion, e.g., čč is pronounced as [ttš]. For their aspirated or ejective counterparts, the aspiration or ejectivization occurs upon release into the fricative portion of the affricate. When in word-initial or word-final position, geminated pronunciation is achieved by simply lengthening the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of each affricate). Thus, čč in word-initial or word-final position is pronounced as [tšš].

+

1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates. Consonants written as single characters are simply written double when geminated, e.g., bb, čč, dd, nn, šš. Aspirates and ejectives indicate the following superscript-h or apostrophe diacritics only after the second character, e.g., čč’, tth. The two digraphs dh and xh are written ddh and xxh when geminated.

+


+ 1.3.2 Tone

+

Ithkuil is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages and some American Indian languages. This means that tone of voice is used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories).

+

There are seven tones used in Ithkuil, one of which, mid tone, is considered to be morpho-phonologically neutral. The other six tones are low, high, falling, rising, rising-falling and falling-rising, and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries one functionally significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid tone. Therefore, the function of mid tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid. Like natural tone languages, the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:

+

+

1.3.2.1 Indicating Tone in the Romanized Transliteration. The six significant tones are indicated in the Romanized transliteration by a diacritic mark placed immediately before the first letter of the word, as follows:

+ +


+

+


+ 1.3.3 Syllabic Stress

+

Stress normally falls on the penultimate (next-to-last) syllable but can shift to either the ultimate (last) syllable of a word, to the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable, and occasionally to the preantepenultimate (fourth-from-last) syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations.

+

When transliterating Ithkuil into Roman characters, the number of vowels in Ithkuil requires the use of diacritics due to the limited number of Roman vowel characters. As a result, the orthographic representation of stress using the system of romanization becomes complicated. It is explained as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1)
+

All monosyllabic words are unmarked for stress.

+

 

+
2)
+

The grave accent ( ` ) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted, e.g., in distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as au and ei from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts aù and eì.

+

 

+
3)
+

Penultimate stress. Polysyllabic words having penultimate stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing the dissyllabic phonemes ì or ù as the penultimate syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word iskoùt (stress on the o), if shifting to ultimate stress, becomes iskoút (stress on the u).

+

 

+
4)

Ultimate stress. Polysyllabic words which have ultimate stress indicate this in one of the following ways:
+
+

 
+
    +
  • the unmarked vowels a, e, i, o, u, and the marked disyllabic vowels ì and ù take an acute accent, e.g., á, é, í, ó, ú.
    • +
  • if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, or syllabic liquid or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., ròihnâl.
    • +
  • If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then a grave accent over the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress (as the grave accent would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress), e.g. òspâtlök.
    • +
  • if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate syllables already have diacritic marks (other than the grave accent), and there is no antepenultimate syllable (or it, too, carries a pre-existing diacritic), then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., ksûtpöör.
    • +
+

 

+
5)
Antepenultimate stress. To show antepenultimate stress (third syllable from the end):
 
+
    +
  • if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant) does not carry a diacritic (other than the grave accent), it takes the acute accent, e.g., áksiyor
    • +
  • if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack of acute accent on the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate stress, e.g., ëitlàrrun, ôrümzìl. (Note that the use of the grave accent over the i in ôrümzìl would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress, therefore its presence implies antepenultimate stress).
    • +
  • if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules, then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., öömolûk.
    • +
  • See Section 1.2.3.1 on the optional separation of diphthongs into separate syllables to increase the number of syllables for purposes of applying antepenultimate stress.
    • +
+

 

+
6)
Preantepenultimate stress. To show preantepenultimate stress (i.e., fourth syllable from the end) apply the same rules as for antepenultimate stress above, but to the preantepenultimate syllable. See Section 1.2.3.1 on the optional separation of diphthongs into separate syllables to increase the number of syllables for purposes of applying preantepenultimate stress.
+

NOTE: Monosyllabic words in Ithkuil are to be interpreted grammatically as having the equivalent of penultimate stress. When necessary to gramatically indicate the equivalent ultimate or antepenultimate stress on a monosyllabic word, extra syllables (the vowel -a-) are added to the word in order to allow the necessary ultimate or antepenultimate syllable to be stressed, e.g., kust → kustá, kust → ákusta.

+

 

+

+ + + + + + +
1.4 PHONOTACTIC RULES
+ +

In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or word. This concept is called phonotaxis and such rules are known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain, for example, why sprelch could be a hypothetical word in English, while znatk could not be, even though znatk is as easily pronounced by a linguist as sprelch. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis

+

Equally important are the optional rules each language employs to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are described in the sections below.

+


+ 1.4.1 Syllable Structure

+

The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable, or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents a mandatory vowel or diphthong.

+


+ Table 2: Syllabic Structure

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Syllable Type
Structure
Examples
Consonantal Word
C(C)(C) where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless fricative continuant
s, h, ll, mm, pçç
Monosyllabic
(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
a, ui, öt, isk, du, tuil, kleb, tlips, pskarn, xxoršt
Word-initial
(C)(C)(C)V(C)- or l, m, n, ň
uran, tamin, uisá, prine, klâtma, kstollap, ltas, mpeisku
Word-medial
-(C)(C)V(C)(C)- or l, m, n, ň
kialùn, ruentik, isteixlom, okspûtkai, hen-nau
Word-final
-(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)- or l, m, n, ň
lua, entoi, tial, eifkés, poxšurn, erpsalks, ön-n
+ +

The following rules apply:

+ +
+ +
+ +


+ 1.4.2 Constraints on Vowels

+

All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts previously mentioned can occur in any syllable, however, the maximum number of dissyllabic vowels which can occur immediately next to each other is two. If one of the two syllables is a diphthong, the diphthong must be the second syllable. Any syllable immediately following a diphthong must begin with at least one consonant. Trisyllabic vowel conjuncts (or more) are not permitted. Thus, words such as dea or aitua or ruai are permissible, but words such as oia, tuoa, auem, and laúio are not.

+

+

1.4.3 Constraints on Consonants

+ + + +


+ Proceed to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >>

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
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+ + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/02_morpho-phonology.html b/2004-en/02_morpho-phonology.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6dbb643 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/02_morpho-phonology.html @@ -0,0 +1,1123 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations +
Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonologhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/y6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ Lexicon
Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+

  +

Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
2.1 Grammatical Typology 2.4 Parts of Speech
2.2 Root and Stem Formationhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ 2.5 Note On Terminology
2.3 Semantic Instantiation of Stehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ms 
+


+ Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., +singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + +
2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY
+
+

Ithkuil morpho-phonology is primarily agglutinative and secondarily + synthetic. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily +via the joining of one or more affixes (including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes) to a semantic root, where the affixes themselves are highly synthetic (i.e., combining numerous morphological categories together into a single phonological form).

+


+2.1.1 The Structure of Ithkuil Words

+

As will be discussed later in Section 2.4, the part of speech in Ithkuil which corresponds to nouns and verbs in Western languages is called a formative. The morphological structure of the Ithkuil formative can be shown by the following formula:
+

+


+ (((Cv +) VL +) Cg/Cs +) Vr + (Cx/Cv + Vp/VL +) Cr + Vc (+ Ci +Vi) + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ Vf (+ Cb)) [+ tone] [+ stress]
+
+

+

The above terms, other than Cr, [tone] and [stress], refer to various consonantal or vocalic affixes. Cr corresponds to the word-root itself which is dicussed below in Section 2.2. All of the terms shown in gray are optional. However, as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the formula, the presence of certain terms requires the presence of others.

+

The above morpholohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/gical formula can be looked at as a series of numbered “slots” which will perhaps facilitate explanation of each term:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+A brief, preliminary explanation of these terms is given in Table 3 below. Detailed explanation of these terms are found in succeeding sections or subsequent chapters.

+


+ Table 3: Explanation of Terms within the Morphological Formula for Ithkuil Formatives

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
Cv
An word-initial consonantal prefix which indicates the categories of Phase (see Section 5.5) and Sanction (see Section 5.6). Both Phase and Sanction are mandatory categories, however the presence of Cv in a formative is optional (i.e., unmarked) if both the Phashttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e and Sanction of the formative have their default values. If Cv is present in Slot I, then Slot II through IV (see below) must be filled and Slot III must be filled by Cs, not Cg.
II
VL
A vocalic affix which shows a verbal category called Valence, discussed in Section 5.7. Valence is a mandatory category, however the presence of VL is optional (i.e., unmarked) if the formative’s valence has its default value and Slot I (Cv) is unfilled/unmarked. If VL is present, then Slots III and IV below must also be filled.
III
Cg/Cs

A consonantal affix which indicates either of two categories: (1) Validation (see Section Section 5.9), in which case this term is referred to as Cg, or (2) Aspect, in which case this term is referred to as Cs. The actual phonological forms of Cg and Cs are distincthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ from one another so there is no confusion when interpreting which category is being conveyed. The presence of Cv in Slot I (see above) requires that Slot III be filled by Cs, not Cg.

+

Aspect (Cs) is an optional category. It is possible for a formative to not carry any particular aspect, in which case the value of Cs (if present) will simply be a placeholder consonantal form.

+

Validation (shown by Cg) is a mandatory category, however the presence of Cg is optional if the formative's valence has its default category. If the formative's validation is not its default value, but the presence of Cg is not allowed due to Slot III already being filled by Cs, then the word must be restructured to remove Cv from Slot I and to remove Cs from Slot III in order to allow the presence of Cg. The formative's Phase and Sanction (Cv) and Aspect (Cs) will instead be shown either by use of an adjunct (see Section 2.4.2 below), or by moving Cv and Cs to Slots V and XI respectively (if possible - see explanation for Slots V and XI below).

+

The presence of either Cg or Cs in Slot III requires that Slot IV be filled.

IV
Vr
A vocalic “portmanteau” affix (i.e., conveying multiple types of morphological information), indicating the following morphological categories: Pattern and Stem (see Section 2.2.2 below), and Function (discussed in Section 5.1). Pattern and Stem are mandatory for all formatives, whereas Format occurs only if the formative carries an incorporated stem (see Cx in Slot https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/V below).
V
Cx/Cv

Slot V serves two possible functions: (1) Cx, a consonantal form indicating an incorporated root (discussed in Section 6.4) or, in the absence of an incorporated root, it becomes (2) the slot for Cv showing the formative’s Phase and Sanction (thus moving it from Slot I above). The presence of Cx or Cv in Slot V requires that Slot VI also be filled.

+

If functioning as Cx, the formative must carry Format information shown by the term Vf in Slot XII below. If there is no Format shown in Slot XII, then any term in Slot V must be Cv, not Cx.

+

If there is no incorporated root and the formative's Phase and Sanction have their default values or are already shown in Slot I, then Slot V is left empty (as well as Slot VI).

VI
Vp/VL
Slot VI serves two possible functions: (1) Vp, a vocalic affix indicating the Stem and Pattern (see Section 2.2.2 below) as well as Designation + (see Section 3.7) of the incorporated root Cx in Slot V above, or, in the absence of an incorporated root, it becomes (2) the slot for VL showing the formative’s Valence (thus mohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ving it from Slot II above). If there is no incorporated root then Slot VI is left empty along with Slot V.
VII
Cr
A mandatory consonantal form (from one to five consonants in length) which represents the semantic root of the formative (see Section 2.2 below). Cr cannot be -w-, -y-, -h-, -hw-, -hr-, -hh-, -hn-, -hm-, -lw-, -ly-, -rw-, -ry-, -řw-, or -řy-.
VIII
Vc
This is a mandatory vocalichttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ affix indicating the case of the formative. The category of Case is discussed in Chapter 4.
IX
Ci +Vi
This is a consonant + vowel term consisting of one of four consonantal forms (w-, y-, h-, or hw-) plus a vocalic form, the https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/whole of which indicates the Mood and Illocuthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ion of the formative (see Sections 5.2 and 5.3 respectively). Mood and Illocution are mandatory categories but both have default forms. If Mood and Illocution are in their default forms, then Slot IX is usually left unfilled/unmarked.
X
Ca
A mandatory consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following five categories: Configuration, Affilihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ation, Perspective, Extension and Essence. These categories are all discussed in Chapter 3.
XI
Vx+C
An optional derivational suffix of the form vowel+consonant(s) which conveys additional morpho-semantic information. There are approximately 200 such suffixes which can be combined with a formative to expand the meaning of a word. These suffixes can also be multiply added to a stem, i.e., two or https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/more such affixes can appear on a stem. These suffixes are analyzed at length in Chapter 7.
XII
Vf
A vocalic suffix which conveys the categories of Context (discussedhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ in Section 3.6) and Format (discussed in Section 6.4). The presence of Format information requires that an incorporated root be present in the formative (i.e., the Cx term in Slot V above). In the absence of an incorporated root, Vf conveys the category of Context only. While Context is mandatory, it has a default value which, in the absence of Format and a Bias suffix in Slot XIII, is unmarked (i.e., Slot XII is left empty).
XIII
’Cb
A consonantal word-final suffix of the formhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ glottal stop + consonant which indicates one of 48 Bias categories (discussed in Section 5.11). Bias is an optional category and is left unmarked (i.e., unfilled) if not present. However, if present, then Slot XII must also be filled.
XIV
[tone]
The six morphologically relevant tones (see Shttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ection 1.3.2) of an Ithkuil formative indicate the category of Version (see Section 5.8), a mandatory category.
XV
[stress]
As previously described in Section 1.3.3, there are four possible stress phttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/atterns for an Ithkuil formative, which convey the categories of Designhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ation (see Section 3.7) and Relation (see Section 5.4).
+
+
+ +

Based on the above morphological formula, we can see that the simplest structure for a formative is

+

Vr + Cr + Vc + Ca + tone+stress

+

as illustrated by the examples phal,  eqoec,  and  ‾üaklar&scaronhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/;lá below:

+

 

+


+ phal ‘tree’https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/         &nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/bsp;LISTEN 

+
+

Vr = (a-),*  indicating Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root plus STATIVE function
+ Cr = -ph-, indicating the root: ‘branched/leaved plant’
+ Vc = -a-,  indicating OBLIQUE case
+ Ca = -l, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, MONADIC perspective, UNIPLEX configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation
+ tone = falling, indicating PROCESSUAL version
+ stress = penultimate**, indicating INFORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation

+

*Note that the full form is aphal, however when the value of Vr is word-initial a- for a formative withhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ penultimate stress, this initial a- can be deleted.

+

**As explained in Section 1.3.3, monosyllabic words are considered to have penultimate stress for mohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rpho-phonological purposes.

+
+

 

+


+eqoec &lhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/squo;regarding humankind’    &https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nbsp;     https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/;LISTEN 

+
+

Vr = e-,  indicating Pattern 1, Stem 2 of the root plus STATIVE function
+ Cr = -q-, indicating the root: ‘higher order life-form’
+ Vc = -oe-,  indicating REFERENTIAL case
+ Ca = -c, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, ABSTRACT perspective, UNIPLEX configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation
+ tone = falling, indicating PROCESSUAL version
+ stress = penultimate, indicating INFhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation

+
+

 

+


+ ‾üaklaršlá ‘it is/being a representation of thehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ man-made courses/channels of a river that has dried uphttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/’    &nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/sp;     LISTEN 

+
+

Vr = üa-,  indicating Pattern 3, Stem 1 of the root plus MANIFESTIVE function
+ Cr = -kl-, indicating the root:  ‘water in natural motion’
+ Vc = -a-,  indicating OBLIQUE case
+ Ca = -ršl(a), indicating REPRESENTATIVE essence, DEPLETIVE extension, MONADIC perspective, AGGREGATIVE configuration, and ASSOCIATIVE affiliation
+ tone = high, indicating COMPLETIVE version
+ stress = ultimate, indicating FORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation

+
+

 

+

From the simpler formative structures above, we can examine the structure of increasingly complex words, e.g.,

+
+

Vr + Cr + Vc + Ci +Vi + Ca + Vx+Cs + Vf + ’Cb + tone + stress, as in:

+
+


+
+Uiphawâtļûxe’ň?  ‘Might it happen to be https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/a large symbolic grove of trees?&rhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/squo;          LISTEN 

+
+

Vr = (ui-),  indicating Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root plus MANIFESTIVE function
+ Cr = -ph-, indicating the root: ‘branched/leaved plant’
+ Vc = -a-,  indicating OBLIQUE case
+ Ci+Vi = w+â, indicating INTERROGATIVE illocution plus SUBJUNCTIVE mood
+ Ca = -tļ, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, MONADIC perspective, DISCRETE configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation
+ Vx+Cs = û+x, the SIZE suffix in 6th degree, translatable as ‘big, large’
+ Vf = e, indicating REPRESENTATIONAL context
+ Cb = ň, indicating COINCIDENTAL bias
+ tone = falling, indicating PROCESSUAL version
+ stress = penultimate, indicating INFORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation

+
+
+

or      &nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/sp;     Cg + Vr + Cx + Vp + Cr + Vc + Ca + Vx+Cs + Vf + tone + stress, as in:

+

 
+
+hremsoqhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/aiţsurkoi ‘purportedly by means https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/of the value derived from all thehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ varied attributes of humanity’          LISTEN 

+
+

Cg = hr-, indicating PURPORTIVE validation
+ Vr = e-,  indicating Pattern 1, Stem 2 of the root plus STATIVE function
+ Cx = -ms-, indicating the incorporated root: ‘value/cost’
+ Vp = o, indicating Pattern 2, Stem 1, and INFORMAL designation of the incorporated root
+ Cr = -q-, indicating the main root: ‘higher order life-form’
+ Vc = -ai-,  indicating INSTRUMENTAL case
+ Ca = -ţs-, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, ABSTRACT perspective, COMPOSITE configuration, and VARIATIVE affiliation
+ Vx+Cs = u+rk, the METONYMIC suffix in 9th degree, indicating the attributes/characteristics of the formative
+ Vf = oi, indicating AMALGAMATIVE context and AUTHORITATIVE format
+ tone = falling, indicating PROCESSUAL version
+ stress = penultimate, indicating INFORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation

+
+


+or a deliberately extreme example,

+

    &nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/bsp;           Cv + VL + Cs + Vr + Cx + Vp + Cr + Vc + Ca + Vx + Cs + Vf + ’Cb + tone + stress, as in:

+


+                               
+ /qhûl-lyai’svukšei’arpîptó’ks
+‘...being hard to believe, after allegedly trying to go back to repeatedly inspiring fear using rag-tag groups of suspicious-looking clowns, despite resistance’         LISTEN 

+
+

Cv =  qh, indicating ALLEGATIVE sanction plus REPETITIVE phase
+ VL  =  û, indicating RESISTIVE valence
+ Cs  =  l-ly, indicating REGRESSIVE aspect
+ Vr  =  ai’, indicating DYNAMIC function plus Pattern 1, Stem 2 for the main root
+ Cx  =  sv, indicating the incorporated root:  ‘fear’
+ Vp  =  u, indicating INFORMAL designation plus Pattern 3, Stem 1 for the incorporated root
+ Cr  =  kš, indicating the main root: ‘fool/clown’
+ Vc  =  ei’a, indicating POSTCURSIVE case
+ Ca  =  rp, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, UNBOUNDED perspective, AGGREGATIVE configuration, and VARIATIVE affiliation
+ Vx + Cs  = îpt-, the GENUINENESS/VERACITY suffix in 4th degree, indicating a suspicious-looking nature
+ Vf  =  o, indicating SCHEMATIC format and EXISTENTIAL context
+ Cb =  ’ks, indicating SKEPTICAL bias
+ tone  =  rising, indicating INEFFECTUAL version
+ stress  =  ultimate, indicating FORMAL designation for the main root

+
+
+


+2.1.2 Disambiguation of Specific Affixes Within Words

+

Because many of the terms in the above morphological formula are optional, the reader might easily wonder how a speaker/reader of Ithkuil, when looking at or hearing an Ithkuil word, can possibly know which terms are actually shown in any given word, i.e., how to interpret from the given consonants and vowels in a particular word which of the optional morphologihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/cal categories is being displayed or spoken. Or, in other words, how can one tell which slots are filled? In fact, such interpretation is indeed possible and is unambiguous due to the specific allowable consonant or vowel combinations allowed for each term, i.e., the specific consonantal or vocalic values allowed for one term are distinct from those allowed for another term which might occupy the same sequential position in a specific word. Also, as previously stated in Section 2.1.1 above and as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the (((Cv +) VL +) Cg/Cs +) Vr + (Cx/Cv + Vp/VL +) Cr + Vc (+ Ci +Vi) + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ Vf (+ Cb)) [+ tone] [+ stress] morphological formula, the presence of certain terms e.g., VL, requires the presence of other terms (Ci + Vc), in order to maintain a discernible sequence which can be unambiguously differentiated.

+

 

+

+ + + + +
2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION
+

All words in Ithkuil which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic stem, which + in turn derives from a semantically abstract root. This process + is explained in the sections below.

+


+ 2.2.1 The Root

+

The root in Ithkuil forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a consonantal form, Cr, comprised of one to four consonants (e.g., -k-, -st-, -ntr-, -pstw-).Given Ithkuil phonotactic constraints (see Section 1.4) this gives approximately 3600 possible roots. (Note: roots of five consonants, e.g., -rpskw- are also phonotactically possible and available, but currently remain unassigned.) Cr cannot be a single glottal stop, nor w, y, h, hw, hr, hh, hn, hm, lw, ly, rw, ry, řw, or řy. The root occupies Slot VII of a formative’s morpho-phonological structure, as shown below.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+

The root is the basic semantic unit in Ithkuil. For example, d- is a root whose semantic referent is ‘NAME/DESIGNATION’. + Functional word-stems (or simply stems) are generated from the + root via instantiation of the Vr- vocalic affix, as described below.

+


+ https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/2.2.2 Stem and Pattern

+

There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ithkuil roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate Patterns. Both Pattern and Stem are shown by changes to the Vr- vocalic affix.

+

The three patterns are labeled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a holistic stem and two complementary sub-stems.https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + An example would be the holistic stem spouse, with its two complementary + sub-stems husband and wife. This holistic versus complementary dihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/stinction is discussed at length below in Section 2.3. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ithkuil systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ithkuil + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while +having such a small number of semantic word roots.

+

A formative’s Pattern and Stem are shown by the Vr affix in Slot IV, as previously described in Section 2.1.1. Besides showing a formative’s Pattern and Stem, Vr shows the morphological category of Function, discussed in Section 5.1.
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+ (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+

The values of Vr- by Stem and Pattern and Function are shown in Table 4 below.
+

+

 

+

Table 4: Values of Vr by Stem, Pattern, and Function

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

 

Pattern 1

Pattern 2

Pattern 3

 

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Function (see Sec. 5.1)
         

STATIVE

(a)

e

u

o

ö

î / û

â

ê

ô

DYNAMIC

i

ai

ei

au

eu

iu

ia / ua

ie / ue

io / uo

MANIFESTIVE

ui

ü / ou

ëi

ae

ea

oa

üa / aì

iù / uì

iö / uö

DESCRIPTIVE

oi

eo

eö

oe

öe

ëu

üo / oì

üe / eì

üö / aù

+

In the sections below where we analyze the semantics of stems, all examples are given in the STATIVE function, as this corresponds to the most common (or default) function of a formative. Thus, the forms we will analyze are:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Pattern 1

Pattern 2

Pattern 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

(a)C-

eC-

uC-

oC-

öC-

îC- / ûC-

âC-

êC-

ôC-

+

where C- represents the root consonant form Cr.

+

 

+ + + + +
2.3 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS
+

We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. We will start with the three stems associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.

+


+ 2.3.1 Holistic Stems

+

The three stems for Pattern 1 are designated by the Vr affixes (a-), e-, and u- respectively. Thus, + the root -d- ‘NAME/DESIGNATION’ generates the following stems:

+
+

1. (a)d-‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’
+2. ed- ‘designation or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’
+3. ud- ‘a (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’

+
+

The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship between the individual stems for the root -d- above with that of the root -x- (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below.

+
+

1. (a)x- ‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’
+ 2. ex- ‘an eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’
+ 3. ux- ‘an image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’

+
+

Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology.

+


+ 2.3.2 Complementary Stems

+

Any Ithkuil stem is capable of being further broken down into + two complementary stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts or aspects of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems.

+

By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil, + for example, words such as male, night, speech, sit, + and happen are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole.

+

Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) from the underlying concept translatable as day (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of speak(ing) divides into complementary concepts + of talking (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus saying/telling (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound).

+

Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word happen or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as event or situation.

+


+ 2.3.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by shifting the values of Vr to Pattern 2, i.e., o-, ö-, and î- (or û-), while the second complementary stem is derived by shifting Vr to Pattern 3, i.e., â-, ê-, and ô-. Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stem

eq-: human being, person

1st + Comp. Stem

öq-: male person

2nd + Comp. Stem

êq-: female person

  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stem

aklá-: a river

1st + Comp. Stem

oklá-: the water in a river

2nd + Comp. Stem

âklá-: a riverbed, river channel

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stem

ult-: an act of written composition; to compose something in writing

1st + Comp. Stem

ûlt-: the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition

2nd + Comp. Stem

ôlt-: the written content or message of a composition; to create written content

  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stem

ax-: sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing seen)

1st + Comp. Stem

ox-: an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting

2nd + Comp. Stem

âx-: a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image

+


+ 2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is +counterintuitive to Western semantic notions.

+

For example, let us analyze the root -mm- ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages + would consider the concept parent as fundamentally opposite from the + concept child and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem -mm-. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of -mm- is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes one as being problematical, perhaps even nonsensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or ‘child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for -mm-.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Holistic + Stem
1st + Complementary Stem
2nd + Complementary Stem
Stem 1

amm- nuclear family member

omm-: parent

âmm-: child (offspring)

Stem 2

emm-: male nuclear family member

ömm-: father

êmm-: son

Stem 3

umm-: female nuclear family member

ûmm-: mother

ômm-: daughter

+


+ Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ithkuil lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Concept
Complementary + Concepts
eatingfoodingestion
think, act of thinkinga thought (thing considered)process of consideration
liquidfluid (= ontological nature)wet[ness] (=defining attribute)
measuring a measurementprocess of measuring
transference of possessiongivingtaking
traversal between pointscoming, arrival going, departure
commercial transaction buyingselling
+


+

+ +

 

+

+ + + + +
2.4 + PARTS OF SPEECH
+

Ithkuil has only two parts of speech: formatives and adjuncts. While there are words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term formative. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.4.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ithkuil, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the fhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ormative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.

+

Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will of course + be semantically anomalous, reduhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ndant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).

+


+ 2.4.1 Formatives

+

The stem formed as per the discussion in Section + 2.3 above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the formative. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its morpho-syntactic + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative aklá- illustrated above in Section 2.3.2 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ithkuil formative exclusively into a noun or verb form +is arbitrary.

+

The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either spatially “reify” this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:

+ +

https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/
+

+ +

+

2.4.2 Adjuncts

+

Besides formatives, the other part of speech is the adjunct. Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nt formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”).

+

Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + afhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/fixes, combined agglutinatively. There are severalhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ different types of adjuncts, described in detail in Chapter 6 and Chapter +8. These include:

+
    +
  • Personal Reference Adjuncts: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship. (See Section 8.1.)
    +
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/
    • +
  • Verbal Adjuncts: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Level, Phase, Sanction, Illocution, Modality, Aspect and Bias. Each of these categories is discussed in Chapter + 5 or Chapter 6.
    +
    • +
+


+
+

+ + + + +
2.5 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
+

While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginninghttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ with Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ithkuil, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of cohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nvenience, often with only a small similarity +of function. In still other instances,https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.

+

&nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/bsp;

+
+

Proceed to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >>

+

 

+  

+ + + + +

 

+ + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

&nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065745id_/http:/ithkuil.net/p;

  
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+ + + + + + +
Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

 

+

For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
+ in book form, it is now available!

+

And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
+ wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

+

(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
+ philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
+ Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

+

 

+

 

+

 

+
+

©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

+
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+
+ + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/02_morpho-phonology.html.orig b/2004-en/02_morpho-phonology.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..226a9ef --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/02_morpho-phonology.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,1123 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology + + + + + +

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
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Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+

 

+

Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
2.1 Grammatical Typology 2.4 Parts of Speech
2.2 Root and Stem Formation 2.5 Note On Terminology
2.3 Semantic Instantiation of Stems 
+


+ Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., +singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + +
2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY
+
+

Ithkuil morpho-phonology is primarily agglutinative and secondarily + synthetic. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily +via the joining of one or more affixes (including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes) to a semantic root, where the affixes themselves are highly synthetic (i.e., combining numerous morphological categories together into a single phonological form).

+


+2.1.1 The Structure of Ithkuil Words

+

As will be discussed later in Section 2.4, the part of speech in Ithkuil which corresponds to nouns and verbs in Western languages is called a formative. The morphological structure of the Ithkuil formative can be shown by the following formula:
+

+


+ (((Cv +) VL +) Cg/Cs +) Vr + (Cx/Cv + Vp/VL +) Cr + Vc (+ Ci +Vi) + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ Vf (+ Cb)) [+ tone] [+ stress]
+
+

+

The above terms, other than Cr, [tone] and [stress], refer to various consonantal or vocalic affixes. Cr corresponds to the word-root itself which is dicussed below in Section 2.2. All of the terms shown in gray are optional. However, as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the formula, the presence of certain terms requires the presence of others.

+

The above morphological formula can be looked at as a series of numbered “slots” which will perhaps facilitate explanation of each term:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+A brief, preliminary explanation of these terms is given in Table 3 below. Detailed explanation of these terms are found in succeeding sections or subsequent chapters.

+


+ Table 3: Explanation of Terms within the Morphological Formula for Ithkuil Formatives

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
Cv
An word-initial consonantal prefix which indicates the categories of Phase (see Section 5.5) and Sanction (see Section 5.6). Both Phase and Sanction are mandatory categories, however the presence of Cv in a formative is optional (i.e., unmarked) if both the Phase and Sanction of the formative have their default values. If Cv is present in Slot I, then Slot II through IV (see below) must be filled and Slot III must be filled by Cs, not Cg.
II
VL
A vocalic affix which shows a verbal category called Valence, discussed in Section 5.7. Valence is a mandatory category, however the presence of VL is optional (i.e., unmarked) if the formative’s valence has its default value and Slot I (Cv) is unfilled/unmarked. If VL is present, then Slots III and IV below must also be filled.
III
Cg/Cs

A consonantal affix which indicates either of two categories: (1) Validation (see Section Section 5.9), in which case this term is referred to as Cg, or (2) Aspect, in which case this term is referred to as Cs. The actual phonological forms of Cg and Cs are distinct from one another so there is no confusion when interpreting which category is being conveyed. The presence of Cv in Slot I (see above) requires that Slot III be filled by Cs, not Cg.

+

Aspect (Cs) is an optional category. It is possible for a formative to not carry any particular aspect, in which case the value of Cs (if present) will simply be a placeholder consonantal form.

+

Validation (shown by Cg) is a mandatory category, however the presence of Cg is optional if the formative's valence has its default category. If the formative's validation is not its default value, but the presence of Cg is not allowed due to Slot III already being filled by Cs, then the word must be restructured to remove Cv from Slot I and to remove Cs from Slot III in order to allow the presence of Cg. The formative's Phase and Sanction (Cv) and Aspect (Cs) will instead be shown either by use of an adjunct (see Section 2.4.2 below), or by moving Cv and Cs to Slots V and XI respectively (if possible - see explanation for Slots V and XI below).

+

The presence of either Cg or Cs in Slot III requires that Slot IV be filled.

IV
Vr
A vocalic “portmanteau” affix (i.e., conveying multiple types of morphological information), indicating the following morphological categories: Pattern and Stem (see Section 2.2.2 below), and Function (discussed in Section 5.1). Pattern and Stem are mandatory for all formatives, whereas Format occurs only if the formative carries an incorporated stem (see Cx in Slot V below).
V
Cx/Cv

Slot V serves two possible functions: (1) Cx, a consonantal form indicating an incorporated root (discussed in Section 6.4) or, in the absence of an incorporated root, it becomes (2) the slot for Cv showing the formative’s Phase and Sanction (thus moving it from Slot I above). The presence of Cx or Cv in Slot V requires that Slot VI also be filled.

+

If functioning as Cx, the formative must carry Format information shown by the term Vf in Slot XII below. If there is no Format shown in Slot XII, then any term in Slot V must be Cv, not Cx.

+

If there is no incorporated root and the formative's Phase and Sanction have their default values or are already shown in Slot I, then Slot V is left empty (as well as Slot VI).

VI
Vp/VL
Slot VI serves two possible functions: (1) Vp, a vocalic affix indicating the Stem and Pattern (see Section 2.2.2 below) as well as Designation + (see Section 3.7) of the incorporated root Cx in Slot V above, or, in the absence of an incorporated root, it becomes (2) the slot for VL showing the formative’s Valence (thus moving it from Slot II above). If there is no incorporated root then Slot VI is left empty along with Slot V.
VII
Cr
A mandatory consonantal form (from one to five consonants in length) which represents the semantic root of the formative (see Section 2.2 below). Cr cannot be -w-, -y-, -h-, -hw-, -hr-, -hh-, -hn-, -hm-, -lw-, -ly-, -rw-, -ry-, -řw-, or -řy-.
VIII
Vc
This is a mandatory vocalic affix indicating the case of the formative. The category of Case is discussed in Chapter 4.
IX
Ci +Vi
This is a consonant + vowel term consisting of one of four consonantal forms (w-, y-, h-, or hw-) plus a vocalic form, the whole of which indicates the Mood and Illocution of the formative (see Sections 5.2 and 5.3 respectively). Mood and Illocution are mandatory categories but both have default forms. If Mood and Illocution are in their default forms, then Slot IX is usually left unfilled/unmarked.
X
Ca
A mandatory consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following five categories: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence. These categories are all discussed in Chapter 3.
XI
Vx+C
An optional derivational suffix of the form vowel+consonant(s) which conveys additional morpho-semantic information. There are approximately 200 such suffixes which can be combined with a formative to expand the meaning of a word. These suffixes can also be multiply added to a stem, i.e., two or more such affixes can appear on a stem. These suffixes are analyzed at length in Chapter 7.
XII
Vf
A vocalic suffix which conveys the categories of Context (discussed in Section 3.6) and Format (discussed in Section 6.4). The presence of Format information requires that an incorporated root be present in the formative (i.e., the Cx term in Slot V above). In the absence of an incorporated root, Vf conveys the category of Context only. While Context is mandatory, it has a default value which, in the absence of Format and a Bias suffix in Slot XIII, is unmarked (i.e., Slot XII is left empty).
XIII
’Cb
A consonantal word-final suffix of the form glottal stop + consonant which indicates one of 48 Bias categories (discussed in Section 5.11). Bias is an optional category and is left unmarked (i.e., unfilled) if not present. However, if present, then Slot XII must also be filled.
XIV
[tone]
The six morphologically relevant tones (see Section 1.3.2) of an Ithkuil formative indicate the category of Version (see Section 5.8), a mandatory category.
XV
[stress]
As previously described in Section 1.3.3, there are four possible stress patterns for an Ithkuil formative, which convey the categories of Designation (see Section 3.7) and Relation (see Section 5.4).
+
+
+ +

Based on the above morphological formula, we can see that the simplest structure for a formative is

+

Vr + Cr + Vc + Ca + tone+stress

+

as illustrated by the examples phal,  eqoec,  and  ‾üaklaršlá below:

+

 

+


+ phal ‘tree’          LISTEN 

+
+

Vr = (a-),*  indicating Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root plus STATIVE function
+ Cr = -ph-, indicating the root: ‘branched/leaved plant’
+ Vc = -a-,  indicating OBLIQUE case
+ Ca = -l, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, MONADIC perspective, UNIPLEX configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation
+ tone = falling, indicating PROCESSUAL version
+ stress = penultimate**, indicating INFORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation

+

*Note that the full form is aphal, however when the value of Vr is word-initial a- for a formative with penultimate stress, this initial a- can be deleted.

+

**As explained in Section 1.3.3, monosyllabic words are considered to have penultimate stress for morpho-phonological purposes.

+
+

 

+


+eqoec ‘regarding humankind’          LISTEN 

+
+

Vr = e-,  indicating Pattern 1, Stem 2 of the root plus STATIVE function
+ Cr = -q-, indicating the root: ‘higher order life-form’
+ Vc = -oe-,  indicating REFERENTIAL case
+ Ca = -c, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, ABSTRACT perspective, UNIPLEX configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation
+ tone = falling, indicating PROCESSUAL version
+ stress = penultimate, indicating INFORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation

+
+

 

+


+ ‾üaklaršlá ‘it is/being a representation of the man-made courses/channels of a river that has dried up’          LISTEN 

+
+

Vr = üa-,  indicating Pattern 3, Stem 1 of the root plus MANIFESTIVE function
+ Cr = -kl-, indicating the root:  ‘water in natural motion’
+ Vc = -a-,  indicating OBLIQUE case
+ Ca = -ršl(a), indicating REPRESENTATIVE essence, DEPLETIVE extension, MONADIC perspective, AGGREGATIVE configuration, and ASSOCIATIVE affiliation
+ tone = high, indicating COMPLETIVE version
+ stress = ultimate, indicating FORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation

+
+

 

+

From the simpler formative structures above, we can examine the structure of increasingly complex words, e.g.,

+
+

Vr + Cr + Vc + Ci +Vi + Ca + Vx+Cs + Vf + ’Cb + tone + stress, as in:

+
+


+
+Uiphawâtļûxe’ň?  ‘Might it happen to be a large symbolic grove of trees?’          LISTEN 

+
+

Vr = (ui-),  indicating Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root plus MANIFESTIVE function
+ Cr = -ph-, indicating the root: ‘branched/leaved plant’
+ Vc = -a-,  indicating OBLIQUE case
+ Ci+Vi = w+â, indicating INTERROGATIVE illocution plus SUBJUNCTIVE mood
+ Ca = -tļ, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, MONADIC perspective, DISCRETE configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation
+ Vx+Cs = û+x, the SIZE suffix in 6th degree, translatable as ‘big, large’
+ Vf = e, indicating REPRESENTATIONAL context
+ Cb = ň, indicating COINCIDENTAL bias
+ tone = falling, indicating PROCESSUAL version
+ stress = penultimate, indicating INFORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation

+
+
+

or            Cg + Vr + Cx + Vp + Cr + Vc + Ca + Vx+Cs + Vf + tone + stress, as in:

+

 
+
+hremsoqaiţsurkoi ‘purportedly by means of the value derived from all the varied attributes of humanity’          LISTEN 

+
+

Cg = hr-, indicating PURPORTIVE validation
+ Vr = e-,  indicating Pattern 1, Stem 2 of the root plus STATIVE function
+ Cx = -ms-, indicating the incorporated root: ‘value/cost’
+ Vp = o, indicating Pattern 2, Stem 1, and INFORMAL designation of the incorporated root
+ Cr = -q-, indicating the main root: ‘higher order life-form’
+ Vc = -ai-,  indicating INSTRUMENTAL case
+ Ca = -ţs-, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, ABSTRACT perspective, COMPOSITE configuration, and VARIATIVE affiliation
+ Vx+Cs = u+rk, the METONYMIC suffix in 9th degree, indicating the attributes/characteristics of the formative
+ Vf = oi, indicating AMALGAMATIVE context and AUTHORITATIVE format
+ tone = falling, indicating PROCESSUAL version
+ stress = penultimate, indicating INFORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation

+
+


+or a deliberately extreme example,

+

                Cv + VL + Cs + Vr + Cx + Vp + Cr + Vc + Ca + Vx + Cs + Vf + ’Cb + tone + stress, as in:

+


+                               
+ /qhûl-lyai’svukšei’arpîptó’ks
+‘...being hard to believe, after allegedly trying to go back to repeatedly inspiring fear using rag-tag groups of suspicious-looking clowns, despite resistance’         LISTEN 

+
+

Cv =  qh, indicating ALLEGATIVE sanction plus REPETITIVE phase
+ VL  =  û, indicating RESISTIVE valence
+ Cs  =  l-ly, indicating REGRESSIVE aspect
+ Vr  =  ai’, indicating DYNAMIC function plus Pattern 1, Stem 2 for the main root
+ Cx  =  sv, indicating the incorporated root:  ‘fear’
+ Vp  =  u, indicating INFORMAL designation plus Pattern 3, Stem 1 for the incorporated root
+ Cr  =  kš, indicating the main root: ‘fool/clown’
+ Vc  =  ei’a, indicating POSTCURSIVE case
+ Ca  =  rp, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, UNBOUNDED perspective, AGGREGATIVE configuration, and VARIATIVE affiliation
+ Vx + Cs  = îpt-, the GENUINENESS/VERACITY suffix in 4th degree, indicating a suspicious-looking nature
+ Vf  =  o, indicating SCHEMATIC format and EXISTENTIAL context
+ Cb =  ’ks, indicating SKEPTICAL bias
+ tone  =  rising, indicating INEFFECTUAL version
+ stress  =  ultimate, indicating FORMAL designation for the main root

+
+
+


+2.1.2 Disambiguation of Specific Affixes Within Words

+

Because many of the terms in the above morphological formula are optional, the reader might easily wonder how a speaker/reader of Ithkuil, when looking at or hearing an Ithkuil word, can possibly know which terms are actually shown in any given word, i.e., how to interpret from the given consonants and vowels in a particular word which of the optional morphological categories is being displayed or spoken. Or, in other words, how can one tell which slots are filled? In fact, such interpretation is indeed possible and is unambiguous due to the specific allowable consonant or vowel combinations allowed for each term, i.e., the specific consonantal or vocalic values allowed for one term are distinct from those allowed for another term which might occupy the same sequential position in a specific word. Also, as previously stated in Section 2.1.1 above and as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the (((Cv +) VL +) Cg/Cs +) Vr + (Cx/Cv + Vp/VL +) Cr + Vc (+ Ci +Vi) + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ Vf (+ Cb)) [+ tone] [+ stress] morphological formula, the presence of certain terms e.g., VL, requires the presence of other terms (Ci + Vc), in order to maintain a discernible sequence which can be unambiguously differentiated.

+

 

+

+ + + + +
2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION
+

All words in Ithkuil which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic stem, which + in turn derives from a semantically abstract root. This process + is explained in the sections below.

+


+ 2.2.1 The Root

+

The root in Ithkuil forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a consonantal form, Cr, comprised of one to four consonants (e.g., -k-, -st-, -ntr-, -pstw-).Given Ithkuil phonotactic constraints (see Section 1.4) this gives approximately 3600 possible roots. (Note: roots of five consonants, e.g., -rpskw- are also phonotactically possible and available, but currently remain unassigned.) Cr cannot be a single glottal stop, nor w, y, h, hw, hr, hh, hn, hm, lw, ly, rw, ry, řw, or řy. The root occupies Slot VII of a formative’s morpho-phonological structure, as shown below.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+

The root is the basic semantic unit in Ithkuil. For example, d- is a root whose semantic referent is ‘NAME/DESIGNATION’. + Functional word-stems (or simply stems) are generated from the + root via instantiation of the Vr- vocalic affix, as described below.

+


+ 2.2.2 Stem and Pattern

+

There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ithkuil roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate Patterns. Both Pattern and Stem are shown by changes to the Vr- vocalic affix.

+

The three patterns are labeled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a holistic stem and two complementary sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem spouse, with its two complementary + sub-stems husband and wife. This holistic versus complementary distinction is discussed at length below in Section 2.3. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ithkuil systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ithkuil + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while +having such a small number of semantic word roots.

+

A formative’s Pattern and Stem are shown by the Vr affix in Slot IV, as previously described in Section 2.1.1. Besides showing a formative’s Pattern and Stem, Vr shows the morphological category of Function, discussed in Section 5.1.
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+ (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+

The values of Vr- by Stem and Pattern and Function are shown in Table 4 below.
+

+

 

+

Table 4: Values of Vr by Stem, Pattern, and Function

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

 

Pattern 1

Pattern 2

Pattern 3

 

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Function (see Sec. 5.1)
         

STATIVE

(a)

e

u

o

ö

î / û

â

ê

ô

DYNAMIC

i

ai

ei

au

eu

iu

ia / ua

ie / ue

io / uo

MANIFESTIVE

ui

ü / ou

ëi

ae

ea

oa

üa / aì

iù / uì

iö / uö

DESCRIPTIVE

oi

eo

eö

oe

öe

ëu

üo / oì

üe / eì

üö / aù

+

In the sections below where we analyze the semantics of stems, all examples are given in the STATIVE function, as this corresponds to the most common (or default) function of a formative. Thus, the forms we will analyze are:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Pattern 1

Pattern 2

Pattern 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

(a)C-

eC-

uC-

oC-

öC-

îC- / ûC-

âC-

êC-

ôC-

+

where C- represents the root consonant form Cr.

+

 

+ + + + +
2.3 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS
+

We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. We will start with the three stems associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.

+


+ 2.3.1 Holistic Stems

+

The three stems for Pattern 1 are designated by the Vr affixes (a-), e-, and u- respectively. Thus, + the root -d- ‘NAME/DESIGNATION’ generates the following stems:

+
+

1. (a)d-‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’
+2. ed- ‘designation or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’
+3. ud- ‘a (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’

+
+

The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship between the individual stems for the root -d- above with that of the root -x- (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below.

+
+

1. (a)x- ‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’
+ 2. ex- ‘an eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’
+ 3. ux- ‘an image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’

+
+

Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology.

+


+ 2.3.2 Complementary Stems

+

Any Ithkuil stem is capable of being further broken down into + two complementary stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts or aspects of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems.

+

By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil, + for example, words such as male, night, speech, sit, + and happen are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole.

+

Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) from the underlying concept translatable as day (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of speak(ing) divides into complementary concepts + of talking (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus saying/telling (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound).

+

Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word happen or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as event or situation.

+


+ 2.3.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by shifting the values of Vr to Pattern 2, i.e., o-, ö-, and î- (or û-), while the second complementary stem is derived by shifting Vr to Pattern 3, i.e., â-, ê-, and ô-. Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stem

eq-: human being, person

1st + Comp. Stem

öq-: male person

2nd + Comp. Stem

êq-: female person

  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stem

aklá-: a river

1st + Comp. Stem

oklá-: the water in a river

2nd + Comp. Stem

âklá-: a riverbed, river channel

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stem

ult-: an act of written composition; to compose something in writing

1st + Comp. Stem

ûlt-: the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition

2nd + Comp. Stem

ôlt-: the written content or message of a composition; to create written content

  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stem

ax-: sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing seen)

1st + Comp. Stem

ox-: an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting

2nd + Comp. Stem

âx-: a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image

+


+ 2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is +counterintuitive to Western semantic notions.

+

For example, let us analyze the root -mm- ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages + would consider the concept parent as fundamentally opposite from the + concept child and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem -mm-. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of -mm- is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes one as being problematical, perhaps even nonsensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or ‘child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for -mm-.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Holistic + Stem
1st + Complementary Stem
2nd + Complementary Stem
Stem 1

amm- nuclear family member

omm-: parent

âmm-: child (offspring)

Stem 2

emm-: male nuclear family member

ömm-: father

êmm-: son

Stem 3

umm-: female nuclear family member

ûmm-: mother

ômm-: daughter

+


+ Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ithkuil lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Concept
Complementary + Concepts
eatingfoodingestion
think, act of thinkinga thought (thing considered)process of consideration
liquidfluid (= ontological nature)wet[ness] (=defining attribute)
measuring a measurementprocess of measuring
transference of possessiongivingtaking
traversal between pointscoming, arrival going, departure
commercial transaction buyingselling
+


+

+ +

 

+

+ + + + +
2.4 + PARTS OF SPEECH
+

Ithkuil has only two parts of speech: formatives and adjuncts. While there are words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term formative. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.4.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ithkuil, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.

+

Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will of course + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).

+


+ 2.4.1 Formatives

+

The stem formed as per the discussion in Section + 2.3 above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the formative. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its morpho-syntactic + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative aklá- illustrated above in Section 2.3.2 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ithkuil formative exclusively into a noun or verb form +is arbitrary.

+

The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either spatially “reify” this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:

+
+


+

+
+

+

2.4.2 Adjuncts

+

Besides formatives, the other part of speech is the adjunct. Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”).

+

Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, described in detail in Chapter 6 and Chapter +8. These include:

+
    +
  • Personal Reference Adjuncts: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship. (See Section 8.1.)
    +
    +
    • +
  • Verbal Adjuncts: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Level, Phase, Sanction, Illocution, Modality, Aspect and Bias. Each of these categories is discussed in Chapter + 5 or Chapter 6.
    +
    • +
+


+
+

+ + + + +
2.5 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
+

While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ithkuil, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity +of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.

+

 

+
+

Proceed to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >>

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
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+

For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
+ in book form, it is now available!

+

And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
+ wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

+

(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
+ philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
+ Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

+

 

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+ + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/03_morphology.html b/2004-en/03_morphology.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..269e98b --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/03_morphology.html @@ -0,0 +1,5189 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 3: Basic Morphology + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
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Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+

Chapter 3: Basic Morphology

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 3.1 Configuration 3.5 Essence
 3.2 Affiliation 3.6 Context
 3.3 Perspective 3.7 Designation
 3.4 Extension 3.8 Note On Morpho-Phonological Agreement
+


+ As previously discussed in Section 2.4.1, the distinction between nouns and verbs common to most languages + is rather blurred in Ithkuil. All lexical stems in Ithkuil function equally + as nouns or verbs and share many of the same morpho-semantic features and categories. + This is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns and verbs as being + cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations + of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components + are space and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are + merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or + verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s + sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal formatives as +verbs when discussing their morphology.

+

All Ithkuil formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs, + inflect for nine Configurations, four Affiliations, + four Perspectives, six Extensions, two Essences, four Contexts, and two Designations, and can take any of approximately 1800 optional + suffixes. These morphological categories are explained in the sections which + follow.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + +
3.1 CONFIGURATION
+
+

To understand the Ithkuil concept of enumeration and quantification + of nouns (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one must analyze + three separate but related grammatical categories termed Configuration, Affiliation, and Perspective. These concepts + are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which + are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually made at the lexical + level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological as + in Ithkuil. In this section we will deal first with Configuration, followed + by Affiliation in Section 3.2 and Perspective in Section + 3.3.

+

Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity + or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, collections, + sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal + composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential + structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain + English sets of words.

+

Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a + single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of + trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a + plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees. + However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings + than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as + in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different + kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray + such as a ‘jungle.’

+

As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ + While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) + person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons + (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as + ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

+

Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further + configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships + between car versus convoy, hanger versus rack, chess piece versus chess set, sentry versus blockade, piece of paper versus sheaf, girder versus (structural) + framework, and coin versus roll of coins all exemplify + these principles.

+

Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary + sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two + identical referents as in a pair of eyes, however they are more often + opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in limbs, ears, hands, wings, etc.

+

In Ithkuil, the semantic distinctions implied by the above + examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be + accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ + into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis + of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made + by means of Affiliation (see Section 3.2 below) and by + the use of specific suffixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ + or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ + via Configuration, the Ithkuil words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ + ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation + and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using suffixes are explored in + detail in Chapter + 7: Suffixes.)

+

Ithkuil words indicate Configuration via a synthetic consonantal affix immediately following the C+V stem which also indicates the Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence of the stem. This is the Ca affix discussed in Section 2.1.1.

+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation +
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence
+
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+

The actual values of thehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/se Ca affixes are shown later in Table + 5 in Section 3.5.3 below, following the explanation of Essence.

+

The nine configurations are the UNIPLEX, DUPLEX, DISCRETE, AGGREGATIVE, SEGMENTATIVE, COMPONENTIAL, COHERENT, + COMPOSITE, and MULTIFORM. +The function and morphology of these categories are explained below along with examples of the various configurations applied to four different stems: aph-, eq-, el-, and upšá-.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.1
UNI
The Uniplex
+
+

The UNIPLEX configuration indicates + a single, contextual embodiment of the stem concept, i.e., one whole contextual + unit of the basic nominal stem, e.g., a tree, a person, a screwdriver, a + grape, a hammer blow, a hole. With verbs the UNIPLEX signifies a single, holistic act, state, or event, e.g., to be a tree, to + become a person, to use a screwdriver, to eat a grape, to strike (once) with + a hammer, to dig a hole. Examples:   https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/       LISTEN 

+ +
+ + + + + + + + + + +

 

+


+ phal &lhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/squo;a tree’

 

+


+ eqal‘a person’

 

 

+


+ elal ‘an utterance; a spoken word’

 

+


+ upšál ‘an incident’

+ +

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.2
DPX
The Duplex
+
+

The DUPLEX configuration indicates + a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s + eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., it can also be used to describe any set of two + identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., a matched pair of + vases, a two-volume set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents. Thus, the + Ithkuil word for spouse inflected for the DUPLEX configuration would translate as a man and wife or a married couple.

+

One context in which the DUPLEX appears + for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” + exemplified by English words such as bounce, flash, arc, wag, swing, switch, breathe/respiration, + indeed, any concept which involves a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth, + in/out, empty/full, or on/off. Use of the DUPLEX in these + contexts implies a full cycling through the two complementary states involved. + For example the word for hammer blow inflected for the UNIPLEX would signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected + for the DUPLEX signifies a single down-then-up cycle of + the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action + being divided by theindex.htmlnbsp;     https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/;   LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

 

+


+ phalhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/l ‘a pair of trees’

 

+


+ eqall ‘a couple’

 

+

 

+


+ elall ‘a pair of words’


+ upšáll ‘a pair of incidents’
+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+

 

+
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.3
DCT
The Discrete
+
+

The DISCRETE configuration indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units that are more or less identiform (each + having the same design or physical appearance). This grouping or set-nature + can be either spatial, as in a flock of gulls (flying together), or + temporal (i.e., sequentially repetitive or iterative) as in (a flock of) + gulls flying one after another. Further examples of English nouns or noun + phrases which would be translated using the DISCRETE are a grove, a set of screwdrivers, a group of soldiers, a pile of leaves, a + bowl of grapes, a series of hammer blows, an area of holes. Thus, the Ithkuil + word for (identical) set would simply be the word for thing or object inflected for the DISCRETE configuration. + Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a temporally + (i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of either the DPR suffix, + -šk, + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ or the SEP suffix, -mb specifying which spacetime axis is implied. These suffixes are analyzed in Sec. + 7.4.13.

+

For verbs, the DISCRETE signifies a single + set of repetitions, whether spatially or temporally, viewed as a single holistic + event. The individual member components acts, states, or events within this + set can be either UNIPLEX, e.g., to take steps, to + flip through pages, to have spots, to dig holes in an area, or DUPLEX in naturehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/, e.g., to hammer, to spin, to breathe.

+

It should be noted that the Containment CNM suffix, -mt, + can be used with the DISCRETE, as well as most of the + following configurations, to designate specifically the type of container, holder, + or means of conveyance for a configurative set (e.g., a sack, https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/package, jar, +bottle, pile, load, etc.) Examples: &nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/sp;     https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/   LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + +

+ phatļ ‘a grove’
+eqatļ ‘a group of matching people’

+

 

+


+ elatļ ‘a set of identical words’

 

+


+ upšátļ ‘a set of similar incidents’

+
+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table 5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.4
AGG
The Aggregative
+
+

The AGGREGATIVE configuration functions + like the DISCRETE above in referring to an associated + group or set of entities, except that the members of the configurational set + are not identical to one another. Examples of English words/entities which would + be translated using the AGGREGATIVE are a forest (of different kinds of trees), a toolset, a citizens group, a mixed pile + of leaves, an assortment of animals, an area of different-sized holes, a series + of musical notes. With verbs, the AGGREGATIVE implies + a spatially or temporally repeated set of non-identical acts, events, or states + considered as a whole contextual unit. It would be used, for example, in translating + the sentence Thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/his morning I dug holes in my garden (i.e., of difhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ferent + sizes). Examples: &nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/p;        LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + +

+ phaļ ‘a forest; a wood’
+eqaļ ‘a group of different people’

 

+


+ elaļ ‘a set of (differing) words; a phrase’

 

+


+ upšáļ ‘a set of diffehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ring incidents’

+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+

 

+
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.5SEG The Segmentative
+
+

The SEGMENTATIVE configuration indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units, the individual members of which are + physically similar or identical and are either in physical contact with one + another, physically connected via some linking medium, or in sufficiently close + contact with one another so that the group moves or operates together. Examples + would be a web, a train of flatcars, a convoy of schoolbuses, a string of + pearls, a fall of leaves, a line of dancers, a parade of Barbie dolls (e.g., + coming off an assembly line). To illustrate the difference between this configuration + and the DISCRETE above, we saw that the word grape in the DISCRETE would be translated as a serving of + grapes, while in the SEGMENTATIVE it would mean a + bunch of grapes (i.e., still connected to each other on a portion of vine).

+

With verbs, the use of the SEGMENTATIVE versus the DISCRETE implies that the repetitive/iterative + nature of the act, state, or event occurs naturally due to the contextual nature + of the precipitating event or agent. It would thus be used to distinguish the + fuselage of bullets from a machine-gun from the simple hail of bullets from + single-fire weapons. Likewise, it would distinguish The light is blinking from The light is flashing, where blink implies the way + in which the source naturally emihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ts light, while flash implies that +the light https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/is being made to emit repetitive https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/bursts of light. Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ phaļļ ‘a stand (or line) of trees’
+eqaļhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/;ļ ‘a line/wall of matching people’
+(e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/arms linked)

 

+


+ elaļļ ‘a string of words’

 

+


+ upšáļļ ‘a chain of similar incidents’

+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.6CPN The Componential
+
+

The COMPONENTIAL configuration operates + identically to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the + individual members of the configurational set are not physically similar or + identical to each other. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated + using the COMPONENTIAL are a freight train, a cascade + of (mixed) fruit (i.e., a continuous stream of fruit falling), a line of ticketholders, + a parade of floats, a pattern of musical notes. With verbs, the COMPONENTIAL signifies a connected series of repetitions where the individual acts, events, + or stateshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ comprising the repetitive set are non-identical. It wohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/uld distinguish The light twihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nkled from The light was blinking. Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ phařļ ‘a line/stand of different trees’
+eqařļ ‘a line/wall of different people&rsqhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/uo;
+(e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with arms linked)

 

+


+ elařļ ‘a string of differing words’

 

+


+ upšáhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/45;ļ ‘a chain of differing incidents’

+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.
+

+
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.7COH The Coherent
+
+

The COHERENT configuration functions + similarly to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the individual + members of the configuration are connected, fused or mixed with one another + to form a coherent emergent entity, i.e., the total configuration of objects + constitutes an entirely new gestalt-like entity. Examples of English words which + would be translated using the COHERENT are a bookcase, + a phalanx, a xylophone.

+

In the realm of verbs, finding English translations illustrating + the COHERENT is difficult. If one can imagine the verb to glow to mean a series of flashes blurred one into another to create + a continuous emanation, then glowhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ versus flash might suffice. + Perhaps a betthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/er illustration would be the diffhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/erence between to buzz from to make a set of repeating noises. Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ phask ‘an entangled grove of trees’
+ (i.e., their roots/branches interthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/wined
+ and grown together)
+eqask ‘a mass/unit of similar people’

 

+


+ elask ‘a speech made up of similar words’

 

+


+ upšásk ‘a web of similar incidents’

+

 

+
+ +

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+

 

+
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.8CST The Composite
+
+

The COMPOSITE configuration operates + the same as the COHERENT above except that the individual + members of the configurational set are not identical or physically similar to + one another. Examples of words/concepts that would be translated using the COMPOSITE are a building (= a constructional set of walls, floors, doors, windows, + etc.), a communications array, a conspiracy, a jungle thicket. Thus + the Ithkuil words for recipe, skeleton, and melody would simply + be the words for ingredient, bone, and musical note inflectehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/d for the COMPOSITE configuration. For verbs, + the COhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/MPOSITE versus COHERENT distinctihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/on + would distinguish to rumble from to buzz, or to glitter from to glow. Examples:          LISTEN 

+ + + + + + + + + + + +

+ phašk ‘a jungle’
+eqašk ‘a mass/unit of different people’

 

+


+ elašk ‘a speech’

 

+


+ upšášk ‘a situation (involving a number of incidents)’

+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.9MLT The Multiform
+
+

The MULTIFORM configuration is + the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent. + The MULTIFORM serves to identify the noun as an individual + member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates + in non-traditional logic, describing a set whose individual members do not all + share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there + may be one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining + attributes of the set exclusively and exactly, other members of the set may + vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical + resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. Indeed, some members of the set may + display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype + of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient + overlap” between members of differing sets.

+

It is difficult to accurately translate into English without + resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ithkuil easily expresses + using the MULTIFORM. For example, the Ithkuil word for + ‘tree’ inflected for the MULTIFORM configuration + would mean something like a group of what appear to be trees, or better + yet, a group of tree-like objects (i.e., some being trees, and others + seeming less like trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity + of membership varies by different degrees in comparison to an archetypical member + of the set can be expressed using the MULTIFORM. For examples, + the Ithkuil word for library would simply be a word meaning something + like work (i.e. thing authored/composed) inflected for the MULTIFORM, + signifying a hodge-podge assortment of writings and compositions (e.g., including + books, pamphlets, notebooks, ledgers, formulas, letters, journals, recordings, + magazines, etc.). Other example concepts translatable using the MULTIFORM would be a rag-tag group of people, an incoherent pattern, lives in flux.

+

With verbs, the MULTIFORM implies that + the individual repetitions comprising https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/an act, state, or event have varying degrees + of spathttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/io-temporal similarity to each othttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/her. A few English verbs such as fluctuate, + sputter or flicker capture this sense. Examples:

+

         LISTEN 

+
+ + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + +

+ phakţ ‘a thicket/jungle thicket’
+eqakţ ‘rag-tag group of people’

 

+


+ elakţ ‘incoherent speech/speak incoherently’

 

+
+ upšákţ ‘chaos / a chaotic situation’

+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.
+

+

 

+

+
+ + + + +
3.2 AFFILIATION
+
+

While the category of Configuration from the preceding section + distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set in terms + of physical characteristics, physical attributes or physical connections, the + category of Affiliation operates similarly to distinguish the member relationships + in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically + in conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship + between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the meanings of nouns or verbs + in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into + English.

+

Returning to our earlier example of the word tree, + we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes a grove in + the DISCRETE configuration. The word grove implies + that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in + regard to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may + be planted by design, in which case they become an orchard. We saw + how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed a + forest. However, such assortments can become wholly chaotic, displaying + patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming a jungle.

+

As another example, we saw how the word person becomes group, or gathering, both of which are neutral as to subjective + purpose or function. Hhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/owever, applying a sense of purposeful design ghttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/enerates + words such as team, while the absence of purpose results in crowd.

+

There are four affiliations: CONSOLIDATIVE, ASSOCIATIVE, VARIATIVE, and COALESCENT. + Affiliation is indicated as part of the Ca affix as explained in Section 3.1 above and in Section 2.1.1.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation +
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence
+
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below, following the explanation of Extension. The details of the four affiliations are explained below.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.2.1 CSLThe Consolidative
+

The CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring + set where the function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable, + irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the ASSOCIATIVE affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively + defined by human design. Examples are tree branches, a grove, a mound of + rocks, some people, the clouds.

+

The CONSOLIDATIVE is also the affiliation + normally applied to nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration + when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the UNIPLEhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/X specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept + of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, + a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf. With verbs, the CONSOLIDATIVE would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral + as to purpose or design.

+

For the set of affixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.2.2
ASO
The Associative
+

The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective + function, state, purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the + Ithkuil word for soldier in the DISCRETE configuration + and comparing its English translations when inflected for the CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation (= a group of soldiers) versus the ASSOCIATIVE (= a troop, a platoon). It is this CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction, then, that would distinguish + otherwise equivalent DISCRETE inflections of the Ithkuil + word for tree by translating them respectively as a grove versus an + orchard.

+

The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation can also + be used with nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration to signify + a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. + For example, the word person inflected for the UNIPLEX and ASSOCIATIVE would translate as a single-minded + person. Even nouns such as rock, tree or work of + art could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as a well-formed + rock, a tree with integrity, a “balanced” work of art.

+

Wihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/th verbs, the ASSOCIATIVE signifies + that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction could be used, for example, + with the verb turn in I turned toward the window to indicate + whether it was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside.

+

For the set of affixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.2.3
VAR
The Variative
+

The VARIATIVE affiliation indicates that + the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function, + state, purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees + (i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, purpose, etc.) or at + complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the VARIATIVE would not be used to signify opposed but complementary differences among set + members (see the COALESCENT affiliation below). It would + thus be used to signify a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering, + a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of + books, a collection in disarray. It operates with nouns in the UNIPLEX to render meanings such as a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock, + a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation.

+

With verbs, the VARIATIVE indicates an + act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that + those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably + be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in She bought the house + for various reasons or My being at the party served several purposes. + With non-UNIPLEX cohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nfigurations, the use of the VARIATIVE affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using + the SEGMENTATIVE configuration such as The light is + blinking in conjunction with the VARIATIVE would + mean that each blink of the light signals something different than the preceding + or following blinks.

+

For the set of affixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.2.4
COA
The Coalescent
+

The COALESCENT affiliation indicates + that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship + with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. + This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of + other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For + example, the Ithkuil word translating English toolset would be the + word for tool in the AGGREGATIVE configuration + (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the COALESCENT affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function + in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example + would be the Ithkuil word for finger inflected for the SEGMENTATIVE configuration and the COALESCENT affiliation, translatable + as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the SEGMENTATIVE to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further + example would be using the COALESCENT with the word for (piece of) food to signify a well-balanced meal.

+

The COALESCENT naturally appears most + often in conjunction with the DUPLEX configuration since + binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical + binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image + distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. + Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g., one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the COALESCENT affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., one’s left and + right eye functioning together).

+

With verbs, the COALESCENT signifies + that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which + make up a greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structurehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work together in + complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for + example, to distinguish the sentences He traveled in the Yukon from He ventured in the Yukon, or I came up with a plan versus I fashioned a plan.

+

For the set of affixes which mark this affiliation, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+

 

+ + + + +
3.3. PERSPECTIVE
+

+ Perspective is the closest Ithkuil morphological category to the Number and + Tense categories of other languages (e.g., singular/plural and past/present/future). + However, the correspondence is only approximate because Perspective does not + specifically address the quantity to which a formative is instantiated within + a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the + manner in which it is spatio-temporally instantiated. Specifically, + Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded” + contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation), + 2) an unbounded entity (i.e., manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible), + 3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as + a spatio-temporally neutral abstraction. How this works requires separate explanations + for nouns and verbs. +

https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Perspective with Nouns. What Perspective means + for nouns is that, in addition to merely indicating whether a given spatial + context contains one or more than one, it also specifies single versus multiple + manifestations in time, as well as along an axis of concreteness versus abstraction. + Complicating the picture is the fact that the categories of Configuration and + Affiliation (see Sections 3.1 and 3.2 above) already + contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe + multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular” + and “plural” have been avoided.

+

Perspective with Verbs. For verbs, the aspect + of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative + context bhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ut rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” + i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole + within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” + categories of Westhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ern languages. In Ithkuil, the notion of linearly progressive + time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified, + if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see Section + 5.10).

+

There are four perspectives in Ithkuil: MONADIC, UNBOUNDED, NOMIC, and ABSTRACT. + These are indicated as part of the Ca affix as explained in Sec. 3.1 above.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation+
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence
+
Deriv.
+ Suffihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/x
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table + 5 in Section 3.5.3 below, following the explanation of Extension. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is explained + and illustrated below.
+

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.3.1
M
The Monadic
+

The MONADIC signifies a bounded embodiment + of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant + a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted + in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless being contextually + viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived + to exist within a literal or figurative psychologically uninterrupted boundary. + This is important, since configurations other than the UNIPLEX technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking + place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container, + corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether lithttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/eral or + psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, specifically + the “present” (which in Ithkuil might be better thought of as the + “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). + This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for + nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ithkuil considers nouns as spatially + reified concepts while considering verbs to be their temporally “activized” counterparts (see Section 2.4.1).

+

Thus, using the word tree for example, while there + might be many trees present in terms of number, the MONADIC implies they form only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category + is manifested. Using the AGGREGATIVE configuration as + an example, the MONADIC would mean there is only one AGGREGATIVE set of trees, i.e., one forest.

+

At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective + that Ithkuil makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” + (or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between + those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., one apple, four boys, several + nations), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., water, + sand, plastic, air, laughter). All nouns are countable in Ithkuil in that + all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations + of certain Ithkuil nouns must often be “contextual” rather than + literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable + context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a + puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”

+

With verbs, the MONADIC superficially + corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories + except in a habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed + by the MONADIC means that the act, state, or event is + temporally contiguous and accessible from the point of view of the present context. + It would be used to describes an act, state, or event which:

+
    +
  • +
    takes + place entirely in the present context
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    started + in the accessible past and has continued on into the present context
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    starts + within the present context and continues on into an accessible future
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    started + in an inaccessible past, but only the portion taking place in the present + context is being addressed or is under consideration or relevant within + the context of the utterance
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    starts + within the present context and may continue into an inaccessible future, + but only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, but + only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance
    +
    • +
+

By “accessible past” or “accessible future” + is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present + at the timehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ and the time elapsed between then and “now”https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/; is psychologically + contiguouhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/s, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now as + one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected + predictions, or historical reporthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/s. Conversely, “inaccessible” would + mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which + he/she knows only from memory, reports, or predictions. Examples:     https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/     LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + +

+ aklál
+ ‘a river;
+ a river flows’
+
+ u’t’ak’ařš
+ ‘constellation;
+ a constellation shines (in the night sky) ’
+ vyarl
+ ‘a set of benefits;
+ a set of benefits is in effect’
+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.3.2
U
The Unbounded
+

The UNBOUNDED signifies “unbounded + embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun + or verb manifests itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary, + i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, + the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member + nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a non-monadic + (i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient + translation into English would be to use the plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps + of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would + be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and + another…,’ ‘dirthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’

+

For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the + psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible + from the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which:

+
    +
  • +
    occurs + entirely in the inaccessible past
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    will + occur entirely in the inaccessible future (if used with the PROSPECTIVE aspect - see Section 5.10.2
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    may + be occurring in the present context but started in an inaccessible past, + and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account that past portion
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    may + be occurring in the present context but will continue into an inaccessible + future, and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood + without taking into account the future portion
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    started + in an inaccessible past and will continuehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ into an inaccessible future, and + the portion ochttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/curring in the present context cahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nnot be understood without + taking into account these inaccessible portions
    +
    • +
+

Note that, even more so than with the MONADIC, + transhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/lation of the UNBOUNDED into Western languages is + subjective, as the translation must necessarily convey linear tense information + which is not conveyed by the Ithkuil original.

+

Examples:          https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ aklát ‘what once was a river; + the river once flowed (but no longer)’
+

 

+


+ u’t’ak’ařg ‘a past constellation; + the constellation shone (but no longer)’
+

 

+


+ vyark + ‘a former set of benefits; + a set of benefits was in effect (but no longer)’

+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.3.3
N
The Nomic
+

The NOMIC refers to a generic collective + entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative + set throughout space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context). + Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in particular, + this category is mutually exclusive from the MONADIC or UNBOUNDED. For nouns, the NOMIC corresponds approximately to the several constructions used for referring to + collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences The dog is a noble beast, Clowns are what children love most, There + is nothing like a tree.

+

With verbs, the NOMIC designates an action, + event, or situation which describes a general law of nature orhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ a persistently + true condition or situation spoken ohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/f in general, without reference thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/o a specific + instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible instances + or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of + expressing such genhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/eric statements, generally using the simple present tense. + Examples of usage would be The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele + is sickly, In winter it snows a lot, That girl sings well.

+

Examples:      https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/;    LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ akláţ ‘(flowing) river(s) (as a generic concept)’
+
+

 

+


+ u’t’ak’ařç ‘(shining) constelation(s) (as a generic concept)’
+

 

+


+ vyarx ‘a set of benefits being in effect (as a generic concept)’

+
+

 

+

+ + + + + + + +
3.3.4
A
The Abstract
+

Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes + such as -hood or -ness, the ABSTRACT transforms a configurative + category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless + context. While only certain nouns in English can be made into abstracts via + suffixes, all Ithkuil nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into + abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., grove → the idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book → everything + about books, having to do with books, involvement with books.

+

With verbs, the ABSTRACT is used in verbal + constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship + of the action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable, +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund formhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ (used as substitutes + for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences: Singing is not his strong suit; It makes no sense to + worry about it; I can't stand her pouting. As + a result, the ABSTRACT acts as a “timeless” verb form whihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ch, much like these English infinitives and gerunds, ophttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/erates in + conjunction with a shttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/eparate main verb in one of the other three perspectives. + The ABSTRACT is often used in conjunction with certain + modalities and moods of the verb (see Sec. + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ 6.1 on Modality and Section + 5.2 on Mood) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which + the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or unknowable.

+

Examples:   &nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/sp;      LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ aklác ‘the river as an idea / everything about being a river / “river-hood” ’
+

 

+


+ u’t’ak’apst ‘the idea of a constellation / “constellation-hood” ’
+

 

+


+ vyarč ‘the idea of having/providing benefits’

+
+

 

+

+ + + + +
3.4 EXTENSION
+

Extension is another Ithkuil morphological category for which + there is no exact equivalent in https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/other languages. It applies to all formatives + and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms +of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. There are six extensions: DELIMITIVE, PROXIMAL, INCEPTIVE, TERMINATIVE, DEPLETIVE, and GRADUATIVE.

+

Extension is shown as part of a formative’s Ca affix which also indicates Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective and Essence. The values of this affix are shown in Sec. 3.5.3.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation+
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence
+
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

Alternately, extension can be shown via tone-marking of an adjacent verbal adjunct, explained in Section 6.3.5.

+

The details of how each of the six extensions operates are explained as follows:

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.1
DEL
The Delimitive
+

The DELIMITIVE extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with + clear spatio-temporal boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion, + edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It can be + considered the neutral or default view, e.g., a tree, a grove, a set of + books, an army. To illustrate a contextual example,https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ the English sentence He climbed the ladder wohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/uld be translated with the word ladder in the DELIMITIVE to show it is being considered as a + whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is + bhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/eing considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, e.g., She diets + every winter (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet).

+ + + + + + + + + +

The DELIMITIVE can be thought + of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite beginning and ending points, + beyond which the noun or verb does not exhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ist or occur. The graphic to + the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in + the DELIMITIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the + spatio-temporal “present”).

+

Examples:          LISTEN 

+

 

+
+


+ aklál ‘a river’

+

 

+


+ pšašk ‘a situation’

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.2
PRX
The Proximal
+

The PROXIMAL extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the + portion, duration, subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand. + It would be used to translate the words tree, journey, and ladder in the sentences That tree is hard there (e.g., in + the spot where I hit against it), She lost weight during her journey, + or He climbed on the ladder (i.e., it is not relevant to the context + to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences, + the PROXIMAL does not refer to a specific or delineated + piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder,https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ but rather to the fact that + delineated boundaries shttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/uch as the ends of the ladder or https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/the entirety of the + tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this + extension signifies that it is not the entirethttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/y of an act, state, or event which + is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the + act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a dhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/iet + every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not + the total time spent dieting from start to finish).

+

+ + + + + + + + + +
The graphic to the right illustrates + the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the PROXIMAL to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). +

Examples:          LISTEN 

+


+
+ aklás
+ ‘a section/stretch of (the) river’

+


+
+ pšams
+ ‘the midst of a situation’

+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.3
ICP
The Inceptive
+

The INCEPTIVE extension focuses on the + closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion + of a noun or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. Ithttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ would + be used in translating the nouns tunnel, song, desert, daybreak and plan in the following sentences: We looked + into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song (i.e., from the + first few notes), They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait + for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). + In verbal contexts it would correspondhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ + or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s + starting to molt, or She goes on a diet every winter.

+ + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + +

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the INCEPTIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). + Examples:          LISTEN 
+

+
+


+ klamtá ‘the beginning of a river’
+
+

+


+ pšapšt’ ‘the beginning/start of a situation’

+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.4
TRM
The Terminative
+The TERMINATIVE extension focuses on + the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without + focusing on the preceding ohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/r previously existing state of the noun. It would + be used in translating the words water, story, and arrival in the sentences There’s no water (i.e., we rhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/an out), I like + the end of that story, and We await your arrival. With verbs, + it is illustrated by the sentences It finished molting or She’s + come off her diet.

+ + + + + +
+

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the TERMINATIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). + Examples:          LISTEN 
+

+
+


+ klat’á ‘the end of a river’
+

+


+
+ pšakt’ ‘the end of a situation’

+
+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.5
DPL
The Depletive
+

The DEPLETIVE extension focuses on the + terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this tehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rminus + is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nded to some degree, (i.e. the + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). + Essentially, it applies to any context invohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/lving actual or figurative fading. + It would be used in translating the words water, strength, + and twilight in the sentences He drank the lasthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ of the water, I + have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight. With verbs, + it is exemplified by the phrases to wind down, to fade out, to disappear + gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/;s eating less and less + these days.

+ + + + + +
+

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the DEPLETIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+


+ klakcá ‘the mouth of a river’

+


+
+ pšaňsk ‘the last vestiges of a situation’

+
+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.6
GRA
The Graduative
+

The GRADUATIVE extension is the inverse + of the DEPLETIVE, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” + or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words darkness, wonder, and music in the following sentences: Darkness + came upon us, I felt a ghttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rowing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first. + With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as to fade in, to + start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., SheRhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/17;s + been eating more and more lately.

+ + + + + +
+

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun in the GRADUATIVE to the + context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). Examples:

+

         LISTEN 

+
+


+ klakc’á ‘the headwaters of a river’
+
+

+

pšaňsk’ ‘a gradually developing situation’

+
+
+

+

 

+

+ + + + +
3.5 ESSENCE
+

Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which + has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference to + various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English + sentences:

+
+

1a) The boy ran off to sea.
+ 1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.

+

2a) The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow.
+ 2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist.

+
+

Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences + in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences + (1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized + contexts for these sentences that they make any sense. For example, (1b) would + make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the + plot for a story, while (2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store + owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is now no longer there.

+

Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world + meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog, + but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being + used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative + mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where + events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative + versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is + essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western + languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated + by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called + “modal” verbs of English, e.g., must, can, should, etc. + as seen in the following:

+
+

3) You must come home at once.
+ 4) That girl can sing better than anybody.
+ 5) We should attack at dawn.

+
+

Each of the above three sentences describe potential events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For example, + in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home + is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl may never sing a single note ever + again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether + any attack will actually occur.
+

+
+ + + + + +   + + + + + + + + +
3.5.1
NRM
The Normal
 
RPV
 The Representative
+

The Ithkuil category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world + actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. The + two essences are termed NORMAL and REPRESENTATIVE, + the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns and verbs, the + latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly, + Ithkuil allows a speaker to express any noun or verb as referring to a real-world + versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from + an explanatory context.

+

Essence is as part of the Ca affix which also indicates Configuration, Affiliation and Perspective. The values of this affix are shown below in Sec. 3.5.3.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation +
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence
+
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
+
Version
+
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+


+ 3.5.2 Examples of Essence in Use

+

Compare the following two sentences and their translations to see how placement of the REPRESENTATIVE essence on different formatives changes the meaning.

+
+


+
+ Xal  öqil  êqattêph.
+STA-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL&nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/bsp; STA-‘man’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSLhttps://web.archive.org/UNI-IFL    STA-‘woman’-OBL-RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT2/3https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/-IFL
+ The man sees what he thinks is/imagines to be a young girl.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Xatta  öqil  êqalêph.
+ STA-‘see’-RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL  SThttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/A-‘man’-AFF-NRhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/M/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/L    STA-‘woman’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT2/3-IFL
+ The man is imagining he sees a young girl.          LISTEN 

+


+
+ Ûb  eikkradwa  smou’olâxh.
+ EXN1/6     DYN-‘move.along.obliquely.vertical.path.between.two.points’-RPV/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL      STA-‘valley’-NAV-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5-IFL
+ The path through the canyon is/seems steep.          LISTEN 

+

In the example immediately above, no one is necessarily on the path (including the speaker), so steepness exists merely as an idea/assumption in the speaker’s mind.
+

+
+

+


+

+

3.5.3 Affix Tables for Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence

+

Tables 5(a) through 5(f) below indicate all the affix values of Ca, the synthetic affix which indicates which of the nine Configurations, four Affiliations, four Perspectives, and six Extensions are applied to a particular stem.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation +
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence +
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+
+ Tables 5(a)-(l):
+ Ca Configuration/Affiliation/Perspective/Extension +Affixes for Formatives

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT

NRM

+

+

+

DEL

M
+
+
CSL

l

ll

tļ

ļ

ļļ

řļ

sk

šk

kţ

ASO

r

rr

lļ

rl

rļ

řl

st

št

kç

VAR

m

mm

lm

rm

mļ

řm

sp

šp

pţ

COA

n

nn

ln

r n

nļ

ř n

sq

šq

qţ

U
CSL

t

ļt

lt

rt

nt

řt

ňt

ňd

çt

ASO

k

ļk

lk

rk

ňk

řk

kt

xt

çk

VAR

p

ļp

lp

rp

mp

řp

pt

ft

çp

COA

q

ļq

lq

rq

ňq

řq

qt

xht

çq

N
CSL

ţ

ţţ

lţ

rţ

nţ

řţ

sţ

šţ

tf

ASO

x

xx

lx

rx

ňx

mx

sx

šx

kf

VAR

f

ff

lf

rf

mf

řf

sf

šf

pf

COA

xh

xxh

lxh

rxh

ňxh

mxh

sxh

šxh

qf

A
CSL

c

cc

lc

rc

ns

řc

sc

fk

fq

ASO

č

čč

lč

rč

nš

řč

šč

ţk

ţq

VAR

ż

żż

lż

rż

nz

řż

ţf

ţs

ţc

COA

j

jj

lj

rj

nž

řj

fţ

ţš

ţč

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

NRM

+

+

+ PRX
M
+
+
CSL

s

ss

ls

rs

fs

řs

ňs

ms

mss

ASO

š

šš

lš

rš

fš

řš

ňš

mš

mšš

VAR

z

zz

lz

rz

vz

řz

ňz

mz

mzz

COA

ž

žž

lž

rž

vž

řž

ňž

mž

mžž

U
CSL

d

dv

ld

rd

nd

řd

md

zd

žd

ASO

g

gv

lg

rg

ňg

řg

ňkf

zg

žg

VAR

b

bv

lb

rb

mb

řb

ntf

zb

žb

COA

ň

ňň

ňç

rň

ňv

ř ň

ňf

řtf

řkf

N
CSL

dh

ddh

ldh

rdh

ndh

řdh

mdh

ţx

ţxh

ASO

ç

çç

lç

rç

nç

řç

mç

fx

fxh

VAR

v

vv

lv

rv

mv

řv

ndv

xf

xţ

COA

ř

řř

rbv

rdv

rgv

řxh

mţ

xhf

xhţ

A
CSL

ck

čk

ps

ks

gd

psk

pšk

ksk

kšk

ASO

ct

čt

pš

kš

bd

pst

pšt

tx

txh

VAR

cp

čp

bz

gz

pç

ksp

kšp

px

pxh

COA

cq

čq

bž

gž

řqf

kst

kšt

psq

pšq

+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

NRM

+

+

+ ICP
M
+
+
CSL

mt

mt’

skh

sk’

mth

pst’

psth

pšt’

pšth

ASO

mk

mk’

sth

st’

mkh

kst’

ksth

kšt’

kšth

VAR

ňp

ňp’

sph

sp’

ňph

psk’

pskh

pšk’

pškh

COA

mq

mq’

sqh

sq’

mqh

ksp’

ksph

kšp’

kšph

U
CSL

pk

pk’

škh

šk’

pkh

fk’

fkh

psq’

psqh

ASO

tk

tk’

šth

št’

tkh

ţk’

ţkh

ksk’

kskh

VAR

tp

tp’

šph

šp’

tph

ţp’

ţph

pšq’

pšqh

COA

kp

kp’

šqh

šq’

kph

xp’

xph

kšk’

kškh

N
CSL

pq

pq’

fg

bg

pqh

vg

fp

fq’

fqh

ASO

tq

tq’

ţg

dg

tqh

dhg

vd

ţq’

ţqh

VAR

qp

qp’

xhp

xp

sch

sc’

ňqf

gb

kkç/kçç

COA

pļ

tç

xhp’

ţp

ščh

šč’

vb

dhz

ppç/pçç

A
CSL

fst

fc’

fc

lfs

xc’

ţc’

ltf

fst’

fsth

ASO

fšt

fč’

fč

lfš

xč’

ţč’

lkf

fšt’

fšth

VAR

fsk

fch

rfs

fsq

xch

ţch

xhph

fsk’

fskh

COA

fšk

fčh

rfš

fšq

xčh

ţčh

qph

fšk’

fškh

+
+[corrections made to the following table in September 2011 marked in red]
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

NRM

+

+

+ TRM
M
+
+
CSL

t’

ļt’

lt’

rt’

nt’

řt’

ţsk’

kt’

ňt’

ASO

k’

ļk’

lk’

rk’

ňk’

řk’

ţšk’

ft’

xt’

VAR

p’

ļp’

lp’

rp’

mp’

řp’

fsq’

pt’

fp’

COA

q’

ļq’

lq’

rq’

ňq’

řq’

fšq’

xht’

qt’

U
CSL

th

ļth

lth

rth

nth

řth

ţskh

kth

ňth

ASO

kh

ļkh

lkh

rkh

ňkh

řkh

ţškh

fth

xth

VAR

ph

ļph

lph

rph

mph

řph

fsqh

pth

fph

COA

qh

ļqh

lqh

rqh

ňqh

řqh

fšqh

xhth

qth

N
CSL

c’

cc’

lc’

rc’

nc’

řc’

mc’

ňc’

çt’

ASO

č’

čč’

lč’

rč’

nč’

řč’

mč’

ňč’

çk’

VAR

ch

cch

lch

rch

nch

řch

mch

ňch

çp’

COA

čh

ččh

lčh

rčh

nčh

čřh

mčh

ňčh

çq’

A
CSL

pps/pss

rps

lps

rbz

lbz

řps

řbz

ňss

çth

ASO

ppš/pšš

rpš

lpš

rbž

lbž

řpš

řbž

ňšš

çkh

VAR

kks/ kss

rks

lks

rgz

lgz

řks

řgz

ňzz

çph

COA

kkš/kšš

rkš

lkš

rgž

lgž

řkš

řgž

ňžž

çqh

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

NRM

+

+

+ DPL
M
+
+
CSL

kc

lkç

lsk

rsk

nsk

řsk

msk

ňsk

ssk

ASO

żd

lţs

lst

rst

nst

řst

mst

ňst

sst

VAR

pc

bbz/bzz

lsp

rsp

nsp

řsp

msp

ňsp

ssp

COA

qc

ggz/gzz

lsq

rsq

nsq

řsq

msq

ňsq

ssq

U
CSL

kč

rçç

lšk

ršk

nšk

řšk

mšk

ňšk

ššk

ASO

jd

lţš

lšt

ršt

nšt

řšt

mšt

ňšt

ššt

VAR

pč

bbž/bžž

lšp

ršp

nšp

řšp

mšp

ňšp

ššp

COA

qč

ggž/gžž

lšq

ršq

nšq

řšq

mšq

ňšq

ššq

N
CSL

bdh

xpf

lvz

rvz

rbdh

řpţ

lpf

rpf

bzd

ASO

gdh

ňdh

lvž

rvž

rgdh

řkţ

lpç

rpç

bžd

VAR

ţt

dhd

ldhz

rţs

rqţ

řqţ

ňkç

řpf

gzd

COA

db

ttç/tçç

ldhž

rţš

rkç

řkç

mpç

řpç

gžd

A
CSL

bż

rpss

lzb

rzb

nzb

řzb

mzb

řpss

gzb

ASO

gż

rkss

lžb

ržb

nžb

řžb

mžb

řkss

gžb

VAR

bj

rpšš

lzg

rzg

nzg

řzg

mzg

řpšš

bzg

COA

gj

rkšš

lžg

ržg

nžg

řžg

mžg

řkšš

bžg

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

NRM

+

+

+ GRA
M
+
+
CSL

kc’

ck’

lsk’

rsk’

nsk’

řsk’

msk’

ňsk’

ssk’

ASO

żb

ct’

lst’

rst’

nst’

řst’

mst’

ňst’

sst’

VAR

pc’

cp’

lsp’

rsp’

nsp’

řsp’

msp’

ňsp’

ssp’

COA

qc’

cq’

lsq’

rsq’

nsq’

řsq’

msq’

ňsq’

ssq’

U
CSL

kč’

čk’

lšk’

ršk’

nšk’

řšk’

mšk’

ňšk’

ššk’

ASO

jb

čt’

lšt’

ršt’

nšt’

řšt’

mšt’

ňšt’

ššt’

VAR

pč’

čp’

lšp’

ršp’

nšp’

řšp’

mšp’

ňšp’

ššp’

COA

qč’

čq’

lšq’

ršq’

nšq’

řšq’

mšq’

ňšq’

ššq’

N
CSL

kch

ckh

lskh

rskh

nskh

řskh

mskh

ňskh

sskh

ASO

żg

cth

lsth

rsth

nsth

řsth

msth

ňsth

ssth

VAR

pch

cph

lsph

rsph

nsph

řsph

msph

ňsph

ssph

COA

qch

cqh

lsqh

rsqh

nsqh

řsqh

msqh

ňsqh

ssqh

A
CSL

kčh

čkh

lškh

rškh

nškh

řškh

mškh

ňškh

šškh

ASO

jg

čth

lšth

ršth

nšth

řšth

mšth

ňšth

ššth

VAR

pčh

čph

lšph

ršph

nšph

řšph

mšph

ňšph

ššph

COA

qčh

čqh

lšqh

ršqh

nšqh

řšqh

mšqh

ňšqh

ššqh

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT

RPV

+

+

+

DEL

M
+
+
CSL

tt

tt’

tth

lpt’

rpt’

řpt’

lpth

rpth

řpth

ASO

kk

kk’

kkh

lkt’

rkt’

řkt’

lkth

rkth

řkth

VAR

pp

pp’

pph

lpk’

rpk’

řpk’

lpkh

rpkh

řpkh

COA

qq

qq’

qqh

ltk’

rtk’

řtk’

ltkh

rtkh

řtkh

U
CSL

dd

nçw

pçw

lft’

rft’

řft’

lfth

rfth

řfth

ASO

gg

ňçw

kfw

lxt’

rxt’

řxt’

lxth

rxth

řxth

VAR

bb

mçw

pfw

lfk’

rfk’

řfk’

lfkh

rfkh

řfkh

COA

cf

čf

qfw

lţk’

rţk’

řţk’

lţkh

rţkh

řţkh

N
CSL

ţw

dhw

lţw

rţw

mţw

řţw

nţw

ldhw

rdhw

ASO

xw

ňw

lxw

rxw

mxw

řxw

ňxw

lňw

rňw

VAR

fw

vw

lfw

rfw

ňfw

řfw

mfw

lvw

rvw

COA

xhw

çw

lxhw

rxhw

mxhw

tçw

ňxhw

lçw

rçw

A
CSL

sw

cw

lsw

rsw

msw

řsw

nsw

ňsw

ssw

ASO

šw

čw

lšw

ršw

mšw

řšw

nšw

ňšw

ššw

VAR

zw

żw

lzw

rzw

mzw

řzw

nzw

ňzw

zzw

COA

žw

jw

lžw

ržw

mžw

řžw

nžw

ňžw

žžw

+


+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

RPV

+

+

+ PRX
M
+
+
CSL

tw

ttw

thw

t’w

tt’w

tthw

ltw

rtw

ntw

ASO

kw

kkw

khw

k’w

kk’w

kkhw

lkw

rkw

ňkw

VAR

pw

ppw

phw

p’w

pp’w

pphw

lpw

rpw

mpw

COA

qw

qqw

qhw

q’w

qq’w

qqhw

lqw

rqw

ňqw

U
CSL

ty

tty

lty

ţy

nty

řty

rty

pty

tky

ASO

ky

kky

lky

ży

ňky

řky

rky

kty

kpy

VAR

py

ppy

lpy

fy

npy

řpy

rpy

tpy

pky

COA

my

fty

ptw

mw

ftw

ptr

ftr

pkw

fkw

N
CSL

dw

ddw

ldw

tv

ndw

řdw

bdw

dgw

rdw

ASO

gw

ggw

lgw

kv

ňgw

řgw

gdw

gbw

rgw

VAR

bw

bbw

lbw

pv

mbw

řbw

dbw

bgw

rbw

COA

lw

ly

ry

rw

ļw

řy

tļw

řw

lř

A
CSL

dy

ddy

ldy

dhy

ndy

řdy

rdy

bdy

dgy

ASO

gy

ggy

lgy

jy

ňgy

řgy

rgy

gdy

gby

VAR

by

bby

lby

vy

mby

řby

rby

dby

bgy

COA

ny

xty

ktw

nw

xtw

ktr

xtr

tkw

ţkw

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

RPV

+

+

+ ICP
M
+
+
CSL

tl

ttl

ltl

rtl

ntl

řtl

mtl

ļtl

kçw

ASO

kl

kkl

lkl

rkl

ňkl

řkl

mkl

ļkl

c’w

VAR

pl

ppl

lpl

rpl

mpl

řpl

ňpl

ļpl

tfw

COA

ql

qql

lql

rql

ňql

řql

mql

ļql

č’w

U
CSL

dl

ddl

ldl

rdl

ndl

řdl

bdl

dgl

vbl

ASO

gl

ggl

lgl

rgl

ňgl

řgl

gdl

gbl

vgl

VAR

bl

bbl

lbl

rbl

mbl

řbl

dbl

bgl

vdl

COA

ml

mř

ňl

nl

ţř

fř

př

tř

lr

N
CSL

skl

ckl

ckw

skw

sskw

çkw

sk’w

ck’w

sskl

ASO

stl

ctl

ctw

stw

sstw

çtw

st’w

ct’w

sstl

VAR

spl

cpl

cpw

spw

sspw

çpw

sp’w

cp’w

sspl

COA

sql

cql

cqw

sqw

ssqw

çqw

sq’w

cq’w

ssql

A
CSL

škl

čkl

čkw

škw

šškw

xxw

šk’w

čk’w

šškl

ASO

štl

čtl

čtw

štw

šštw

ţţw

št’w

čt’w

šštl

VAR

špl

čpl

čpw

špw

ššpw

ffw

šp’w

čp’w

ššpl

COA

šql

čql

čqw

šqw

ššqw

xxhw

šq’w

čq’w

ššql

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

RPV

+

+

+ TRM
M
+
+
CSL

tr

ttr

ltr

rtr

ntr

řtr

mtr

ļtr

rtn

ASO

kr

kkr

lkr

rkr

ňkr

řkr

mkr

ļkr

rkn

VAR

pr

ppr

lpr

rpr

mpr

řpr

ňpr

ļpr

rpn

COA

qr

qqr

lqr

rqr

ňqr

řqr

mqr

ļqr

rqn

U
CSL

dr

ddr

ldr

rdr

ndr

řdr

bdr

dgr

vbr

ASO

gr

ggr

lgr

rgr

ňgr

řgr

gdr

gbr

vgr

VAR

br

bbr

lbr

rbr

mbr

řbr

dbr

bgr

vdr

COA

mr

nř

ňr

nr

dhř

vř

bř

dř

gř

N
CSL

skr

ckr

cky

sky

ssky

čhw

skhw

ckhw

sskr

ASO

str

ctr

cty

sty

ssty

chy

sthw

cthw

sstr

VAR

spr

cpr

cpy

spy

sspy

chw

sphw

cphw

sspr

COA

sqr

cqr

c’y

cy

çr

čhy

sqhw

cqhw

ssqr

A
CSL

škr

čkr

čky

šky

ššky

ļkw

škhw

čkhw

šškr

ASO

štr

čtr

čty

šty

ššty

ļtw

šthw

čthw

šštr

VAR

špr

čpr

čpy

špy

ššpy

ļpw

šphw

čphw

ššpr

COA

šqr

čqr

č’y

čy

çř

ļqw

šqhw

čqhw

ššqr

+
+[corrections made in September 2011 to the following table marked in red]
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

RPV

+

+

+ DPL
M
+
+
CSL

sl

ssl

lsl

rsl

msl

řsl

nsl

ňsl

ţst

ASO

šl

ššl

lšl

ršl

mšl

řšl

nšl

ňšl

ţšt

VAR

zl

zzl

lzl

rzl

mzl

řzl

nzl

ňzl

ţsp

COA

žl

žžl

lžl

ržl

mžl

řžl

nžl

ňžl

ţšp

U
CSL

fl

ffl

lfl

rfl

mfl

řfl

fxl

ňfl

pxl

ASO

ţl

ţţl

lţl

rţl

nţl

řţl

ţxl

mţl

txl

VAR

xl

xxl

lxl

rxl

ňxl

řxl

xfl

mxl

xţl

COA

xhl

xxhl

lxhl

rxhl

ňxhl

qtl

xhfl

mxhl

xhţl

N
CSL

vl

vvl

lvl

rvl

mvl

řvl

lpţ

lkţ

mpļ

ASO

dhl

ddhl

ldhl

rdhl

ndhl

řdhl

cl

čl

ntļ

VAR

sv

sř

ksw

sxw

lsř

rsř

fsw

řsř

bzw

COA

zv

zř

psw

sxhw

lzř

rzř

sfw

řzř

gzw

A
CSL

sm

sy

cm

zm

żm

çm

bm

dm

gm

ASO

šm

šy

čm

žm

jm

ļm

vm

dhm

kř

VAR

sn

zy

cn

zn

żn

çn

bn

dn

gn

COA

šn

žy

čn

žn

jn

ļn

vn

dhn

ňř

+
+[corrections made in September 2011 to the following table marked in red]
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

RPV

+

+

+ GRA
M
+
+
CSL

sr

ssr

lsr

rsr

msr

řsr

nsr

ňsr

ţsk

ASO

šr

ššr

lšr

ršr

mšr

řšr

nšr

ňšr

ţšk

VAR

zr

zzr

lzr

rzr

mzr

řzr

nzr

ňzr

ţsq

COA

žr

žžr

lžr

ržr

mžr

řžr

nžr

ňžr

ţšq

U
CSL

fr

ffr

lfr

rfr

mfr

řfr

fxr

ňfr

pxr

ASO

ţr

ţţr

lţr

rţr

nţr

řţr

ţxr

mţr

txr

VAR

xr

xxr

lxr

rxr

ňxr

řxr

xfr

mxr

xţr

COA

xhr

xxhr

lxhr

rxhr

ňxhr

qtr

xhfr

mxhr

xhţr

N
CSL

vr

vvr

lvr

rvr

mvr

řvr

rpţ

rkţ

mpř

ASO

dhr

ddhr

ldhr

rdhr

ndhr

řdhr

cr

čr

ntř

VAR

šv

šř

kšw

šxw

lšř

ršř

fšw

řšř

bžw

COA

žv

žř

pšw

šxhw

lžř

ržř

šfw

řžř

gžw

A
CSL

tm

ţm

ţn

tn

rsm

rsn

sň

rsň

nm

ASO

km

xm

xn

kn

rzm

rzn

zň

rzň

ňm

VAR

pm

fm

fn

pn

ršm

ršn

šň

ršň

mn

COA

qm

xhm

xhn

qn

ržm

ržn

žň

ržň

ňn

+
+
+ +

+

3.5.4 Additional Example of Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence
+

+ + + + + + +


+ ekšá-
+‘clown’


+ egw-
+‘running + stride’ →

                              https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/;   
+ Aigwapskh  ekšúlļ .
+ DYN-‘running stride’-NRM/ICP/M/VAR/COH-IFL   STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/ASO/DCT-FML
+ The [group of] clowns begin stumbling as they run.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
3.6 CONTEXT
+

Context is yet another morphological category with no equivalent + in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or aspects + of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There + is no way to show this in translation other than by paraphrase. There are four + contexts: the EXISTENTIAL, the FUNCTIONAL, + the REPRESENTATIONAL, and the AMALGAMATE, + marked by a vocalic suffix Vf which also conveys verbal Format (the category of Format will be analyzed in Section 6.4). Table 6 below shows the values for this suffix.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+
+
+ +

Table 6: Word-final Vf-suffix: 4 contexts x 9 formats

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
FORMAT (see Sec. 6.4)
Context↓

(none)

 SCH

ISR

ATH

RSL

SBQ

CCM

OBJ

PRT

AFT
EXISTENTIAL

(a)

o

ai

â

au

ëi

oa

ea

aì

aù

FUNCTIONAL

i

ö

ui

ae

iu

ëu

oe

ia / ua

uì

iù

REPRESENTATIONAL

e

ü / öe

ei

ê

eu

öi

eo

ie / ue

eì

eù

AMALGAMATE

u

öa

oi

ô

ou

öu

iö / uö

io / uo

oì

où

+

The four Contexts are explained below and illustrated +via example Ithkuil translations of the English sentence The orchestra is playing.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.6.1 EXS The Existential
+

+ The EXISTENTIAL context focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically + objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, + beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the EXISTENTIAL is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The EXISTENTIAL serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective + entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun + or verb.
+

For example, consider the sentence A cat ran past the doorway. + If the Ithkuil words corresponding to cat, run, and doorway are in the EXISTENTIAL, then the sentence merely describes + an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature + of the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that + two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial relationship to each other; + those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely + conveys the nature of the spatial relationship.

+
+


+ Ilmašqôn. 
+ DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-EXS-IFL
+ ‘The orchestra is playing.’&nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/p; [neutral description of event]

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.6.2FNC The Functional
+

+ The FUNCTIONAL context focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas, + attitudes, beliefs, opinions, convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit, + etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that + the noun has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose.
+

For example, in our previous sentence A cat ran past the + doorway, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into + the FUNCTIONAL, the ‘cat’ no longer simply + identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) + significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could + get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with + mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ + now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. + Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the FUNCTIONAL now implies the furtive nature of the cat. Example:

+
+


+ Ilmašqôni. 
+ DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-FNC-IFL
+ ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [focus on the personal meaning/importance of the event]

+

 

+

https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

+ + + + + + + +
3.6.3RPS The Representational
+

+ The REPRESENTATIONAL context focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym*, in that it indicates + that the formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other + concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical + connotations of the English sentence That pinstripe-suited dog is checking + out a kitty, can be equally conveyed in Ithkuil by inflecting the words + for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the REPRESENTATIONAL context. The REPRESENTATIONAL is one of several ways that + Ithkuil overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from + a grammatical standpoint).
+

* Metonymy + is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or + phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The + orders came from the White House,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell + the cook the ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person + as in ‘You-know-who just showed up.’

+
+


+ Ilmašqône. 
+ DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-RPS-IFL
+ ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [connotes that sentence is a metaphor, e.g., ‘life as a symphony’]

+
+

 

+

+ + + + + + + + +

The AMALGAMATE context is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western linguistic perspective. It focuses on the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like, componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective totality is derived synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static momentary appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun and any interactions and relationships it has (whether past, present or potential) within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels. Thus the AMALGAMATE version of our sentence The cat ran past the doorway would take on quite melodramatic implications, with the cat being representative ofhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ everything about cats and all they stand for, the doorway as being representative of the nature of doorways as portals of change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc.

+
3.6.4AMG The Amalgamative
+ +
+


+ Ilmašqônu. 
+ DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-AMG-IFL
+ ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [connotes a focus on the emotional impact plus cultural significance of the event]
+

+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
3.7 DESIGNATION
+

Designation is a somewhat subjective category, + with no equivalent in Western languages. It refers to a two-fold distinction in a formative regarding its contextual + status, authority, permanence, or extra-contextual relevance. The two Designations + are the INFORMAL and the FORMAL, +shown by the formative’s syllabic stress (in conjunction with the verbal category of Relation which will be discussed in Section 5.4).

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+

The two Designations are explained below.

+


+

+ + + + + + + + + +
3.7.1
IFL
 The Informal
+

The INFORMAL designation is shown by either penultimate (second-to-last) or antepenultimate (third-from last) syllabic stress on the formative, depending on the formative’s Relation (see Section 5.4 on Relation).

+

The INFORMAL designation indicates that the noun or verb in question does not exist in a necessarily permanent state, or is to be considered only for the duration of the context in which it is spoken, with any lasting effect, influence or permanency beyond the context being either absent, unknown or irrelevant. It is best illustrated by comparative examples with the FORMAL designation in the section immediately below.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + +
3.7.2
FML
 The Formal
+

The FORMAL designation is shown by either ultimate (final) or pre-antepenultimate (fourth-from last) syllabic stress on the formative, depending on the formative’s Relation (see Section 5.4 on Relation).

+

The FORMAL designation imparts a sense of permanency and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or institutional manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’ ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the INFORMAL would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and ‘archetype’ in the FORMAL.

+

The FORMAL achieves several subtle purposes from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ithkuil words would translate the same in English no matter which designation (e.g., to hurt, to float, breath, to fall, shade, sleep, cough), many stems would have different translations in English depending on their designation. For example, the stem eq- with the affiliated meanings person → group → gathering → crowd → throng, etc. in the INFORMAL designation would change to the following series of approximate translations when placed in the FORMAL designation: official → team → association/congregation → assembly → masses, etc.

+

Further examples of lexical shifts in translation due to INFORMAL → FORMAL designation are listed below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + +
 to grow something → to cultivatewander → travel
 obtain/get → procure/requisitionlake → reservoir
 (natural) holder → containersee → observe
 to create → construct/buildheap → pile
 animal → domesticated animala thought → an idea
 natural environment →“man-made” environmentawareness → consciousness
 [natural] exchange → trade/commercehouse → home
 assortment of animals → zoo collection https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/grouping → set
 to group/gather → collectwall → barrier
 get some exercise → to work outplacidity → peace
 problem situation → crisis + to populate → to settle
+

As can be seen from the above list, the exact interpretation of Designation for each word-root is specific to each word-root, depending on its associated semantic https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/context.

+


+ 3.7.3 Examples of Designation in Use

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

INFORMAL

  +

FORMAL

+


+ klal ‘flow of water; to flow’

+
→


+ aklál ‘river; to flow as a river ’

+


+ dyal
+ ‘sensation/feeling; to sense (affective)’

+
→


+ adyál
+ ‘sensation/feeling (volitional/deliberate); to examine via the senses’

+


+ stal ‘comparison; to compare/contrast’

+
→
+ astál ‘measure(ment)’
+

 

+

+ + + + + + +
3.8 NOTE ON MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL AGREEMENT
+

In regard to the gender categories from othhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/er languages, + Ithkuil has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neutehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/r, etc.). There is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological + concord of any kind https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/between a noun and other words or morphological elements + in a sentence, i.e., thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/here is none of the required matching of masculine or + feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and adjectives +as found in most Western languages.

+

 

+
+

Proceed to Chapter 4: Case Morphology >>

+ + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065750id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
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+ + diff --git a/2004-en/03_morphology.html.orig b/2004-en/03_morphology.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..da37062 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/03_morphology.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,5189 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 3: Basic Morphology + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+

Chapter 3: Basic Morphology

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 3.1 Configuration 3.5 Essence
 3.2 Affiliation 3.6 Context
 3.3 Perspective 3.7 Designation
 3.4 Extension 3.8 Note On Morpho-Phonological Agreement
+


+ As previously discussed in Section 2.4.1, the distinction between nouns and verbs common to most languages + is rather blurred in Ithkuil. All lexical stems in Ithkuil function equally + as nouns or verbs and share many of the same morpho-semantic features and categories. + This is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns and verbs as being + cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations + of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components + are space and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are + merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or + verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s + sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal formatives as +verbs when discussing their morphology.

+

All Ithkuil formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs, + inflect for nine Configurations, four Affiliations, + four Perspectives, six Extensions, two Essences, four Contexts, and two Designations, and can take any of approximately 1800 optional + suffixes. These morphological categories are explained in the sections which + follow.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + +
3.1 CONFIGURATION
+
+

To understand the Ithkuil concept of enumeration and quantification + of nouns (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one must analyze + three separate but related grammatical categories termed Configuration, Affiliation, and Perspective. These concepts + are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which + are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually made at the lexical + level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological as + in Ithkuil. In this section we will deal first with Configuration, followed + by Affiliation in Section 3.2 and Perspective in Section + 3.3.

+

Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity + or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, collections, + sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal + composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential + structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain + English sets of words.

+

Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a + single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of + trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a + plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees. + However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings + than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as + in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different + kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray + such as a ‘jungle.’

+

As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ + While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) + person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons + (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as + ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

+

Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further + configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships + between car versus convoy, hanger versus rack, chess piece versus chess set, sentry versus blockade, piece of paper versus sheaf, girder versus (structural) + framework, and coin versus roll of coins all exemplify + these principles.

+

Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary + sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two + identical referents as in a pair of eyes, however they are more often + opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in limbs, ears, hands, wings, etc.

+

In Ithkuil, the semantic distinctions implied by the above + examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be + accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ + into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis + of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made + by means of Affiliation (see Section 3.2 below) and by + the use of specific suffixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ + or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ + via Configuration, the Ithkuil words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ + ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation + and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using suffixes are explored in + detail in Chapter + 7: Suffixes.)

+

Ithkuil words indicate Configuration via a synthetic consonantal affix immediately following the C+V stem which also indicates the Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence of the stem. This is the Ca affix discussed in Section 2.1.1.

+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation +
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence
+
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+

The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table + 5 in Section 3.5.3 below, following the explanation of Essence.

+

The nine configurations are the UNIPLEX, DUPLEX, DISCRETE, AGGREGATIVE, SEGMENTATIVE, COMPONENTIAL, COHERENT, + COMPOSITE, and MULTIFORM. +The function and morphology of these categories are explained below along with examples of the various configurations applied to four different stems: aph-, eq-, el-, and upšá-.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.1
UNI
The Uniplex
+
+

The UNIPLEX configuration indicates + a single, contextual embodiment of the stem concept, i.e., one whole contextual + unit of the basic nominal stem, e.g., a tree, a person, a screwdriver, a + grape, a hammer blow, a hole. With verbs the UNIPLEX signifies a single, holistic act, state, or event, e.g., to be a tree, to + become a person, to use a screwdriver, to eat a grape, to strike (once) with + a hammer, to dig a hole. Examples:          LISTEN 

+ +
+ + + + + + + + + + +

 

+


+ phal ‘a tree’

 

+


+ eqal‘a person’

 

 

+


+ elal ‘an utterance; a spoken word’

 

+


+ upšál ‘an incident’

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.2
DPX
The Duplex
+
+

The DUPLEX configuration indicates + a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s + eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., it can also be used to describe any set of two + identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., a matched pair of + vases, a two-volume set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents. Thus, the + Ithkuil word for spouse inflected for the DUPLEX configuration would translate as a man and wife or a married couple.

+

One context in which the DUPLEX appears + for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” + exemplified by English words such as bounce, flash, arc, wag, swing, switch, breathe/respiration, + indeed, any concept which involves a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth, + in/out, empty/full, or on/off. Use of the DUPLEX in these + contexts implies a full cycling through the two complementary states involved. + For example the word for hammer blow inflected for the UNIPLEX would signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected + for the DUPLEX signifies a single down-then-up cycle of + the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action + being divided by the impact. Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

 

+


+ phall ‘a pair of trees’

 

+


+ eqall ‘a couple’

 

+

 

+


+ elall ‘a pair of words’


+ upšáll ‘a pair of incidents’
+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+

 

+
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.3
DCT
The Discrete
+
+

The DISCRETE configuration indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units that are more or less identiform (each + having the same design or physical appearance). This grouping or set-nature + can be either spatial, as in a flock of gulls (flying together), or + temporal (i.e., sequentially repetitive or iterative) as in (a flock of) + gulls flying one after another. Further examples of English nouns or noun + phrases which would be translated using the DISCRETE are a grove, a set of screwdrivers, a group of soldiers, a pile of leaves, a + bowl of grapes, a series of hammer blows, an area of holes. Thus, the Ithkuil + word for (identical) set would simply be the word for thing or object inflected for the DISCRETE configuration. + Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a temporally + (i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of either the DPR suffix, + -šk, + or the SEP suffix, -mb specifying which spacetime axis is implied. These suffixes are analyzed in Sec. + 7.4.13.

+

For verbs, the DISCRETE signifies a single + set of repetitions, whether spatially or temporally, viewed as a single holistic + event. The individual member components acts, states, or events within this + set can be either UNIPLEX, e.g., to take steps, to + flip through pages, to have spots, to dig holes in an area, or DUPLEX in nature, e.g., to hammer, to spin, to breathe.

+

It should be noted that the Containment CNM suffix, -mt, + can be used with the DISCRETE, as well as most of the + following configurations, to designate specifically the type of container, holder, + or means of conveyance for a configurative set (e.g., a sack, package, jar, +bottle, pile, load, etc.) Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ phatļ ‘a grove’
+eqatļ ‘a group of matching people’

+

 

+


+ elatļ ‘a set of identical words’

 

+


+ upšátļ ‘a set of similar incidents’

+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table 5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.4
AGG
The Aggregative
+
+

The AGGREGATIVE configuration functions + like the DISCRETE above in referring to an associated + group or set of entities, except that the members of the configurational set + are not identical to one another. Examples of English words/entities which would + be translated using the AGGREGATIVE are a forest (of different kinds of trees), a toolset, a citizens group, a mixed pile + of leaves, an assortment of animals, an area of different-sized holes, a series + of musical notes. With verbs, the AGGREGATIVE implies + a spatially or temporally repeated set of non-identical acts, events, or states + considered as a whole contextual unit. It would be used, for example, in translating + the sentence This morning I dug holes in my garden (i.e., of different + sizes). Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ phaļ ‘a forest; a wood’
+eqaļ ‘a group of different people’

 

+


+ elaļ ‘a set of (differing) words; a phrase’

 

+


+ upšáļ ‘a set of differing incidents’

+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+

 

+
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.5SEG The Segmentative
+
+

The SEGMENTATIVE configuration indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units, the individual members of which are + physically similar or identical and are either in physical contact with one + another, physically connected via some linking medium, or in sufficiently close + contact with one another so that the group moves or operates together. Examples + would be a web, a train of flatcars, a convoy of schoolbuses, a string of + pearls, a fall of leaves, a line of dancers, a parade of Barbie dolls (e.g., + coming off an assembly line). To illustrate the difference between this configuration + and the DISCRETE above, we saw that the word grape in the DISCRETE would be translated as a serving of + grapes, while in the SEGMENTATIVE it would mean a + bunch of grapes (i.e., still connected to each other on a portion of vine).

+

With verbs, the use of the SEGMENTATIVE versus the DISCRETE implies that the repetitive/iterative + nature of the act, state, or event occurs naturally due to the contextual nature + of the precipitating event or agent. It would thus be used to distinguish the + fuselage of bullets from a machine-gun from the simple hail of bullets from + single-fire weapons. Likewise, it would distinguish The light is blinking from The light is flashing, where blink implies the way + in which the source naturally emits light, while flash implies that +the light is being made to emit repetitive bursts of light. Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ phaļļ ‘a stand (or line) of trees’
+eqaļļ ‘a line/wall of matching people’
+(e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with arms linked)

 

+


+ elaļļ ‘a string of words’

 

+


+ upšáļļ ‘a chain of similar incidents’

+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.6CPN The Componential
+
+

The COMPONENTIAL configuration operates + identically to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the + individual members of the configurational set are not physically similar or + identical to each other. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated + using the COMPONENTIAL are a freight train, a cascade + of (mixed) fruit (i.e., a continuous stream of fruit falling), a line of ticketholders, + a parade of floats, a pattern of musical notes. With verbs, the COMPONENTIAL signifies a connected series of repetitions where the individual acts, events, + or states comprising the repetitive set are non-identical. It would distinguish The light twinkled from The light was blinking. Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ phařļ ‘a line/stand of different trees’
+eqařļ ‘a line/wall of different people’
+(e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with arms linked)

 

+


+ elařļ ‘a string of differing words’

 

+


+ upšářļ ‘a chain of differing incidents’

+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.
+

+
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.7COH The Coherent
+
+

The COHERENT configuration functions + similarly to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the individual + members of the configuration are connected, fused or mixed with one another + to form a coherent emergent entity, i.e., the total configuration of objects + constitutes an entirely new gestalt-like entity. Examples of English words which + would be translated using the COHERENT are a bookcase, + a phalanx, a xylophone.

+

In the realm of verbs, finding English translations illustrating + the COHERENT is difficult. If one can imagine the verb to glow to mean a series of flashes blurred one into another to create + a continuous emanation, then glow versus flash might suffice. + Perhaps a better illustration would be the difference between to buzz from to make a set of repeating noises. Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ phask ‘an entangled grove of trees’
+ (i.e., their roots/branches intertwined
+ and grown together)
+eqask ‘a mass/unit of similar people’

 

+


+ elask ‘a speech made up of similar words’

 

+


+ upšásk ‘a web of similar incidents’

+

 

+
+ +

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+

 

+
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.8CST The Composite
+
+

The COMPOSITE configuration operates + the same as the COHERENT above except that the individual + members of the configurational set are not identical or physically similar to + one another. Examples of words/concepts that would be translated using the COMPOSITE are a building (= a constructional set of walls, floors, doors, windows, + etc.), a communications array, a conspiracy, a jungle thicket. Thus + the Ithkuil words for recipe, skeleton, and melody would simply + be the words for ingredient, bone, and musical note inflected for the COMPOSITE configuration. For verbs, + the COMPOSITE versus COHERENT distinction + would distinguish to rumble from to buzz, or to glitter from to glow. Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ phašk ‘a jungle’
+eqašk ‘a mass/unit of different people’

 

+


+ elašk ‘a speech’

 

+


+ upšášk ‘a situation (involving a number of incidents)’

+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.9MLT The Multiform
+
+

The MULTIFORM configuration is + the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent. + The MULTIFORM serves to identify the noun as an individual + member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates + in non-traditional logic, describing a set whose individual members do not all + share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there + may be one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining + attributes of the set exclusively and exactly, other members of the set may + vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical + resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. Indeed, some members of the set may + display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype + of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient + overlap” between members of differing sets.

+

It is difficult to accurately translate into English without + resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ithkuil easily expresses + using the MULTIFORM. For example, the Ithkuil word for + ‘tree’ inflected for the MULTIFORM configuration + would mean something like a group of what appear to be trees, or better + yet, a group of tree-like objects (i.e., some being trees, and others + seeming less like trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity + of membership varies by different degrees in comparison to an archetypical member + of the set can be expressed using the MULTIFORM. For examples, + the Ithkuil word for library would simply be a word meaning something + like work (i.e. thing authored/composed) inflected for the MULTIFORM, + signifying a hodge-podge assortment of writings and compositions (e.g., including + books, pamphlets, notebooks, ledgers, formulas, letters, journals, recordings, + magazines, etc.). Other example concepts translatable using the MULTIFORM would be a rag-tag group of people, an incoherent pattern, lives in flux.

+

With verbs, the MULTIFORM implies that + the individual repetitions comprising an act, state, or event have varying degrees + of spatio-temporal similarity to each other. A few English verbs such as fluctuate, + sputter or flicker capture this sense. Examples:

+

         LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ phakţ ‘a thicket/jungle thicket’
+eqakţ ‘rag-tag group of people’

 

+


+ elakţ ‘incoherent speech/speak incoherently’

 

+


+ upšákţ ‘chaos / a chaotic situation’

+

 

+
+

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.
+

+

 

+

+
+ + + + +
3.2 AFFILIATION
+
+

While the category of Configuration from the preceding section + distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set in terms + of physical characteristics, physical attributes or physical connections, the + category of Affiliation operates similarly to distinguish the member relationships + in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically + in conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship + between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the meanings of nouns or verbs + in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into + English.

+

Returning to our earlier example of the word tree, + we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes a grove in + the DISCRETE configuration. The word grove implies + that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in + regard to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may + be planted by design, in which case they become an orchard. We saw + how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed a + forest. However, such assortments can become wholly chaotic, displaying + patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming a jungle.

+

As another example, we saw how the word person becomes group, or gathering, both of which are neutral as to subjective + purpose or function. However, applying a sense of purposeful design generates + words such as team, while the absence of purpose results in crowd.

+

There are four affiliations: CONSOLIDATIVE, ASSOCIATIVE, VARIATIVE, and COALESCENT. + Affiliation is indicated as part of the Ca affix as explained in Section 3.1 above and in Section 2.1.1.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation +
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence
+
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below, following the explanation of Extension. The details of the four affiliations are explained below.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.2.1 CSLThe Consolidative
+

The CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring + set where the function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable, + irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the ASSOCIATIVE affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively + defined by human design. Examples are tree branches, a grove, a mound of + rocks, some people, the clouds.

+

The CONSOLIDATIVE is also the affiliation + normally applied to nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration + when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the UNIPLEX specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept + of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, + a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf. With verbs, the CONSOLIDATIVE would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral + as to purpose or design.

+

For the set of affixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.2.2
ASO
The Associative
+

The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective + function, state, purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the + Ithkuil word for soldier in the DISCRETE configuration + and comparing its English translations when inflected for the CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation (= a group of soldiers) versus the ASSOCIATIVE (= a troop, a platoon). It is this CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction, then, that would distinguish + otherwise equivalent DISCRETE inflections of the Ithkuil + word for tree by translating them respectively as a grove versus an + orchard.

+

The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation can also + be used with nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration to signify + a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. + For example, the word person inflected for the UNIPLEX and ASSOCIATIVE would translate as a single-minded + person. Even nouns such as rock, tree or work of + art could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as a well-formed + rock, a tree with integrity, a “balanced” work of art.

+

With verbs, the ASSOCIATIVE signifies + that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction could be used, for example, + with the verb turn in I turned toward the window to indicate + whether it was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside.

+

For the set of affixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.2.3
VAR
The Variative
+

The VARIATIVE affiliation indicates that + the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function, + state, purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees + (i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, purpose, etc.) or at + complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the VARIATIVE would not be used to signify opposed but complementary differences among set + members (see the COALESCENT affiliation below). It would + thus be used to signify a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering, + a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of + books, a collection in disarray. It operates with nouns in the UNIPLEX to render meanings such as a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock, + a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation.

+

With verbs, the VARIATIVE indicates an + act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that + those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably + be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in She bought the house + for various reasons or My being at the party served several purposes. + With non-UNIPLEX configurations, the use of the VARIATIVE affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using + the SEGMENTATIVE configuration such as The light is + blinking in conjunction with the VARIATIVE would + mean that each blink of the light signals something different than the preceding + or following blinks.

+

For the set of affixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.2.4
COA
The Coalescent
+

The COALESCENT affiliation indicates + that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship + with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. + This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of + other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For + example, the Ithkuil word translating English toolset would be the + word for tool in the AGGREGATIVE configuration + (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the COALESCENT affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function + in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example + would be the Ithkuil word for finger inflected for the SEGMENTATIVE configuration and the COALESCENT affiliation, translatable + as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the SEGMENTATIVE to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further + example would be using the COALESCENT with the word for (piece of) food to signify a well-balanced meal.

+

The COALESCENT naturally appears most + often in conjunction with the DUPLEX configuration since + binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical + binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image + distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. + Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g., one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the COALESCENT affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., one’s left and + right eye functioning together).

+

With verbs, the COALESCENT signifies + that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which + make up a greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structure + onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work together in + complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for + example, to distinguish the sentences He traveled in the Yukon from He ventured in the Yukon, or I came up with a plan versus I fashioned a plan.

+

For the set of affixes which mark this affiliation, see Table +5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

+

 

+ + + + +
3.3. PERSPECTIVE
+

+ Perspective is the closest Ithkuil morphological category to the Number and + Tense categories of other languages (e.g., singular/plural and past/present/future). + However, the correspondence is only approximate because Perspective does not + specifically address the quantity to which a formative is instantiated within + a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the + manner in which it is spatio-temporally instantiated. Specifically, + Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded” + contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation), + 2) an unbounded entity (i.e., manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible), + 3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as + a spatio-temporally neutral abstraction. How this works requires separate explanations + for nouns and verbs.
+

Perspective with Nouns. What Perspective means + for nouns is that, in addition to merely indicating whether a given spatial + context contains one or more than one, it also specifies single versus multiple + manifestations in time, as well as along an axis of concreteness versus abstraction. + Complicating the picture is the fact that the categories of Configuration and + Affiliation (see Sections 3.1 and 3.2 above) already + contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe + multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular” + and “plural” have been avoided.

+

Perspective with Verbs. For verbs, the aspect + of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative + context but rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” + i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole + within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” + categories of Western languages. In Ithkuil, the notion of linearly progressive + time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified, + if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see Section + 5.10).

+

There are four perspectives in Ithkuil: MONADIC, UNBOUNDED, NOMIC, and ABSTRACT. + These are indicated as part of the Ca affix as explained in Sec. 3.1 above.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation+
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence
+
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table + 5 in Section 3.5.3 below, following the explanation of Extension. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is explained + and illustrated below.
+

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.3.1
M
The Monadic
+

The MONADIC signifies a bounded embodiment + of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant + a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted + in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless being contextually + viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived + to exist within a literal or figurative psychologically uninterrupted boundary. + This is important, since configurations other than the UNIPLEX technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking + place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container, + corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or + psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, specifically + the “present” (which in Ithkuil might be better thought of as the + “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). + This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for + nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ithkuil considers nouns as spatially + reified concepts while considering verbs to be their temporally “activized” counterparts (see Section 2.4.1).

+

Thus, using the word tree for example, while there + might be many trees present in terms of number, the MONADIC implies they form only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category + is manifested. Using the AGGREGATIVE configuration as + an example, the MONADIC would mean there is only one AGGREGATIVE set of trees, i.e., one forest.

+

At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective + that Ithkuil makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” + (or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between + those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., one apple, four boys, several + nations), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., water, + sand, plastic, air, laughter). All nouns are countable in Ithkuil in that + all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations + of certain Ithkuil nouns must often be “contextual” rather than + literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable + context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a + puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”

+

With verbs, the MONADIC superficially + corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories + except in a habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed + by the MONADIC means that the act, state, or event is + temporally contiguous and accessible from the point of view of the present context. + It would be used to describes an act, state, or event which:

+
    +
  • +
    takes + place entirely in the present context
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    started + in the accessible past and has continued on into the present context
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    starts + within the present context and continues on into an accessible future
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    started + in an inaccessible past, but only the portion taking place in the present + context is being addressed or is under consideration or relevant within + the context of the utterance
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    starts + within the present context and may continue into an inaccessible future, + but only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, but + only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance
    +
    • +
+

By “accessible past” or “accessible future” + is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present + at the time and the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically + contiguous, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now as + one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected + predictions, or historical reports. Conversely, “inaccessible” would + mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which + he/she knows only from memory, reports, or predictions. Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + +

+ aklál
+ ‘a river;
+ a river flows’
+
+ u’t’ak’ařš
+ ‘constellation;
+ a constellation shines (in the night sky) ’
+ vyarl
+ ‘a set of benefits;
+ a set of benefits is in effect’
+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.3.2
U
The Unbounded
+

The UNBOUNDED signifies “unbounded + embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun + or verb manifests itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary, + i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, + the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member + nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a non-monadic + (i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient + translation into English would be to use the plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps + of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would + be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and + another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’

+

For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the + psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible + from the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which:

+
    +
  • +
    occurs + entirely in the inaccessible past
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    will + occur entirely in the inaccessible future (if used with the PROSPECTIVE aspect - see Section 5.10.2
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    may + be occurring in the present context but started in an inaccessible past, + and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account that past portion
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    may + be occurring in the present context but will continue into an inaccessible + future, and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood + without taking into account the future portion
    +
    +
    +
    • +
  • +
    started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, and + the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account these inaccessible portions
    +
    • +
+

Note that, even more so than with the MONADIC, + translation of the UNBOUNDED into Western languages is + subjective, as the translation must necessarily convey linear tense information + which is not conveyed by the Ithkuil original.

+

Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ aklát ‘what once was a river; + the river once flowed (but no longer)’
+

 

+


+ u’t’ak’ařg ‘a past constellation; + the constellation shone (but no longer)’
+

 

+


+ vyark + ‘a former set of benefits; + a set of benefits was in effect (but no longer)’

+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.3.3
N
The Nomic
+

The NOMIC refers to a generic collective + entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative + set throughout space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context). + Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in particular, + this category is mutually exclusive from the MONADIC or UNBOUNDED. For nouns, the NOMIC corresponds approximately to the several constructions used for referring to + collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences The dog is a noble beast, Clowns are what children love most, There + is nothing like a tree.

+

With verbs, the NOMIC designates an action, + event, or situation which describes a general law of nature or a persistently + true condition or situation spoken of in general, without reference to a specific + instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible instances + or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of + expressing such generic statements, generally using the simple present tense. + Examples of usage would be The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele + is sickly, In winter it snows a lot, That girl sings well.

+

Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ akláţ ‘(flowing) river(s) (as a generic concept)’
+
+

 

+


+ u’t’ak’ařç ‘(shining) constelation(s) (as a generic concept)’
+

 

+


+ vyarx ‘a set of benefits being in effect (as a generic concept)’

+
+

 

+

+ + + + + + + +
3.3.4
A
The Abstract
+

Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes + such as -hood or -ness, the ABSTRACT transforms a configurative + category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless + context. While only certain nouns in English can be made into abstracts via + suffixes, all Ithkuil nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into + abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., grove → the idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book → everything + about books, having to do with books, involvement with books.

+

With verbs, the ABSTRACT is used in verbal + constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship + of the action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable, + similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund form (used as substitutes + for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences: Singing is not his strong suit; It makes no sense to + worry about it; I can't stand her pouting. As + a result, the ABSTRACT acts as a “timeless” verb form which, much like these English infinitives and gerunds, operates in + conjunction with a separate main verb in one of the other three perspectives. + The ABSTRACT is often used in conjunction with certain + modalities and moods of the verb (see Sec. + 6.1 on Modality and Section + 5.2 on Mood) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which + the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or unknowable.

+

Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ aklác ‘the river as an idea / everything about being a river / “river-hood” ’
+

 

+


+ u’t’ak’apst ‘the idea of a constellation / “constellation-hood” ’
+

 

+


+ vyarč ‘the idea of having/providing benefits’

+
+

 

+

+ + + + +
3.4 EXTENSION
+

Extension is another Ithkuil morphological category for which + there is no exact equivalent in other languages. It applies to all formatives + and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms +of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. There are six extensions: DELIMITIVE, PROXIMAL, INCEPTIVE, TERMINATIVE, DEPLETIVE, and GRADUATIVE.

+

Extension is shown as part of a formative’s Ca affix which also indicates Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective and Essence. The values of this affix are shown in Sec. 3.5.3.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation+
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence
+
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

Alternately, extension can be shown via tone-marking of an adjacent verbal adjunct, explained in Section 6.3.5.

+

The details of how each of the six extensions operates are explained as follows:

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.1
DEL
The Delimitive
+

The DELIMITIVE extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with + clear spatio-temporal boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion, + edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It can be + considered the neutral or default view, e.g., a tree, a grove, a set of + books, an army. To illustrate a contextual example, the English sentence He climbed the ladder would be translated with the word ladder in the DELIMITIVE to show it is being considered as a + whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is + being considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, e.g., She diets + every winter (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet).

+ + + + + + + + + +

The DELIMITIVE can be thought + of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite beginning and ending points, + beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. The graphic to + the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in + the DELIMITIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the + spatio-temporal “present”).

+

Examples:          LISTEN 

+

 

+
+


+ aklál ‘a river’

+

 

+


+ pšašk ‘a situation’

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.2
PRX
The Proximal
+

The PROXIMAL extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the + portion, duration, subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand. + It would be used to translate the words tree, journey, and ladder in the sentences That tree is hard there (e.g., in + the spot where I hit against it), She lost weight during her journey, + or He climbed on the ladder (i.e., it is not relevant to the context + to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences, + the PROXIMAL does not refer to a specific or delineated + piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder, but rather to the fact that + delineated boundaries such as the ends of the ladder or the entirety of the + tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this + extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which + is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the + act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a diet + every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not + the total time spent dieting from start to finish).

+

+ + + + + + + + + +
The graphic to the right illustrates + the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the PROXIMAL to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). +

Examples:          LISTEN 

+


+
+ aklás
+ ‘a section/stretch of (the) river’

+


+
+ pšams
+ ‘the midst of a situation’

+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.3
ICP
The Inceptive
+

The INCEPTIVE extension focuses on the + closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion + of a noun or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. It would + be used in translating the nouns tunnel, song, desert, daybreak and plan in the following sentences: We looked + into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song (i.e., from the + first few notes), They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait + for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). + In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ + or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s + starting to molt, or She goes on a diet every winter.

+ + + + + +

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the INCEPTIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). + Examples:          LISTEN 
+

+
+


+ klamtá ‘the beginning of a river’
+
+

+


+ pšapšt’ ‘the beginning/start of a situation’

+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.4
TRM
The Terminative
+

The TERMINATIVE extension focuses on + the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without + focusing on the preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would + be used in translating the words water, story, and arrival in the sentences There’s no water (i.e., we ran out), I like + the end of that story, and We await your arrival. With verbs, + it is illustrated by the sentences It finished molting or She’s + come off her diet.

+ + + + + +
+

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the TERMINATIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). + Examples:          LISTEN 
+

+
+


+ klat’á ‘the end of a river’
+

+


+
+ pšakt’ ‘the end of a situation’

+
+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.5
DPL
The Depletive
+

The DEPLETIVE extension focuses on the + terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus + is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the + at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). + Essentially, it applies to any context involving actual or figurative fading. + It would be used in translating the words water, strength, + and twilight in the sentences He drank the last of the water, I + have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight. With verbs, + it is exemplified by the phrases to wind down, to fade out, to disappear + gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’s eating less and less + these days.

+ + + + + +
+

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the DEPLETIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). Examples:          LISTEN 

+
+


+ klakcá ‘the mouth of a river’

+


+
+ pšaňsk ‘the last vestiges of a situation’

+
+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.6
GRA
The Graduative
+

The GRADUATIVE extension is the inverse + of the DEPLETIVE, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” + or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words darkness, wonder, and music in the following sentences: Darkness + came upon us, I felt a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first. + With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as to fade in, to + start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., She’s + been eating more and more lately.

+ + + + + +
+

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun in the GRADUATIVE to the + context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). Examples:

+

         LISTEN 

+
+


+ klakc’á ‘the headwaters of a river’
+
+

+

pšaňsk’ ‘a gradually developing situation’

+
+
+

+

 

+

+ + + + +
3.5 ESSENCE
+

Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which + has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference to + various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English + sentences:

+
+

1a) The boy ran off to sea.
+ 1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.

+

2a) The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow.
+ 2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist.

+
+

Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences + in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences + (1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized + contexts for these sentences that they make any sense. For example, (1b) would + make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the + plot for a story, while (2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store + owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is now no longer there.

+

Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world + meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog, + but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being + used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative + mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where + events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative + versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is + essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western + languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated + by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called + “modal” verbs of English, e.g., must, can, should, etc. + as seen in the following:

+
+

3) You must come home at once.
+ 4) That girl can sing better than anybody.
+ 5) We should attack at dawn.

+
+

Each of the above three sentences describe potential events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For example, + in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home + is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl may never sing a single note ever + again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether + any attack will actually occur.
+

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
3.5.1
NRM
 The Normal
 
RPV
 The Representative
+

The Ithkuil category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world + actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. The + two essences are termed NORMAL and REPRESENTATIVE, + the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns and verbs, the + latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly, + Ithkuil allows a speaker to express any noun or verb as referring to a real-world + versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from + an explanatory context.

+

Essence is as part of the Ca affix which also indicates Configuration, Affiliation and Perspective. The values of this affix are shown below in Sec. 3.5.3.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation +
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence
+
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+


+ 3.5.2 Examples of Essence in Use

+

Compare the following two sentences and their translations to see how placement of the REPRESENTATIVE essence on different formatives changes the meaning.

+
+


+
+ Xal  öqil  êqattêph.
+STA-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL  STA-‘man’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘woman’-OBL-RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT2/3-IFL
+ The man sees what he thinks is/imagines to be a young girl.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Xatta  öqil  êqalêph.
+ STA-‘see’-RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL  STA-‘man’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘woman’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT2/3-IFL
+ The man is imagining he sees a young girl.          LISTEN 

+


+
+ Ûb  eikkradwa  smou’olâxh.
+ EXN1/6     DYN-‘move.along.obliquely.vertical.path.between.two.points’-RPV/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL      STA-‘valley’-NAV-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5-IFL
+ The path through the canyon is/seems steep.          LISTEN 

+

In the example immediately above, no one is necessarily on the path (including the speaker), so steepness exists merely as an idea/assumption in the speaker’s mind.
+

+
+

+


+

+

3.5.3 Affix Tables for Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence

+

Tables 5(a) through 5(f) below indicate all the affix values of Ca, the synthetic affix which indicates which of the nine Configurations, four Affiliations, four Perspectives, and six Extensions are applied to a particular stem.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Configuration + Affiliation +
+ Perspective + Extension +
+ Essence +
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+
+ Tables 5(a)-(l):
+ Ca Configuration/Affiliation/Perspective/Extension +Affixes for Formatives

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT

NRM

+

+

+

DEL

M
+
+
CSL

l

ll

tļ

ļ

ļļ

řļ

sk

šk

kţ

ASO

r

rr

lļ

rl

rļ

řl

st

št

kç

VAR

m

mm

lm

rm

mļ

řm

sp

šp

pţ

COA

n

nn

ln

r n

nļ

ř n

sq

šq

qţ

U
CSL

t

ļt

lt

rt

nt

řt

ňt

ňd

çt

ASO

k

ļk

lk

rk

ňk

řk

kt

xt

çk

VAR

p

ļp

lp

rp

mp

řp

pt

ft

çp

COA

q

ļq

lq

rq

ňq

řq

qt

xht

çq

N
CSL

ţ

ţţ

lţ

rţ

nţ

řţ

sţ

šţ

tf

ASO

x

xx

lx

rx

ňx

mx

sx

šx

kf

VAR

f

ff

lf

rf

mf

řf

sf

šf

pf

COA

xh

xxh

lxh

rxh

ňxh

mxh

sxh

šxh

qf

A
CSL

c

cc

lc

rc

ns

řc

sc

fk

fq

ASO

č

čč

lč

rč

nš

řč

šč

ţk

ţq

VAR

ż

żż

lż

rż

nz

řż

ţf

ţs

ţc

COA

j

jj

lj

rj

nž

řj

fţ

ţš

ţč

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

NRM

+

+

+ PRX
M
+
+
CSL

s

ss

ls

rs

fs

řs

ňs

ms

mss

ASO

š

šš

lš

rš

fš

řš

ňš

mš

mšš

VAR

z

zz

lz

rz

vz

řz

ňz

mz

mzz

COA

ž

žž

lž

rž

vž

řž

ňž

mž

mžž

U
CSL

d

dv

ld

rd

nd

řd

md

zd

žd

ASO

g

gv

lg

rg

ňg

řg

ňkf

zg

žg

VAR

b

bv

lb

rb

mb

řb

ntf

zb

žb

COA

ň

ňň

ňç

rň

ňv

ř ň

ňf

řtf

řkf

N
CSL

dh

ddh

ldh

rdh

ndh

řdh

mdh

ţx

ţxh

ASO

ç

çç

lç

rç

nç

řç

mç

fx

fxh

VAR

v

vv

lv

rv

mv

řv

ndv

xf

xţ

COA

ř

řř

rbv

rdv

rgv

řxh

mţ

xhf

xhţ

A
CSL

ck

čk

ps

ks

gd

psk

pšk

ksk

kšk

ASO

ct

čt

pš

kš

bd

pst

pšt

tx

txh

VAR

cp

čp

bz

gz

pç

ksp

kšp

px

pxh

COA

cq

čq

bž

gž

řqf

kst

kšt

psq

pšq

+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

NRM

+

+

+ ICP
M
+
+
CSL

mt

mt’

skh

sk’

mth

pst’

psth

pšt’

pšth

ASO

mk

mk’

sth

st’

mkh

kst’

ksth

kšt’

kšth

VAR

ňp

ňp’

sph

sp’

ňph

psk’

pskh

pšk’

pškh

COA

mq

mq’

sqh

sq’

mqh

ksp’

ksph

kšp’

kšph

U
CSL

pk

pk’

škh

šk’

pkh

fk’

fkh

psq’

psqh

ASO

tk

tk’

šth

št’

tkh

ţk’

ţkh

ksk’

kskh

VAR

tp

tp’

šph

šp’

tph

ţp’

ţph

pšq’

pšqh

COA

kp

kp’

šqh

šq’

kph

xp’

xph

kšk’

kškh

N
CSL

pq

pq’

fg

bg

pqh

vg

fp

fq’

fqh

ASO

tq

tq’

ţg

dg

tqh

dhg

vd

ţq’

ţqh

VAR

qp

qp’

xhp

xp

sch

sc’

ňqf

gb

kkç/kçç

COA

pļ

tç

xhp’

ţp

ščh

šč’

vb

dhz

ppç/pçç

A
CSL

fst

fc’

fc

lfs

xc’

ţc’

ltf

fst’

fsth

ASO

fšt

fč’

fč

lfš

xč’

ţč’

lkf

fšt’

fšth

VAR

fsk

fch

rfs

fsq

xch

ţch

xhph

fsk’

fskh

COA

fšk

fčh

rfš

fšq

xčh

ţčh

qph

fšk’

fškh

+
+[corrections made to the following table in September 2011 marked in red]
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

NRM

+

+

+ TRM
M
+
+
CSL

t’

ļt’

lt’

rt’

nt’

řt’

ţsk’

kt’

ňt’

ASO

k’

ļk’

lk’

rk’

ňk’

řk’

ţšk’

ft’

xt’

VAR

p’

ļp’

lp’

rp’

mp’

řp’

fsq’

pt’

fp’

COA

q’

ļq’

lq’

rq’

ňq’

řq’

fšq’

xht’

qt’

U
CSL

th

ļth

lth

rth

nth

řth

ţskh

kth

ňth

ASO

kh

ļkh

lkh

rkh

ňkh

řkh

ţškh

fth

xth

VAR

ph

ļph

lph

rph

mph

řph

fsqh

pth

fph

COA

qh

ļqh

lqh

rqh

ňqh

řqh

fšqh

xhth

qth

N
CSL

c’

cc’

lc’

rc’

nc’

řc’

mc’

ňc’

çt’

ASO

č’

čč’

lč’

rč’

nč’

řč’

mč’

ňč’

çk’

VAR

ch

cch

lch

rch

nch

řch

mch

ňch

çp’

COA

čh

ččh

lčh

rčh

nčh

čřh

mčh

ňčh

çq’

A
CSL

pps/pss

rps

lps

rbz

lbz

řps

řbz

ňss

çth

ASO

ppš/pšš

rpš

lpš

rbž

lbž

řpš

řbž

ňšš

çkh

VAR

kks/ kss

rks

lks

rgz

lgz

řks

řgz

ňzz

çph

COA

kkš/kšš

rkš

lkš

rgž

lgž

řkš

řgž

ňžž

çqh

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

NRM

+

+

+ DPL
M
+
+
CSL

kc

lkç

lsk

rsk

nsk

řsk

msk

ňsk

ssk

ASO

żd

lţs

lst

rst

nst

řst

mst

ňst

sst

VAR

pc

bbz/bzz

lsp

rsp

nsp

řsp

msp

ňsp

ssp

COA

qc

ggz/gzz

lsq

rsq

nsq

řsq

msq

ňsq

ssq

U
CSL

kč

rçç

lšk

ršk

nšk

řšk

mšk

ňšk

ššk

ASO

jd

lţš

lšt

ršt

nšt

řšt

mšt

ňšt

ššt

VAR

pč

bbž/bžž

lšp

ršp

nšp

řšp

mšp

ňšp

ššp

COA

qč

ggž/gžž

lšq

ršq

nšq

řšq

mšq

ňšq

ššq

N
CSL

bdh

xpf

lvz

rvz

rbdh

řpţ

lpf

rpf

bzd

ASO

gdh

ňdh

lvž

rvž

rgdh

řkţ

lpç

rpç

bžd

VAR

ţt

dhd

ldhz

rţs

rqţ

řqţ

ňkç

řpf

gzd

COA

db

ttç/tçç

ldhž

rţš

rkç

řkç

mpç

řpç

gžd

A
CSL

bż

rpss

lzb

rzb

nzb

řzb

mzb

řpss

gzb

ASO

gż

rkss

lžb

ržb

nžb

řžb

mžb

řkss

gžb

VAR

bj

rpšš

lzg

rzg

nzg

řzg

mzg

řpšš

bzg

COA

gj

rkšš

lžg

ržg

nžg

řžg

mžg

řkšš

bžg

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

NRM

+

+

+ GRA
M
+
+
CSL

kc’

ck’

lsk’

rsk’

nsk’

řsk’

msk’

ňsk’

ssk’

ASO

żb

ct’

lst’

rst’

nst’

řst’

mst’

ňst’

sst’

VAR

pc’

cp’

lsp’

rsp’

nsp’

řsp’

msp’

ňsp’

ssp’

COA

qc’

cq’

lsq’

rsq’

nsq’

řsq’

msq’

ňsq’

ssq’

U
CSL

kč’

čk’

lšk’

ršk’

nšk’

řšk’

mšk’

ňšk’

ššk’

ASO

jb

čt’

lšt’

ršt’

nšt’

řšt’

mšt’

ňšt’

ššt’

VAR

pč’

čp’

lšp’

ršp’

nšp’

řšp’

mšp’

ňšp’

ššp’

COA

qč’

čq’

lšq’

ršq’

nšq’

řšq’

mšq’

ňšq’

ššq’

N
CSL

kch

ckh

lskh

rskh

nskh

řskh

mskh

ňskh

sskh

ASO

żg

cth

lsth

rsth

nsth

řsth

msth

ňsth

ssth

VAR

pch

cph

lsph

rsph

nsph

řsph

msph

ňsph

ssph

COA

qch

cqh

lsqh

rsqh

nsqh

řsqh

msqh

ňsqh

ssqh

A
CSL

kčh

čkh

lškh

rškh

nškh

řškh

mškh

ňškh

šškh

ASO

jg

čth

lšth

ršth

nšth

řšth

mšth

ňšth

ššth

VAR

pčh

čph

lšph

ršph

nšph

řšph

mšph

ňšph

ššph

COA

qčh

čqh

lšqh

ršqh

nšqh

řšqh

mšqh

ňšqh

ššqh

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT

RPV

+

+

+

DEL

M
+
+
CSL

tt

tt’

tth

lpt’

rpt’

řpt’

lpth

rpth

řpth

ASO

kk

kk’

kkh

lkt’

rkt’

řkt’

lkth

rkth

řkth

VAR

pp

pp’

pph

lpk’

rpk’

řpk’

lpkh

rpkh

řpkh

COA

qq

qq’

qqh

ltk’

rtk’

řtk’

ltkh

rtkh

řtkh

U
CSL

dd

nçw

pçw

lft’

rft’

řft’

lfth

rfth

řfth

ASO

gg

ňçw

kfw

lxt’

rxt’

řxt’

lxth

rxth

řxth

VAR

bb

mçw

pfw

lfk’

rfk’

řfk’

lfkh

rfkh

řfkh

COA

cf

čf

qfw

lţk’

rţk’

řţk’

lţkh

rţkh

řţkh

N
CSL

ţw

dhw

lţw

rţw

mţw

řţw

nţw

ldhw

rdhw

ASO

xw

ňw

lxw

rxw

mxw

řxw

ňxw

lňw

rňw

VAR

fw

vw

lfw

rfw

ňfw

řfw

mfw

lvw

rvw

COA

xhw

çw

lxhw

rxhw

mxhw

tçw

ňxhw

lçw

rçw

A
CSL

sw

cw

lsw

rsw

msw

řsw

nsw

ňsw

ssw

ASO

šw

čw

lšw

ršw

mšw

řšw

nšw

ňšw

ššw

VAR

zw

żw

lzw

rzw

mzw

řzw

nzw

ňzw

zzw

COA

žw

jw

lžw

ržw

mžw

řžw

nžw

ňžw

žžw

+


+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

RPV

+

+

+ PRX
M
+
+
CSL

tw

ttw

thw

t’w

tt’w

tthw

ltw

rtw

ntw

ASO

kw

kkw

khw

k’w

kk’w

kkhw

lkw

rkw

ňkw

VAR

pw

ppw

phw

p’w

pp’w

pphw

lpw

rpw

mpw

COA

qw

qqw

qhw

q’w

qq’w

qqhw

lqw

rqw

ňqw

U
CSL

ty

tty

lty

ţy

nty

řty

rty

pty

tky

ASO

ky

kky

lky

ży

ňky

řky

rky

kty

kpy

VAR

py

ppy

lpy

fy

npy

řpy

rpy

tpy

pky

COA

my

fty

ptw

mw

ftw

ptr

ftr

pkw

fkw

N
CSL

dw

ddw

ldw

tv

ndw

řdw

bdw

dgw

rdw

ASO

gw

ggw

lgw

kv

ňgw

řgw

gdw

gbw

rgw

VAR

bw

bbw

lbw

pv

mbw

řbw

dbw

bgw

rbw

COA

lw

ly

ry

rw

ļw

řy

tļw

řw

lř

A
CSL

dy

ddy

ldy

dhy

ndy

řdy

rdy

bdy

dgy

ASO

gy

ggy

lgy

jy

ňgy

řgy

rgy

gdy

gby

VAR

by

bby

lby

vy

mby

řby

rby

dby

bgy

COA

ny

xty

ktw

nw

xtw

ktr

xtr

tkw

ţkw

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

RPV

+

+

+ ICP
M
+
+
CSL

tl

ttl

ltl

rtl

ntl

řtl

mtl

ļtl

kçw

ASO

kl

kkl

lkl

rkl

ňkl

řkl

mkl

ļkl

c’w

VAR

pl

ppl

lpl

rpl

mpl

řpl

ňpl

ļpl

tfw

COA

ql

qql

lql

rql

ňql

řql

mql

ļql

č’w

U
CSL

dl

ddl

ldl

rdl

ndl

řdl

bdl

dgl

vbl

ASO

gl

ggl

lgl

rgl

ňgl

řgl

gdl

gbl

vgl

VAR

bl

bbl

lbl

rbl

mbl

řbl

dbl

bgl

vdl

COA

ml

mř

ňl

nl

ţř

fř

př

tř

lr

N
CSL

skl

ckl

ckw

skw

sskw

çkw

sk’w

ck’w

sskl

ASO

stl

ctl

ctw

stw

sstw

çtw

st’w

ct’w

sstl

VAR

spl

cpl

cpw

spw

sspw

çpw

sp’w

cp’w

sspl

COA

sql

cql

cqw

sqw

ssqw

çqw

sq’w

cq’w

ssql

A
CSL

škl

čkl

čkw

škw

šškw

xxw

šk’w

čk’w

šškl

ASO

štl

čtl

čtw

štw

šštw

ţţw

št’w

čt’w

šštl

VAR

špl

čpl

čpw

špw

ššpw

ffw

šp’w

čp’w

ššpl

COA

šql

čql

čqw

šqw

ššqw

xxhw

šq’w

čq’w

ššql

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

RPV

+

+

+ TRM
M
+
+
CSL

tr

ttr

ltr

rtr

ntr

řtr

mtr

ļtr

rtn

ASO

kr

kkr

lkr

rkr

ňkr

řkr

mkr

ļkr

rkn

VAR

pr

ppr

lpr

rpr

mpr

řpr

ňpr

ļpr

rpn

COA

qr

qqr

lqr

rqr

ňqr

řqr

mqr

ļqr

rqn

U
CSL

dr

ddr

ldr

rdr

ndr

řdr

bdr

dgr

vbr

ASO

gr

ggr

lgr

rgr

ňgr

řgr

gdr

gbr

vgr

VAR

br

bbr

lbr

rbr

mbr

řbr

dbr

bgr

vdr

COA

mr

nř

ňr

nr

dhř

vř

bř

dř

gř

N
CSL

skr

ckr

cky

sky

ssky

čhw

skhw

ckhw

sskr

ASO

str

ctr

cty

sty

ssty

chy

sthw

cthw

sstr

VAR

spr

cpr

cpy

spy

sspy

chw

sphw

cphw

sspr

COA

sqr

cqr

c’y

cy

çr

čhy

sqhw

cqhw

ssqr

A
CSL

škr

čkr

čky

šky

ššky

ļkw

škhw

čkhw

šškr

ASO

štr

čtr

čty

šty

ššty

ļtw

šthw

čthw

šštr

VAR

špr

čpr

čpy

špy

ššpy

ļpw

šphw

čphw

ššpr

COA

šqr

čqr

č’y

čy

çř

ļqw

šqhw

čqhw

ššqr

+
+[corrections made in September 2011 to the following table marked in red]
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

RPV

+

+

+ DPL
M
+
+
CSL

sl

ssl

lsl

rsl

msl

řsl

nsl

ňsl

ţst

ASO

šl

ššl

lšl

ršl

mšl

řšl

nšl

ňšl

ţšt

VAR

zl

zzl

lzl

rzl

mzl

řzl

nzl

ňzl

ţsp

COA

žl

žžl

lžl

ržl

mžl

řžl

nžl

ňžl

ţšp

U
CSL

fl

ffl

lfl

rfl

mfl

řfl

fxl

ňfl

pxl

ASO

ţl

ţţl

lţl

rţl

nţl

řţl

ţxl

mţl

txl

VAR

xl

xxl

lxl

rxl

ňxl

řxl

xfl

mxl

xţl

COA

xhl

xxhl

lxhl

rxhl

ňxhl

qtl

xhfl

mxhl

xhţl

N
CSL

vl

vvl

lvl

rvl

mvl

řvl

lpţ

lkţ

mpļ

ASO

dhl

ddhl

ldhl

rdhl

ndhl

řdhl

cl

čl

ntļ

VAR

sv

sř

ksw

sxw

lsř

rsř

fsw

řsř

bzw

COA

zv

zř

psw

sxhw

lzř

rzř

sfw

řzř

gzw

A
CSL

sm

sy

cm

zm

żm

çm

bm

dm

gm

ASO

šm

šy

čm

žm

jm

ļm

vm

dhm

kř

VAR

sn

zy

cn

zn

żn

çn

bn

dn

gn

COA

šn

žy

čn

žn

jn

ļn

vn

dhn

ňř

+
+[corrections made in September 2011 to the following table marked in red]
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ESSENCE & EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
+

RPV

+

+

+ GRA
M
+
+
CSL

sr

ssr

lsr

rsr

msr

řsr

nsr

ňsr

ţsk

ASO

šr

ššr

lšr

ršr

mšr

řšr

nšr

ňšr

ţšk

VAR

zr

zzr

lzr

rzr

mzr

řzr

nzr

ňzr

ţsq

COA

žr

žžr

lžr

ržr

mžr

řžr

nžr

ňžr

ţšq

U
CSL

fr

ffr

lfr

rfr

mfr

řfr

fxr

ňfr

pxr

ASO

ţr

ţţr

lţr

rţr

nţr

řţr

ţxr

mţr

txr

VAR

xr

xxr

lxr

rxr

ňxr

řxr

xfr

mxr

xţr

COA

xhr

xxhr

lxhr

rxhr

ňxhr

qtr

xhfr

mxhr

xhţr

N
CSL

vr

vvr

lvr

rvr

mvr

řvr

rpţ

rkţ

mpř

ASO

dhr

ddhr

ldhr

rdhr

ndhr

řdhr

cr

čr

ntř

VAR

šv

šř

kšw

šxw

lšř

ršř

fšw

řšř

bžw

COA

žv

žř

pšw

šxhw

lžř

ržř

šfw

řžř

gžw

A
CSL

tm

ţm

ţn

tn

rsm

rsn

sň

rsň

nm

ASO

km

xm

xn

kn

rzm

rzn

zň

rzň

ňm

VAR

pm

fm

fn

pn

ršm

ršn

šň

ršň

mn

COA

qm

xhm

xhn

qn

ržm

ržn

žň

ržň

ňn

+
+
+ +

+

3.5.4 Additional Example of Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence
+

+ + + + + + +


+ ekšá-
+‘clown’


+ egw-
+‘running + stride’ →

                                 
+ Aigwapskh  ekšúlļ .
+ DYN-‘running stride’-NRM/ICP/M/VAR/COH-IFL   STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/ASO/DCT-FML
+ The [group of] clowns begin stumbling as they run.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
3.6 CONTEXT
+

Context is yet another morphological category with no equivalent + in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or aspects + of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There + is no way to show this in translation other than by paraphrase. There are four + contexts: the EXISTENTIAL, the FUNCTIONAL, + the REPRESENTATIONAL, and the AMALGAMATE, + marked by a vocalic suffix Vf which also conveys verbal Format (the category of Format will be analyzed in Section 6.4). Table 6 below shows the values for this suffix.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+
+
+ +

Table 6: Word-final Vf-suffix: 4 contexts x 9 formats

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
FORMAT (see Sec. 6.4)
Context↓

(none)

 SCH

ISR

ATH

RSL

SBQ

CCM

OBJ

PRT

AFT
EXISTENTIAL

(a)

o

ai

â

au

ëi

oa

ea

aì

aù

FUNCTIONAL

i

ö

ui

ae

iu

ëu

oe

ia / ua

uì

iù

REPRESENTATIONAL

e

ü / öe

ei

ê

eu

öi

eo

ie / ue

eì

eù

AMALGAMATE

u

öa

oi

ô

ou

öu

iö / uö

io / uo

oì

où

+

The four Contexts are explained below and illustrated +via example Ithkuil translations of the English sentence The orchestra is playing.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.6.1 EXS The Existential
+

+ The EXISTENTIAL context focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically + objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, + beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the EXISTENTIAL is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The EXISTENTIAL serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective + entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun + or verb.
+

For example, consider the sentence A cat ran past the doorway. + If the Ithkuil words corresponding to cat, run, and doorway are in the EXISTENTIAL, then the sentence merely describes + an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature + of the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that + two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial relationship to each other; + those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely + conveys the nature of the spatial relationship.

+
+


+ Ilmašqôn. 
+ DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-EXS-IFL
+ ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [neutral description of event]

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.6.2FNC The Functional
+

+ The FUNCTIONAL context focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas, + attitudes, beliefs, opinions, convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit, + etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that + the noun has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose.
+

For example, in our previous sentence A cat ran past the + doorway, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into + the FUNCTIONAL, the ‘cat’ no longer simply + identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) + significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could + get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with + mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ + now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. + Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the FUNCTIONAL now implies the furtive nature of the cat. Example:

+
+


+ Ilmašqôni. 
+ DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-FNC-IFL
+ ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [focus on the personal meaning/importance of the event]

+

 

+

+ + + + + + + +
3.6.3RPS The Representational
+

+ The REPRESENTATIONAL context focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym*, in that it indicates + that the formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other + concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical + connotations of the English sentence That pinstripe-suited dog is checking + out a kitty, can be equally conveyed in Ithkuil by inflecting the words + for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the REPRESENTATIONAL context. The REPRESENTATIONAL is one of several ways that + Ithkuil overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from + a grammatical standpoint).
+

* Metonymy + is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or + phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The + orders came from the White House,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell + the cook the ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person + as in ‘You-know-who just showed up.’

+
+


+ Ilmašqône. 
+ DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-RPS-IFL
+ ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [connotes that sentence is a metaphor, e.g., ‘life as a symphony’]

+
+

 

+

+ + + + + + + +
3.6.4AMG The Amalgamative
+

The AMALGAMATE context is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western linguistic perspective. It focuses on the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like, componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective totality is derived synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static momentary appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun and any interactions and relationships it has (whether past, present or potential) within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels. Thus the AMALGAMATE version of our sentence The cat ran past the doorway would take on quite melodramatic implications, with the cat being representative of everything about cats and all they stand for, the doorway as being representative of the nature of doorways as portals of change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc.

+ + +
+


+ Ilmašqônu. 
+ DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-AMG-IFL
+ ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [connotes a focus on the emotional impact plus cultural significance of the event]
+

+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
3.7 DESIGNATION
+

Designation is a somewhat subjective category, + with no equivalent in Western languages. It refers to a two-fold distinction in a formative regarding its contextual + status, authority, permanence, or extra-contextual relevance. The two Designations + are the INFORMAL and the FORMAL, +shown by the formative’s syllabic stress (in conjunction with the verbal category of Relation which will be discussed in Section 5.4).

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+

The two Designations are explained below.

+


+

+ + + + + + + + + +
3.7.1
IFL
 The Informal
+

The INFORMAL designation is shown by either penultimate (second-to-last) or antepenultimate (third-from last) syllabic stress on the formative, depending on the formative’s Relation (see Section 5.4 on Relation).

+

The INFORMAL designation indicates that the noun or verb in question does not exist in a necessarily permanent state, or is to be considered only for the duration of the context in which it is spoken, with any lasting effect, influence or permanency beyond the context being either absent, unknown or irrelevant. It is best illustrated by comparative examples with the FORMAL designation in the section immediately below.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + +
3.7.2
FML
 The Formal
+

The FORMAL designation is shown by either ultimate (final) or pre-antepenultimate (fourth-from last) syllabic stress on the formative, depending on the formative’s Relation (see Section 5.4 on Relation).

+

The FORMAL designation imparts a sense of permanency and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or institutional manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’ ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the INFORMAL would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and ‘archetype’ in the FORMAL.

+

The FORMAL achieves several subtle purposes from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ithkuil words would translate the same in English no matter which designation (e.g., to hurt, to float, breath, to fall, shade, sleep, cough), many stems would have different translations in English depending on their designation. For example, the stem eq- with the affiliated meanings person → group → gathering → crowd → throng, etc. in the INFORMAL designation would change to the following series of approximate translations when placed in the FORMAL designation: official → team → association/congregation → assembly → masses, etc.

+

Further examples of lexical shifts in translation due to INFORMAL → FORMAL designation are listed below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 to grow something → to cultivatewander → travel
 obtain/get → procure/requisitionlake → reservoir
 (natural) holder → containersee → observe
 to create → construct/buildheap → pile
 animal → domesticated animala thought → an idea
 natural environment →“man-made” environmentawareness → consciousness
 [natural] exchange → trade/commercehouse → home
 assortment of animals → zoo collection grouping → set
 to group/gather → collectwall → barrier
 get some exercise → to work outplacidity → peace
 problem situation → crisisto populate → to settle
+

As can be seen from the above list, the exact interpretation of Designation for each word-root is specific to each word-root, depending on its associated semantic context.

+


+ 3.7.3 Examples of Designation in Use

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

INFORMAL

 

FORMAL

+


+ klal ‘flow of water; to flow’

+
→


+ aklál ‘river; to flow as a river ’

+


+ dyal
+ ‘sensation/feeling; to sense (affective)’

+
→


+ adyál
+ ‘sensation/feeling (volitional/deliberate); to examine via the senses’

+


+ stal ‘comparison; to compare/contrast’

+
→
+ astál ‘measure(ment)’
+

 

+

+ + + + + + +
3.8 NOTE ON MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL AGREEMENT
+

In regard to the gender categories from other languages, + Ithkuil has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, etc.). There is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological + concord of any kind between a noun and other words or morphological elements + in a sentence, i.e., there is none of the required matching of masculine or + feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and adjectives +as found in most Western languages.

+

 

+
+

Proceed to Chapter 4: Case Morphology >>

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
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+ + diff --git a/2004-en/04_case.html b/2004-en/04_case.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3f9afca --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/04_case.html @@ -0,0 +1,3448 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 4: Case Morphology + + + + + + + + +   +   +

 

+

 

+   +  https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/; + + + Home +   + Introduction + 4 Case Morphology + 8 Adjuncts + 12 The Number System + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ 1 Phonology + 5 Verb Morphology + 9 Syntax + List of Abbreviations + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + Links of Interest +   + 2 Morpho-Phonology + 6 More Verb Morphology + 10 Lexhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ico-Semantics + The Lexicon + + + Uhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/pdates / News +   + 3 Basic Morphology + 7 Suffixes + 11 The Writing System + Texts + + + 

+

 

+

Chapter 4: Case Morphology

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +


+ In this chapter,https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ we analyze one additional morphological category: + Case. Like the seven categories analyzedhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ in the previous chapter, and unlike + other languages, the chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ategory of Case applies to all formatives in Ithkuil, + i.e., to both nouns and verbs alike. However, the syntactical context in which + Case operates is sufficiently dissimilar for nouns and verbs to warrant separate + analysis. In this chapter, we will analyze the case morphology of nouns alone. + The use of Case with verbs will be analyzed in Section +5.2.

+

Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek + or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to + a morphological scheme in which a noun, whhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ether via internal mutation of its + phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays + in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence It was me she saw, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed + to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ + distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object + of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence Der + Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the + man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ + distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) + from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ + (accusative case).

+

The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the + notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, + there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether + a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. + In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute + for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases. + The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in + order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and + the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known as its declensions.

+

There are 96 cases in Ithkuil, comprising 72 main cases, and 24 Comparison cases. The Comparison cases serve specialized functions associated with the verbal category called Level and are discussed separately in Section 6.2.4. The 72 main cases are dealt with in this chapter.

+


+

+

+
+
 4.1 Semantic Role versus Positional Slot 4.5 The Associative Cases
 4.2 Morpho-Phonological Markers for Case 4.6 The Temporal Cases
 4.3 The Transrelative Cases 4.7 The Spatial Casehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/s
 4.4 https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/The Possessive Cases 4.8 The Vocative
+ + https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + +
4.1 + SEMANTIC ROLE VERSUS POSITIONAL SLOT
+
+

In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level + of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct + object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is + ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role + can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:

+
+

(1a) John opened the door with the key.
+ (1b) The key opened the door.
+ (1c) The wind opened the door.
+ (1d) The door opened.

+
+

In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, + i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their + semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, John, the key, the wind, and the door. Yet + it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated + in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence + (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that + the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while + in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role + in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. + As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first + three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role + in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a + change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ + in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ + in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), + yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role + of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in + (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act + of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a + subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of + the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while + being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed + choice to initiate such action.

+


+ 4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role

+

The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot + (i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate semantic + role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between + sets of sentences like those above. In Ithkuil, however, the case of a noun + is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the + sentence relative to the verb. These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental + or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns + in other languages. Thus Ithkuil noun declension more accurately reflects the + underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western + grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little + meaning or applicability in Ithkuil grammar.

+

The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ithkuil. + They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” + of Western languages:

+

AGENT: The animate, (and usually conscious + and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing + a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence + (1a) above.

+

FORCE: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an + act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.

+

INSTRUMENT: The noun which functions as the + physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ + in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.

+

PATIENT: The noun which undergoes a change + in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or + by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.

+

 

+


+ 4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles

+

Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects + in Western languages exist in Ithkuil as overt noun cases. These include the + roles of ENABLER, EXPERIENCER, STIMULUS, RECIPIENT, and CONTENT, and are explained + below using the following set of sentences as illustrations.

+
+

(2a) Mary hits the children.
+ (2b) Mary entertains the children.
+ (2c) Mary sees the children.
+ (2d) Mary tells the children a story.
+ (2e) Mary wants children.

+
+

Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary + is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object + (except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns + are entirely different in each of these five sentences. Beginning with Sentence + (2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the + children who obviously function in the role of PATIENT. Thus (2a) is identical + to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct object.

+

In Sentence (2b) however, Mary entertains the + children, there is a subtle distinction. At first we might consider Mary + an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become + entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result + (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. + In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, + but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a + sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like + a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or + behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen + to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting + change in the children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the + children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is termed an + ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained + or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or + consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves + unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, + a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS. + Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory + perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and + pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and + autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations + (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).

+

This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence + (2c) Mary sees the children, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes + an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other + words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever + a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ + does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” + (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the + “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action + at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. + In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” + as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction + to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled + states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such + as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are + categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role + in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo + any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not + in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being + seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of + sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, + the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting + originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun + participant.

+

In Sentence (2d) Mary tells the children a story, + Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the + telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, + or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing + RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western + languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract + referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.

+

The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence + (2e) Mary wants children, where they function as the “object” + of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children + undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s + desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory + referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, + being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation + similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, + Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.
+
+

+


+4.1.3 Argument Structure

+

In addition to case being based on semantic roles, Ithkuil differs in another important respect from natural languages in that it does not have a default argument structure for its verbal formatives.  This is explained below.

+

The individual verbs of natural languages each have an implied argument structure, i.e., a pattern of how nouns (i.e., “arguments”) interact with the particular verb and what formal role (from a morpho-semantic perspective) each of those nouns plays in relation to the verb.  For example, the verb “hit” in English implies the existence of an agent (i.e., someone doing the hitting) and a patient (i.e., someone undergoing the effect/result of the hitting), as in “He hit the dog.”  A different argument structure is illustrated by the verb “give” which implies an agent doing the giving, a patient undergoing the receiving, and a noun functioning in the semantic role of content, i.e., the item being given/received.

+

The grammar of natural languages specifies the requirements of which arguments to a verb must be present for a sentence to be grammatical and which arguments are optional.  This is illustrated, for example, in the following English sentences (ungrammatical sentences are preceded by an asterisk): 

+
+

3a)    Sam gave the girl a book.
+ 3b)    Sam gave a book.
+ 3c)    Sam gave.
+ 3d)  * Sam gave the girl.  (Intended meaning:  Sam gave something to the girl.)
+ 3e)  * Gave the girl a book.  (Intended meaning:  The girl was given a book or Someone gave the girl a book.)
+ 3f)  * Gave the girl.  (Intended meaning:  The girl was given something, or Someone gave something to the girl.)
+ 3g)  * Gave a book.  (Intended meaning:  Someone gave a book.)
+ 3h)  * Gave.  (Intended meaning:  Someone did some giving, or Giving occurred).

+
+

In sentence (3a), all three arguments to the verb “gave” are expressed, while in sentence (3b) the patient/recipient has been deleted.  Sentence (3c) deletes both the patient/recipient and the CONTENT argument.  In sentence (3d) however, when we try to delete the CONTENT argument of book while preserving the patient/recipient, the sentence requires syntactic restructuring into Sam gave [something] to the girl in order to remain grammatical (the asterisk * in front of the sentence indicates it is ungrammatical).  Likewise, sentences (3e), (3f), (3g) and (3h) are ungrammatical when we try to delete the agent, as well as either or both of the other two arguments as well, requiring paraphrasing to make the intended meaning grammatical).

+

Compare the above group of sentence containing the verb ‘gave’ with the sentences below featuring the verb ‘broke’:

+
+

4a)    Tim broke the window with a hammer.
+ 4b)    Tim broke the window.
+ 4c)    The hammer broke the window.
+ 4d)    The window broke.
+ 4e)    *The hammer broke.  (Intended meaning:  The hammer broke something.)
+ 4f)    *Tim broke.  (Intended meaning:  Tim broke something, or Tim did some breaking.)

+
+

Notice how sentence (3c) above, Sam gave, is grammatical, but the similarly structured sentence (4f) Tim broke is not.  Conversely, notice in comparing sentences (4a) and (4d) that the patient window is grammatical in both object and subject slots, but similarly placing the patient girl from sentence (3a) into subject slot gives the ungrammatical sentence *The girl gave (with intended meaning:  The girl was given something or Someone gave the girl something.)

+

Other examples of constraints on argument structure in English are illustrated as follows:

+

Bill cut the cake with a knife can be shortened to Bill cut the cake, but the syntactically identical She put the book on the shelf cannot be shortened to *She put the book.

+

Treatment healed my wounds can delete its agent to give My wounds healed, but the similar Treatment cured my wounds does not allow agent-deletion to *My wounds cured.

+

As can be seen, languages such as English are very haphazard in the various constraints on argument structure applied to individual verbs.  Sometimes it is possible to delete arguments but at other times doing so results in an ungrammatical sentence, even though a semantically equivalent paraphrase exists. Ithkuil has no such constraints on its argument structure.  As long as a sentence makes sense semantically and the relationships between explicit or implied arguments and their verb can be determined or inferred, then the Ithkuil sentence will be grammatically permissible.  This is possible because nouns in Ithkuil are marked for semantically-based case, as well as the fact that verbs are marked for Function, a category we will explore Section 5.1.
+

+

 

+


+

+

+
+ + + + +
4.2 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL + MARKERS FOR CASE
+
+

Case is shown in different ways in Ithkuil depending on + whether the case is being manifested in conjunction with a formative or a personal + reference adjunct (explained in Section + 8.1). For formatives, the 72 primary cases are shown by one of 72 forms of the vocalic affix Vc.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion
+


+ The particular Vc suffix-values are given in the Table 7 below. The names and function of each case are explained beginning in Section 4.3 below.

+

 

+


+ Table 7: Values for Vc by Case (for Cases 1 through 72. For Vc values for Cases 73 - 96 see Section 6.2.4)

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

1 OBL

a

13 PRP

î / û

25 PUR

e’

37 CMM

au

49 AVR

eu’

61 ALP*

oi’V

2 IND

u

14 GEN

ê

26 CSD

o’

38 COM

eu

50 CMP

ou’

62 INP*

ëi’V

3 ABS

e

15 ATT

ô

27 ESS

ea

39 CNJ

iu

51 SML*

a’V

63 EPS*

au’V

4 ERG

o

16 PDC

ëi

28 ASI

eo

40 UTL

ou

52 ASS*

e’V

64 PLM*

eu’V

5 EFF

ö

17 ITP

öi

29 FUN

eö

41 ABE

ëu

53 CNR*

i’V

65 LIM*

iu’V

6 AFF

i

18 OGN

ae

30 TFM

oa

42 CVS

öu

54 ACS*

o’V

66 LOC*

â’V

7 DAT

ü / a’e

19 PAR

ia / ua

31 REF

oe

43 COR

ai’

55 DFF*

u’V

67 ORI*

ê’V

8 INS

ai

20 CRS

ie / ue

32 CLA

öa

44 DEP

ui’

56 PER *

ö’V

68 PSV*

ô’V

9 ACT

ei

21 CPS

io / uo

33 CNV

öe

45 PVS

ei’

57 PRO*

ü’/ ëu’V

69 ALL*

î’V/û’V

10 DER

ui

22 PRD

iö / uö

34 IDP

üa / i’

46 PTL

oi’

58 PCV*

ai’V

70 ABL*

ëu’V

11 SIT

oi

23 MED

a’

35 BEN

üe / ö’

47 CON

au’

59 PCR*

ei’V

71 NAV*

ou’V

12 POS

â

24 APL

u’

36 TSP

üo / î’ / û’

48 EXC

iu’

60 ELP*

ui’V

72 VOC
ë
+

* Cases 51 – 71: The V represents a vowel form whose default value is -a-. However, if the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV, then optionally, V takes the value of the Vr affix and the Vr affix is deleted from Slot IV, e.g., opral declined into the SML case becomes either opra’al or pra’ol.

+


+ For personal reference adjuncts, which correspond roughly to personal pronouns in other languages, case markers are dependent on various factors, as explained in Section +8.1.

+

We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases + in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/“subjects” +and “objects” in Western languages.

+


+
+

+
+ + + + +
4.3 THE TRANSRELATIVE CASES
+
+

The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify + nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms + would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and + most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these + cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in Sec. + 4.1 above. The eleven transrelative cases are the OBLIQUE, + ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, + ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, and SITUATIVE. Followinghttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ +are explanations of the function and usage of each case.

+

Actual Ithkuil examples + of these cases in use are provided in Section 4.3.12.
+

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.1
OBL
The Oblique Case
+
+

The OBLIQUE case is marked by the Vc value -a-. As described above in Section 4.1.2, the OBLIQUE identifies the semantic role of CONTENT, whether it is something given to a + RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g., + a memory recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used + in translating sentences such as Sam gave me a book, The + child likes cereal. It is also the case associated with + existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb + ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description + of a noun as in the English sentences That boy is blind or The house was built of wood. The OBLIQUE, + being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun + (i.e., the form in which the noun would be listed in a dictionary).

+

+

 

+ +
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.2
IND
The Inducive Case
+
+

The INDUCIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u-. The INDUCIVE identifies a noun which + undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the noun is a PATIENT of an agential + action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does + not necessarily imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It + would be used in sentences such as The boy jumped, He sang, The dog barked all night, or She danced to the music, in which the party initiating and performing the action + are one and the same.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.3
ABS
The Absolutive Case
+
+

The ABSOLUTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e-. As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the ABSOLUTIVE identifies the semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator + is a different party than the patient who undergoes the resulting action. Note + that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need + not be overtly expressed. Examples of English sentences translatable using the ABSOLUTIVE would be The boy hit the girl, + She forced him to do it, The bird fell from + the sky, The prisoner died during the gun battle.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.4
ERG
The Ergative Case
+
+

The ERGATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o-. The ERGATIVE identifies the semantic + role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which initiates a tangible action undergone by another + party (the PATIENT), as described in Section 4.1.1. + Note that sentences involving an ERGATIVE agent need not + overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable + using the ERGATIVE would be The boy + hit the girl, She forced him to do it, That murderer kills for fun.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.5
EFF
The Effectuative Case
+
+

The EFFECTUATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ö-. The EFFECTUATIVE identifies the noun + acting in the semantic role of ENABLER, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events, + ultimately resulting in a final event. An example would be pulling out the plug + of a filled bathtub thereby causing ihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/t to empty. This case should therefore + be carefully distinguished from the ERGATIVE case. Ergatively + marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action + directly initiated by the agent, whereas EFFECTUATIVE nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in the + Ithkuil translation of the sentence The clown emptied the blood from the + tub, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by means of the ERGATIVE case, or as an ENABLER using the EFFECTUATIVE case. The + former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would + mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate + the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to + pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating + the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’

+

Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the ENB affix -ls to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this suffix, sentences + can be produced which specify whether the enablhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ement is via giving of consent + or permission, by persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a + hindrance, or even by inaction.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.6
AFF
The Affective Case
+
+

The AFFECTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -i-. The AFFECTIVE denotes a noun whose + semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described previously in Section + 4.1.2, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled) + experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result + of an external stimulus. Examples of shttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/uch states would be automatic sensory + experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, + blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; + automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising + one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state + such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, + anxiety, etc.

+

Example sentences requiring the use of the AFFECTIVE case would be The baby is coughing, The lightning startled her, Mortimer loves his vittles, Uncle + Davey slept till noon, My back itches me.

+

Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about + by the noun undergoing it, the INDUCIVE case would be + used, since the noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce + the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence The children smiled with glee (marked using the AFFECTIVE) + with The children smiled on cue (marked using the INDUCIVE).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.7
DAT
The Dative Case
+
+

The DATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ü- or, if the Cr root ends in a -w or -y, it is marked by the Vc value -ae’-. The DATIVE has two functions in Ithkuil. + Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving + and telling, i.e., the semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via + an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or + the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ithkuil + uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference + to possession or attribution. Ihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/t would therefore be used in translating sentences + such as We're giving you a present, Jason lent a dollar to his sister, Please grant me a wish, The + student has three books, Those mountains have a mysterious + quality.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.8
INS
The Instrumental Case
+
+

The INSTRUMENTAL case is marked by the Vc value -ai-. As described previously in Section 4.1.1, + the INSTRUMENTAL denotes a noun which functions as the + INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing + about a state. It is usually translated by Englishttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/h ‘with.’ Examples + of usage would be She killed him with a knife, The man + tripped over my foot, The password got him + inside. The INSTRUMENTAL is also used to mark translations + of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the + instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare I pressed the button with + my finger with My finger pressed the button, + both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s + missing agent, I.

+

Note that the INSTRUMENTAL does not translate + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied + by’ (see the COMITATIVE case below in Sec. + 4.5.20) as in She arrived with her father. Nor is it used to show + the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the + sentence He cooks with tomatoes (see the COMPOSITIVE case in Sec. 4.5.3), it is not the tomatoes that cook + the food, therefore the INSTRUMENTAL would not be used, + whereas in He fueled the fire with wood it is the wood that fuels the + fire, thus requirihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ng the INSTRUMENTAL case.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.9
ACT
The Activative Case
+
+

The ACTIVATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ei-. The ACTIVATIVE identifies a noun engaged + in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, + creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially + be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated + by the sentence Frank must go to Chicago, in which no actual travel + to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence Mother needs to rest, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both + sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains + an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar + hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences The students want + you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay. + Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” + verbs such as want, need, can, must, etc.

+

Notice that the subject of these English sentences (Frank, + Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) are functioning neither as AGENTS + nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify + as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects + are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, + needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, + such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” + the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence Sam wants Shirley + to love him, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked + as EXPERIENCERS using the AFFECTIVE case. Consequently, + Ithkuil uses the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the subject whose + mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized + situation. All of the subjects in the example sentences from the previous paragraph + (i.e., Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) would be so marked. + In Section 6.1 we will see how the ACTIVATIVE is used in conjunction with a morphological + category for verbs termed Modality to create such hypothetical states and situations.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.10
DER
The Derivative Case
+
+

The DERIVATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ui-. The DERIVATIVE serves two functions + in Ithkuil. Firstly, it identifies an inanimate FORCE of nature (as described + in Sec. 4.1.1) or abstract causative situation which + causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an action, as in The wind blew down the door, or Fame threatened his freedohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/m. + The use of the DERIVATIVE instead of the ERGATIVE or the EFFECTUATIVE denotes that such inanimate agential + forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or willingly initiate + actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the + resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force + or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, + a noun in the DERIVATIVE can often be translated using + phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result + of.’ Nouns in the DERIVATIVE can also appear in + appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun + in the DERIVATIVE denotes the abstract cause or reason + for the other noun, e.g., the danger of fame, love’s heartache, wind song.

+

The second function of the DERIVATIVE case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS + of an affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in The coffee smells good, I saw her today, + She hates that boy, Victor coughed from the gas, + We laughed at his jokes, That song makes me + cry. Ithkuil grammar views the stimulus of an experiential state as having + a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as + in the above examples); this explains why the DERIVATIVE case serves to indicate both functions.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.11
SIT
The Situative Case
+
+

The SITUATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi-. The SITUATIVE identifies a noun as + the background context for a clause. It is similar to the DERIVATIVE case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship + between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. + It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the + following examples:

+
+

Because of war, our planet will never + be able to join the Federation.
+ Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption + of our children.
+ Using my plan, we will defeat the enemy.

+
+


+
+ 4.3.12 Examples of Transrelative Cases in Use

+

The following are examples of various Ithkuil sentences showing how assigning different transrelative cases to the noun participants (i.e., the arguments to the verb) allows for various changes in meaning, regardless of argument structure.  As can be seen, the English translations of many of these sentences often require word order changes, word-substitution, even outright paraphrase, all in order to accommodate the constraints on English argument structure.

+
+


+ Roots used: -zb-  informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘anger; be angry/feel anger’               -kš-  formal Pattern 1, Stem 2 ‘clown’

+
+

STA = STATIVE function                                  DAT = DATIVE case
+ DYN = DYNAMIC function                                 IND = INDUCIVE case
+ AFF = AFFECTIVE case                                 GEN = GENITIVE case
+ SIT = SITUATIVE case                                      ABS = ABSOLUTIVE case
+ DER = DERIVATIVE case                               OBL = OBLIQUE case
+ ERG = ERGATIVE case                                   LOC = LOCATIVE case

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

‘be angry/feel anger’    

‘I/me’

‘clown’

MEANING

Azbal
+ STA

ti
+ AFF

ekšóil.
+ SIT

             LISTEN 
+ https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/‘I’m angry because of the clown (clown can’t hhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/elp it, not at fault).’ / ‘I’https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/m angry because there’s a clown.’ / ‘I’m angry at the presence of a clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

ti
+ AFF

ekšúil.
+ DER

‘The clown (unwittingly) makes me angry.’ / ‘I’m angry at the clown (something he’s done has made me angry).’

Azbal
+ STA

ti
+ AFF

ekšól.
+ ERG

‘The clown (deliberately) makes me angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

ti
+ AFF

èkšöl.
+ EFF

‘What the clown has (deliberately) started/caused makes me angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

ti
+ AFF

èkšül.
+ DAT

‘My angry state is directed toward/affects the clown (i.e., the clown notices/reacts to my anger).’

Azbal
+ STA

tü
+ DAT

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘I notice/feel that the clown is angry at me.’

Azbal
+ STA

tö
+ EFF

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘What I (deliberately) started/caused makes the clown angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

to
+ ERG

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘I (deliberately) anger the clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

tui
+ DER

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘I inadvertently anger the clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

toi
+ SIT

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘My being here angers the clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

tu
+ IND

ekšóil.
+ SIT

‘I make myself angry at the presence of the clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

tu.
+ IND

--

‘I (deliberately) make myself angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

tü.
+ DAT

--

‘Someone is behaving angrily toward me.’

Azbal
+ STA

tö.
+ EFF

--

‘I’ve (deliberately) started/caused something that makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

to.
+ ERG

--

‘I (deliberately) anger someone.’

Azbal
+ STA

tui.
+ DER

--

‘I (inadvertently) anger someone.’ / ‘What I’ve done makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

toi.
+ SIT

--

‘My presence makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

ti.
+ AFF

--

‘I’m angry.’ /  ‘I feel anger.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

ekšúl.
+ IND

‘The clown (deliberately) makes himself angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

èkšül.
+ DAT

‘Someone is behaving angrily toward the clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

èkšöl.
+ EFF

‘The clown has (deliberately) started/caused something that makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

ekšól.
+ ERG

‘The clown (deliberately) anger someone.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

ekšúil.
+ DER

‘The clown inadvertently angers someone.’ / ‘What the clown does makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

ekšóil.
+ SIT

‘(The presence of) the clown makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘The clown is angry.’ / ‘The clown feels anger.

Azbal
+ STA

--

--

‘There is a feeling of anger.’ /  ‘There is anger.’

+


+Same sentences as above but with DYNAMIC Function to convey action rather than state, i.e., angry behavior or physical display of anger rather than mere internal feeling of anger.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+

Izbal
+ DYN

+

ti
+ AFF

ekšóil.
+ SIT

 
+ ‘My display of anger/my angry behavior was because of the clown (with the clown being unaware of it and not its fault).’

Izbal
+ DYN

ti
+ AFF

ekšúil.
+ DER

‘My display of anger/my angry behavior was due to the clown (without the clown being necessarily aware of it).’

Izbal
+ DYN

ti
+ AFF

èkšül.
+ DAT

‘My display of anger/my angry behavior affected/intimidated the clown.’

+


+More examples of transrelative case patterns:

+
+

-k’-  formal Pattern 3, Stem 2 ‘burn’                            -ph-  informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘tree’

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

burn

1m

tree

MEANING

Iek’ás
+ DYN

to
+ ERG

phel.
+ ABS

         LISTEN 
+ https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/‘I burn the tree.’

&https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Ecirc;k’ás
+ STA

--

phel.
+ ABS

‘The tree burns.’

Iek’ás
+ DYN

--

phul.
+ IND

‘The tree burns itself.’ / ‘The tree makes itself burn.’

Iek’ás
+ DYN

to.
+ ERG

--

‘I cause something to burn.’ / ‘I burn.’ [meaning:  I cause burning to happen]

Iek’ás
+ DYN

tö.
+ EFF

--

‘I cause something to burn (through a chain of events).’ / ‘I burn.’ [meaning:  I cause a chain of events leading to burning]

Iek’ás
+ DYN

te.
+ ABS

--

‘I burn/am burning.’ / ‘Something burns me.’

Iek’ás
+ DYN

tu.
+ IND

--

‘I burn myself.’ / ‘I make myself burn.’

Iek’ás
+ DYN

tö
+ EFF

phel.
+ ABS

‘I cause the tree to burn (through a chain of events).’

Iek’ás.
+ DYN

--

--

‘Something’s doing some burning.’ / ‘Something’s making some burning happen.’

Êk’ás.
+ STA

--

--

‘Something’s burning.’ / ‘There’s burning happening.’

+


+Other patterns are possible.  For example, the following chart shows patterns that can be used to translate variations on English ‘I hit my leg with a rock’, or ‘I hit myself on the leg with a rock’, or ‘A rock hit me on the leg.’

+
+

-č-  informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘physical contact’ + FRC1/7 -->  čalosk ‘hit/strike’
+ -pr-  informal Pattern 2, Stem 1 ‘leg (as physical body part)’
+ -kt-  formal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘(piece of) rock’
+ tê = ‘I’ in genitive case referring to owner of the leg; combines as a prefix ê- with the various transrelative case forms of ‘I’ such as to, tu, te, etc. to give forms such as êto, êtu, êti.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

hit/strike

I

my leg

rock

MEANING

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êto
+ GEN / ERG

oprel
+ ABS

aktáil
+ INS

         LISTEN 
+ Ihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/mplies an intentional act against my leg, where my leg is seen as beinhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/g an entity subjectively separate from myself, thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/hus I am the agent while the leg is the patient.  Translation: ‘I (intentionally) hit my leg with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

opral
+ OBL

aktáil
+ INS

In this pattern, the leg is no longer seen as a patient separate from myself as the agent.  Rather, I am both agent and patient (i.e, I’m initating the action against myself), and the role of the leg is de-emphasized to being merely a referent for the act of hitting, i.e., it is I who got hit, not the leg; the leg is merely the part of me that got hit. Consequently, The closest English translation would be ‘I (intentionally) hit myself with a rock on the leg,’ using a locative construction “on the leg” not present in the Ithkuil sentence.  A stilted, but more accurate translation might be ‘I (intentionally) “leg-hit” myself with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN / ABS

opral
+ OBL

aktáil
+ INS

This sentence masks an implied agent, emphasizing myself as the patient/victim, while, as in the sentence immediately above, the leg is reduced to merely a referent for the hitting, its status as a patient and as the location/site of the hitting suppressed.  About the only way to show this suppression of agency in English is with a passive construction or a pseudo-passive construction using the verb ‘get’:  ‘I am/get (intentionally) “leg-hit” with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN / ABS

prâ’ol
+ LOC

aktáil
+ INS

This sentence is like the one immediately above except that the leg is the location/site of the hit.  Translation:  ‘I am/get (intentionally) hit on the leg with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

prâ’ol
+ LOC

aktáil
+ INS

Emphasizes that I am both agent and patient and that the leg is the location/site of the hitting.  Translation:  ‘I (intentionally) hit myself on my leg with a rock.‘

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

opral
+ OBL

aktáil
+ INS

Emphasizes that I am both agent and patient but with the leg reduced to merely the referent of hitting.  Impossible to translate accurately into English except with the contrived sentences ‘I “leg-hit” myself with a rock’ or ‘I (intentionally) get me my leg hit with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êti
+ GEN / AFF

prâ’ol
+ LOC

aktáil
+ INS

Suppresses the agency of the action, and emphasizes myself as unwilled/accidental victim of the hitting, with my leg as the location/site of the hit.  Translations:  ‘I (accidentally) am/get hit on the leg with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êti
+ GEN / AFF

opral
+ OBL

aktáil
+ INS

Like the example immediately above, exept with the role of the leg reduced from location to mere referent of the verb.  Translation:  ‘I am/get “leg-hit” (accidentally) with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

to
+ ERG

—

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘I (intentionally) hit something with a rock / I (intentionally do some hitting with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

tu
+ IND

—

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘I (intentionally) hit myself with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

te
+ ABS

—

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘I am/get (intentionally) hit with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ti
+ AFF

—

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘I am/get  hit (accidentally) with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê opril
+ AFF

aktáil
+ INS

Here, the distinction between myself and the leg is suppressed, so that the leg is seen as the unwilled/accidental victim, not me: ‘My leg is/gets hit (accidentally) with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê oprel
+ ABS

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘My leg is/gets (intentionally) hit with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê opral
+ OBL

aktáil
+ INS

This sentence reduces the role of the participant to the verb as merely an abstract referent for the hitting, with no implications of being the victim/target of hitting, or of me or the leg undergoing any tangible result of hitting.  This can only be approximated in English by contrived translations such as ‘“Leg-hitting” with a rock occurs’ or ‘An act of hitting with a rock involving my leg occurs.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê prâ’ol
+ LOC

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘There occurs a hit on my leg with a rock. /  A hit with a rock occurs on my leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

—

aktáil
+ INS

This sentence masks both agent and patient, as well as the location of the hitting, emphasizing only the instrument.  Possible translations:  ‘Hitting with a rock occurs,’ or ‘The rock hits something,’ or ‘Something gets hit with a rock.’

+


+Note that all of the above sentences can be restated without the presence of the rock as instrument:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

hit/strike

I

my leg

MEANING

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êto
+ GEN / ERG

oprel
+ ABS

‘I (intentionally) hit my leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

opral
+ OBL

‘I (intentionally) “leg-hit” myself.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN / ABS

opral
+ OBL

‘I am/get (intentionally) “leg-hit”.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN / ABS

prâ’ol
+ LOC

‘I am/get (intentionally) hit on the leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

prâ’ol
+ LOC

‘I (intentionally) hit myself on my leg. ‘

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

opral
+ OBL

‘I “leg-hit” myself’ or ‘I (intentionally) get me my leg hit.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êti
+ GEN / AFF

prâ’ol
+ LOC

‘I am/get hit (accidentally) on the leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êti
+ GEN / AFF

opral
+ OBL

‘I (accidentally) am/get “leg-hit”’ or ‘I (accidentally) get me my leg hit.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

to
+ ERG

—

‘I (intentionally) hit something.’ / ‘I do some hitting.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

tu
+ IND

—

‘I (intentionally) hit myself.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

te
+ ABS

—

‘I am/get (intentionally) hit.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ti
+ AFF

—

‘I am/get  hit (accidentally).’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê opril
+ AFF

‘My leg is/gets hit.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê oprel
+ ABS

‘My leg is/gets (intentionally) hit.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê opral
+ OBL

‘“Leg-hitting” occurs’ or ‘An act of hitting involving my leg occurs.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê prâ’ol
+ LOC

‘There occurs a hit on my leg. /  A hit occurs on my leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

—

‘Some hitting occurs’ / ‘Something does some hitting’ / ‘Something gets hit.’

+


+ Patterns with the rock in the DERIVATIVE case are also possible, in which the rock is seen as a blind force of nature (e.g., it has been hurled at the leg by a strong wind or has fallen on the leg from above, or has hit the leg after being kicked up by a passing vehicle, etc.).

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

hit/strike

I

my leg

rock

MEANING

Ičalosk
+  DYN

--

tê oprel
+ ABS

aktúil
+ DER

‘The rock hits my leg.’ / ‘My leg is/gets hit by a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN/ABS

prâ’ol
+ LOC

aktúil
+ DER

‘The rock hits me on my leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN/ABS

opral
+ OBL

aktúil
+ DER

‘I get my leg hit by the rock.’ / ‘I was/got “leg-hit” by the rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êti
+ GEN/AFF

opral
+ OBL

aktúil
+ DER

‘The rock “leg-hits” me.

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ti
+ AFF

--

aktúil
+ DER

‘The rock hits me.’ / ‘I am/get hit by a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

--

--

aktúil
+ DER

‘The rock hits something.’

+


+Possible Ithkuil translations for the English sentence ‘My back itches me.’

+

-kç-  informal Pattern 1, Stem 1:  ‘itch’
+ -xn-  informal Pattern 2, Stem 1:  ‘back, dorsal bodily surface’
+ OGN  = ORIGINATIVE case

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

itch

I

my back

MEANING

Kças
+ STA

êti
+ GEN/AFF

oxnall
+ OBL

         LISTEN 
+ ‘Mhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/y back itches me.’  This is grammatically acceptable and https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/the most neutral or vague.

Kças
+ STA

êti
+ GEN/AFF

xnâ’oll
+ LOC

‘I itch on my back.’  Emphasizes the bodily location of the itch.

Kças
+ STA

êti
+ GEN/AFF

oxnaell
+ OGN

‘The itching I’m feeling is coming from my back.’  Conveys the sense of the back being the place of origin of the itch.

+


+Again, each of the above Ithkuil sentences could delete the affective patient “I/me” from the sentence to render equivalents to the English sentence ‘My back itches’ and ‘There’s itching on my back.’ 

+

Use of the ABSOLUTIVE case with DYNAMIC function conveys the idea of an unnamed external agent that is causing the itching.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

itch

I

my back

MEANING

Ikças
+ DYN

êti
+ GEN/AFF

oxnell
+ ABS

‘Something is making my back itch me.’  Implies that the cause of the itching is an external unnamed agent.

Ikças
+ DYN

ête
+ GEN/ABS

xnâ’oll
+ LOC

‘Something is itching me on my back.’  Switches the patient role to me as opposed to my back, and implies that the cause of the itching is an external unnamed agent.

+


+If we remove the personal reference adjunct ‘I/me’ from the above two sentences, the respective translations become ‘Something is itching my back’ and ‘Something itches on my back.’

+

 

+

4.3.13 Using Case to Achieve “Middle Voice” Semantic Effects

+

English (among other languages) allows some of its verbs to operate both transitively (i.e., taking a direct object) as well as intransitively (i.e., without a direct object), where the object of the transitive sentence becomes the subject of the intransitive sentence.  Furthermore, the intransitive sentence describes the same potential event as the transitive version does, except that no agent is expressed, the focus of the sentence being on the result, not the act which gives rise to the result.  Examples:

+
+

The manager opened the store at 8 a.m.
+ The store opened at 8 a.m.

+

Robert flies the airplane beautifully.
+ The airplane flies beautifully.

+

The engineer increased the pressure.
+ The pressure increased.

+

I molded the soft clay easily.
+ The soft clay molded easily.

+
+

Note that the second sentence of each pair above is semantically distinct from its passive voice equivalent (i.e., The store was opened at 8 a.m., The airplane is flown beautifully, The pressure was increased, The soft clay was molded easily) in that passives allow for the agent to be overtly stated (using the preposition ‘by’ in English, as in The store was opened by the manager) or, if absent, nevertheless imply the existence of the agent.  However, the intransitive sentences above (equivalent to “middle voice” constructions in languages such as Swahili or Turkish) do not allow for expression of an agent and are designed to supress the semantic relevance (or saliency) of the agent.

+

However, English is very haphazard and idiosyncratic as to what verbs it allows to operate this way, often having to resort to paraphrase and idiomatic structures to accomplish the same effects as in the four intransitive sentences above.  For example [ungrammatical sentences are preceded by an asterisk]:
+

+

 Father painted the fence yellow.
+ * The fence painted yellow.
+ (But:  The fence came out yellow.)

+

I noticed a storm on the horizon.
+ * A storm noticed on the horizon.
+ (But:  A storm came into view on the horizon.)

+

The owner keeps scissors with the sewing supplies.
+ * Scissors keep with the sewing supplies.
+ (But:  Scissors belong/stay with the sewing supplies.)

+

Fans buy beer a lot at baseball games.
+ * Beer buys a lot at baseball games.
+ (But:  Beer sells a lot at baseball games.)

+
+

Of course, many English speakers would simply use the passive voice or a construction using ‘get’ to accomplish the same thing (i.e., The fence was/got painted yellow, A storm was noticed on the horizon, The scissors are/get kept with the sewing supplies, Beer is/gets bought a lot at baseball games.) without worrying about the existence of an implied agent. 

+

Many languages utilize reflexive constructions to accomplish this effect, e.g., Spanish Se habla español aquí, literally “Spanish speaks itself here”, meaning Spanish is spoken here.

+

Ithkuil, however, can manipulate the assignment of case to verb arguments to achieve this “middle voice” effect for any verb where it is semantically feasible, without having to resort to idiomatic constructions or paraphrase.  For example:

+
+


+ Aikkaldhort  âļnoccaţ. 
+ ‘chew’-easily   ‘snails’-ERGATIVE
+ Snails chew easily.  [meaning:  It is easy for snails to chew things.]          LISTEN 

+
+

https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ versus:

+
+

https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/
+ Aikkaldhort  âļneccaţ.  
+ ‘chew’-easily   ‘snails’-ABSOLUThttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/IVE
+ Snails chew easily.  [meaning:  It is easy to chew (on) snails.]          LISTEN 

+
+


+
https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ +

+

4.3.14 Specialized Suffixes Used to Expand the https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Functionality of the Transrelative + Cases

+It should be noted that Ithkuil provides an array of suffixes specifically designed + to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one of the Transrelative cases + to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal + relationships between participants to a verb in an Ithkuil sentence. These suffixes + include the Consent CNS suffix, the Reason RSN suffix, the Expectation XPT suffix, the Deliberateness DLB suffix, the Enablement ENB suffix, the Agency/Intent AGN suffix, and the Impact IMP suffix. These affixes are detailed in Section + 7.4.12 and discussed further in Section + 10.1.2.

+

 

+

https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/

+ + https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + +
4.4 THE POSESSIVE CASES
+

Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually + have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show + varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing + relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences:

+
+

the man’s hat = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]
+ the man’s house = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]
+ the man’s arm = part of his body [inalienable component]
+ the man’s brother = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]
+ the man’s happiness = he feels happy [affective experience]
+ the man’s rescue = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ + purpose]
+ the man’s gift = the gift is for him [benefaction]
+ the man’s gift = the gift is from him [source]
+ the man’s world = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective + association]
+ the man’s team = the team he is associated with [interactive + mutual association]
+ the man’s story = the story about him [topical reference]
+ the man’s painting = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]
+ the man’s command = his being a commander [role or function]

+
+

In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, + e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the + one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do + the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ + one he is giving or receiving? Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature + of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed + by the seven Possessive cases.

+

The Possessive cases make a distinction between alienable + versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether + the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. + These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many + American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor + noun, not the possessed. The seven Associative cases are the POSSESSIVE, + PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, PRODUCTIVE, INTERPRETATIVE, and ORIGINATIVE. + Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil + examples of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.4.8.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.1
POS
The Possessive Case
+
+

The POSSESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -â-. The POSSESSIVE is used to refer to + a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another + noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether + by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in + any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two + can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, + or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent + separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used + to translate English phrases such as his coat (e.g., + the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), the + boy’s book (e.g., the one in his hand), Father’s chair (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant).

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.2
PRP
The Proprietive Case
+
+

The PROPRIETIVE case is marked by the Vc value -î- or alternately -û-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -î-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -û-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The PROPRIETIVE identifies a noun having + alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual + control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, + law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The + two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship + cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration, + convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the POSSESSIVE above, we can analyze the connotative difference: his coat (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether + he is wearing it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., + the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the + one assigned to him).

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.3
GEN
The Genitive Case
+
+

The GENITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ê-. The GENITIVE is used to refer to a + noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or + association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent + or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) + bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s doors, the child’s father, the essence of that + woman.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.4
ATT
The Attributive Case
+
+

The ATTRIBUTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ô-. The ATTRIBUTIVE is used to refer to + a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective + (see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another + noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, + whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: his pain, Mother’s guilt, the + child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my needs.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.5
PDC
The Productive Case
+
+

The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëi-. The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator, + author or originator of another noun, e.g., the girl’s poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue (i.e., the one I sculpted).

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.6
ITP
The Interpretative Case
+
+

The INTERPRETATIVE case is marked by + the Vc value -öi-. The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun + acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the + noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, + as exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, our world, life as seen by children.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.7
OGN
The Originative Case
+
+

The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ae-. The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative source of another, or which + is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. , e.g., the man’s story (i.e., the one he told), our gift (i.e., + the one we are giving), water from the river, the fruit of the tree, Fix the kitchen sink! (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), Desert rocks are so + beautiful (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert + or rocks still present in the desert), Northern women are +easy-going.

+

The ORIGINATIVE + should be distinguished from the ABLATIVE in Section 4.7.5 below, in that + the ABLATIVE position or path of motion away from, + whereas the ORIGINATIVE merely presents a locational context + as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise simihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/lar +noun.

+


+
+ 4.4.8 Examples of Possessive Cases in Use

+
+


+ ultánļ  êmmâl
+ STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML &https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nbsp;  STA-‘male child ’-POS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘the boy's book’ [i.e., the one he has in his immediate possession, not one he necessarily owns]          LISTEN 

+


+
+ ultánļ https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/; êmmûl
+ STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML&https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nbsp;   STA-‘male child ’-PRP-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘the boy's book’ [i.e., the one he owns]          LISTEN 

+


+
+ öpţal  &ahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/grave;çtêl
+ STA-‘interior.corner’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/Uhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/NI-IFL    STA-‘room/chamber’-GEN-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ ‘corner of a room’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ xal  akţr&ocirhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/c;l
+ STA-‘see+thing.seen’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL  &nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/sp; STA-‘eagle’-ATT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘what the eagle sees’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ Isval  êhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/;zguirs  èkšôt  âmmit.
+ DYN-‘fear&rshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/quo;-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘sound.of.laughter’-DER-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/AGG-IFL  STA-‘clown’-ATT-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL          LISTEN 
+ ‘The sound of the clowns’ laughter frightens the children.https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/’     &https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nbsp;                                                           

+


+ ultánļ  êmmëil
+ STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/COA-FML    STA-‘male child’-PDC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+‘the boy's book’ [i.e., the one he authored]          LISTEN 
+
+
+ https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/
+
+https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ Iolmámžhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/  ûmmöil.
+ DYN-‘measure.of.music’-NRM/PRX/M/COA/CST-FML &nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/p;  STA-‘mother’-ITP-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘They’re playing mother’s song.’ [i.e., the one that is special to her]          LISTEN 

+


+
+
+ âmpafseč  &https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ecirc;qael
+ STA-‘whiff.of.odor’-OBL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/SEG-QUA1/3-IFL    STA-‘woman’-OGN-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘woman giving off a bad odor’ or ‘bad odor coming from/off the woman’          LISTEN 

+

  +

+ + + + + +
4.5 THE ASSOCIATIVE CASES
+

The Associative cases refer to a large group of cases which + modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually adjacent + noun or that it functions in an adverbial relationship to a verb. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, + we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in cat + box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man, etc., or joined by the word + ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., box of coins, dreams + of youth, sounds of laughter, or as a modifier of a verbal phrase. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.5.33 .

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.1
PAR
The Partitive Case
+
+

The PARTITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ia- or -ua-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -ia-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -ua-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. When used in conjunction with another noun, the PARTITIVE indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two + nouns, e.g., a cup of coffee, a box(ful) of books, + a train(load) of refugees. When used alone, it signifies + that the context of the phrase or sentence involves only a portion of the noun, + rather than the whole noun, e.g., I ate some bread, Pour (some) water down my back.

+

The PARTITIVE is also used to mark a + noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., three boxes, + two clowns, twenty words. This usage + is analyzed in detail in Chapter + 12, where we will see that, in Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e., + full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, + a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not + say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps + more eloquently, “a box trio.”

+

The PARTITIVE case is also used in constructing + words for Ithkuil numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed + in Chapter + 12 on enumeration.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.2
CRS
The Contrastive Case
+
+

The CONTRASTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ie- or -ue-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -ie-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -ue-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The CONTRASTIVE identifies a noun which +has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. This is translatable by the English + phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘rather than’ or ‘as opposed to,’ or specialized uses of ‘not,’ e.g., Instead + of rain, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, as opposed to +a maid; I prefer peas to carrots; Rather than marigolds, let’s buy carnations; That's sugar, not salt.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.3
CPS
The Compositive Case
+
+

The COMPOSITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -io- or -uo-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -io-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -uo-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The COMPOSITIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is + made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be That + statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) coins, We were caught in a web of lies, I use a wooden ladder, It was a house of cards, Three suits comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups.

+

The COMPOSITIVE is also used in conjunction + with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing + or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be She likes to + cook with tomatoes, He reads by candle(light), + That child goes through four sets of clothes a day, My uncle + satisfied his sweet tooth with three chocolate bars.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.4
PRD
The Predicative Case
+
+

The PREDICATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iö- or -uö-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -iö-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -uö-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The PREDICATIVE identifies a noun which + constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), + or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by + the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying + on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, + a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, + Can success supported by murder be sustained?

+

The PREDICATIVE should be distinguished + from Transrelative cases such as the DERIVATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL, + in that the PREDICATIVE does not denote a cause, merely + the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to + translate anxiety based on terror, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ + or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in + the phrase an attitude fueled by greed, the attitude derives from or + results from greed, but is not relying on it.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.5
MED
The Mediative Case
+
+

The MEDIATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -a’-. The MEDIATIVE indicates the physical, + psychological, or figurative medium through which another noun or event takes + place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as a radio announcement, arrival by water, a letter bomb, air mail, achieving ecstasy through sex, I + showed her my love with chocolate. It should be distinguished + from the INSTRUMENTAL case (see Section 4.3.8 above), + which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a + causative action. For example, in the sentence Call him on the phone!, + translating the phrase on the phonehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ into the INSTRUMENTAL case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call + him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE case + would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’

+

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.6
APL
The Applicative Case
+
+

The APPLICATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u’-. The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which + represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. + As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for + the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be a cup for coffee (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), a box for tools (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold + tools), a room for changing. Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” + cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” + book = ‘a book used as a projectile.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.7
PUR
The Purposive Case
+
+

The PURPOSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e’-. The PURPOSIVE identifies a noun which + characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The PURPOSIVE is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that + the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or + in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another + noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual + instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended + use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or + ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately + an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would + be a coffee cup, a toolbox, a litter box, a trashcan.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.8
CSD
The Considerative Case
+
+

The CONSIDERATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o’-. The CONSIDERATIVE identifies a noun + as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs + or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according + to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion + of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s + a coward; He’s leaving town as per orders from the court; + You were arrested pursuant to law; According to our + teacher, humans are descended from apes.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.9
ESS
The Essive Case
+
+

The ESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ea-. The ESSIVE identifies the role or name + by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ + in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would + be used in translating the English sentences They called him a clown, + The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider + you our only hope.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.10
ASI
The Assimilative Case
+
+

The ASSIMILATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eo-. The ASSIMILATIVE identifies a noun used as + a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a + verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in + the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of + usage are She sings like a bird, As children they + seemed to me.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.11
FUN
The Functive Case
+
+

The FUNCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eö-. It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in -ly or the adverbial use of with, identifying the manner in which an action, + event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to + characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately + by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would + be: She dances gracefully (i.e., in a manner characterized + by grace), The boys ate with gusto, That clown is speaking nonsense, Father speaks with such fortitude.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.12
TFM
The Transformative Case
+
+

The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by + the Vc value -oa-. The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome + or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ + or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone + some transformation. Example usages would be The house burned to + ashes, The clown reached a state of tranquility, The + clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank + himself to death.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.13
REF
The Referential Case
+
+

The REFERENTIAL case is marked by the Vc value -oe-. The REFERENTIAL identifies a noun functioning + as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ + ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ + ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ + Examples of use would be a song of love; As for + those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; + His attitude toward women.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.14
CLA
The Classificative Case
+
+

The CLASSIFICATIVE case is marked by + the Vc value -öa-. The CLASSIFICATIVE identifies a noun + as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various + English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are Place them in groups of three, The workers arranged the + tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can + you count by fives?, I will sort them by color.

+

The CLASSIFICATIVE is also used to identify + a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing + the manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time + periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature + of an event. Examples would be Month by month, their departure + crept closer; Year after year, I see more and more clowns; Day in, day out, he’s always working; + The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, bag upon bag; Patient by patient, the nurse administered injections.

+

Note that the CLASSIFICATIVE would not + be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used + to translate the sentence One bomb after another fell on the city. + Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations + of the noun (see Sec. + 7.4.4).

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.15
CNV
The Conductive Case
+
+

The CONDUCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öe-. The CONDUCTIVE identifies the meaningful + or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship + signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains + to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English + phrases translatable using this case are a circus clown, + a mountain man, a feeling of loneliness, the Mafia’s world, a realm of fear, my life achievement, childhood memories, Let’s + discuss the morality of war.

+

 

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.16
IDP
The Interdependent Case
+
+

The INTERDEPENDENT case is marked by + the Vc value -üa- unless the preceding Cr stems ending in -w or -y, in which case the Vc value is -i’-. The INTERDEPENDENT identifies a noun + which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship + with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal + in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within + it’s natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, + an army general, the blood in my veins, the + driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case + does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the GENITIVE case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, + or the leaves of a tree.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.17
BEN
The Benefactive Case
+
+

The BENEFACTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -üe- unless the preceding Cr stems ending in -w or -y, in which case the Vc value is -ö’-. The BENEFACTIVE identifies a noun for + whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the BENEFACTIVE is similar to the DATIVE, except that the BENEFACTIVE implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the + recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or + consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ + Examples of usage are a toy for the children, We threw him a party, Go to the teachers’ + lounge.

+

The BENEFACTIVE also translates the English + phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or + ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is + paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would + be He remained silent for her sake, They went on with the +ceremony out of respect for the families, They dressed in robes because of tradition.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.18
TSP
The Transpositive Case
+
+

The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -üo- unless the preceding Cr stem ends in -w, in which case the Vc value is -î’-, or the preceding Cr stem ends in-y, in which case the Vc value is -û’. The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution + of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense + of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead + of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are The boss made the speech for me, She went up into the attic for her brother (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.19
CMM
The Commutative Case
+
+

The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -au-. The COMMUTATIVE translates English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in You + paid too much money for that dress, She kills for thrills.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.20
COM
The Comitative Case
+
+

The COMITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu-. Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish + or Estonian, the COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’ + in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in The + child went with the clown to the party. Like English ‘with,’ + the COMITATIVE does not imply that the conjoined noun + is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb + as the head noun. For example, in the sentence My father was walking with + a loaf of bread, the loaf of bread is not considered to be itself walking.

+

It should be noted, however, that the COMITATIVE is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two + nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences They danced + with each other or Mother wants to talk with you. These would + be translated using the RECIPROCAL valence of the verb, + explained in Section 5.7. + This distinction is illustrated even more clearly by comparing the following + two sentences; the first would be translated usinhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/g the COMITATIVE, + the second would not: This man fought with my father (e.g., alongside + him during the war) versus This man fought with my father (e.g., they + had a fight with each other).

+

Note also that the COMITATIVE is not + used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by + means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as I + cut the meat with a knife. As previously discussed in Section + 4.3.8, instrumentality is indicated by use of the INSTRUMENTAL case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumedhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + in undertaking an act, as in He catches his fish with worms for which the COMPOSITIVE case is used.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.21
CNJ
The Conjunctive Case
+
+

The CONJUNCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu-. The CONJUNCTIVE translates English + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., + to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary + activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the COMITATIVE above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the walking with + a loaf of bread example from above, it would be incorrect to use the CONJUNCTIVE case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate + the usage, consider the sentence I’m with the brigade. Translating + ‘brigade’ using the COMITATIVE would mean + that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ + while using the CONJUNCTIVE would mean ‘I’m + a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE would be used are They skate with the best team, That teacher works well + with children.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.22
UTL
The Utilitative Case
+
+

The UTILITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou-. The UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in + the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ + where it refers to actual use in progress as in A man with a gun ran into the room. It should be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL (see Sec. 4.3.8) in that the latter indicates the implement + used to accomplish an action, while the UTILITATIVE identifies + https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish + a stated action. For example, compare the sentence The man with + an umbrella was pushing a stroller in the rain (UTILITATIVE) + with The man pushed a stroller in the rain with an umbrella (INSTRUMENTAL). The first sentence implies the man was + pushing a stroller with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the + rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the stroller. + Another way to translate the UTILITATIVE would be to use + an English gerundial construction as in A gun-wielding man ran into the room or An umbrella-toting man pushed + a stroller in the rain.

+

Besides the INSTRUMENTAL, the UTILITATIVE should likewise be distinguished from the COMITATIVE case + above, in that the COMITATIVE merely indicates accompaniment, + while the UTILITATIVE indicates use in progress. For example, + the sentence Go sit next to the girl with the book, + if translated using the COMITATIVE would merely identify + a girl who has a book in her visible possession, while with the UTILITATIVE it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.23
ABE
The Abessive Case
+
+

The ABESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëu-. The ABESSIVE is essentially the opposite + of the COMITATIVE, translating the English ‘without’ + or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not + having’ as in a day without rain or a treeless plain. As noted in the next section below on the CONVERSIVE case, it is not used to translate ‘without’ when + it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome as in I can’t go on without love.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.24
CVS
The Conversive Case
+
+

The CONVERSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öu-. The CONVERSIVE is used in conjunction + with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered + a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where + it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the + conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition + ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense + does not correspond to its usual ABESSIVE usage in Sec. + 4.5.23 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by + such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if + it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ + Example of usage: Without peace, this society is doomed; If not for the rain, we would have had a good time.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.25
COR
The Correlative Case
+
+

The CORRELATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ai’-. The CORRELATIVE is used to indicate + an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another + noun or verb, including subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic associations. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ + ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association + with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as career goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, + The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, + Our next topic is sex and (or in) art (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Additional examples are years of wonder, + the Clown Planet, life blood, city of + evil. Note that the CORRELATIVE case would often be used to translate constructions for which English often + uses an adjective, e.g., spatial coordinates, the political economy, a dangerous situation (i.e., a situation + characterized by danger).

+

When used in contexts involving directional motion or spatial positioning, + the CORRELATIVE signifies the directional orientation or position of one + noun relative to another, i.e., a noun relative + to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial + orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater + sense once one realizes that, in Ithkuil, most one-to-one spatial relationships + are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the + right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, this use of the CORRELATIVE case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples + of how it would be used are I’m standing four feet north of + the desk, The one hanging above the boxes looks fresh, + It lies at a 30° angle relative to the tree, He turned his back on me, + The upstairs bedroom faces the yard, It’s alongside the + desk (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk).

+

As will be described in Section 5.4.2.3, the CORRELATIVE is used with verbal case-frames to convey the equivalent of simple relative chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/lauses in Western languages.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.26
DEP
The Dependent Case
+
+

The DEPENDENT case is marked by the Vc value -ui’-. The DEPENDENT translates the English + phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which + the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be Depending + on the rain, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, depending + on her attitude.

+

The DEPENDENT should be distinguished + from the PREDICATIVE case in Sec. + 4.5.4, in that the former denotes contingency, while the PREDICATIVE denotes reliance.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.27
PVS
The Provisional Case
+
+

The PROVISIONAL case is marked by the Vc value -ei’-. The PROVISIONAL identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which + the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required + condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the + main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided + (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ + or ‘but only if,’ e.g., Provided [there’s] food, + I will attend the meeting; We will fight only in case of war.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.28
PTL
The Postulative Case
+
+

The POSTULATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi’-. The operates somewhat similarly to the PROVISIONAL above, except that the POSTULATIVE implies a causal or + consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s) + and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, + situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, + but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated + by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in + case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where + it means ‘whether’ as in I don’t know if it’s warm + enough, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality + (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). + Examples of usage: If [there’s] snow, I’m not + going out; In case of fire, flee; If friend, + welcome them, if foe, kill ’em.

+

The example below is offered to further distinguish the use of the POSTULATIVE case + from the PROVISIONAL case above:

+

PROVISIONAL: We’re packing + umbrellas, but only in case of bad weather (i.e., umbrellas + will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).
+
+ POSTULATIVE: We’re packing umbrellas in + case of bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation +for the possibility of bad weather).

+

+

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.29
CON
The Concessive Case
+
+

The CONCESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -au’-. The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun, + situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result + which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, + conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ + ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ + ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: In spite of + his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, + I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), + they are welcome, Although foreigners, we will let them attend + the meeting.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.30
EXC
The Exceptive Case
+
+

The EXCEPTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu’-. The EXCEPTIVE indicates a noun, situation, + or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main + clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ + or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: She loves everybody except + clowns; I like all animals, excluding dogs; He eats + almost anything but (not) spinach.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.31
AVR
The Aversive Case
+
+

The AVERSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu’-. The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a + source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions + such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in + avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see Sec. + 5.2) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage + are She finishttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/hed her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled + by night to avoid the sun.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.32
CMP
The Comparative Case
+
+

The COMPARATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou’-. The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being + compared to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as + compared to,’ or certain usages of ‘versus’ or ‘as opposed to.’ It is similar to the CONTRASTIVE case (see Section 4.5.2 above), except that it does not carry the sense of opposition, joint exclusivity, or either-or binary substitution of the CONTRASTIVE, but rather merely comparison/choice/preference from various options or along a spectrum or scale. With verbal case-frames (see Sec. 5.4) it would translate as + ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ge to ‘whereas’). + Examples are She chose the red one as opposed to the others, + Sam drives a van versus Joe, who prefers a truck, You’ll find it in Room Twelve [as opposed to a room with a different number].

+

 

+

+

4.5.33 Examples of Associative Cases in Use

+
+


+
+ âkyuál  vlal&echttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/irc;x
+ STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-IFL
+ ‘cup of coffee’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ âkniel
+ https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/STA-‘pet.snake’-CRS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL  
+ ‘as opposed to the pet snake / rather than the pet snake’          LISTEN 

+


+ https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/
+ uçtál  ophiol
+ STA-‘wall.of.room’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘wood’-CPS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘wooden wall’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ tharl  riöč
+ STA-‘law/statute’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘reason’-PRD-NRM/DEL/A/ASO/UNI-IFL
+ ‘laws based in reason’          LISTEN https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/

+


+
+ Opçav  ökcul  &ouhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ml;dhá’šk.
+ DYN-‘(self).directed.motion.throughout.three.dimensional.volume’-NRM/PRX/N/VAR/UNI-IFL    STA-‘virus’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     + STA-‘drink.of.water’-MED-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CST-FML
+ ‘The virus spreads via the drinking water.’          LISTEN https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/

+

+
+ âkyú’l  vlal&ecihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/rc;x
+ STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-APL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-IFL
+ ‘cup being used for coffee’

+


+
+ âkyé’l  vlal&ecihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/rc;x
+ STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-PUR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-IFL
+ ‘coffee cup’          LISTEN https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/

+

+
+ esro’láun
+ https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ STA-‘prepared/cooked food’-CSD-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML-AGC2/2
+ ‘according to the cook’          LISTEN https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/

+


+
+ Idawelar  êmmil  uk&scarhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/on;eal.
+ DYN-‘nickname/label’-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-IFL     STA-‘male.child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘nerd’-ESS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘Don't call the boy a nerd.’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ las  almeodh
+ STA-‘voice’-OBL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘musical.note’-ASI-NRM/DEL/PRX/N/CSL/Uhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/NI-IFL
+ ‘a voice like music’

+


+
+ eqtèöck
+ STA-‘degree.of.happiness’-FUN-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-FML 
+ ‘happily /in a manner chhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/aracterized by happiness’       https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/   LISTEN 

+


+
+ ˉSakč’a  tô  myicka  zboack.
+ CPT-STA-‘change.state’-NRM/GRA/U/CSL/UNI-IFL      1m/ATT      STA-‘sense.of.gratitude’-AFF-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL  
+ STA-‘feeling.of.anger’-TFM-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘My sense of gratitude gradhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ually turned into anger.’       https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/   LISTEN 

+


+
+ ultánļ  açkhwoeţ
+ STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML      STA-‘porcupine’-REF-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ &lsquohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/;a book about porcupines’       https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/   LISTEN 

+


+
+ kpöal
+ STA-‘extent.of.spatial.length’-CLA-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ ‘lengthwise’       https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/   LISTEN 
+

+

 

+


+
+

+
+ + + + +
4.6 THE TEMPORAL CASES
+

The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In + many respects, Ithkuil analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly + in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases + as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ + and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear + using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ + ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the SIMULTANEITIVE, + ASSESSIVE, CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, + POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, and LIMITATIVE. Following are explanatihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ons + of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases + in use are provided in Sec. 4.6.16.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.1
SML
The Simultaneitive Case
+
+

The SIMULTANEITIVE case is marked by + the Vc value -a’a-, or optionally -a’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The SIMULTANEITIVE identifies a noun + signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion. + Examples would be I was in class at the same time as his accident, + I worked a side-job concurrent to the strike, She laughed simultaneously + with my coughing fit.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.2
ASS
The Assessive Case
+
+

The ASSESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e’a-, or optionally -e’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The ASSESSIVE specifies the unit of + time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to + English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be My lawyer + charges by the minute, He publishes several books each + year, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles per hour.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.3
CNR
The Concursive Case
+
+

The CONCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -i’a-, or optionally -i’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal + locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during + or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered + a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be He prays during + lunch, She studied hard last night, I won’t + visit until then (i.e., during that period in time).

+

+
+

 

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.4
ACS
The Accessive Case
+

The ACCESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o’a-, or optionally -o’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The ACCESSIVE is similar to the CONCURSIVE, except + that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly delimited + period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something + occurs. Examples of usage would be Dinner will be served at sunset; When (i.e., at the moment that) you hear his voice, https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + call in the clowns; Upon impact, both cars were accelerating.

+

+

+

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.5
DFF
The Diffusive Case
+

The DIFFUSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u’a-, or optionally -u’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The DIFFUSIVE is yet another temporal + locative similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time + period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on + the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase + ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be Most cars had tail fins in those days; I was abroad during + that era; At the time of his death, the number of + clowns was increahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/sing; Over the past several seasons, your + talent has matured.

+

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.6
PER
The Periodic Case
+

The PERIODIC case is marked by the Vc value -ö’a-, or optionally -ö’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The PERIODIC identifies the span of + time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This + case should be distinguished from the CONCURSIVE above, + in that the CONCURSIVE signifies + a contextually single holistic event, whereas the PERIODIC specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions, + or durationally extended acts or states take place. Examples would be He wrote the novel in six months, These clowns can corrupt your child within + a few days, The woman has been ill a lot this year, For the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating.

+

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.7
PRO
The Prolapsive Case
+

The PROLAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ü’a- (or -ëu’a- if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w or -y). Optionally the Vc value can be -ü’V- (or -ëu’V- if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w or -y), where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The PROLAPSIVE signifies the duration + of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case + should be distinguished from the PERIODIC above, in that + the PROLAPSIVE specifies the actual duration of the act, + condition, or event, whereas the PERIODIC merely specifies + a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, + or event occurs. Examples would be He prayed through lunch, While he was dying, the number of clowns increased, It rained all night, It took threhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/e days for the fever + to break, She sang for an hour.

+

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.8
PCV
The Precursive Case
+

The PRECURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ai’a-, or optionally -ai’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The PRECURSIVE identifies a point in + time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred before the war, It rained prior + to his appearance, There will be a presentation preceding the + banquet.

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.9
PCR
The Postcursive Case
+

The POSTCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ei’a-, or optionally -ei’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The POSTCURSIVE identifies a point + in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred after the war, It rained subsequent + to his appearance, There will be a presentation following the + banquet.

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.10
ELP
The Elapsive Case
+

The ELAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ui’a-, or optionally -ui’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The ELAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, + condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ + Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going + back three generations, women could not even vote.

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.11
ALP
The Allapsive Case
+

The ALLAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi’a-, or optionally -oi’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The ALLAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of + a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be Four years + from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, + clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little + did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man.

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.12
INP
The Interpolative Case
+

The INTERPOLATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëi’a-, or optionally -ëi’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The INTERPOLATIVE is used within the + context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the + duration of each repetition. Examples of usage are We heard several five-second snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals of several + seconds; She gets recurring migraines, each lasting hours.

+

 

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.13
EPS
The Episodic Case
+
+

The EPISODIC case is marked by the Vc value -au’a-, or optionally -au’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The EPISODIC identifies a contextually + recurring time-period. Examples of usage are The man talks with his mother every three days; Each year, I travel to the + Clown Planet; He works nights; By day, she + is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays.

+

 

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.14
PLM
The Prolimitive Case
+
+

The PROLIMITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu’a-, or optionally -eu’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The PROLIMITIVE defines a point in + time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e., + the time by which some act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would + be By the time of your graduation, I want you out of the + house; Please be on board by midnight; By the time + of the raid, there was nothing left to steal.

+

 

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.15
LIM
The Limitative Case
+
+

The LIMITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu’a-, or optionally -iu’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The LIMITATIVE signifies a event culminating + an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time + for.’ Examples of usage are He arrived in time for dinner, + Be inside the Big Tent in time for the clowns.

+

 

+


+ 4.6.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use

+
+


+
+ ţkoi’al  żial
+ STA-‘three’-ALP-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNIIFL     STA-‘day (24-hr. period)’-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+&#https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/8216;three days from now’       https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/   LISTEN 

+


+
+ qô  teu’at’
+ ma-ATT     STA-‘life’-PLM-NRM/TRM/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘by the tihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/me of his death’       https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/   LISTEN 

+


+
+ llau’atļuarl
+ STA-‘one’-EPS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-CAL2/1-IFL
+ ‘on Sundays’         LISTEN 

+


+
+ Igvarsukt  tu  ţkü’al  żial.
+ DYN-‘article of clothing’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/AGG-DEF1/9-IFL     1m-IND       STA-‘three’-PRO-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL &nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/p; 
+ IFL-‘day (24-hr. periohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/d)’-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ ‘I’ve been (deliberately) wearing these clothes for thhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ree days.’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ žô  chei’as
+ 1m+2u+ua-ATT    &https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nbsp;STA-‘grief’-PCR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘after our period of grief’          LISTEN 

+
+


+ _____

+ + + + +
4.7 THE SPATIAL CASES
+

As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ithkuil. + While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque + and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional + relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished + in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (ehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be + inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, + there are six cases corresponding to certain types of spatial relationships. + These are the LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, + and NAVIGATIVE.

+

Also: see Section 4.5.25 above regarding the use of the CORRELATIVE case in sentences involving spatial direction or orientation.

+

Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided + in Sec. 4.7.7.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.1
LOC
The Locative Case
+
+

The LOCATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -â’a-, or optionally -â’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The LOCATIVE signifies general static + position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable + by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ + or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., in that building, by + the wall, on the street, at my house.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.2
ORI
The Orientative Case
+
+

The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ê’a-, or optionally -ê’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The ORIENTATIVE identifies the noun + (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” + of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable + into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ + in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., He jumped in feet-first, The car rolled backward. + The ORIENTATIVE allows for the extension of this concept + to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., He walked “butt-ward” + down the street (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading + the way).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.3
PSV
The Procursive Case
+
+

The PROCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ô’a-, or optionally -ô’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The PROCURSIVE identifies a noun (often + a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point, + interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction + with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun usually appears + in the ALLATIVE case (see below). Examples of use would be They + collided sideways, She turned her back on + him, The chair “faced” the doorway (i.e., + The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.4
ALL
The Allative Case
+
+

The ALLATIVE case is marked by either the Vc value -î’a- or -û’a-; if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w, the Vc value is -î’V-, whereas if the preceding Cr stem ends in -y, the Vc value is -û’V-; for other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. Optionally the Vc value can be -î’V- or -û’V- (under the same rules for Cr stems ending in -w or -y), where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

When used in the context of explicit or implied directional + motion, the ALLATIVE signifies the direction of motion, + translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ + in English. Note that the ALLATIVE in no way implies that + the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion + or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be I wandered eastward, The little girl ran toward me, Throw + the rock at that clown!, We headed for home.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.5
ABL
The Ablative Case
+
+

The ABLATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëu’a-, or optionally -ëu’V-, where V hhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/as the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if both phonotactically and morpho-phonologically permissible (i.e., if it’s deletion does not violate phonotactic rules (see Section 1.4) and does not cause confusion or ambiguity in parsing the various consonants and vowels of the formative into their respective morphemes (i.e., their grammatical components).

+

When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion, + the ABLATIVE signifies the general directional origin + of movement away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin + or departure. Examples would be He came out of the east, + She walked here from (the direction of) the river.

+

When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the ABLATIVE signifies a reverse directional orientation + of one noun relative to another, e.g., He faced away from me.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.6
NAV
The Navigative Case
+
+

The NAVIGATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou’a-, or optionally -ou’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The NAVIGATIVE identifies the noun + relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event + takes place. This is particularly important, as we will see in Section + 10.3.3 that Ithkuil modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors + of movement or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as + the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be I looked down + the street, We https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/aligned it perpendicular to the path of the + sun, He crossed the room diagonally (i.e., walked + diagonally relative to the long axis of the room.)

+


+ 4.7.7 Examples of Spatial Cases in Use

+
+


+ Ûb  eikkradwa  smou’olâxh.
+ EXN1/6     DYN-‘move.along.obliquely.vertical.path.between.two.points’-RPV/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL      STA-‘valley’-NAV-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5-IFL
+ The path through the canyon is steep.  &nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/p;       LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Ičatosk  êti  prâ’ol
+ DYN-‘physical.contact’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FRC1/7-IFL        GEN-1m-AFF       STA-‘leg’-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘I got hit on the leg.    &https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nbsp;     LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Uajatiuçkims  ţê’al  qi.
+ DYN-‘downward movement’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-PHY2/1-AGN1/1-IFL    STA-‘head’-ORI-NRM/https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    ma-AFF
+ He fell headfirst to his death.          LISTEN 

+

 

+
+
+


+

+
+ + + + +
4.8 THE VOCATIVE
+

The VOCATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ë-. The VOCATIVE is used when a nominal formative is used in direct address. In modern colloquial English, there is no vocative form, and the base form of the noun, name, or pronoun is used, usually followed by an exclamation point if the vocative functions as its own sentence, e.g., ‘Bill!’ or ‘Please come this way, sir’ or ‘Driver, take me to 53rd and 3rd.’ However, in archaic, poetic, formal or dramatic contexts, English utilizes the vocative particle "o&quohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/t;, as in ‘O Time, thy pyramids!’ or ‘Why me, o lord?’

+
+


+

+ +

 

+

Proceed to Chapter 5: Verb Morphology >>

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + 4 Case Morphology + https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + https://web.archive.org/web/20111006062030id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

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+

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+

(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
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+ + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/04_case.html.orig b/2004-en/04_case.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d0a09c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/04_case.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,3448 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 4: Case Morphology + + + + + +

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
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Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
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Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+

 

+

Chapter 4: Case Morphology

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 4.1 Semantic Role versus Positional Slot 4.5 The Associative Cases
 4.2 Morpho-Phonological Markers for Case 4.6 The Temporal Cases
 4.3 The Transrelative Cases 4.7 The Spatial Cases
 4.4 The Possessive Cases 4.8 The Vocative
+


+ In this chapter, we analyze one additional morphological category: + Case. Like the seven categories analyzed in the previous chapter, and unlike + other languages, the category of Case applies to all formatives in Ithkuil, + i.e., to both nouns and verbs alike. However, the syntactical context in which + Case operates is sufficiently dissimilar for nouns and verbs to warrant separate + analysis. In this chapter, we will analyze the case morphology of nouns alone. + The use of Case with verbs will be analyzed in Section +5.2.

+

Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek + or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to + a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its + phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays + in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence It was me she saw, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed + to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ + distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object + of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence Der + Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the + man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ + distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) + from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ + (accusative case).

+

The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the + notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, + there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether + a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. + In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute + for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases. + The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in + order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and + the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known as its declensions.

+

There are 96 cases in Ithkuil, comprising 72 main cases, and 24 Comparison cases. The Comparison cases serve specialized functions associated with the verbal category called Level and are discussed separately in Section 6.2.4. The 72 main cases are dealt with in this chapter.

+


+

+

+
+ + + + +
4.1 + SEMANTIC ROLE VERSUS POSITIONAL SLOT
+
+

In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level + of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct + object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is + ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role + can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:

+
+

(1a) John opened the door with the key.
+ (1b) The key opened the door.
+ (1c) The wind opened the door.
+ (1d) The door opened.

+
+

In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, + i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their + semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, John, the key, the wind, and the door. Yet + it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated + in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence + (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that + the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while + in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role + in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. + As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first + three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role + in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a + change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ + in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ + in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), + yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role + of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in + (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act + of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a + subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of + the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while + being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed + choice to initiate such action.

+


+ 4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role

+

The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot + (i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate semantic + role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between + sets of sentences like those above. In Ithkuil, however, the case of a noun + is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the + sentence relative to the verb. These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental + or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns + in other languages. Thus Ithkuil noun declension more accurately reflects the + underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western + grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little + meaning or applicability in Ithkuil grammar.

+

The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ithkuil. + They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” + of Western languages:

+

AGENT: The animate, (and usually conscious + and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing + a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence + (1a) above.

+

FORCE: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an + act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.

+

INSTRUMENT: The noun which functions as the + physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ + in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.

+

PATIENT: The noun which undergoes a change + in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or + by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.

+

 

+


+ 4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles

+

Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects + in Western languages exist in Ithkuil as overt noun cases. These include the + roles of ENABLER, EXPERIENCER, STIMULUS, RECIPIENT, and CONTENT, and are explained + below using the following set of sentences as illustrations.

+
+

(2a) Mary hits the children.
+ (2b) Mary entertains the children.
+ (2c) Mary sees the children.
+ (2d) Mary tells the children a story.
+ (2e) Mary wants children.

+
+

Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary + is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object + (except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns + are entirely different in each of these five sentences. Beginning with Sentence + (2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the + children who obviously function in the role of PATIENT. Thus (2a) is identical + to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct object.

+

In Sentence (2b) however, Mary entertains the + children, there is a subtle distinction. At first we might consider Mary + an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become + entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result + (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. + In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, + but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a + sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like + a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or + behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen + to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting + change in the children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the + children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is termed an + ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained + or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or + consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves + unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, + a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS. + Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory + perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and + pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and + autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations + (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).

+

This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence + (2c) Mary sees the children, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes + an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other + words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever + a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ + does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” + (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the + “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action + at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. + In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” + as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction + to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled + states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such + as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are + categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role + in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo + any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not + in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being + seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of + sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, + the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting + originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun + participant.

+

In Sentence (2d) Mary tells the children a story, + Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the + telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, + or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing + RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western + languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract + referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.

+

The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence + (2e) Mary wants children, where they function as the “object” + of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children + undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s + desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory + referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, + being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation + similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, + Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.
+
+

+


+4.1.3 Argument Structure

+

In addition to case being based on semantic roles, Ithkuil differs in another important respect from natural languages in that it does not have a default argument structure for its verbal formatives.  This is explained below.

+

The individual verbs of natural languages each have an implied argument structure, i.e., a pattern of how nouns (i.e., “arguments”) interact with the particular verb and what formal role (from a morpho-semantic perspective) each of those nouns plays in relation to the verb.  For example, the verb “hit” in English implies the existence of an agent (i.e., someone doing the hitting) and a patient (i.e., someone undergoing the effect/result of the hitting), as in “He hit the dog.”  A different argument structure is illustrated by the verb “give” which implies an agent doing the giving, a patient undergoing the receiving, and a noun functioning in the semantic role of content, i.e., the item being given/received.

+

The grammar of natural languages specifies the requirements of which arguments to a verb must be present for a sentence to be grammatical and which arguments are optional.  This is illustrated, for example, in the following English sentences (ungrammatical sentences are preceded by an asterisk): 

+
+

3a)    Sam gave the girl a book.
+ 3b)    Sam gave a book.
+ 3c)    Sam gave.
+ 3d)  * Sam gave the girl.  (Intended meaning:  Sam gave something to the girl.)
+ 3e)  * Gave the girl a book.  (Intended meaning:  The girl was given a book or Someone gave the girl a book.)
+ 3f)  * Gave the girl.  (Intended meaning:  The girl was given something, or Someone gave something to the girl.)
+ 3g)  * Gave a book.  (Intended meaning:  Someone gave a book.)
+ 3h)  * Gave.  (Intended meaning:  Someone did some giving, or Giving occurred).

+
+

In sentence (3a), all three arguments to the verb “gave” are expressed, while in sentence (3b) the patient/recipient has been deleted.  Sentence (3c) deletes both the patient/recipient and the CONTENT argument.  In sentence (3d) however, when we try to delete the CONTENT argument of book while preserving the patient/recipient, the sentence requires syntactic restructuring into Sam gave [something] to the girl in order to remain grammatical (the asterisk * in front of the sentence indicates it is ungrammatical).  Likewise, sentences (3e), (3f), (3g) and (3h) are ungrammatical when we try to delete the agent, as well as either or both of the other two arguments as well, requiring paraphrasing to make the intended meaning grammatical).

+

Compare the above group of sentence containing the verb ‘gave’ with the sentences below featuring the verb ‘broke’:

+
+

4a)    Tim broke the window with a hammer.
+ 4b)    Tim broke the window.
+ 4c)    The hammer broke the window.
+ 4d)    The window broke.
+ 4e)    *The hammer broke.  (Intended meaning:  The hammer broke something.)
+ 4f)    *Tim broke.  (Intended meaning:  Tim broke something, or Tim did some breaking.)

+
+

Notice how sentence (3c) above, Sam gave, is grammatical, but the similarly structured sentence (4f) Tim broke is not.  Conversely, notice in comparing sentences (4a) and (4d) that the patient window is grammatical in both object and subject slots, but similarly placing the patient girl from sentence (3a) into subject slot gives the ungrammatical sentence *The girl gave (with intended meaning:  The girl was given something or Someone gave the girl something.)

+

Other examples of constraints on argument structure in English are illustrated as follows:

+

Bill cut the cake with a knife can be shortened to Bill cut the cake, but the syntactically identical She put the book on the shelf cannot be shortened to *She put the book.

+

Treatment healed my wounds can delete its agent to give My wounds healed, but the similar Treatment cured my wounds does not allow agent-deletion to *My wounds cured.

+

As can be seen, languages such as English are very haphazard in the various constraints on argument structure applied to individual verbs.  Sometimes it is possible to delete arguments but at other times doing so results in an ungrammatical sentence, even though a semantically equivalent paraphrase exists. Ithkuil has no such constraints on its argument structure.  As long as a sentence makes sense semantically and the relationships between explicit or implied arguments and their verb can be determined or inferred, then the Ithkuil sentence will be grammatically permissible.  This is possible because nouns in Ithkuil are marked for semantically-based case, as well as the fact that verbs are marked for Function, a category we will explore Section 5.1.
+

+

 

+


+

+

+
+ + + + +
4.2 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL + MARKERS FOR CASE
+
+

Case is shown in different ways in Ithkuil depending on + whether the case is being manifested in conjunction with a formative or a personal + reference adjunct (explained in Section + 8.1). For formatives, the 72 primary cases are shown by one of 72 forms of the vocalic affix Vc.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion
+


+ The particular Vc suffix-values are given in the Table 7 below. The names and function of each case are explained beginning in Section 4.3 below.

+

 

+


+ Table 7: Values for Vc by Case (for Cases 1 through 72. For Vc values for Cases 73 - 96 see Section 6.2.4)

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

1 OBL

a

13 PRP

î / û

25 PUR

e’

37 CMM

au

49 AVR

eu’

61 ALP*

oi’V

2 IND

u

14 GEN

ê

26 CSD

o’

38 COM

eu

50 CMP

ou’

62 INP*

ëi’V

3 ABS

e

15 ATT

ô

27 ESS

ea

39 CNJ

iu

51 SML*

a’V

63 EPS*

au’V

4 ERG

o

16 PDC

ëi

28 ASI

eo

40 UTL

ou

52 ASS*

e’V

64 PLM*

eu’V

5 EFF

ö

17 ITP

öi

29 FUN

eö

41 ABE

ëu

53 CNR*

i’V

65 LIM*

iu’V

6 AFF

i

18 OGN

ae

30 TFM

oa

42 CVS

öu

54 ACS*

o’V

66 LOC*

â’V

7 DAT

ü / a’e

19 PAR

ia / ua

31 REF

oe

43 COR

ai’

55 DFF*

u’V

67 ORI*

ê’V

8 INS

ai

20 CRS

ie / ue

32 CLA

öa

44 DEP

ui’

56 PER *

ö’V

68 PSV*

ô’V

9 ACT

ei

21 CPS

io / uo

33 CNV

öe

45 PVS

ei’

57 PRO*

ü’/ ëu’V

69 ALL*

î’V/û’V

10 DER

ui

22 PRD

iö / uö

34 IDP

üa / i’

46 PTL

oi’

58 PCV*

ai’V

70 ABL*

ëu’V

11 SIT

oi

23 MED

a’

35 BEN

üe / ö’

47 CON

au’

59 PCR*

ei’V

71 NAV*

ou’V

12 POS

â

24 APL

u’

36 TSP

üo / î’ / û’

48 EXC

iu’

60 ELP*

ui’V

72 VOC
ë
+

* Cases 51 – 71: The V represents a vowel form whose default value is -a-. However, if the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV, then optionally, V takes the value of the Vr affix and the Vr affix is deleted from Slot IV, e.g., opral declined into the SML case becomes either opra’al or pra’ol.

+


+ For personal reference adjuncts, which correspond roughly to personal pronouns in other languages, case markers are dependent on various factors, as explained in Section +8.1.

+

We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases + in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects” +and “objects” in Western languages.

+


+
+

+
+ + + + +
4.3 THE TRANSRELATIVE CASES
+
+

The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify + nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms + would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and + most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these + cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in Sec. + 4.1 above. The eleven transrelative cases are the OBLIQUE, + ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, + ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, and SITUATIVE. Following +are explanations of the function and usage of each case.

+

Actual Ithkuil examples + of these cases in use are provided in Section 4.3.12.
+

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.1
OBL
The Oblique Case
+
+

The OBLIQUE case is marked by the Vc value -a-. As described above in Section 4.1.2, the OBLIQUE identifies the semantic role of CONTENT, whether it is something given to a + RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g., + a memory recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used + in translating sentences such as Sam gave me a book, The + child likes cereal. It is also the case associated with + existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb + ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description + of a noun as in the English sentences That boy is blind or The house was built of wood. The OBLIQUE, + being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun + (i.e., the form in which the noun would be listed in a dictionary).

+

+

 

+ +
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.2
IND
The Inducive Case
+
+

The INDUCIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u-. The INDUCIVE identifies a noun which + undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the noun is a PATIENT of an agential + action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does + not necessarily imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It + would be used in sentences such as The boy jumped, He sang, The dog barked all night, or She danced to the music, in which the party initiating and performing the action + are one and the same.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.3
ABS
The Absolutive Case
+
+

The ABSOLUTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e-. As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the ABSOLUTIVE identifies the semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator + is a different party than the patient who undergoes the resulting action. Note + that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need + not be overtly expressed. Examples of English sentences translatable using the ABSOLUTIVE would be The boy hit the girl, + She forced him to do it, The bird fell from + the sky, The prisoner died during the gun battle.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.4
ERG
The Ergative Case
+
+

The ERGATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o-. The ERGATIVE identifies the semantic + role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which initiates a tangible action undergone by another + party (the PATIENT), as described in Section 4.1.1. + Note that sentences involving an ERGATIVE agent need not + overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable + using the ERGATIVE would be The boy + hit the girl, She forced him to do it, That murderer kills for fun.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.5
EFF
The Effectuative Case
+
+

The EFFECTUATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ö-. The EFFECTUATIVE identifies the noun + acting in the semantic role of ENABLER, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events, + ultimately resulting in a final event. An example would be pulling out the plug + of a filled bathtub thereby causing it to empty. This case should therefore + be carefully distinguished from the ERGATIVE case. Ergatively + marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action + directly initiated by the agent, whereas EFFECTUATIVE nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in the + Ithkuil translation of the sentence The clown emptied the blood from the + tub, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by means of the ERGATIVE case, or as an ENABLER using the EFFECTUATIVE case. The + former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would + mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate + the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to + pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating + the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’

+

Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the ENB affix -ls to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this suffix, sentences + can be produced which specify whether the enablement is via giving of consent + or permission, by persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a + hindrance, or even by inaction.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.6
AFF
The Affective Case
+
+

The AFFECTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -i-. The AFFECTIVE denotes a noun whose + semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described previously in Section + 4.1.2, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled) + experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result + of an external stimulus. Examples of such states would be automatic sensory + experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, + blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; + automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising + one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state + such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, + anxiety, etc.

+

Example sentences requiring the use of the AFFECTIVE case would be The baby is coughing, The lightning startled her, Mortimer loves his vittles, Uncle + Davey slept till noon, My back itches me.

+

Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about + by the noun undergoing it, the INDUCIVE case would be + used, since the noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce + the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence The children smiled with glee (marked using the AFFECTIVE) + with The children smiled on cue (marked using the INDUCIVE).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.7
DAT
The Dative Case
+
+

The DATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ü- or, if the Cr root ends in a -w or -y, it is marked by the Vc value -ae’-. The DATIVE has two functions in Ithkuil. + Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving + and telling, i.e., the semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via + an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or + the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ithkuil + uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference + to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences + such as We're giving you a present, Jason lent a dollar to his sister, Please grant me a wish, The + student has three books, Those mountains have a mysterious + quality.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.8
INS
The Instrumental Case
+
+

The INSTRUMENTAL case is marked by the Vc value -ai-. As described previously in Section 4.1.1, + the INSTRUMENTAL denotes a noun which functions as the + INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing + about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples + of usage would be She killed him with a knife, The man + tripped over my foot, The password got him + inside. The INSTRUMENTAL is also used to mark translations + of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the + instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare I pressed the button with + my finger with My finger pressed the button, + both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s + missing agent, I.

+

Note that the INSTRUMENTAL does not translate + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied + by’ (see the COMITATIVE case below in Sec. + 4.5.20) as in She arrived with her father. Nor is it used to show + the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the + sentence He cooks with tomatoes (see the COMPOSITIVE case in Sec. 4.5.3), it is not the tomatoes that cook + the food, therefore the INSTRUMENTAL would not be used, + whereas in He fueled the fire with wood it is the wood that fuels the + fire, thus requiring the INSTRUMENTAL case.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.9
ACT
The Activative Case
+
+

The ACTIVATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ei-. The ACTIVATIVE identifies a noun engaged + in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, + creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially + be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated + by the sentence Frank must go to Chicago, in which no actual travel + to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence Mother needs to rest, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both + sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains + an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar + hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences The students want + you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay. + Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” + verbs such as want, need, can, must, etc.

+

Notice that the subject of these English sentences (Frank, + Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) are functioning neither as AGENTS + nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify + as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects + are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, + needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, + such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” + the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence Sam wants Shirley + to love him, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked + as EXPERIENCERS using the AFFECTIVE case. Consequently, + Ithkuil uses the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the subject whose + mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized + situation. All of the subjects in the example sentences from the previous paragraph + (i.e., Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) would be so marked. + In Section 6.1 we will see how the ACTIVATIVE is used in conjunction with a morphological + category for verbs termed Modality to create such hypothetical states and situations.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.10
DER
The Derivative Case
+
+

The DERIVATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ui-. The DERIVATIVE serves two functions + in Ithkuil. Firstly, it identifies an inanimate FORCE of nature (as described + in Sec. 4.1.1) or abstract causative situation which + causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an action, as in The wind blew down the door, or Fame threatened his freedom. + The use of the DERIVATIVE instead of the ERGATIVE or the EFFECTUATIVE denotes that such inanimate agential + forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or willingly initiate + actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the + resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force + or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, + a noun in the DERIVATIVE can often be translated using + phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result + of.’ Nouns in the DERIVATIVE can also appear in + appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun + in the DERIVATIVE denotes the abstract cause or reason + for the other noun, e.g., the danger of fame, love’s heartache, wind song.

+

The second function of the DERIVATIVE case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS + of an affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in The coffee smells good, I saw her today, + She hates that boy, Victor coughed from the gas, + We laughed at his jokes, That song makes me + cry. Ithkuil grammar views the stimulus of an experiential state as having + a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as + in the above examples); this explains why the DERIVATIVE case serves to indicate both functions.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.11
SIT
The Situative Case
+
+

The SITUATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi-. The SITUATIVE identifies a noun as + the background context for a clause. It is similar to the DERIVATIVE case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship + between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. + It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the + following examples:

+
+

Because of war, our planet will never + be able to join the Federation.
+ Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption + of our children.
+ Using my plan, we will defeat the enemy.

+
+


+
+ 4.3.12 Examples of Transrelative Cases in Use

+

The following are examples of various Ithkuil sentences showing how assigning different transrelative cases to the noun participants (i.e., the arguments to the verb) allows for various changes in meaning, regardless of argument structure.  As can be seen, the English translations of many of these sentences often require word order changes, word-substitution, even outright paraphrase, all in order to accommodate the constraints on English argument structure.

+
+


+ Roots used: -zb-  informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘anger; be angry/feel anger’               -kš-  formal Pattern 1, Stem 2 ‘clown’

+
+

STA = STATIVE function                                  DAT = DATIVE case
+ DYN = DYNAMIC function                                 IND = INDUCIVE case
+ AFF = AFFECTIVE case                                 GEN = GENITIVE case
+ SIT = SITUATIVE case                                      ABS = ABSOLUTIVE case
+ DER = DERIVATIVE case                               OBL = OBLIQUE case
+ ERG = ERGATIVE case                                   LOC = LOCATIVE case

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

‘be angry/feel anger’    

‘I/me’

‘clown’

MEANING

Azbal
+ STA

ti
+ AFF

ekšóil.
+ SIT

             LISTEN 
+ ‘I’m angry because of the clown (clown can’t help it, not at fault).’ / ‘I’m angry because there’s a clown.’ / ‘I’m angry at the presence of a clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

ti
+ AFF

ekšúil.
+ DER

‘The clown (unwittingly) makes me angry.’ / ‘I’m angry at the clown (something he’s done has made me angry).’

Azbal
+ STA

ti
+ AFF

ekšól.
+ ERG

‘The clown (deliberately) makes me angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

ti
+ AFF

èkšöl.
+ EFF

‘What the clown has (deliberately) started/caused makes me angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

ti
+ AFF

èkšül.
+ DAT

‘My angry state is directed toward/affects the clown (i.e., the clown notices/reacts to my anger).’

Azbal
+ STA

tü
+ DAT

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘I notice/feel that the clown is angry at me.’

Azbal
+ STA

tö
+ EFF

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘What I (deliberately) started/caused makes the clown angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

to
+ ERG

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘I (deliberately) anger the clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

tui
+ DER

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘I inadvertently anger the clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

toi
+ SIT

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘My being here angers the clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

tu
+ IND

ekšóil.
+ SIT

‘I make myself angry at the presence of the clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

tu.
+ IND

--

‘I (deliberately) make myself angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

tü.
+ DAT

--

‘Someone is behaving angrily toward me.’

Azbal
+ STA

tö.
+ EFF

--

‘I’ve (deliberately) started/caused something that makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

to.
+ ERG

--

‘I (deliberately) anger someone.’

Azbal
+ STA

tui.
+ DER

--

‘I (inadvertently) anger someone.’ / ‘What I’ve done makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

toi.
+ SIT

--

‘My presence makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

ti.
+ AFF

--

‘I’m angry.’ /  ‘I feel anger.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

ekšúl.
+ IND

‘The clown (deliberately) makes himself angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

èkšül.
+ DAT

‘Someone is behaving angrily toward the clown.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

èkšöl.
+ EFF

‘The clown has (deliberately) started/caused something that makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

ekšól.
+ ERG

‘The clown (deliberately) anger someone.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

ekšúil.
+ DER

‘The clown inadvertently angers someone.’ / ‘What the clown does makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

ekšóil.
+ SIT

‘(The presence of) the clown makes someone angry.’

Azbal
+ STA

--

ekšíl.
+ AFF

‘The clown is angry.’ / ‘The clown feels anger.

Azbal
+ STA

--

--

‘There is a feeling of anger.’ /  ‘There is anger.’

+


+Same sentences as above but with DYNAMIC Function to convey action rather than state, i.e., angry behavior or physical display of anger rather than mere internal feeling of anger.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+

Izbal
+ DYN

+

ti
+ AFF

ekšóil.
+ SIT

 
+ ‘My display of anger/my angry behavior was because of the clown (with the clown being unaware of it and not its fault).’

Izbal
+ DYN

ti
+ AFF

ekšúil.
+ DER

‘My display of anger/my angry behavior was due to the clown (without the clown being necessarily aware of it).’

Izbal
+ DYN

ti
+ AFF

èkšül.
+ DAT

‘My display of anger/my angry behavior affected/intimidated the clown.’

+


+More examples of transrelative case patterns:

+
+

-k’-  formal Pattern 3, Stem 2 ‘burn’                            -ph-  informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘tree’

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

burn

1m

tree

MEANING

Iek’ás
+ DYN

to
+ ERG

phel.
+ ABS

         LISTEN 
+ ‘I burn the tree.’

Êk’ás
+ STA

--

phel.
+ ABS

‘The tree burns.’

Iek’ás
+ DYN

--

phul.
+ IND

‘The tree burns itself.’ / ‘The tree makes itself burn.’

Iek’ás
+ DYN

to.
+ ERG

--

‘I cause something to burn.’ / ‘I burn.’ [meaning:  I cause burning to happen]

Iek’ás
+ DYN

tö.
+ EFF

--

‘I cause something to burn (through a chain of events).’ / ‘I burn.’ [meaning:  I cause a chain of events leading to burning]

Iek’ás
+ DYN

te.
+ ABS

--

‘I burn/am burning.’ / ‘Something burns me.’

Iek’ás
+ DYN

tu.
+ IND

--

‘I burn myself.’ / ‘I make myself burn.’

Iek’ás
+ DYN

tö
+ EFF

phel.
+ ABS

‘I cause the tree to burn (through a chain of events).’

Iek’ás.
+ DYN

--

--

‘Something’s doing some burning.’ / ‘Something’s making some burning happen.’

Êk’ás.
+ STA

--

--

‘Something’s burning.’ / ‘There’s burning happening.’

+


+Other patterns are possible.  For example, the following chart shows patterns that can be used to translate variations on English ‘I hit my leg with a rock’, or ‘I hit myself on the leg with a rock’, or ‘A rock hit me on the leg.’

+
+

-č-  informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘physical contact’ + FRC1/7 -->  čalosk ‘hit/strike’
+ -pr-  informal Pattern 2, Stem 1 ‘leg (as physical body part)’
+ -kt-  formal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘(piece of) rock’
+ tê = ‘I’ in genitive case referring to owner of the leg; combines as a prefix ê- with the various transrelative case forms of ‘I’ such as to, tu, te, etc. to give forms such as êto, êtu, êti.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

hit/strike

I

my leg

rock

MEANING

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êto
+ GEN / ERG

oprel
+ ABS

aktáil
+ INS

         LISTEN 
+ Implies an intentional act against my leg, where my leg is seen as being an entity subjectively separate from myself, thus I am the agent while the leg is the patient.  Translation: ‘I (intentionally) hit my leg with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

opral
+ OBL

aktáil
+ INS

In this pattern, the leg is no longer seen as a patient separate from myself as the agent.  Rather, I am both agent and patient (i.e, I’m initating the action against myself), and the role of the leg is de-emphasized to being merely a referent for the act of hitting, i.e., it is I who got hit, not the leg; the leg is merely the part of me that got hit. Consequently, The closest English translation would be ‘I (intentionally) hit myself with a rock on the leg,’ using a locative construction “on the leg” not present in the Ithkuil sentence.  A stilted, but more accurate translation might be ‘I (intentionally) “leg-hit” myself with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN / ABS

opral
+ OBL

aktáil
+ INS

This sentence masks an implied agent, emphasizing myself as the patient/victim, while, as in the sentence immediately above, the leg is reduced to merely a referent for the hitting, its status as a patient and as the location/site of the hitting suppressed.  About the only way to show this suppression of agency in English is with a passive construction or a pseudo-passive construction using the verb ‘get’:  ‘I am/get (intentionally) “leg-hit” with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN / ABS

prâ’ol
+ LOC

aktáil
+ INS

This sentence is like the one immediately above except that the leg is the location/site of the hit.  Translation:  ‘I am/get (intentionally) hit on the leg with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

prâ’ol
+ LOC

aktáil
+ INS

Emphasizes that I am both agent and patient and that the leg is the location/site of the hitting.  Translation:  ‘I (intentionally) hit myself on my leg with a rock.‘

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

opral
+ OBL

aktáil
+ INS

Emphasizes that I am both agent and patient but with the leg reduced to merely the referent of hitting.  Impossible to translate accurately into English except with the contrived sentences ‘I “leg-hit” myself with a rock’ or ‘I (intentionally) get me my leg hit with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êti
+ GEN / AFF

prâ’ol
+ LOC

aktáil
+ INS

Suppresses the agency of the action, and emphasizes myself as unwilled/accidental victim of the hitting, with my leg as the location/site of the hit.  Translations:  ‘I (accidentally) am/get hit on the leg with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êti
+ GEN / AFF

opral
+ OBL

aktáil
+ INS

Like the example immediately above, exept with the role of the leg reduced from location to mere referent of the verb.  Translation:  ‘I am/get “leg-hit” (accidentally) with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

to
+ ERG

—

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘I (intentionally) hit something with a rock / I (intentionally do some hitting with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

tu
+ IND

—

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘I (intentionally) hit myself with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

te
+ ABS

—

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘I am/get (intentionally) hit with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ti
+ AFF

—

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘I am/get  hit (accidentally) with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê opril
+ AFF

aktáil
+ INS

Here, the distinction between myself and the leg is suppressed, so that the leg is seen as the unwilled/accidental victim, not me: ‘My leg is/gets hit (accidentally) with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê oprel
+ ABS

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘My leg is/gets (intentionally) hit with a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê opral
+ OBL

aktáil
+ INS

This sentence reduces the role of the participant to the verb as merely an abstract referent for the hitting, with no implications of being the victim/target of hitting, or of me or the leg undergoing any tangible result of hitting.  This can only be approximated in English by contrived translations such as ‘“Leg-hitting” with a rock occurs’ or ‘An act of hitting with a rock involving my leg occurs.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê prâ’ol
+ LOC

aktáil
+ INS

Translation:  ‘There occurs a hit on my leg with a rock. /  A hit with a rock occurs on my leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

—

aktáil
+ INS

This sentence masks both agent and patient, as well as the location of the hitting, emphasizing only the instrument.  Possible translations:  ‘Hitting with a rock occurs,’ or ‘The rock hits something,’ or ‘Something gets hit with a rock.’

+


+Note that all of the above sentences can be restated without the presence of the rock as instrument:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

hit/strike

I

my leg

MEANING

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êto
+ GEN / ERG

oprel
+ ABS

‘I (intentionally) hit my leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

opral
+ OBL

‘I (intentionally) “leg-hit” myself.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN / ABS

opral
+ OBL

‘I am/get (intentionally) “leg-hit”.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN / ABS

prâ’ol
+ LOC

‘I am/get (intentionally) hit on the leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

prâ’ol
+ LOC

‘I (intentionally) hit myself on my leg. ‘

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êtu
+ GEN / IND

opral
+ OBL

‘I “leg-hit” myself’ or ‘I (intentionally) get me my leg hit.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êti
+ GEN / AFF

prâ’ol
+ LOC

‘I am/get hit (accidentally) on the leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êti
+ GEN / AFF

opral
+ OBL

‘I (accidentally) am/get “leg-hit”’ or ‘I (accidentally) get me my leg hit.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

to
+ ERG

—

‘I (intentionally) hit something.’ / ‘I do some hitting.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

tu
+ IND

—

‘I (intentionally) hit myself.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

te
+ ABS

—

‘I am/get (intentionally) hit.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ti
+ AFF

—

‘I am/get  hit (accidentally).’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê opril
+ AFF

‘My leg is/gets hit.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê oprel
+ ABS

‘My leg is/gets (intentionally) hit.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê opral
+ OBL

‘“Leg-hitting” occurs’ or ‘An act of hitting involving my leg occurs.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

tê prâ’ol
+ LOC

‘There occurs a hit on my leg. /  A hit occurs on my leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

—

—

‘Some hitting occurs’ / ‘Something does some hitting’ / ‘Something gets hit.’

+


+ Patterns with the rock in the DERIVATIVE case are also possible, in which the rock is seen as a blind force of nature (e.g., it has been hurled at the leg by a strong wind or has fallen on the leg from above, or has hit the leg after being kicked up by a passing vehicle, etc.).

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

hit/strike

I

my leg

rock

MEANING

Ičalosk
+  DYN

--

tê oprel
+ ABS

aktúil
+ DER

‘The rock hits my leg.’ / ‘My leg is/gets hit by a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN/ABS

prâ’ol
+ LOC

aktúil
+ DER

‘The rock hits me on my leg.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ête
+ GEN/ABS

opral
+ OBL

aktúil
+ DER

‘I get my leg hit by the rock.’ / ‘I was/got “leg-hit” by the rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

êti
+ GEN/AFF

opral
+ OBL

aktúil
+ DER

‘The rock “leg-hits” me.

Ičalosk
+  DYN

ti
+ AFF

--

aktúil
+ DER

‘The rock hits me.’ / ‘I am/get hit by a rock.’

Ičalosk
+  DYN

--

--

aktúil
+ DER

‘The rock hits something.’

+


+Possible Ithkuil translations for the English sentence ‘My back itches me.’

+

-kç-  informal Pattern 1, Stem 1:  ‘itch’
+ -xn-  informal Pattern 2, Stem 1:  ‘back, dorsal bodily surface’
+ OGN  = ORIGINATIVE case

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

itch

I

my back

MEANING

Kças
+ STA

êti
+ GEN/AFF

oxnall
+ OBL

         LISTEN 
+ ‘My back itches me.’  This is grammatically acceptable and the most neutral or vague.

Kças
+ STA

êti
+ GEN/AFF

xnâ’oll
+ LOC

‘I itch on my back.’  Emphasizes the bodily location of the itch.

Kças
+ STA

êti
+ GEN/AFF

oxnaell
+ OGN

‘The itching I’m feeling is coming from my back.’  Conveys the sense of the back being the place of origin of the itch.

+


+Again, each of the above Ithkuil sentences could delete the affective patient “I/me” from the sentence to render equivalents to the English sentence ‘My back itches’ and ‘There’s itching on my back.’ 

+

Use of the ABSOLUTIVE case with DYNAMIC function conveys the idea of an unnamed external agent that is causing the itching.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

itch

I

my back

MEANING

Ikças
+ DYN

êti
+ GEN/AFF

oxnell
+ ABS

‘Something is making my back itch me.’  Implies that the cause of the itching is an external unnamed agent.

Ikças
+ DYN

ête
+ GEN/ABS

xnâ’oll
+ LOC

‘Something is itching me on my back.’  Switches the patient role to me as opposed to my back, and implies that the cause of the itching is an external unnamed agent.

+


+If we remove the personal reference adjunct ‘I/me’ from the above two sentences, the respective translations become ‘Something is itching my back’ and ‘Something itches on my back.’

+

 

+

4.3.13 Using Case to Achieve “Middle Voice” Semantic Effects

+

English (among other languages) allows some of its verbs to operate both transitively (i.e., taking a direct object) as well as intransitively (i.e., without a direct object), where the object of the transitive sentence becomes the subject of the intransitive sentence.  Furthermore, the intransitive sentence describes the same potential event as the transitive version does, except that no agent is expressed, the focus of the sentence being on the result, not the act which gives rise to the result.  Examples:

+
+

The manager opened the store at 8 a.m.
+ The store opened at 8 a.m.

+

Robert flies the airplane beautifully.
+ The airplane flies beautifully.

+

The engineer increased the pressure.
+ The pressure increased.

+

I molded the soft clay easily.
+ The soft clay molded easily.

+
+

Note that the second sentence of each pair above is semantically distinct from its passive voice equivalent (i.e., The store was opened at 8 a.m., The airplane is flown beautifully, The pressure was increased, The soft clay was molded easily) in that passives allow for the agent to be overtly stated (using the preposition ‘by’ in English, as in The store was opened by the manager) or, if absent, nevertheless imply the existence of the agent.  However, the intransitive sentences above (equivalent to “middle voice” constructions in languages such as Swahili or Turkish) do not allow for expression of an agent and are designed to supress the semantic relevance (or saliency) of the agent.

+

However, English is very haphazard and idiosyncratic as to what verbs it allows to operate this way, often having to resort to paraphrase and idiomatic structures to accomplish the same effects as in the four intransitive sentences above.  For example [ungrammatical sentences are preceded by an asterisk]:
+

+

 Father painted the fence yellow.
+ * The fence painted yellow.
+ (But:  The fence came out yellow.)

+

I noticed a storm on the horizon.
+ * A storm noticed on the horizon.
+ (But:  A storm came into view on the horizon.)

+

The owner keeps scissors with the sewing supplies.
+ * Scissors keep with the sewing supplies.
+ (But:  Scissors belong/stay with the sewing supplies.)

+

Fans buy beer a lot at baseball games.
+ * Beer buys a lot at baseball games.
+ (But:  Beer sells a lot at baseball games.)

+
+

Of course, many English speakers would simply use the passive voice or a construction using ‘get’ to accomplish the same thing (i.e., The fence was/got painted yellow, A storm was noticed on the horizon, The scissors are/get kept with the sewing supplies, Beer is/gets bought a lot at baseball games.) without worrying about the existence of an implied agent. 

+

Many languages utilize reflexive constructions to accomplish this effect, e.g., Spanish Se habla español aquí, literally “Spanish speaks itself here”, meaning Spanish is spoken here.

+

Ithkuil, however, can manipulate the assignment of case to verb arguments to achieve this “middle voice” effect for any verb where it is semantically feasible, without having to resort to idiomatic constructions or paraphrase.  For example:

+
+


+ Aikkaldhort  âļnoccaţ. 
+ ‘chew’-easily   ‘snails’-ERGATIVE
+ Snails chew easily.  [meaning:  It is easy for snails to chew things.]          LISTEN 

+
+

 versus:

+
+


+ Aikkaldhort  âļneccaţ.  
+ ‘chew’-easily   ‘snails’-ABSOLUTIVE
+ Snails chew easily.  [meaning:  It is easy to chew (on) snails.]          LISTEN 

+
+


+
+

+

4.3.14 Specialized Suffixes Used to Expand the Functionality of the Transrelative + Cases

+

It should be noted that Ithkuil provides an array of suffixes specifically designed + to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one of the Transrelative cases + to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal + relationships between participants to a verb in an Ithkuil sentence. These suffixes + include the Consent CNS suffix, the Reason RSN suffix, the Expectation XPT suffix, the Deliberateness DLB suffix, the Enablement ENB suffix, the Agency/Intent AGN suffix, and the Impact IMP suffix. These affixes are detailed in Section + 7.4.12 and discussed further in Section + 10.1.2.

+

 

+

+ + + + +
4.4 THE POSESSIVE CASES
+

Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually + have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show + varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing + relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences:

+
+

the man’s hat = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]
+ the man’s house = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]
+ the man’s arm = part of his body [inalienable component]
+ the man’s brother = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]
+ the man’s happiness = he feels happy [affective experience]
+ the man’s rescue = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ + purpose]
+ the man’s gift = the gift is for him [benefaction]
+ the man’s gift = the gift is from him [source]
+ the man’s world = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective + association]
+ the man’s team = the team he is associated with [interactive + mutual association]
+ the man’s story = the story about him [topical reference]
+ the man’s painting = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]
+ the man’s command = his being a commander [role or function]

+
+

In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, + e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the + one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do + the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ + one he is giving or receiving? Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature + of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed + by the seven Possessive cases.

+

The Possessive cases make a distinction between alienable + versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether + the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. + These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many + American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor + noun, not the possessed. The seven Associative cases are the POSSESSIVE, + PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, PRODUCTIVE, INTERPRETATIVE, and ORIGINATIVE. + Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil + examples of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.4.8.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.1
POS
The Possessive Case
+
+

The POSSESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -â-. The POSSESSIVE is used to refer to + a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another + noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether + by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in + any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two + can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, + or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent + separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used + to translate English phrases such as his coat (e.g., + the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), the + boy’s book (e.g., the one in his hand), Father’s chair (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant).

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.2
PRP
The Proprietive Case
+
+

The PROPRIETIVE case is marked by the Vc value -î- or alternately -û-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -î-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -û-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The PROPRIETIVE identifies a noun having + alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual + control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, + law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The + two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship + cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration, + convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the POSSESSIVE above, we can analyze the connotative difference: his coat (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether + he is wearing it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., + the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the + one assigned to him).

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.3
GEN
The Genitive Case
+
+

The GENITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ê-. The GENITIVE is used to refer to a + noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or + association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent + or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) + bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s doors, the child’s father, the essence of that + woman.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.4
ATT
The Attributive Case
+
+

The ATTRIBUTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ô-. The ATTRIBUTIVE is used to refer to + a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective + (see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another + noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, + whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: his pain, Mother’s guilt, the + child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my needs.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.5
PDC
The Productive Case
+
+

The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëi-. The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator, + author or originator of another noun, e.g., the girl’s poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue (i.e., the one I sculpted).

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.6
ITP
The Interpretative Case
+
+

The INTERPRETATIVE case is marked by + the Vc value -öi-. The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun + acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the + noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, + as exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, our world, life as seen by children.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.7
OGN
The Originative Case
+
+

The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ae-. The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative source of another, or which + is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. , e.g., the man’s story (i.e., the one he told), our gift (i.e., + the one we are giving), water from the river, the fruit of the tree, Fix the kitchen sink! (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), Desert rocks are so + beautiful (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert + or rocks still present in the desert), Northern women are +easy-going.

+

The ORIGINATIVE + should be distinguished from the ABLATIVE in Section 4.7.5 below, in that + the ABLATIVE position or path of motion away from, + whereas the ORIGINATIVE merely presents a locational context + as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise similar +noun.

+


+
+ 4.4.8 Examples of Possessive Cases in Use

+
+


+ ultánļ  êmmâl
+ STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML    STA-‘male child ’-POS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘the boy's book’ [i.e., the one he has in his immediate possession, not one he necessarily owns]          LISTEN 

+


+
+ ultánļ  êmmûl
+ STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML    STA-‘male child ’-PRP-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘the boy's book’ [i.e., the one he owns]          LISTEN 

+


+
+ öpţal  àçtêl
+ STA-‘interior.corner’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘room/chamber’-GEN-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ ‘corner of a room’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ xal  akţrôl
+ STA-‘see+thing.seen’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘eagle’-ATT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘what the eagle sees’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ Isval  êzguirs  èkšôt  âmmit.
+ DYN-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘sound.of.laughter’-DER-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/AGG-IFL  STA-‘clown’-ATT-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL          LISTEN 
+ ‘The sound of the clowns’ laughter frightens the children.’                                                                 

+


+ ultánļ  êmmëil
+ STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML    STA-‘male child’-PDC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+‘the boy's book’ [i.e., the one he authored]          LISTEN 
+
+
+
+
+ Iolmámž  ûmmöil.
+ DYN-‘measure.of.music’-NRM/PRX/M/COA/CST-FML    STA-‘mother’-ITP-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘They’re playing mother’s song.’ [i.e., the one that is special to her]          LISTEN 

+


+
+
+ âmpafseč  êqael
+ STA-‘whiff.of.odor’-OBL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/SEG-QUA1/3-IFL    STA-‘woman’-OGN-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘woman giving off a bad odor’ or ‘bad odor coming from/off the woman’          LISTEN 

+

 

+

+
+ + + + +
4.5 THE ASSOCIATIVE CASES
+

The Associative cases refer to a large group of cases which + modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually adjacent + noun or that it functions in an adverbial relationship to a verb. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, + we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in cat + box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man, etc., or joined by the word + ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., box of coins, dreams + of youth, sounds of laughter, or as a modifier of a verbal phrase. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.5.33 .

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.1
PAR
The Partitive Case
+
+

The PARTITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ia- or -ua-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -ia-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -ua-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. When used in conjunction with another noun, the PARTITIVE indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two + nouns, e.g., a cup of coffee, a box(ful) of books, + a train(load) of refugees. When used alone, it signifies + that the context of the phrase or sentence involves only a portion of the noun, + rather than the whole noun, e.g., I ate some bread, Pour (some) water down my back.

+

The PARTITIVE is also used to mark a + noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., three boxes, + two clowns, twenty words. This usage + is analyzed in detail in Chapter + 12, where we will see that, in Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e., + full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, + a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not + say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps + more eloquently, “a box trio.”

+

The PARTITIVE case is also used in constructing + words for Ithkuil numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed + in Chapter + 12 on enumeration.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.2
CRS
The Contrastive Case
+
+

The CONTRASTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ie- or -ue-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -ie-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -ue-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The CONTRASTIVE identifies a noun which +has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. This is translatable by the English + phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘rather than’ or ‘as opposed to,’ or specialized uses of ‘not,’ e.g., Instead + of rain, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, as opposed to +a maid; I prefer peas to carrots; Rather than marigolds, let’s buy carnations; That's sugar, not salt.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.3
CPS
The Compositive Case
+
+

The COMPOSITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -io- or -uo-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -io-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -uo-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The COMPOSITIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is + made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be That + statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) coins, We were caught in a web of lies, I use a wooden ladder, It was a house of cards, Three suits comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups.

+

The COMPOSITIVE is also used in conjunction + with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing + or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be She likes to + cook with tomatoes, He reads by candle(light), + That child goes through four sets of clothes a day, My uncle + satisfied his sweet tooth with three chocolate bars.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.4
PRD
The Predicative Case
+
+

The PREDICATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iö- or -uö-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -iö-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -uö-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The PREDICATIVE identifies a noun which + constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), + or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by + the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying + on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, + a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, + Can success supported by murder be sustained?

+

The PREDICATIVE should be distinguished + from Transrelative cases such as the DERIVATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL, + in that the PREDICATIVE does not denote a cause, merely + the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to + translate anxiety based on terror, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ + or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in + the phrase an attitude fueled by greed, the attitude derives from or + results from greed, but is not relying on it.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.5
MED
The Mediative Case
+
+

The MEDIATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -a’-. The MEDIATIVE indicates the physical, + psychological, or figurative medium through which another noun or event takes + place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as a radio announcement, arrival by water, a letter bomb, air mail, achieving ecstasy through sex, I + showed her my love with chocolate. It should be distinguished + from the INSTRUMENTAL case (see Section 4.3.8 above), + which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a + causative action. For example, in the sentence Call him on the phone!, + translating the phrase on the phone into the INSTRUMENTAL case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call + him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE case + would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’

+

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.6
APL
The Applicative Case
+
+

The APPLICATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u’-. The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which + represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. + As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for + the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be a cup for coffee (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), a box for tools (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold + tools), a room for changing. Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” + cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” + book = ‘a book used as a projectile.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.7
PUR
The Purposive Case
+
+

The PURPOSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e’-. The PURPOSIVE identifies a noun which + characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The PURPOSIVE is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that + the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or + in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another + noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual + instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended + use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or + ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately + an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would + be a coffee cup, a toolbox, a litter box, a trashcan.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.8
CSD
The Considerative Case
+
+

The CONSIDERATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o’-. The CONSIDERATIVE identifies a noun + as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs + or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according + to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion + of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s + a coward; He’s leaving town as per orders from the court; + You were arrested pursuant to law; According to our + teacher, humans are descended from apes.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.9
ESS
The Essive Case
+
+

The ESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ea-. The ESSIVE identifies the role or name + by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ + in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would + be used in translating the English sentences They called him a clown, + The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider + you our only hope.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.10
ASI
The Assimilative Case
+
+

The ASSIMILATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eo-. The ASSIMILATIVE identifies a noun used as + a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a + verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in + the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of + usage are She sings like a bird, As children they + seemed to me.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.11
FUN
The Functive Case
+
+

The FUNCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eö-. It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in -ly or the adverbial use of with, identifying the manner in which an action, + event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to + characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately + by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would + be: She dances gracefully (i.e., in a manner characterized + by grace), The boys ate with gusto, That clown is speaking nonsense, Father speaks with such fortitude.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.12
TFM
The Transformative Case
+
+

The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by + the Vc value -oa-. The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome + or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ + or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone + some transformation. Example usages would be The house burned to + ashes, The clown reached a state of tranquility, The + clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank + himself to death.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.13
REF
The Referential Case
+
+

The REFERENTIAL case is marked by the Vc value -oe-. The REFERENTIAL identifies a noun functioning + as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ + ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ + ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ + Examples of use would be a song of love; As for + those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; + His attitude toward women.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.14
CLA
The Classificative Case
+
+

The CLASSIFICATIVE case is marked by + the Vc value -öa-. The CLASSIFICATIVE identifies a noun + as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various + English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are Place them in groups of three, The workers arranged the + tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can + you count by fives?, I will sort them by color.

+

The CLASSIFICATIVE is also used to identify + a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing + the manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time + periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature + of an event. Examples would be Month by month, their departure + crept closer; Year after year, I see more and more clowns; Day in, day out, he’s always working; + The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, bag upon bag; Patient by patient, the nurse administered injections.

+

Note that the CLASSIFICATIVE would not + be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used + to translate the sentence One bomb after another fell on the city. + Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations + of the noun (see Sec. + 7.4.4).

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.15
CNV
The Conductive Case
+
+

The CONDUCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öe-. The CONDUCTIVE identifies the meaningful + or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship + signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains + to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English + phrases translatable using this case are a circus clown, + a mountain man, a feeling of loneliness, the Mafia’s world, a realm of fear, my life achievement, childhood memories, Let’s + discuss the morality of war.

+

 

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.16
IDP
The Interdependent Case
+
+

The INTERDEPENDENT case is marked by + the Vc value -üa- unless the preceding Cr stems ending in -w or -y, in which case the Vc value is -i’-. The INTERDEPENDENT identifies a noun + which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship + with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal + in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within + it’s natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, + an army general, the blood in my veins, the + driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case + does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the GENITIVE case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, + or the leaves of a tree.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.17
BEN
The Benefactive Case
+
+

The BENEFACTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -üe- unless the preceding Cr stems ending in -w or -y, in which case the Vc value is -ö’-. The BENEFACTIVE identifies a noun for + whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the BENEFACTIVE is similar to the DATIVE, except that the BENEFACTIVE implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the + recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or + consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ + Examples of usage are a toy for the children, We threw him a party, Go to the teachers’ + lounge.

+

The BENEFACTIVE also translates the English + phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or + ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is + paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would + be He remained silent for her sake, They went on with the +ceremony out of respect for the families, They dressed in robes because of tradition.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.18
TSP
The Transpositive Case
+
+

The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -üo- unless the preceding Cr stem ends in -w, in which case the Vc value is -î’-, or the preceding Cr stem ends in-y, in which case the Vc value is -û’. The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution + of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense + of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead + of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are The boss made the speech for me, She went up into the attic for her brother (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.19
CMM
The Commutative Case
+
+

The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -au-. The COMMUTATIVE translates English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in You + paid too much money for that dress, She kills for thrills.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.20
COM
The Comitative Case
+
+

The COMITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu-. Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish + or Estonian, the COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’ + in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in The + child went with the clown to the party. Like English ‘with,’ + the COMITATIVE does not imply that the conjoined noun + is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb + as the head noun. For example, in the sentence My father was walking with + a loaf of bread, the loaf of bread is not considered to be itself walking.

+

It should be noted, however, that the COMITATIVE is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two + nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences They danced + with each other or Mother wants to talk with you. These would + be translated using the RECIPROCAL valence of the verb, + explained in Section 5.7. + This distinction is illustrated even more clearly by comparing the following + two sentences; the first would be translated using the COMITATIVE, + the second would not: This man fought with my father (e.g., alongside + him during the war) versus This man fought with my father (e.g., they + had a fight with each other).

+

Note also that the COMITATIVE is not + used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by + means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as I + cut the meat with a knife. As previously discussed in Section + 4.3.8, instrumentality is indicated by use of the INSTRUMENTAL case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed + in undertaking an act, as in He catches his fish with worms for which the COMPOSITIVE case is used.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.21
CNJ
The Conjunctive Case
+
+

The CONJUNCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu-. The CONJUNCTIVE translates English + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., + to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary + activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the COMITATIVE above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the walking with + a loaf of bread example from above, it would be incorrect to use the CONJUNCTIVE case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate + the usage, consider the sentence I’m with the brigade. Translating + ‘brigade’ using the COMITATIVE would mean + that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ + while using the CONJUNCTIVE would mean ‘I’m + a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE would be used are They skate with the best team, That teacher works well + with children.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.22
UTL
The Utilitative Case
+
+

The UTILITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou-. The UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in + the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ + where it refers to actual use in progress as in A man with a gun ran into the room. It should be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL (see Sec. 4.3.8) in that the latter indicates the implement + used to accomplish an action, while the UTILITATIVE identifies + a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish + a stated action. For example, compare the sentence The man with + an umbrella was pushing a stroller in the rain (UTILITATIVE) + with The man pushed a stroller in the rain with an umbrella (INSTRUMENTAL). The first sentence implies the man was + pushing a stroller with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the + rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the stroller. + Another way to translate the UTILITATIVE would be to use + an English gerundial construction as in A gun-wielding man ran into the room or An umbrella-toting man pushed + a stroller in the rain.

+

Besides the INSTRUMENTAL, the UTILITATIVE should likewise be distinguished from the COMITATIVE case + above, in that the COMITATIVE merely indicates accompaniment, + while the UTILITATIVE indicates use in progress. For example, + the sentence Go sit next to the girl with the book, + if translated using the COMITATIVE would merely identify + a girl who has a book in her visible possession, while with the UTILITATIVE it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.23
ABE
The Abessive Case
+
+

The ABESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëu-. The ABESSIVE is essentially the opposite + of the COMITATIVE, translating the English ‘without’ + or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not + having’ as in a day without rain or a treeless plain. As noted in the next section below on the CONVERSIVE case, it is not used to translate ‘without’ when + it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome as in I can’t go on without love.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.24
CVS
The Conversive Case
+
+

The CONVERSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öu-. The CONVERSIVE is used in conjunction + with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered + a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where + it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the + conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition + ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense + does not correspond to its usual ABESSIVE usage in Sec. + 4.5.23 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by + such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if + it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ + Example of usage: Without peace, this society is doomed; If not for the rain, we would have had a good time.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.25
COR
The Correlative Case
+
+

The CORRELATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ai’-. The CORRELATIVE is used to indicate + an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another + noun or verb, including subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic associations. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ + ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association + with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as career goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, + The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, + Our next topic is sex and (or in) art (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Additional examples are years of wonder, + the Clown Planet, life blood, city of + evil. Note that the CORRELATIVE case would often be used to translate constructions for which English often + uses an adjective, e.g., spatial coordinates, the political economy, a dangerous situation (i.e., a situation + characterized by danger).

+

When used in contexts involving directional motion or spatial positioning, + the CORRELATIVE signifies the directional orientation or position of one + noun relative to another, i.e., a noun relative + to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial + orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater + sense once one realizes that, in Ithkuil, most one-to-one spatial relationships + are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the + right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, this use of the CORRELATIVE case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples + of how it would be used are I’m standing four feet north of + the desk, The one hanging above the boxes looks fresh, + It lies at a 30° angle relative to the tree, He turned his back on me, + The upstairs bedroom faces the yard, It’s alongside the + desk (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk).

+

As will be described in Section 5.4.2.3, the CORRELATIVE is used with verbal case-frames to convey the equivalent of simple relative clauses in Western languages.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.26
DEP
The Dependent Case
+
+

The DEPENDENT case is marked by the Vc value -ui’-. The DEPENDENT translates the English + phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which + the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be Depending + on the rain, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, depending + on her attitude.

+

The DEPENDENT should be distinguished + from the PREDICATIVE case in Sec. + 4.5.4, in that the former denotes contingency, while the PREDICATIVE denotes reliance.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.27
PVS
The Provisional Case
+
+

The PROVISIONAL case is marked by the Vc value -ei’-. The PROVISIONAL identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which + the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required + condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the + main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided + (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ + or ‘but only if,’ e.g., Provided [there’s] food, + I will attend the meeting; We will fight only in case of war.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.28
PTL
The Postulative Case
+
+

The POSTULATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi’-. The operates somewhat similarly to the PROVISIONAL above, except that the POSTULATIVE implies a causal or + consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s) + and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, + situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, + but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated + by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in + case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where + it means ‘whether’ as in I don’t know if it’s warm + enough, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality + (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). + Examples of usage: If [there’s] snow, I’m not + going out; In case of fire, flee; If friend, + welcome them, if foe, kill ’em.

+

The example below is offered to further distinguish the use of the POSTULATIVE case + from the PROVISIONAL case above:

+

PROVISIONAL: We’re packing + umbrellas, but only in case of bad weather (i.e., umbrellas + will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).
+
+ POSTULATIVE: We’re packing umbrellas in + case of bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation +for the possibility of bad weather).

+

+

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.29
CON
The Concessive Case
+
+

The CONCESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -au’-. The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun, + situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result + which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, + conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ + ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ + ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: In spite of + his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, + I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), + they are welcome, Although foreigners, we will let them attend + the meeting.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.30
EXC
The Exceptive Case
+
+

The EXCEPTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu’-. The EXCEPTIVE indicates a noun, situation, + or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main + clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ + or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: She loves everybody except + clowns; I like all animals, excluding dogs; He eats + almost anything but (not) spinach.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.31
AVR
The Aversive Case
+
+

The AVERSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu’-. The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a + source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions + such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in + avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see Sec. + 5.2) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage + are She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled + by night to avoid the sun.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.32
CMP
The Comparative Case
+
+

The COMPARATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou’-. The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being + compared to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as + compared to,’ or certain usages of ‘versus’ or ‘as opposed to.’ It is similar to the CONTRASTIVE case (see Section 4.5.2 above), except that it does not carry the sense of opposition, joint exclusivity, or either-or binary substitution of the CONTRASTIVE, but rather merely comparison/choice/preference from various options or along a spectrum or scale. With verbal case-frames (see Sec. 5.4) it would translate as + ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). + Examples are She chose the red one as opposed to the others, + Sam drives a van versus Joe, who prefers a truck, You’ll find it in Room Twelve [as opposed to a room with a different number].

+

 

+

+

4.5.33 Examples of Associative Cases in Use

+
+


+
+ âkyuál  vlalêx
+ STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-IFL
+ ‘cup of coffee’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ âkniel
+ STA-‘pet.snake’-CRS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL  
+ ‘as opposed to the pet snake / rather than the pet snake’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ uçtál  ophiol
+ STA-‘wall.of.room’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘wood’-CPS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘wooden wall’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ tharl  riöč
+ STA-‘law/statute’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘reason’-PRD-NRM/DEL/A/ASO/UNI-IFL
+ ‘laws based in reason’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ Opçav  ökcul  ödhá’šk.
+ DYN-‘(self).directed.motion.throughout.three.dimensional.volume’-NRM/PRX/N/VAR/UNI-IFL    STA-‘virus’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     + STA-‘drink.of.water’-MED-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CST-FML
+ ‘The virus spreads via the drinking water.’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ âkyú’l  vlalêx
+ STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-APL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-IFL
+ ‘cup being used for coffee’

+


+
+ âkyé’l  vlalêx
+ STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-PUR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-IFL
+ ‘coffee cup’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ esro’láun
+ STA-‘prepared/cooked food’-CSD-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML-AGC2/2
+ ‘according to the cook’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ Idawelar  êmmil  ukšeal.
+ DYN-‘nickname/label’-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-IFL     STA-‘male.child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘nerd’-ESS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘Don't call the boy a nerd.’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ las  almeodh
+ STA-‘voice’-OBL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘musical.note’-ASI-NRM/DEL/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘a voice like music’

+


+
+ eqtèöck
+ STA-‘degree.of.happiness’-FUN-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-FML 
+ ‘happily /in a manner characterized by happiness’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ ˉSakč’a  tô  myicka  zboack.
+ CPT-STA-‘change.state’-NRM/GRA/U/CSL/UNI-IFL      1m/ATT      STA-‘sense.of.gratitude’-AFF-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL  
+ STA-‘feeling.of.anger’-TFM-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘My sense of gratitude gradually turned into anger.’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ ultánļ  açkhwoeţ
+ STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML      STA-‘porcupine’-REF-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘a book about porcupines’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ kpöal
+ STA-‘extent.of.spatial.length’-CLA-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘lengthwise’          LISTEN 
+

+

 

+


+
+

+
+ + + + +
4.6 THE TEMPORAL CASES
+

The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In + many respects, Ithkuil analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly + in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases + as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ + and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear + using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ + ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the SIMULTANEITIVE, + ASSESSIVE, CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, + POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, and LIMITATIVE. Following are explanations + of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases + in use are provided in Sec. 4.6.16.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.1
SML
The Simultaneitive Case
+
+

The SIMULTANEITIVE case is marked by + the Vc value -a’a-, or optionally -a’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The SIMULTANEITIVE identifies a noun + signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion. + Examples would be I was in class at the same time as his accident, + I worked a side-job concurrent to the strike, She laughed simultaneously + with my coughing fit.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.2
ASS
The Assessive Case
+
+

The ASSESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e’a-, or optionally -e’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The ASSESSIVE specifies the unit of + time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to + English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be My lawyer + charges by the minute, He publishes several books each + year, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles per hour.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.3
CNR
The Concursive Case
+
+

The CONCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -i’a-, or optionally -i’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal + locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during + or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered + a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be He prays during + lunch, She studied hard last night, I won’t + visit until then (i.e., during that period in time).

+

+
+

 

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.4
ACS
The Accessive Case
+

The ACCESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o’a-, or optionally -o’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The ACCESSIVE is similar to the CONCURSIVE, except + that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly delimited + period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something + occurs. Examples of usage would be Dinner will be served at sunset; When (i.e., at the moment that) you hear his voice, + call in the clowns; Upon impact, both cars were accelerating.

+

+

+

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.5
DFF
The Diffusive Case
+

The DIFFUSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u’a-, or optionally -u’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The DIFFUSIVE is yet another temporal + locative similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time + period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on + the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase + ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be Most cars had tail fins in those days; I was abroad during + that era; At the time of his death, the number of + clowns was increasing; Over the past several seasons, your + talent has matured.

+

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.6
PER
The Periodic Case
+

The PERIODIC case is marked by the Vc value -ö’a-, or optionally -ö’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The PERIODIC identifies the span of + time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This + case should be distinguished from the CONCURSIVE above, + in that the CONCURSIVE signifies + a contextually single holistic event, whereas the PERIODIC specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions, + or durationally extended acts or states take place. Examples would be He wrote the novel in six months, These clowns can corrupt your child within + a few days, The woman has been ill a lot this year, For the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating.

+

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.7
PRO
The Prolapsive Case
+

The PROLAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ü’a- (or -ëu’a- if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w or -y). Optionally the Vc value can be -ü’V- (or -ëu’V- if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w or -y), where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The PROLAPSIVE signifies the duration + of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case + should be distinguished from the PERIODIC above, in that + the PROLAPSIVE specifies the actual duration of the act, + condition, or event, whereas the PERIODIC merely specifies + a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, + or event occurs. Examples would be He prayed through lunch, While he was dying, the number of clowns increased, It rained all night, It took three days for the fever + to break, She sang for an hour.

+

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.8
PCV
The Precursive Case
+

The PRECURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ai’a-, or optionally -ai’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The PRECURSIVE identifies a point in + time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred before the war, It rained prior + to his appearance, There will be a presentation preceding the + banquet.

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.9
PCR
The Postcursive Case
+

The POSTCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ei’a-, or optionally -ei’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The POSTCURSIVE identifies a point + in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred after the war, It rained subsequent + to his appearance, There will be a presentation following the + banquet.

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.10
ELP
The Elapsive Case
+

The ELAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ui’a-, or optionally -ui’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The ELAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, + condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ + Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going + back three generations, women could not even vote.

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.11
ALP
The Allapsive Case
+

The ALLAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi’a-, or optionally -oi’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The ALLAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of + a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be Four years + from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, + clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little + did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man.

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.6.12
INP
The Interpolative Case
+

The INTERPOLATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëi’a-, or optionally -ëi’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The INTERPOLATIVE is used within the + context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the + duration of each repetition. Examples of usage are We heard several five-second snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals of several + seconds; She gets recurring migraines, each lasting hours.

+

 

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.13
EPS
The Episodic Case
+
+

The EPISODIC case is marked by the Vc value -au’a-, or optionally -au’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The EPISODIC identifies a contextually + recurring time-period. Examples of usage are The man talks with his mother every three days; Each year, I travel to the + Clown Planet; He works nights; By day, she + is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays.

+

 

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.14
PLM
The Prolimitive Case
+
+

The PROLIMITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu’a-, or optionally -eu’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The PROLIMITIVE defines a point in + time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e., + the time by which some act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would + be By the time of your graduation, I want you out of the + house; Please be on board by midnight; By the time + of the raid, there was nothing left to steal.

+

 

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.15
LIM
The Limitative Case
+
+

The LIMITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu’a-, or optionally -iu’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The LIMITATIVE signifies a event culminating + an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time + for.’ Examples of usage are He arrived in time for dinner, + Be inside the Big Tent in time for the clowns.

+

 

+


+ 4.6.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use

+
+


+
+ ţkoi’al  żial
+ STA-‘three’-ALP-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNIIFL     STA-‘day (24-hr. period)’-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+‘three days from now’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ qô  teu’at’
+ ma-ATT     STA-‘life’-PLM-NRM/TRM/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘by the time of his death’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ llau’atļuarl
+ STA-‘one’-EPS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-CAL2/1-IFL
+ ‘on Sundays’         LISTEN 

+


+
+ Igvarsukt  tu  ţkü’al  żial.
+ DYN-‘article of clothing’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/AGG-DEF1/9-IFL     1m-IND       STA-‘three’-PRO-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   
+ IFL-‘day (24-hr. period)’-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ ‘I’ve been (deliberately) wearing these clothes for three days.’          LISTEN 

+


+
+ žô  chei’as
+ 1m+2u+ua-ATT     STA-‘grief’-PCR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘after our period of grief’          LISTEN 

+
+


+ _____

+ + + + +
4.7 THE SPATIAL CASES
+

As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ithkuil. + While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque + and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional + relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished + in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be + inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, + there are six cases corresponding to certain types of spatial relationships. + These are the LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, + and NAVIGATIVE.

+

Also: see Section 4.5.25 above regarding the use of the CORRELATIVE case in sentences involving spatial direction or orientation.

+

Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided + in Sec. 4.7.7.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.1
LOC
The Locative Case
+
+

The LOCATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -â’a-, or optionally -â’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The LOCATIVE signifies general static + position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable + by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ + or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., in that building, by + the wall, on the street, at my house.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.2
ORI
The Orientative Case
+
+

The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ê’a-, or optionally -ê’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The ORIENTATIVE identifies the noun + (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” + of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable + into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ + in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., He jumped in feet-first, The car rolled backward. + The ORIENTATIVE allows for the extension of this concept + to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., He walked “butt-ward” + down the street (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading + the way).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.3
PSV
The Procursive Case
+
+

The PROCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ô’a-, or optionally -ô’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The PROCURSIVE identifies a noun (often + a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point, + interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction + with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun usually appears + in the ALLATIVE case (see below). Examples of use would be They + collided sideways, She turned her back on + him, The chair “faced” the doorway (i.e., + The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.4
ALL
The Allative Case
+
+

The ALLATIVE case is marked by either the Vc value -î’a- or -û’a-; if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w, the Vc value is -î’V-, whereas if the preceding Cr stem ends in -y, the Vc value is -û’V-; for other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. Optionally the Vc value can be -î’V- or -û’V- (under the same rules for Cr stems ending in -w or -y), where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

When used in the context of explicit or implied directional + motion, the ALLATIVE signifies the direction of motion, + translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ + in English. Note that the ALLATIVE in no way implies that + the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion + or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be I wandered eastward, The little girl ran toward me, Throw + the rock at that clown!, We headed for home.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.5
ABL
The Ablative Case
+
+

The ABLATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëu’a-, or optionally -ëu’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if both phonotactically and morpho-phonologically permissible (i.e., if it’s deletion does not violate phonotactic rules (see Section 1.4) and does not cause confusion or ambiguity in parsing the various consonants and vowels of the formative into their respective morphemes (i.e., their grammatical components).

+

When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion, + the ABLATIVE signifies the general directional origin + of movement away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin + or departure. Examples would be He came out of the east, + She walked here from (the direction of) the river.

+

When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the ABLATIVE signifies a reverse directional orientation + of one noun relative to another, e.g., He faced away from me.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.6
NAV
The Navigative Case
+
+

The NAVIGATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou’a-, or optionally -ou’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

+

The NAVIGATIVE identifies the noun + relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event + takes place. This is particularly important, as we will see in Section + 10.3.3 that Ithkuil modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors + of movement or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as + the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be I looked down + the street, We aligned it perpendicular to the path of the + sun, He crossed the room diagonally (i.e., walked + diagonally relative to the long axis of the room.)

+


+ 4.7.7 Examples of Spatial Cases in Use

+
+


+ Ûb  eikkradwa  smou’olâxh.
+ EXN1/6     DYN-‘move.along.obliquely.vertical.path.between.two.points’-RPV/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL      STA-‘valley’-NAV-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5-IFL
+ The path through the canyon is steep.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Ičatosk  êti  prâ’ol
+ DYN-‘physical.contact’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FRC1/7-IFL        GEN-1m-AFF       STA-‘leg’-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ ‘I got hit on the leg.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Uajatiuçkims  ţê’al  qi.
+ DYN-‘downward movement’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-PHY2/1-AGN1/1-IFL    STA-‘head’-ORI-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    ma-AFF
+ He fell headfirst to his death.          LISTEN 

+

 

+
+
+


+

+
+ + + + +
4.8 THE VOCATIVE
+

The VOCATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ë-. The VOCATIVE is used when a nominal formative is used in direct address. In modern colloquial English, there is no vocative form, and the base form of the noun, name, or pronoun is used, usually followed by an exclamation point if the vocative functions as its own sentence, e.g., ‘Bill!’ or ‘Please come this way, sir’ or ‘Driver, take me to 53rd and 3rd.’ However, in archaic, poetic, formal or dramatic contexts, English utilizes the vocative particle "o", as in ‘O Time, thy pyramids!’ or ‘Why me, o lord?’

+
+


+

+ +

 

+

Proceed to Chapter 5: Verb Morphology >>

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+
+

 

+ + + + + + +
Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

 

+

For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
+ in book form, it is now available!

+

And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
+ wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

+

(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
+ philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
+ Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

+

 

+

 

+
+

©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/05_verbs_1.html b/2004-en/05_verbs_1.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7569bb --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/05_verbs_1.html @@ -0,0 +1,5675 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 5: Verb Morphology + + + + + +

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Langhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/uage
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology + 6 More Verb Morpholhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ogy10 Lexico-SemanticsThttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/he Lexicon
Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+

 

+

+ + 5.1 Function + 5.5 Phase + 5.9 Validahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/tion + + + 5.2 Mood + 5.6 Sanction + 5.10 Aspect + + + 5.3 Illocution + 5.7 Valence + 5.11 Bias + + + 5.4 Case-Frames & Relation + 5.8 Version +   + + +


+ The Ithkuil verbal formative (termed “verbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/” in + this chapter for simplicity’s https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/sake) is the workhorse of the language, + inflhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ecting for twenty-two different morphological categories. Thehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/se include + the seven categories shared by all formatives and alhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ready discussed in Chapter + 3: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension, Essence, + Context, and Designation. Additionally the following + fifteen categories apply solely to verbs: Function, Mood, Illocution, Case-Frame, Relation, Phase, + Sanction, Valence, Version, Validation, Aspect, Format, Modality, Level, and Bias. Additionally, Ithkuil allows for stem incorporation, i.e., for one formative stem to be incorporated inside of another to expand the latter’s semantic range. The verb can also + theoretically take any number of the approximately 1800 suffixes available to formatives. + Such suffixes are analyzed in Chapter + 7.

+

The full structure of a Ithkuil verbal formative is in two parts, + i.e., having two distinct words, these being a valence/modality adjunct + and the verb itself. In simple sentences, the valence/modality adjunct may be missing. The following extreme example of a fullyhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ inflected + Ithkuil verb illustrates all 22 of the above-listed categories, as well as demonstrating an incorporated stem:

+

 

+
+
     hruštrul-lyö’ň  ˉhničhâçtàu’watkwöu​​​​​​              
+
+ + + + + +
+

hr.u.štr.u.l-ly.ö.’ň

+ Valence: DEMONSTRATIVE
+Level: SURPASSIVE-RELATIVE
+Phase: RECURRENT
+Sanction: REFUTATIVE
+Illocution: DIRECTIVE
+Modality: DESIDERATIVE
+Aspect 1: REGRESSIVE
+Apect 2: IMMINENT
+Bias: COINCIDENTAL
+
+

ˉ.hn.i.čh.â.çt.àu.’wa.tkw.öu

+

Validation: PRESUMPTIVE 2
+ Function: DYNAMIC
+ Pattern/Stem of Main Root:  Pattern 1, Stem 1
+ Incorporated Root: čh ‘make/construct’
+ Pattern/Stem of Inc. Root:  Pattern 1, Stem 1
+ Designation of Incorporated Root: FORMAL
+ Main Root: çt ‘chamber; spatial enclosure’
+ Case-Frame: CONCESSIVE
+ Mood: SUBJUNCTIVE
+ Essence: REPRESENTATIVE
+ Extension: PROXIMAL
+ Perspective: ABSTRACT
+ Configuration: COMPOSITE
+ Affiliation: COALESCENT
+ Context: AMALGAMATIVE
+ Format: SUBSEQUENT
+ Version: COMPLETIVE
+ Designation: FORMAL
+ Relation: + FRAMED

+
+

A highly stilted but approximate English translation of the + above, capturing as many of the nuances of the Ithkuil phrase as possible, would + be: ‘…despite presumably being on the verge, contrary to the allegation, of just so happening to want to succeed in maybe ordering a periodic return to the honorable practice of superlative architecture for others to follow by example.’

+

Of the 15 morphological + categories particular to verbal formatives, we will examine in this chapter those eleven of them which usually constitute part of the verbal formative itself (Function, Mood, Illocution, Case-Frame, Relation, Phase, Sanction, Valence, Version, Validation and Aspect). The remaining categories specific to valence/modality adjuncts (Modality, Level, and Bias) will be described in Chapter + 6. Additionally, the category of https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Format, while displayed within the formative, is closely tied to the phenomenon of stem incorporation, which is also discussed in Chapter 6. Therefore, Format will be discussed in that chapter.

+


+
+

+ + + + +
5.1 FUNCTION
+

Function refers to the general relationship a verb has to its noun participants based on whether the verb represents an existential or psychological state, a dynamic action or event, a mere statement of X = Y identification, or a description. Without + a standardized system for the lexico-semantic function of verbs, the meaning of such a form could only be + learned from hearing others using it in context.

+

Note that, although Function is being described here in the chapter on Verbs, Ithkuil nouns, too, carry a Function, specifically the STATIVE function, in that they manifest an inherent, existential (i.e., non-dynamic) state of matter/energy. Because a formative’s Function changes only for verbs, not nouns, Function is being discussed in this chapter.

+

As previously described in Section 2.2.2, Function is shttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/hown by the Vr affix in Slot IV, which also conveys the main root’s Stem and Pattern.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+

The values of Vr- by Stem and Pattern and Function are shown in Table 8 below.

+


+Table 8: Values of Vr by Stem, Pattern, and Function (see Secthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ion 2.2.2 for a discussion of Stem and Pattern)

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

 

Pattern 1

Pattern 2

Pattern 3

 

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Function
         

STATIVE

(a-)

e-

u-

o-

ö-

î- / û-

â-

ê-

ô-

DYNAMIC

i-

ai-

ei-

au-

eu-

iu-

ia- / ua-

ie- / ue-

io- / uo-

MANIFESTIVE

ui-

ü- / ou-

ëi-

ae-

ea-

oa-

üa- / aì-

iù- / uì-

iö- / uö-

DESCRIPTIVE

oi-

eo-

eö-

oe-

öe-

ëu-

üo- / oì-

üe- / eì-

üö- / aù-

+


+The four Functions are the STATIVE, DYNAMIC, MANIFESTIVE, and DESCRIPTIVE. They are described in the following sections. Note that the previous version of Ithkuil, as well as Ilaksh, had additional functions (previously called Conflations) than the current four. Due to Ithkuil’s new stem-incorporation abilities (described in Section 6.4https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/), those additional functions are no longer necessary.

+

 

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.1
STA
The Stative
+
+

The STATIVE function indicates a stative manifestation, + i.e. to be in a non-causal, non-dynamic (temporary or permanent) state, including states of mind, non-dynamic or affictive physical states (e.g., something being warm, but not making something warm), as well as being the Function associated with all formatives acting as nouns. However, it does NOT mean “be” in the + sense of X=Y copula identification as in “I am John.”

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.2
DYN
The Dynamic
+
+

DYNAMIC function indicates that the verb refers to a tangible or physical act or cause-and-effect event: to perform the action + of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function. Note that the choice of whether a particular situation is to be considered STATIVE or DYNAMIC can be subjective. For example, if a person is chronically coughing due to an illness, one can describe the coughing using either the DYNAMIC (to focus for example on the paroxysmal movements and physical processes undergone by the person during each cough), or the STATIVE (to let the reader/listener know you consider the coughing to be merely a manifestation of an existential state, e.g., an illness, in which the physical motions and processes associated with each cough are not the relevant issue.

+

In the examples from Section 4.3.12 involving anger-inducing clowns and burning trees, we likewise saw the difference in meaning between using STATIVE versus DYNAMIC function for otherwise identical sentences.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.3
MNF
The Manifestive
+
+

MANIFESTIVE function indicates that the verb represents a manifestion or naming of the identity of a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the X=Y “be” + copula of identification in Western languages, as in She is a manager, That man is secretly a clown, Dogs are mammals, Mrs. Beasly is a fat crone.

+

 

+

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.4
DSC
The Descriptive
+
+

DESCRIPTIVE function indicates descriptive manifestation, + i.e., to appear or manifest in the manner of. This sense is the nearest + Ithkuil equivalent to English adjectives.

+

 

+

5.1.5 Examples of Function

+

Here follow examples of the four functions applied to the same stem egrá- ‘prepare(d) food’:

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
STASTATIVEegrá-   ‘(to be in) a state of preparing food’
DYNDYNAMICaigrá-   ‘prepare food’
MNFMANIFESTIVEügrá-    ‘to be prepared food’
DSCDESCRIPTIVEeográ-   ‘to be like prepared food’
+
+


+Additional examples of Function:

+
+


+ Iek’ás  to  phel.
+ DYN-‘burn’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML       1M-ERG       STA-‘tree’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ I burn the tree.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Êk’ás  phel.
+ STA-‘burn’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML          STA-‘tree’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ The tree is burning / The tree is in flames.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ –Qa  uiphal  êk’àî’sa.
+ mi-OBL         MNF-‘tree’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL          FRAMED-FML-STA-‘burn’-COR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI 
+ It is a burning tree / It is a tree in flames.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ –Qa    üek’ás.
+ mi-OBL         DSC-‘burn’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML 
+ It is flame-like / It reminds one of burning flames.          LISTEN 

+
+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
5.2 MOOD
+

Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example + moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., Go now!, Sing it for + us! ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., She would travel + if she could), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here), and hortative (indicating + exhortations, e.g., May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!).

+

We will see later in Section 5.3 + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages + correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically + where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ithkuil, moods + simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance + is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether + the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance + (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality + of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders a total of eight moods in Ithkuil.

+

The eight moods are FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE, + SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE, and ASCRIPTIVE. +They are shown in conjunction with the morphological category of Illocution (see Section 5.3) by thhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e Ci+Vi infix placed in Slot IX. The Ci+Vi infix is of the form consonant Ci followed by a vowel Vi.

+

(NOTE: Under certain circumstances, as an alternate to the Ci+Vi infix in Slot IX, Mood can be shown via the Cs prefix in Slot III usually used to show the category of Aspect. These circumstances are described later in Section 5.10 on Ahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/spect.)
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
+
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+The consonant half of the infix, Ci, has three different forms: -w-, -y-, and -h-.

+

NOTE: If the formative’s Vc case affix is a diphthong ending in -u (i.e., au, eu, iu, ou, öu, ëu), the -w- value of Ci changes to -hw- and the final -u of the Vc diphthong is deleted. Thus, adding the Ci+Vi infix -wa- to the formative daus results in dahwas, not dauwas.

+

Also, if the formative’s Vc case affix is a diphthong ending in -i (i.e., ai, ei, oi, ui, öi, ëi), the -y-value of Ci changes from to -hw- (while the Vc diphthong is left intact). Thus, adding the Ci+Vi infix -ya- to the formative dais results in daihwas, not daiyas.

+

Table 9 below shows the values of the Ci+Vi infix by Illocution and Mood.

+


+Table 9: Ci + Vi infix values indicating 6 Illocutions x 8 Moods

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
MOOD
+
+
ILLOCUTION + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ (see Sec. 5.3)
+ ↓
+
+
FAC
SUB
ASM
SPC
COU
HYP
IPL
ASC
1 ASSERTIVE
(-wë)*
-wa
-yë
-ya
-yû
-hë
-ha
-hû / -hî
2 DIRECTIVE
-we
-wö
-ye
-yö
-yeu / -wei
-he
-hö
-hei
3 INTERROGATIVE
-wu
-wâ
-yu
-yâ
-yau / -wai
-hu
-hâ
-hai
4 ADMONITIVE
-wo
-wê
-yo
-yê
-you / -woi
-ho
-hê
-hoi
5 HORTATIVE
-wi
-wô
-yi
-yô
-yiu / -wui
-hi
-hô
-hui
6 DECLARATIVE **
-wî
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
+* The combination of FACTUAL Mood + ASSERTIVE Illocution is usually unmarked. It is marked by the infix -wë- only in certain cases where Slots V and VI are filled by the Cv and VL affixes (https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/see note in Section 5.5 for details).
+* * The DECLARATIVE Illocution can only be used in the FACTUAL mood.
+
+

NOTE: The category of Mood (along with the category of Aspect) can alternately be shown via the Cs affix in Slot III; this will be dhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/iscussed in Section 5.10. Additionally the Cs Mood/Aspect affix can be placed into a verbal adjunct rather than being shown in the formative; this will be dhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/iscussed in Section 6.3.1.

+

The function of the eight moods is described in the sections immediately below.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.1
FAC
The Factual
+
+

The FACTUAL mood signifies that the + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality + is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. + Examples:

+
+

https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/
+
+ Eglas  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-[FAC]-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids are ill. [i.e., it is known he has kids and + it is known they are ill]          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Hëtiun-n  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-FAC    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR   1+ma-ACT
+ She and I are taking a walk later on. [i.e., it is our intention and we have the opportunity to do so]          LISTEN 
+

+

 

+


+ Uzlas  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-[FAC]-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-&lhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/squo;article.of.clothing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL   &https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nbsp;STA-‘wife’-POS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/FML
+ His wife’s clothes are inside-out.          LISTEN 

+


+
+

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.2
SUB
The Subjunctive
+
+

The SUBJUNCTIVE mood indicates that the + factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the + particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Cohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rresponds roughly + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition + is true. Examples:

+
+


+
+ Eglawas  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-SUB-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ Maybe his kids are ill. [i.e., it is known that he has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]

+

 

+


+ Hëtium-m  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-SUB    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ She and I may take a walk later on. [i.e., it is known that the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose to]

+

 

+


+ Uzlawas  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-SUB-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ His wife’s clothes may be inside-out.

+
+


+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.3
ASM
The Assumptive
+
+

The ASSUMPTIVE mood functions identically to the FACTUAL except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore + conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘mayhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/be’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to + the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:

+
+


+
+ Eglayës  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-ASM-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids’ll be ill OR If he has kids, they are ill. [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, but if he does, they are certainly ill.]
+

+

 

+


+ Hëtiul-l  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-ASM    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRMhttps://web.archive.org/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ She and I will take a walk later on [i.e., if we can] OR We intend to take a walk. [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]

+

 

+


+ Uzlayës  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-ASM-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ If he has a wife her clothes are inside-out.

+
+


+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.4
SPC
The Speculative
+
+

The SPECULATIVE mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + Compare the examples below to those above:

+
+


+
+ Eglayas  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘ihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/llness’-SPC-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ Maybe his kids are ill [i.e., it is unknown if he has kids but if he does, they may be ill].

+

 

+


+ Hëtiur-r  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-SPC    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ She and I may take a walk later on [i.e., it is unknown whether we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether we will choose to].

+

 

+


+ Uzlayas  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-SPC-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA- ‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ If he has a wife her clothes may be inside-out.

+
+


+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.5
COU
The Counterfactive
+
+

The COUNTERFACTIVE mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise + be true. It thus corresponds to the Enhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/glish construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific + translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with + the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

+
+


+
+ Eglayûs  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-COU-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids would be (would have been) ill [i.e., if he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].
+
+

+


+ Hëtiuň-ň  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-IThttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/V-COU    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ She and I would take (would have taken) a walk later on [i.e., it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].
+
+
+

+


+ Uzlayûs  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-COU-IFL    STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ If he were to have a wife her clothes would be inside-out.

+

 

+


+ Them-mphhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/âmnas  osmuil.
+ ASR/https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/CTX/ALG-PRL-PRS/COU-STA-‘awe’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ The valley would've been awe-inspiring to you, too [i.e., if you had seen/visited/been to it].          LISTEN 
+
+
+

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.6
HYP
The Hypothetical
+
+

The HYPOTHETICAL mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is + false or unreal and that the factualithttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/y of the statement itself is uncertain. + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if + a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject + to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the + examples below to those above.

+
+


+
+ Eglah&https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/euml;s  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-HYP-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids might’ve been ill [if he had kids, but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].

+

 

+


+ Hëtiur-n  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-HYP    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ She and I might’ve taken a walk later on [i.e., but we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].

+

 

+


+ Uzlahës  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-HYP-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ If he were to have a wife her clothes might be inside-out.

+
+


+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.7
IPL
The Implicative
+
+

The IMPLICATIVE mood indicates that the fahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ctuality of the underlying presupposition + determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between + the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect + chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below.

+
+


+
+ Eglahas  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-IPL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids are (must be) ill [i.e., as implied by some other fact such as his staying home from work].

+

 

+


+ Iul-n  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/
+ PRL-ITV-IPL    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ [If she wears a blue dress,] we’ll be taking a walk later on.  [the dress implies something has happened that will make the walk a certainty]

+

 

+


+ Uzlahas  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-IPL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA- ‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ His wife’s clothes must be inside-out.

+
+


+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.8
ASC
The Ascriptive
+
+

The ASCRIPTIVE mood functions identically to the IMPLICATIVE immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from + the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples:

+
+


+
+ Eglahîs  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-ASC-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids may be ill [i.e., as implied by some other fact such as his staying home from work].

+

 

+


+ Iur-ň  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-ASC    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ [If she wears a blue dress,] we might be taking a walk later on.  [the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility]

+

 

+


+ Uzlahîs  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-ASC-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ That means his wife’s clothes are inside-out.

+
+


+


+

+ + + + +
5.3 + ILLOCUTION
+

Illocution refers to what in linguistics is usually termed + types of speech acts, i.e., the general purpose of a statement such as whether + it is an assertion, a command, a declaratory pronouncement, a question, a warning, + etc. This is a category which is not generally marked within Western languages + in any consistent grammatical sense, the nearest equivalent grammatical category + usually being Mood. As was seen above in Section 5.1, Mood functions in a much narrower grammatical range than in Western languages. + When the moods of Western language actually relate to typehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/s of speech acts, + the equivalent function in Ithkuil is shown by the category of Illocution.

+

There are six illocutions in Ithkuil: ASSERTIVE, INTERROGATIVE, DIRECTIVE, ADMONITIVE, HORTATIVE and DECLARATIVE. + They distinguish the type of speech act being performed by the speaker, with + a specific focus on the type of commitment being made on the part of either + the speaker or the hearer to the truth or purpose of the utterance. Illocution is + marked along with the category of Mood (see Section 5.2) by a consonant+vowel Ci+Vi infix to the formative, as previously shown in Table 9 above.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
+
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Derivhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+ Illocution can alternately be shown via the Cv affix (Slots I or V) as discussed in Section 5.5 below on Phase. Additionally, in Section 6.3.3 we will see that Illocution can be shown by an affix within a verbal adjunct.

+

The six illocutions are described below.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.1
ASR
The Assertive
+
+

The ASSERTIVE is used to express propositions + which purport to describe or name some act, event, or state in the real world, + with the purpose of committing the hearer to the truth of the proposition. Thus, + an utterance in the ASSERTIVE illocution is one that can + be believed or disbelieved, and is either true or false. Such utterances would + include general statements, descriptions, and explanations.

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
5.3.2
DIR
The Directive
+

The DIRECTIVE illocution is for the purpose of committing + the hearer to undertake a course of action represented by the proposition, where + the proposition describes a mental wish, desire, or intention on the part of + the speaker. Thus, an utterance in the DIRECTIVE is one + that is neither true nor false because it is not describing something that purports + to exist in the real world; rather, it describes an act or situation which can + potentially be made real, i.e., that can be fulfilled or carried out. Such utterances + include commands, orders, and requests and would generally be marked in Western + languages by either the imperative, optative, or subjunctive moods. The commitment + on the part of the hearer is not belief or disbelief, but rather whether to + obey, comply with, or grant. The DIRECTIVE is also used for “commissive” types of statements such as promises, vows, pledges, + oaths, contracts, or guarantees, where the + statement is a wish or command directed at oneself.

+


+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.3
IRG
The Interrogative
+
+

The INTERROGATIVE is used for utterances corresponding to questions in other languages. The commitment on the part of the listener in regard to the INTERROGATIVE is one of compliance or non-compliance in divulging the information sought, + and the truth value of the utterance is neutral pending the reply.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.4
ADM
The Admonitive
+
+

The ADMONITIVE is used for admonitions and warnings, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘(I) caution you lest…,’ ‘(I) warn you against…,’ + or ‘Be careful not to….’ The utterance is neither true nor + false because it describes only a potential act or situation which may occur + unless avoided. The commitment on the part of the hearer is to assess the degree + of likelihood of the potentiality, followed by a choice whether to heed or ignore/defy + the utterance.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.5
HOR
The Hortative
+
+

The HORTATIVE is used for statements that are untrue or unreal, but wished to be true or real, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘if only…’, or ‘were it that….’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.6
DEC
The Declarative
+
+

The DECLARATIVE is used for utterances + whose purpose is to themselves effect a change upon the real world, based upon + convention, cultural rules, law, subjective authority, or personal authority + or control of a situation. The commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of + recognition or non-recognition. Such utterances include declarations, announcements, + proclamatiohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ns, and various “performative” expressions. Certain languages + mark this function of a verb using a mood known as hortative. Examples would + be: I dub thee “Clown Master”!, The king will hear all grievances + at noon each day, This court is now in session, We hereby declare this treaty + null and void!

+

 

+


+ 5.3.7 Examples of Illocution in Use

+
+


+ Aidhawél.
+ DYN-‘water.as.nourishment’-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ Drink some water!  https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/;        LISTEN index.html5-3-7a.mp3" target="_blank">

+

 

+


+ Ükšoàwîl  âmmell.
+ MNF-‘clown’-TFM-DEC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML     STA-‘child’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL
+ The pair of children are hereby turned into clowns!      https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/    LISTEN 

+


+ Iolmawóţ  êļneilüükt.
+ DYN-‘sing.a.song’- ADM-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-FML   STA-‘bird’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8-FML
+ Be aware that this pet bird sings.    &nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/bsp;    LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Aigrawutļáun?
+ DYN-‘prepared.food’-IRG-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-AGC2/2-FML
+ Will the cook prepare some meals? &nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/p;        https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Igrawileiţrar  oi  eglulôn.
+DYN-‘eat food’-FAC-HOR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT2/6-NA11/5-IFL    PCL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
+ If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.          LISTEN 

+

 

+
+

+

+ + + + +
5.4 CASE-FRAMES AND RELATION
+

Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically + embedded within other sentences, a process termed subordination. + In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause + or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ + ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ + or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by + whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or + gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated + in the following sentences:

+
+

The dog that ate my hat belongs to + them.
+ I want him to stop shouting.
+ The committee voted to fire the superintendant.
+ We demand (that) you give us equal pay.
+ Although he’s a college graduate, he acts like a child.
+ This is the slot through which the letter is passed.
+ In case you’re unaware, I’ll be leaving next + month.
+ The boy walking toward us is my nephew.

+
+

The Ithkuil equivalent to relative or subordinate clauses is + known as a case-frame, or simply, frame. Conceptually, + the sentence to be embedded is simply treated as a noun participant to the mahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/in + verb of a sentence and is therefore marked for case like any other noun. For + example, take the following two sentences:

+
+

She and I were working together.
+ The two nations were at war.

+
+

Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal + context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating + the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ + as in She and I were working together while the two nations were at war. + Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional + phrase, as in She and I were working together during the time (that) the + two nations were at war.

+

In Ithkuil, temporal context for a sentence may be provided + by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the CONCURSIVE (see Sec. 4.6.3). A word + such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to create a sentence corresponding to:

+
+

She and I were working together during the summer.
+ She and I were working together at the time of the famine.

+
+

Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ + are placed in the CONCURSIVE case, so an entire sentence + such as The two nations were at war can be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words, + Ithkuil treats the entire subordinate sentence as a noun phrase to be declined + into any required case. That is the purpose of a frame, to place sentences into + noun cases. By doing so, Ithkuil accomplishes the same task for which Western + languages use relative and subordinate conjunctions. In theory, any sentence + can be placed into any of the 96 cases and inserted into another sentence wherever + a simple noun might be placed in the sentence using that same case.

+

 

+

+

5.4.1 Relation and the Placement of Frames

+

To construct a case-frame, the second-order sentence (i.e., + the sentence to be subordinated) is placed in the main sentence at the point + where a noun declined for the required case would appear. The actual case of the second-order sentence is indicated in the verbal +formative the same way as for nominal formatives, i.e., via the Vc affix in Slot VII. Additionally, the syllabic stress of the formative will change to show FRAMED Relation, explained in the next paragraph.

+

Relation is a binary category in Ithkuil, having two values. The main verbal formative of an Ithkuil sentence is in UNFRAMED Relation, marked by penultimate (second-to-last) syllabic stress or by ultimate (final) stress if the formative has FORMAL Designation (see Section 3.7). Once a verbal formative is subordinated within a case-frame, it takes FRAMED relation, shown by antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllabic stress or by preantepenultimate (fourth-from-last) syllabic stress if the formative has FORMAL Designation.

+
+Table 10: Relation x Designation
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

STRESS =
+ 2 relations x
+ 2 designations

UNFRAMED Relation

FRAMED Relation

IFL Designation

FML Designation

IFL https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Designation

FML Designation

penultimate stress

ultimate stress

antepenultimate stress

pre-antepenultimate stress

+


+If the formative does not have enough syllables to allow for penultimate or pre-antepenultimate stress, any morphophonological Slot (see Section 2.1.1) which is unfilled due to having its unmarked default value, can instead be marked by its alternate default value, e.g., the affix -a- in Slot IV (see Section 2.2.2), and/or the infix -wë- in Slot IX (see Section 5.5), and/or the affix -a- in Slot XII (see Section 3.6), in order to create a sufficient number of syllables.

+

If the case-frame is inserted at the beginning or + into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame will usually + carry a special suffix, -t’ (see details in Section 7.4.13), which signifies the end of the frame if + this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside + the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main +sentence. A case-frame usually has its verb appear + as the first element of the case frame.

+

In general, the perspective of the verb in + the secondary sentence operates independently from that of the main verb, however, + it is also common for the perspective of the verb in the secondary sentence + to be placed in the ABSTRACT, which has the effect of + deferring all Perspective information about the verb to the main verb, similarly to the way English subordinate + clauses using gerunds and infinitives defer all tense information to the main +verb of the sentence.

+


+

+

5.4.2 Reinterpreting the Notion of a Relative Clause

+

There is no direct equivalent in Ithkuil to the relative clauses + of Western languages. Ithkuil treats such clauses the same as subordinate clauses + using case-frames as described above. However, the manner in which this is done, + while ultimately logical, is somewhat complex and confusing from a Western perspective. + Therefore, to analyze how Ithkuil reinterprets Western relative clauses into + subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative + clauses in Western languages such as English.

+

A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies + or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types + of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent). + The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.

+
+

RESTRICTED CLAUSE
+ (1) Lions that like chasing their tails can be seen at + any circus.
+ (2) That book (that) I just finished reading was written + by a priest.

+

UNRESTRICTED CLAUSE
+ (3) Lions, which like chasing their tails, can be seen + at any circus.
+ (4) That book, which I just finished reading, was written + by a priest.

+
+

In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing + their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, + not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just + finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered + by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked + about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the + speaker was referring to.

+

Note the difference in meaning, however, when comparing the + first two sentences to the third and fourth sentences. In the third sentence, + the speaker implies that all lions chase their tails regardless of whether they + are in the circus. In the fourth sentence, the identity of the book is already + known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts + about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author. + Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing + by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ + or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in + a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ediately before and + after the clause.

+


+ 5.4.2.1 Restricted Clauses. Ithkuil treats the above notions + about relative clauses in a different way. We will first analyze how Ithkuil + creates equivahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/lents to restricted relative clauses. This can best be approached + by analyzing the underlying sentences which give rise to the main and relative + clauses. Analyzing Sentence No. 2 above, it can be broken up into two discrete + sentences:

+
+

That book was written by a priest. (= A priest wrote that + book.)
+ I just finished reading that book.

+
+

In Ithkuil, the sentence which will be functioning as the + main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence + is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on + what semantic role, i.e., case (see Chapter + 4) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference + of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that + book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See Sec. + 4.1.2), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the ABSOLUTIVE subject ‘priestRhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/17;, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template + ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the OBLIQUE case (See Section 4.3.1). + Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/common point of + reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of + the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have + the two sentences as:

+
+

A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-H.

+
+

The ‘-H’ in the second sentence + above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common + reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ithkuil inserts the + second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the + semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked + by the OBLIQUE case (see Sec. + 4.3.1).

+
+

A priest wrote [OBL]. I just finish + reading that book-H.

+
+

As described in Sec. 5.4.1 above, the verb + of the secondary sentence takes + the relevant case marker (OBLIQUE).

+
+

A priest wrote I just finished reading-OBL that book-H.

+
+

Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest + literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: A priest wrote + what I just finished reading, that book. However, this is how Ithkuil translates + the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’

+

Two observations can be noted from the Ithkuil sentence. First + of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” + Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, + there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types + of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged + (or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence, + the exact same way that subordinate clauses are constructed in Ithkuil. Therefore, + as was previously stated, Ithkuil makes no distinction between subordinate and + relative clauses.

+

Similarly, the other example sentence from above, Lions + that like chasing their tails can be seen at any circus would become in + Ithkuil: At any circus one can see certain lions-H like to chase-OBL their tails. A literal + translation into English would be: At any circus one can see (that) certain + lions like chasing their tails.

+


+ 5.4.2.2 Unrestricted Clauses. As for independent or unrestricted + clauses, as shown in example sentences (3) and (4) earlier, Ithkuil treats these + differently still. In Western languages, an unrestricted clause does not help + to identify a noun or provide a context for ithttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/, but simply adds additional information + about an already identified noun. Thus, unrestricted relative clauses serve + a wholly different cognitive-semantic purpose than restricted clauses, a fact + hidden by their nearly identical surface structures. Ithkuil acknowledgeshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ this + profound difference at the overt sentence level by not subordinating any clause + at all. Rather, the two sentences are given co-equal status as main clauses + and simply joined by a coordinating affix. Thus sentences (3) and (4) from earlier + become:

+
+

One can see lions at https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/any circus and they like chasing + their tails.
+ A priest wrote that book and I just finished reading it.

+
+


+ 5.4.2.3 Use of the CORRELATIVE Case In Lieu of Simple + Relative Clauses. Thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/he CORRELATIVE case (discussed in Sectindex.htmla>) is used to create case-fhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rames which are semantically equivalent to the English phrase ‘that/which/who + is/are…’ Such a case-frame would be used in conjunction with specific Functions (see Section 5.1) to convey whether the relationship of the relativized clause to the main clause is one of description, copula identification, etc.

+

 

+

5.4.3 Example of Case-Frames in Use

+

+
+ Âffapka  gvilevum  ‾xhéi’aica  ekšaéţ  odralekhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/há  gvoecuaţ.         
+STA-‘cry’-NRM/ICP/U/CSL/UNI-IFL     STA-‘article.of.clothing’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-CAP1/3-ROL1/9-IFL  
+FRAMED/DYN-‘know’-PCR-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-CPT-IFL     STA-‘clown’-OGN-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-FML  &https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nbsp;  STA-‘rule’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPP1https://web.archive.org/3-FML     STA-‘article.of.clhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/othing’-REF-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-DEV2/1-IFL
+ The incompetent tailor began to cry after finding out about the clowns’ new directive on nakedness. +

+


+

+


+ N-nsaixtáš  qu  íkau’šurdûž.            LISTEN 
+ CNT-DYN-‘job/employment’-NRM/PRX/M/ASO/UNI-FML     ma-IND     FRAMED-FML-DYN-‘travel’-CON-NRM/PRX/M/ASO/UNI-EXD1/9-CNS1/6
+ He keeps on working despite his reluctance https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/to having to travel more and more.

+

 

+


+

+
+

+ + + + +
5.5 PHASE
+

Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an + act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive + manner (or lahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ck thereof). This is especially useful https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/in describing phenomena + that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, + alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of + Extension, https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/previously described in Sec. + 3.4, to specify the durational naturhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e, starting and ending, and operative + pattern of a state, action or event.

+

The nine phases are the CONTEXTUAL, + PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE, + and FLUCTUATIVE. They are marked by the Cv affix to a formative, depending on the sanction + (and potentially the illocution) of the verb (discussed in Sections 5.6 and 5.3 respectively). The Cv affix is normally placed in Slot V of the formative’s morphological structure, unless the formative contains an incorporated root (see Section 6.4), in which case Cv is placed in Slot I. (In Section 6.3.3 we will see that Cv can alternately be placed within a verbal adjunct.)

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+(+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+The presence of a Cv infix in Slot V requires the presence of a VL affix in Slot VI (See Section 5.6 below on Valence). However, if the categories of Phase, Sanction, Illocution, and Valence are all in their default modes (i.e., CONTEXTUAL phase, PROPOSITIONAL Sanction, ASSERTIVE illocution, and MONOACTIVE valence), then they normally remained unmarked, i.e., the Cv and VL affixes are deleted and Slots V and VI will be unfilled.

+

NOTE: If Slots V and VI are filled (whether by the Cv + VL infixes or by the Cx + Vp infixes discussed in Section 6.4), it becomes necessary to be able to distinguish them from the Cr + Vc root + case infixes in Slots VII and VIII (so the reader/listener will be able to tell which consonants and vowels belong to which morpho-phonological slot). This is accomplished in either of two ways:

+
    +
  1. The Vr vocalic affix in Slot IV must be filled and must be followed by an additional glottal stop ’. It is this inserted glottal stop that clues the reader/listener that Slots V and VI are filled.
    +
    +
    2. +
  2. Or, if the formative is unmarked for Mood and Illocution (i.e., the formative has FACTUAL mood and ASSERTIVE illocution), then this Mood/Illocution combination becomes marked by the infix -wë- in Slot IX. This option is available only where Slots V and VI are filled by Cx + Vp infixes, not Cv + VL infixes.
    3. +
+

The values for the Cv affix are +shown in Tables 11(a) through 11(f) below. Note that if the formative’s Illocution is already shown by the Ci+Vi infix in Slot IX, then illocution is NOT shown via the Cv infix. In such a case, the Cv infix will display ASSERTIVE illocution only (as a default), i.e., only the values from Table 11(a) below will be utilized for Cv.
+

+


+Tables 11(a)-(f): Cv infixes:  9 Sanction x 9 Phases x 6 Illocutions

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
ASSERTIVE
+
ASR
CTX
Contextual

t

t’

th

l

tr

tl

tř

tw

ty

PCT
Punctual

k

k’

kh

x

kr

kl

kř

kw

ky

ITR
Iterative

p

p’

ph

vv

pr

pl

př

pw

py

REP
Repetitive

q

q’

qh

ř

qr

ql

xr

qw

xl

ITM
Intermittent

b

v

vr

vl

br

bl

bř

bw

by

RCT
Recurrent

d

dh

ż

żż

dr

dl

dř

dw

dy

FRE
Frequentative

g

xh

j

jj

gr

gl

gř

gw

gy

FRG
Fragmentative

m

mm

r

rr

mr

ml

mř

mw

my

FLC
Fluctuative

n

nn

ddh

ll

nr

nl

nř

nw

ny

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
INTERROGATIVE
+

+ IRG
CTX
Contextual

s

ss

sm

sn

sr

sl

sř

sw

sy

PCT
Punctual

š

šš

šm

šn

šr

šl

šř

šw

šy

ITR
Iterative

ç

çç

çm

çn

çl

çr

çř

çw

ly

REP
Repetitive

c

cc

cm

cn

cr

cl

cř

cw

cy

ITM
Intermittent

č

čč

čm

čn

čr

čl

čř

čw

čy

RCT
Recurrent

z

zz

zm

zn

zr

zl

zř

zw

zy

FRE
Frequentative

ž

žž

žm

žn

žr

žl

žř

žw

žy

FRG
Fragmentative

f

ff

fw

fy

fr

fl

fř

vw

vy

FLC
Fluctuative

ţ

ţţ

ţw

ţy

ţr

ţl

ţř

dhw

dhy

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
DIRECTIVE
+
DIR
CTX
Contextual

sk

sk’

skh

zg

skr

skl

skř

skw

sky

PCT
Punctual

st

st’

sth

zd

str

stl

stř

stw

sty

ITR
Iterative

sp

sp’

sph

zb

spr

spl

spř

spw

spy

REP
Repetitive

sq

sq’

sqh

xx

sqr

sql

xw

sqw

řř

ITM
Intermittent

šk

šk’

škh

žg

škr

škl

škř

škw

šky

RCT
Recurrent

št

št’

šth

žd

štr

štl

štř

štw

šty

FRE
Frequentative

šp

šp’

šph

žb

špr

špl

špř

špw

špy

FRG
Fragmentative

šq

šq’

šqh

xxh

šqr

šql

xhw

šqw

řw

FLC
Fluctuative

ň

ňň

rw

ry

ňr

ňl

ňř

ňw

řy

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
ADMONITIVE
+
ADM
CTX
Contextual

ks

kss

ksm

ksn

ksr

ksl

ksř

ksw

ksy

PCT
Punctual

kš

kšš

kšm

kšn

kšr

kšl

kšř

kšw

kšy

ITR
Iterative

ps

pss

psm

psn

psr

psl

psř

psw

psy

REP
Repetitive

pš

pšš

pšm

pšn

pšr

pšl

pšř

pšw

pšy

ITM
Intermittent

gz

gzz

gzm

gzn

gzr

gzl

gzř

gzw

gzy

RCT
Recurrent

gž

gžž

gžm

gžn

gžr

gžl

gžř

gžw

gžy

FRE
Frequentative

bz

bzz

bzm

bzn

bzr

bzl

bzř

bzw

bzy

FRG
Fragmentative

bž

bžž

bžm

bžn

bžr

bžl

bžř

bžw

bžy

FLC
Fluctuative

sx

sxh

šx

šxh

zgr

zgl

zgř

zgw

zgy

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
HORTATIVE
+
HOR
CTX
Contextual

çt

çt’

çth

sţ

çtr

çtl

çtř

çtw

çty

PCT
Punctual

çk

çk’

çkh

šţ

çkr

çkl

çkř

çkw

çky

ITR
Iterative

çp

çp’

çph

sf

çpr

çpl

çpř

çpw

çpy

REP
Repetitive

çq

çq’

çqh

šf

çqr

çql

çqř

çqw

çč

ITM
Intermittent

kt

kt’

kth

gd

ktr

ktl

ktř

ktw

kty

RCT
Recurrent

pt

pt’

pth

bd

ptr

ptl

ptř

ptw

pty

FRE
Frequentative

qt

qt’

qth

tk

qtr

qtl

qtř

qtw

qty

FRG
Fragmentative

sc

sc’

sch

db

żr

żl

żř

żw

ży

FLC
Fluctuative

šč

šč’

ščh

dg

jr

jl

jř

jw

jy

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
DECLARATIVE
+
DEC
CTX
Contextual

ct

ct’

cth

tm

ctr

ctl

ctř

ctw

cty

PCT
Punctual

ck

ck’

ckh

km

ckr

ckl

ckř

ckw

cky

ITR
Iterative

cp

cp’

cph

pm

cpr

cpl

cpř

cpw

cpy

REP
Repetitive

cq

cq’

cqh

qm

cqr

cql

gm

cqw

xm

ITM
Intermittent

čt

čt’

čth

tn

čtr

čtl

čtř

čtw

čty

RCT
Recurrent

čk

čk’

čkh

kn

čkr

čkl

čkř

čkw

čky

FRE
Frequentative

čp

čp’

čph

pn

čpr

čpl

čpř

čpw

čpy

FRG
Fragmentative

čq

čq’

čqh

qn

čqr

čql

gn

čqw

xn

FLC
Fluctuative

xt

xt’

xth

pk

xtr

xtl

xtř

xtw

xty

+


+ The nine phases + are explained in the following sections. The Category of Sanction is explained in Section 5.6.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.1
CTX
The Contextual
+
+

The CONTEXTUAL is the default phase, + describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not + instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual + duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can +be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., —

+

+


+ +
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.2
PUN
The Punctual
+
+

The PUNCTUAL describes an act, condition, + or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as + an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between + two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It +can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •

+

+


+ +
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.3
ITR
The Iterative
+
+

The ITERATIVE refers to a momentary or + instantaneous event, like the PUNCTUAL above, which repeats + itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe + light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, + the whole comprising a single CONTEXTUAL event.

+

Visual representation: • + • • •

+

+


+ +
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.4
REP
The Repetitive
+
+

The REPETITIVE refers to a relatively + brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the CONTEXTUAL phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being + honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual + representation: — — +——

+

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.5
ITM
The Intermittent
+
+

The INTERMITTENT is similar to the ITERATIVE above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a PUNCTUAL event, however, unlike the ITERATIVE, the duration of + time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would + be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping + of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc.

+

Visual representation: — • — • — • — •
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.6
RCT
The Recurrent
+
+

The RECURRENT is to the REPETITIVE as the INTERMITTENT is to the ITERATIVE. + It indicates a slow repetition of a CONTEXTUAL event, + where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. + Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl.

+

Visual representation: —— ——— ——— ——— —
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.7
FRE
The Frequentative
+
+

The FREQUENTATIVE indicates an iterative + occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, + the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. Examples + would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short + bursts of a jackhammer.

+

Visual representation: ——• + • •— • • + •— • • + •— • • + •
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.8
FRG
The Fragmentative
+
+

The FRAGMENTATIVE indicates a random + pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event.

+

Visual representation: ——• + •— • • • ——• + • —• • • + • •—— • —• + •
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.9
FLC
The Fluctuative
+
+

The FLUCTUATIVE indicates a random pattern + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of + birds in the wild, etc.

+

Visual representation:—— + • • —— • — • •— ——• + • — • + • • —• + •https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/— —— • — • •

+

 

+

5.5.10 Examples of Phase in Use

+

+


+ Hwe’maklás.   (OR   Hweklàsürn.)
+ INF-STA-ASR/FRG/PPS-‘rain’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ It may be raining.

+

 

+


+ Ia’qantas  altaelgôn.
+ DYN-ASR/REP/PPS-MNO-‘sound’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘inscribe’-OGN-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-AGC2/7-IFL
+ The sound coming from the banks of printers keeps on steadily repeating.

+

 

+


+ Ilarburn  êļnuļ.
+ DYN-‘voice’-NRM/PRX/U/VAR/AGG-FLC-IFL    STA-‘bird’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL
+ Birds are chirping, tweeting, and calling.

+

 

+


+

+
+ + + + +
5.6 SANCTION
+

The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related + purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener + shohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/uld ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance + is a neutral proposition orhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption, + a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.

+

There are nine sanctions: the PROPOSITIONAL, + EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE, + and AXIOMATIC. Sanction is shown by the Cv affix to a formative, depending on the phase + (and potentially the illocution) of the verb (discussed in Sections 5.5 and 5.3 respectively). The Cv affix is normally placed in Slot V of the formative’s morphological structure, unless the formative contains an incorporated root (see Section 6.4), in which case Cv is placed in Slot I. (In Section 6.3.3 we will see that Cv can also be placed within a vebal adjunct.)

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
+ + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

As previously noted in the section on Phase, the presence of a Cv infix entails several other morpho-phonological structural requirements potentially affecting Slots IV, VI and IX. See Section 5.5 above for details of these requirements.

+

Each sanction is explained in the sections below.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.1
PPS
The Propositional
+
+

The PROPOSITIONAL sanction is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents + a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a + statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. + Example of such statements would be That is a mountain, or I’m +hungry.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.2
EPI
The Epistemic
+
+

The EPISTEMIC sanction identifies an utterance as being a statement + of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention + (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human + knowledge. An example would be That mountain is Mount Fuji or The +U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.3
ALG
The Allegative
+
+

The ALLEGATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + or refutation. Examples would be That mountain is beautiful or No +one in the United States goes hungry.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.4
IPU
The Imputative
+
+

The IMPUTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective + or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a + sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be He knows + how to drive [e.g., because he owns a car] or She can’t be hungry +now [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant].
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.5
RFU
The Refutative
+
+

The REFUTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic + in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically +objective fact.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.6
REB
The Rebuttative
+
+

The REBUTTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based + on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief, +or interpretation.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.7
THR
The Theoretical
+
+

The THEORETICAL sanction identifies an utterance +as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.8
EXV
The Expatiative
+
+

The EXPATIATIVE sanction identifies an utterance +as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.9
AXM
The Axiomatic
+
+

The AXIOMATIC sanction identifies an utterance + as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential + fact not open to rational argument or refutation.https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ Examples would be Gravity + is ubiquitous, or Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food.

+


+ 5.6.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use

+
+


+
+ Them-mphâmnas  osmuil.
+ ASR/CTX/ALG-PRLhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/-PRS/COU-STA-‘awe’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+The valley would've been awe-inspiring to you, too [i.e., if you had seen/visited/been to it].

+

 

+


+ Tlan-nsachas  ômmil.
+ ASR/CTX/REB-MNO-CNT-STA-‘sadness’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘female.child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ On the cohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ntrary, the girl is still sad.

+

&nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/p;

+


+ Pšei’ùlûrţ  lên-nsa  hwaixtasár  öqeil.
+ STA-‘incident’-PCR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT1/6-FML     IPU-CPC-CNT    INF-DYN-‘job/employment task’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-FML    STA-‘man’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ After an incident like that, it's a fair guess the man won’t be able to work any longer.          LISTEN 

+

 

+
+

+ + + + +
5.7 VALENCE
+

In Ithkuil, the term Valence is used to refer + to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given + verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by + another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, + or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs + of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” + verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ithkuil explicitly + shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate + the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1a) I found an old man.→1b) I found an empty can.
2a) I threw the ball at Sam.→2b) I threw the ball at the window.
3a) I performed in front of her.→3b) I performed in front of the wall.
+

Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate + object of the verb (an old man, Sam, and her), while the second + member of each pair has an inanimate object (an empty can, the window, and the wall). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1c) I met an old man.→1d) * I met an empty can.
2c) I threw Sam the ball.→2d) * I threw the window the ball.
3c) I entertained her.→3d) * I entertained the wall.
+

The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these + pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why? The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except + that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been + replaced by the semantically similar meet, throw, and entertain. + Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears + unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” + i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, + whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that + the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even + being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without the old man also + meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if + I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected to participate by + catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re + asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating + in the situation by observing me. The participatory relationship involving the second party of + a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship + (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb + ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship + as in the sentence I met the old man (i.e., and so he met me) or in + verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We + love each other. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in I + played along with him (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship + as in I threw Sam the ball (i.e., and so he caught it).Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is + the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ithkuil into + the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely + explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ + ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly + specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as find/meet, + throw at/throw, perform/entertain, etc. In Ithkuil, co-activity is explicitly shhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/own morphologically, + and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are + systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus + co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/actively + as well as co-actively.

+

There are fourteen valences in Ithkuil: the MONOACTIVE, + PARALLEL, COROLLARY, RECIPROCAL, COMPLEMENTARY, NONRELATIONAL, DUPLICATIVE, + DEMONSTRATIVE, RESISTIVE, IMITATIVE, CONTINGENT, PARTICIPATIVE, INDICATIVE, + and MUTUAL. Valence is shown by the VL affix to a formative, normally placed in Slot VI of the formative’s morphological structure (following the Cv affix in Slot V), unless the formative contains an incorporated root (see Section 6.4) or a Cs aspect/mood infix in Slot III, in which case VL is placed in Slot II following the Cv affix in Slot I. As per the Note in Section 5.5, the presence of Cv and VL in Slots V and VI require that the Vr infix in Slot IV be followed by a glottal stop ’.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+(In Section 6.3.4 we will see that Valence can also be shown via a cosonantal prefix to a verbal adjunct.)

+

Table 12 below shows the values for the VL affix for each of the fourteen valences.

+


+ Table 12: VL Valence Prefixes
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Label
Valence name
VL
1
MNO
Monoactive
a
2
PRL
Parallel
e
3
CRO
Corollary
o
4
RCP
Reciprocal
i
5
CPL
Complementary
u
6
NNR
Nonrelational
â
7
DUP
Duplicative
ê
8
DEM
Demonstrative
ô
9
RES
Resistive
û / î
10
IMT
Imitative
ai / au
11
CNG
Contingent
ei / eu
12
PTI
Participative
oi / ou
13
IDC
Indicative
ui / iu
14
MUT
Mutual
ö
+

The fourteen corresponding consonantal prefixes for Valence used with verbal adjuncts are given in Section 6.3.4.

+

The fourteen valences are explained as follows:
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.1
MNO
The Monoactive
+
+

The MONOACTIVE valence is the default + valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second + party is implied.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.2
PRL
The Parallel
+
+

The PARALLEL valence indicates that a + second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children all sang + together, We both went jogging on the parkway.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.3
CRO
The Corollary
+
+

The COROLLARY valence is similar to the PARALLEL, except that the second party engages in related + activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children played in + the yard (i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or The + band played my favorite song (implying that not everyone in the band was + playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed + to playing an instrument).

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.4
RCP
The Reciprocal
+
+

The RECIPROCAL valence indicates identical + activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial + phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in They + looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.5
CPL
The Complementary
+
+

The COMPLEMENTARY valence indicates that + the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. + By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the + first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., + the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences + such as The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, + The clown read the children a story, My back itches so I scratch it, where ‘played catch’ implies + the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the + woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, ‘read’ + implies a reader and an audience, and ‘itches’ implies scratching.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.6
NNR
The Nonrelational
+
+

The NONRELATIONAL valence indicates that + a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., + an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify + this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause + such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in He shaved + while she did something else. The way an Ithkuil sentence would utilize + this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, + ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one + thing while the other did something else.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.7
DUP
The Duplicative
+
+

The DUPLICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the + sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, + then you draw the same picture), They both read that book (i.e., first + one, then the other), I bought a new car (i.e., and now someone else + is buying a new car, too).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.8
DEM
The Demonstrative
+
+

The DEMONSTRATIVE valence indicates that + the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what + to do. Thus an Ithkuil sentence constructed as We played chess with + the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I + showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They + fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.9
RES
The Resistive
+
+

The RESISTIVE valence indicates that + the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity + of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the + adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases + such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as We took the + children to see the clowns anyway (i.e., they didn’t want to go), They fed me liver just the same (i.e., I can’t stand liver), Nevertheless, he told us the story (i.e., despite our not wanting to + hear it).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.10
IMT
The Imitative
+
+

The IMITATIVE valence indicates that + the second party mimics, imitates, or attempts to duplicate the activity of + the first party. The Ithkuil sentence The clown juggled three balls for + the child in the IMITATIVE valence implies that the + child attempted to juggle the balls as well.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.11
CNG
The Contingent
+
+

The CONTINGENT valence indicates that + the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, + the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ithkuil sentence I started the campfire for my friend in the CONTINGENT implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked + the food.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.12
PTI
The Participative
+
+

The PARTICIPATIVE valence indicates that + the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable + by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ithkuil sentence They raced in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They + each took part in the race.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.13
IDC
The Indicative
+
+

The INDICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s + activity. Thus the sentence I looked at her in the INDICATIVE would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ + while the sentence I spoke to them would mean ‘They gleaned what + I really meant from my words.&#https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/8217;

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.14
MUT
The Mutual
+
+

The MUTUAL valence indicates that both + parties alternate performing an activity, as in She and I take turns cleaning or They both alternate teaching the beginning and advanced classes.

+


+
+ 5.7.15 Examples of Valence in Use

+
+


+
+ Tö  ¯um-mixhakc’éhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/çt  eglelôn  ükšàleač.         
+ 1M-EFF       CPL-SUB-DYN-‘study’-NRM/GRA/M/CSL/UNI-FML-CVT1/3-CPT        STA-‘illness’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
+ FRAMED-FML-MNF-‘clown’-OBL-NRM/DELhttps://web.archive.org/M/CSL/UNI-QUA2/8
+ I may secretly teach the https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/doctor to be a truly oustanding clown. https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/              

+


+ Il-lrazgall  eqill.
+ RCP-HAB-STA-‘smile’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL    STA-‘person’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL
+ The couple are always smiling at each other.          LISTEN 

+


+

+


+ Uin-ntixal  ömmul  ekšíl.
+ IDC-SUB/RTR-DYN-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘father’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘clown’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ Maybe the clown understood the meaning of father’s look.

+


+

+


+ Ailtac  wëtöin-n  qeiwi.
+ DYN-‘write.message’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL &nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/p; RCP-PPS/CTX/ASR-DVR-FAC     ma-ACT-CSL-NRM/DPX
+ The two of them like writing to each other.

+

 
+

+


+ Em-mrigradh  ekšóll  âmmeļ.
+ PRL-PRS-DYN-‘eat/drink food’-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-&lsquohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/;clown’-ERG-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-FML    STA-‘chilhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/d’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL
https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + The pair of clowns will make the children eat together from now on.

+

 

+
+ A’tukças  tê  oxnall
+ STA-PPS/CTX/ASR-CPL-‘itch’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    1m-GEN    STA-‘back’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL
+ My back itches so I scratch it.          LISTEN 
+

 

+


+ Them-mphâmnas  osmuil.
+ ASR/CTX/ALG-PRL-PRS/COU-STA-‘awe’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ You, too, would've found the valley to be awe-inspiring [i.e., if you had seen/visited/been to it].          

+

NOTE: The example sentence immediately above is interesting in that there is no overt reference in the Ithkuil sentence to any subject “you.” The idea that there are two parties involved, i.e., the speaker and the listener(s), is conveyed solely by the presence of PARALLEL valence. Without PRL valence, the sentence would simply mean ‘the valley would have been awe-inspiring’; the added PRL valence implies the speaker is alleging to another party (i.e., the listener/reader) that the latter would have also enjoyed the valley's awesomeness.

+
+

+

 

+

+ + + + +
5.8 VERSION
+

Version refers to a six-way aspectual distinction indicating + whether the verb refers to an act, event or state which is goal- or result-oriented, + and/or whether it has been successfully actualized subsequent to one’s + initial intention. Like many Ithkuil morphological categories, version addresses + semantic distinctions which are usually rendered by lexical differentiation + (i.e., word choice) in other languages.

+

Version is shown by the formative’s tone (see Section 1.3.2 for an explanation of how tone functions in Ithkuil formatives). The six versions are PROCESSUAL, COMPLETIVE, INEFFECTUAL, INCOMPLETIVE, POSITIVE and EFFECTIVE.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

The six versions are explained below:
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.8.1
PRC
The Processual
+
+

The PROCESSUAL version is marked by falling tone. It is the default version and describes all acts, conditions, + or events which are ends in themselves and not goal-oriented, i.e., are not + focused on an anticipated outcome or final purpose toward which a progressive + effort is being made.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.8.2
CPT
The Completive
+
+

The COMPLETIVE version is marked by high tone. It describes acts, conditions, + or events which achieve, or are intended to achieve, an anticipated outcome, + i.e., which are oriented toward the achievement of some purpose, outcome, or + final state. Such a distinction is usually handled by word choice in Western + languages. The dynamism of Version can be seen in the following comparisons:

+
+

PROCESSUAL → COMPLETIVE

+

hunt → to hunt down
+ to be losing → to lose
+ to study → to learn
+ to be winning → to win
+ to strive for → to accomplish, achieve
+ to risk → to defeat the odds; win
+ to work → to build, construct, make
+ to displace; infiltrate → infest, to take over; vanquish
+ to pour out → to drain
+ to remove (incrementally) → to eliminate
+ to increase → to maximize
+ to read → to read to the end; finish reading
+ to decrease → minimize
+ to flank → to surround
+ to enlarge → to make gigantic
+ to spread upon or over → to cover, engulf, envelop
+ to shrink → miniaturize
+ to chase → to catch up to
+ to eat → eat + all up
+ to pursue → to capture
+ to compete → to win
+ to be pregnant → to give birth
+ to throw at → to hit (with a throw)
+ to run low on → to run out of, deplete
+ to grow → to grow up
+ to use → use + up
+ to possess, hold → to keep
+ to tear/ rip → to tear/rip up or to pieces
+ to join together → to unify
+ to accelerate, speed up → to achieve maximum speed
+ to pour into → to fill (up)
+ to bleed → to bleed to death
+ to run → to + run all the way
+ to descend, go down → to get to the bottom
+ to brighten → to illuminate
+ to decelerate, slow down → to stop
+ to search for, seek → to find
+ to polish → to burnish
+ to practice → to perfect
+ to darken → to make dark
+ to ascend, rise → to reach the top
+ to explore → to discover

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
5.8.3
INE
+
The Ineffectual
+

The INEFFECTUAL version is marked by rising tone. It, and the INCOMPLETIVE which follows, operate in parallel fashion to + the PROCESSUAL and the COMPLETIVE versions respectively but are specific to acts, events, or states initially + expressed (whether explicitly or implicitly) as unrealized intentions, attempts, + desires, needs, etc., often in conjunction with a modality affix to the verb + (see Section 6.1). Such “unrealized” + verbs are exemplified in the following sentences: I want to dance, She needs + to work, I tried to finish, She must find him, I choose to celebrate. Each + of these sentences in itself does not specify whether the action was “realized” + or not, i.e., just because I want to dance doesn’t necessarily mean that + I actually do dance; her need to work doesn’t tell us by itself whether + she in fact will work, etc.

+

The INEFFECTUAL version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” PROCESSUAL verb is unsuccessful. Thus the sentence I want to dance in the INEFFECTUAL would be translated as I want to dance but I’m not going to, + while the sentence I tried to eat in the INEFFECTUAL means I tried to eat but couldn’t.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.8.4
INC
The Incompletive
+
+

The INCOMPLETIVE version is marked by low tone. It indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” COMPLETIVE verb is unsuccessful. It functions identically to the INEFFECTUAL, + except that it refers to a verb that is result/goal-oriented, as illustrated + in the comparative chart shown above for the COMPLETIVE version. Thus, the sentence I tried to eat in the INCOMPLETIVE means I tried to eat all of it but couldn’t.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.8.5
PST
The Positive
+
+

The POSITIVE version is marked by rising-falling tone. Complementing the INEFFECTUAL, the POSITIVE indicates an intention brought to reality. Thus the sentence I want + to dance in the POSITIVE would be translated as I + want to dance and so I’m going to, while the sentence I tried + to eat in the POSITIVE means I succeeded in eating + something.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.8.6
EFC
The Effective
+
+

Likewise, the EFFECTIVE version complements + the INCOMPLETIVE, indicating the same successful effort + implied by the POSITIVE version, only applied to goal-/result-oriented + verbs. Thus I wanted to finish in the EFFECTIVE implies that the desire was successfully carried out; I tried to eat in the EFFECTIVE means I succeeded in eating it all + up. The EFFECTIVE is marked by falling-rising tone.

+


+ 5.8.7 Examples of Version in Use

+
+


+
+ ˇIxhát’  êpal  I&#https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/355;kuil  efneil  tê.
+ DYN-‘study’-NRM/TRM/M/CSL/UNI-FML-EFC    STA-[carrier stem]-OBhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/L-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI       “Ithkuil”     STA-‘male cousin’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    1https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/M-GEN    
+My cousin has finally learned Ithkuil.          LISTEN 

+

 

+

      →     
+ Uakal  egruláun.     →    ¯Uakal  egruláun.
+ [PRC]-DYN-‘come’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     STA-‘preparehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/.food’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/2-FML  &nbsindex.html> +  →      CPT-DYN-‘come’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL         STA-‘prepare.food’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/2-FML
+ The cook is on his way.      →      The cook has arrived.          LISTEN 

+

 

+
+


+

+ + + + +
5.9 VALIDATION
+

Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. There are 14 validations in Ithkuil, five refer to non-hearsay types of evidence, while nine refer to hearsay situations. These nine hearsay categories are distinguished by a two-fold matrix of whether the source of the hearsay is considered by the speaker to be trustworthy and whether the statement/information is potentially verifiable. The exactitude of Ithkuil evidential categories is impossible to capture in English translation except through cumbersome paraphrase, but can be approximated in a rough way using phrases such as reportedly, presumably, supposedly, purportedly, allegedly, rumour has it, I have a feeling that, etc.

+

The 14 validations are shown by a consonantal prefix Cg in Slot III.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+ The values for the Cg prefix are shown in Table 13 below as well as the meaning (description of evidential basis) of each validation.
+

+
+Table 13(a) and (b): Cg Validation Prefixes
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Label
Name
Cg
Evidential Basis
1
CNF
CONFIRMATIVE
(h-)*
direct observation/knowledge and verifiable by others
2
AFM
AFFIRMATIVE
y-
direct observation/knowledge but unknown verifiability by others
3
RPT
REPORTIVE
w-
direct observation/knowledge but unverifiable by others
4
INF
INFERENTIAL
hw-
inference
5
ITU
INTUITIVE
hh-
intuition/feeling
+* The CONFIRMATIVE Validation is unmarked unless the formative displays a VL value in Slot II, in which case Cg is h-. +


+ Hearsay Categories
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Label
Name
Cv
Source
+ Trustworthy?
Verifiable?
+
6
PSM
PRESUMPTIVE
hm-
Yes
Yes
7
PSM2
PRESUMPTIVE 2
hn-
Yes
Unknown
8
PPT
PURPORTIVE
hr-
Yes
No
9
PPT2
PURPORTIVE 2
lw-
Unknown
Yes
10
CJT
CONJECTURAL
ly-
Unknown
Unknown
11
DUB
DUBITATIVE
rw-
Unknown
No
12
TEN
TENTATIVE
ry-
No
Yes
13
PUT
PUTATIVE
řw-
No
Unknown
14
IPB
IMPROBABLE
řy-
No
No
+


+
+ 5.9.1 Examples of Validation in Use

+
+

                    
+ Qö  ¯uhmixhákc’  https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/eglelôn  ükšàwëla.
+ ma-EFF       CPT-CPL-PSM-DYN-‘study’-GRA/M/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘illness’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL     FRAMED/FML-MNF-‘clown’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ Presumably he is teaching the doctor to be a clown.         

+

 

+


+ Ihrazgallamz  eqill.
+ RCP-PPT-STA-‘smile’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-MOT2/5-IFL    STA-‘person’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL
+ Purportedly, the couple can’t help smiling at each other.          

+

 

+


+ Irwailtac  qeiwi.
+ RCP-DUB-DYN-‘write.message’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL       ma-ACT-CSL-NRM/DPX
+ Supposedly the two of them write to each other but who knows if it’s true orhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ not.         

+

 

+
+

+


+

+
+ + + + +
5.10 + ASPECT
+
+

Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + (as with Perspective in Sec. 3.3), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects in Ithkuil. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial + phrases used in English.

+

Generally, Aspect is usually shown by affixes to a verbal adjunct, since such adjuncts allow for a second aspect to be conveyed, and any other morphological information carried by the adjunct requires the adjunct to carry an aspectual marker as well. However, it is also possible to show a single aspect within the formative itself, by means of the Cs consonantal prefix in Slot III. Such an alernative would be available when Slots I and II of the formative are filled, thus requiring the presence of either Cg or Cs in Slot III.
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect ( + Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+The Cs consonhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/antal affix will always contain one of the specialized dyssyllabic geminate clusters described in Section 1.2.1.3, written n-n, m-m, l-l, r-r, etc. or various other syllabic consonant clusters, e.g., l-m, l-n, r-m, r-n, and r-ň. The only appearance in Ithkuil of these https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/specialized consonantal clusters is in the Cs affix used in Slot III of formatives (as well as in Slot D of verbal adjuncts, discussed in Section 6.0). In this way, the reader/listener can always distinguish whether the consonantal form in Slot III represents Cs showing Aspect as opposed to Cg showing Validation (see Section 5.9 above).

+

Besides showing Aspect, Cs also shows Mood. If the formative’s Mood is already shown via the Ci+Vi infix in Slot IX (see Section 5.2), then Cs will show a FACTUAL mood solely as a placeholder/default value, and only the Aspect value of Cs will be semantically active.

+

The values for Cs are shown in Table 14 below. (The forms of alternate vocalic affixes used for showing Aspect within verbal adjuncts will be discussed in Section 6.3.1.)

+


+ Table + 14: Values for Cs (32 Aspects x 8 Moods)

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  
MOOD

Aspect

 

FAC

SUB

ASM

SPC

COU

HYP

IPL

ASC

 

none

 

n-n

m-m

l-l

r-r

ň-ň

r-n

l-ň

r-ň

1

RTR
RETROSPECTIVE

n-nr

n-nt

n-nt’

n-nd

n-nth

n-nţ

n-ndh

n-nh

2

PRS
PROSPECTIVE

m-mr

m-mp

m-mp’

m-mb

m-mph

m-mf

m-mv

m-mh

3

HAB
HABITUAL

l-lr

l-lt

l-lt’

l-ld

l-lth

l-lţ

l-ldh

l-lh

4

PRG
PROGRESSIVE

r-rn

r-rt

r-rt’

r-rd

r-rth

r-rţ

r-rdh

r-rh

5

IMM
IMMINENT

ň-ňr

ň-ňk

ň-ňk’

ň-ňg

ň-ňkh

ň-ňx

ň-ňq

ň-ňh

6

PCS
PRECESSIVE

n-nw

n-ntw

n-nt’w

n-ndw

n-nthw

n-nţw

n-ndhw

n-nhw

7

REG
REGULATIVE

m-mw

m-mpw

m-mp’w

m-mbw

m-mphw

m-mfw

m-mvw

m-mhw

8

EXP
EXPERIENTIAL

l-lw

l-ltw

l-lt’w

l-ldw

l-lthw

l-lţw

l-ldhw

l-lhw

9

RSM
RESUMPTIVE

r-rw

r-rtw

r-rt’w

r-rdw

r-rthw

r-rţw

r-rdhw

r-rhw

10

CSS
CESSATIVE

ň-ňw

ň-ňkw

ň-ňk’w

ň-ňgw

ň-ňkhw

ň-ňxw

ň-ňqw

ň-ňhw

11

RCS
RECESSATIVE

n-ny

n-nty

n-nt’y

n-ndy

n-nthy

n-nţy

n-ndhy

n-nç

12

PAU
PAUSAL

m-my

m-mpy

m-mp’y

m-mby

m-mphy

m-mfy

m-mvy

m-mç

13

RGR
REGRESSIVE

l-ly

l-lty

l-lt’y

l-ldy

l-lthy

l-lţy

l-ldhy

l-lç

14

PCL
PRECLUSIVE

r-ry

r-rty

r-rt’y

r-rdy

r-rthy

r-rţy

r-rdhy

r-rç

15

CNT
CONTINUATIVE

n-ns

n-nz

n-nsw

n-nzw

n-nc’

n-nch

n-nc’w

n-nchw

16

ICS
INCESSATIVE

m-ms

m-mz

m-msw

m-mzw

m-mc’

m-mch

m-mc’w

m-mchw

17
PMP
PREEMPTIVE

ň-ňs

ň-ňz

ň-ňsw

ň-ňzw

ň-ňc’

ň-ňch

ň-ňc’w

ň-ňchw

18
CLM
CLIMACTIC

l-ls

l-lz

l-lsw

l-lzw

l-lc’

l-lch

l-lc’w

l-lchw

19
PTC
PROTRACTIVE

r-rs

r-rz

r-rsw

r-rzw

r-rc’

r-rch

r-rc’w

r-rchw

20
TMP
TEMPORARY

n-nš

n-nž

n-nšw

n-nžw

n-nč’

n-nčh

n-nč’w

n-nčhw

21
MTV
MOTIVE

m-mš

m-mž

m-mšw

m-mžw

m-mč’

m-mčh

m-mč’w

m-mčhw

22
CSQ
CONSEQUENTIAL

ň-ňš

ň-ňž

ň-ňšw

ň-ňžw

ň-ňč’

ň-ňčh

ň-ňč’w

ň-ňčhw

23
SQN
SEQUENTIAL

l-lš

l-lž

l-lšw

l-lžw

l-lč’

l-lčh

l-lč’w

l-lčhw

24
EPD
EXPEDITIVE

r-rš

r-rž

r-ršw

r-ržw

r-rč’

r-rčh

r-rč’w

r-rčhw

25
DCL
DISCLUSIVE

n-nļ

m-mļ

ň-ňļ

n-ntļ

m-mtļ

ň-ňtļ

l-ltļ

r-rtļ

26
CCL
CONCLUSIVE

l-lm

l-lļ

n-nl

ň-ňm

m-mř

m-mt

ň-ňt

ň-ňn

27
CUL
CULMINATIVE

r-rm

r-rl

m-ml

m-mn

r-mř

m-mt’

ň-ňt’

ň-ňç

28
IMD
INTERMEDIATIVE

l-ln

l-nļ

l-lř

n-nm

ň-ňř

m-mth

ň-ňth

ň-ňţ

29
TRD
TARDATIVE

l-nw

l-ny

l-lg

l-lgw

l-lx

l-lxw

l-lv

l-lcw

30
TNS
TRANSITIONAL

r-nw

r-my

r-rg

r-rgw

r-rx

r-rxw

r-rv

r-rcw

31
ITC
INTERCOMMUTATIVE

l-mw

l-my

l-lb

l-lbw

l-lf

l-lfw

l-ňw

l-lčw

32
CSM
CONSUMPTIVE

r-mw

r-ny

r-rb

r-rbw

r-rf

r-rfw

r-ňw

r-rčw

+


+

+

The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below.

+
+ + + + + + +
5.10.1
RTR
    RETROSPECTIVE
+

This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create + various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the MONADIC, + the RETROSPECTIVE can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the UNBOUNDED, + the RETROSPECTIVE is equates with the English simple past + tense. With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + verb.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.2
PRS
    PROSPECTIVE
+

Like the RETROSPECTIVE above, this aspect operates in + conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense + categories. With the MONADIC, the PROSPECTIVE equates with the English future tense. With the UNBOUNDED, + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, it + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.3
HAB
    HABITUAL
+

When used with the MONADIC perspective, this aspect conveys + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the UNBOUNDED, the English ‘used to’ construction + offers an equivalent translation, as in She used to come see me on Wednesdays.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.4
PRG
    PROGRESSIVE
+

This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + in Spanish.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.5
IMM
    IMMINENT
+

Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in I + think Carl is about to cry.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.6
PCS
    PRECESSIVE
+

Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in We just + saw a clown in the toy store.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.7
REG
    REGULATIVE
+

Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event + over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + the new bridge.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.8
EPR
    EXPERIENTIAL
+

Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + as in Does he ever shut up? Note the EXPERIENTIAL does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + in Ever does he seek his destiny nor as an adverb of mere emphasis + as in Was she ever tired.
+

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.9
RSM
    RESUMPTIVE
+

Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously + ceased, as in The girl resumed singing, or He is starting to laugh + again.
+

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.10
CSS
    CESSATIVE
+

Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + as in They stopped dancing at midnight.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.11
RCS
    RECESSATIVE
+

Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased + then resumed, as in Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy + a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.12
PAU
    PAUSAL
+

Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with + her friends.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.13
RGR
    REGRESSIVE
+

Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event + after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The REGRESSIVE should be distinguished from the RESUMPTIVE above, which + merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change + of state or situation. An example would be Mr. Yates returned to golf after + recovering from his stroke.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.14
PCL
    PRECLUSIVE
+

Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + etc. as in Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.15
CNT
    CONTINUATIVE
+

Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.16
ICS
    INCESSATIVE
+

Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in They danced the night away or They’ve been battling + on and on since last year.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.17
PMP
    PREEMPTIVE
+

Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence of an action, state or event, + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.18
CLM
    CLIMACTIC
+

Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.19
PTC
    PROTRACTIVE
+

Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. + If used with the CONTEXTUAL or PUNCTUAL phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the PROTRACTIVE conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: It + rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a + long time coming.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.20
TMP
    TEMPORARY
+

Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable + only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in This will be sufficient + for now or For the time being you’ll have to drink water.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.21
MTV
    MOTIVE
+

Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence + of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in Dad’s off hunting or They went off to cavort with the clowns.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.22
CSQ
    CONSEQUENTIAL
+

This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event + despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in She went + ahead and bought the furniture or I decided to go there anyway.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.23
SQN
    SEQUENTIAL
+

This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single + event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English + use of ‘off’ as in He's checking off each item as it is inventoried, + or The sheep died off from the disease.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.24
EPD
    EXPEDITIVE
+

Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English + ‘hurry (up)’ as in Hurry up and finish or They ate + in a hurry.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.25
DCL
    DISCLUSIVE
+

Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.26
CCL
    CONCLUSIVE
+

Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in I ended up crashing the car or He drank to the point where he passed out.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.27
CUL
    CULMINATIVE
+

Similar to the CONCLUSIVE above, but with a focus on the + eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series + of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the CONCLUSIVE aspect above: In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.28
IMD
    INTERMEDIATIVE
+

Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point + along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.29
TRD
    TARDATIVE
+

Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens + in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source + of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.30
TNS
    TRANSITIONAL
+

Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in I’m planning to take up golf.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.31
ITC
    INTERCOMMUTATIVE
+

Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + as in The boy threw it back or She stared back at the men ogling + her.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.32CSM    CONSUMPTIVE
+

Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in Mother spends her life + worrying or He’s pining away.

+

 

+
+


+5.10.33 Examples of Aspect In Use

+
+


+
+ Al-lsinyat  eqţulisqa  tê.
+ MNO-CLM-DYN-‘choose’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘brother’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DCS2/1-IFL&nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/p;   1M-GEN
+My indecisive brother made a choice once and for all.

+

 

+


+ Al-lyuolmát  êqul.
+ MNO-RGR-DYN-‘sing.a.song’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML     STA-‘woman’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ The woman returned to singing.

+

 

+


+ Çhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/;tar-ryo  igraleiţrar  eglulôn.
+ HOR/CTX/PPS-PCL-HAB     DYN-‘eat.food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6-IFL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
+ If only the physician wouldn’t always eat his food in one gulp like that.

+

 

+


+ Lêr-rwia  hwaixtasár  öqeil.
+ ASR/CTX/IPU-CPC-RSM-TMP     INF-DYN-‘job/employment.task’-PRX/M/ASO/UNI-NA11/5-FML     STA-‘man’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ I’d venture to say the man won't be able to resume working anytime soon.

+
+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
5.11 BIAS
+

Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which +often warrants a change in English translation.

+


+ 5.11.1 Bias Categories and Usage

+

Bias is shown as a word-final consonantal suffix to formative with a glottal stop being infixed between the suffix and the Vf mood/context suffix, +e.g., uprexalo’ss. (The glottal stop is necessary so that the reader/listener does not confuse it with a word-final VxC suffix in Slot XI.
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
+

Illocution +
+ Mood

+
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+NOTE: We will see in Section 6.3.2 that, as an alternative to the Cb bias suffix on a formative, Bias can instead be shown via a word-final consonantal suffix to to a verbal adjunct.

+

These Cb affix forms are shown in Table 15 below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms +described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.

+


+ Table 15: Morpho-Phonological + Markers for Bias

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
LABEL
NAME OF BIAS
Cb AFFIX →
+ Cb INTENSIVE AFFIX
1
ASU
ASSURATIVEn → nn
2
HPB
HYPERBOLICm → mm
3
COI
COINCIDENTALň → ňň
4
ACP
ACCEPTIVE

ţ → ţţ

5
RAC
REACTIVEç → çç
6
STU
STUPEFACTIVEs → ss
7
CTV
CONTEMPLATIVEz → zz
8
DPV
DESPERATIVEš → šš
9
RVL
REVELATIVEl → ll
10
GRT
GRATIFICATIVEr → rr
11
SOL
SOLICITIVEř → řř
12
SEL
SELECTIVEļ  → ļļ
13
IRO
IRONICkç → kçç
14
EXA
EXASPERATIVEpļ → pļļ
15
LTL
LITERALpç → pçç
16
CRR
CORRECTIVEx → xx
17
EUP
EUPHEMISTICxh → xxh
18
SKP
SKEPTICALks → kss
19
CYN
CYNICALf → ff
20
CTP
CONTEMPTIVEkš → kšš
21
DSM
DISMISSIVEkf → kff
22
IDG
INDIGNATIVEpš → pšš
23
SGS
SUGGESTIVEps → pss
24
PPV
PROPOSITIVEpf → pff
+


+

+
+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.1
ASU
    ASSURATIVE
+

This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by I told you so! or You see?!

+

 

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.2
HPB
    HYPERBOLIC
+

This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in I + so don’t care! or That is totally not what I wanted. The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.3
COI
    COINCIDENTAL
+

This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in I happened to run into Jane or It + just so happens that I’m busy. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.4
ACP
    ACCEPTIVE
+

This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.5
RAC
    REACTIVE
+

This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.6
STU
    STUPEFACTIVE
+

This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.7
CTV
    CONTEMPLATIVE
+

This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.8
DPV
    DESPERATIVE
+

This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.9
RVL
    REVELATIVE
+

This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.10
GRT
    GRATIFICATIVE
+

This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.11
SOL
    SOLICITIVE
+

This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence So dance already!

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.12
SEL
    SELECTIVE
+

This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.13
IRO
    IRONIC
+

This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.14
EXA
    EXASPERATIVE
+

This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.15
LTL
    LITERAL
+

This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.16
CRR
    CORRECTIVE
+

This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.17
EUP
    EUPHEMISTIC
+

This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.18
SKP
    SKEPTICAL
+

This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.19
CYN
    CYNICAL
+

This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.20
CTP
    CONTEMPTIVE
+

This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.21
DSM
    DISMISSIVE
+

This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.22
IDG
    INDIGNATIVE
+

This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.23
SGS
    SUGGESTIVE
+

This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.24
PPV
     PROPOSITIVE
+ This bias expresses a proposal or suggested https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences How about going for a stroll?, We + could meet the clowns behind the barn ifhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ you want, or You can sit on my lap. + The intensive form https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in Englishttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/h by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’
+


+ 5.11.2 Examples of Bias in Use

+
+


+ Isvala’kss  êzguirs  èkšôt  âmmit.          LISTEN 
+ DYN-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXS-IFL-SKP+    STA-‘sound.of.laughter’-DER-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/AGG-IFL  STA-‘clown’-ATT-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ You can hardly expect us to believe that the sound of the clowns’ laughter frightens the children.

+


+ Uzlasa’nn  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-EXS-IFL-ASU+    ‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ You see?! I told you his wife’s clothes are https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/inside-out!

+

 

+


+ Hwe’maklasá’ň.   (OR   Hweklasürná’ň.)
+ INF-STA-ASR/FRG/PPS-‘rain’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML-COI
+ It may just so happen to be raining.

+

 

+
+

+

+

+
+

Proceed to Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology >>

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065534id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System +
FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+
+

 

+ + + + + + +
Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

 

+

For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
+ in book form, it is now available!

+

And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
+ wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

+

(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
+ philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
+ Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

+

 

+

 

+

 

+
+

©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

+
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+
+ + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/05_verbs_1.html.orig b/2004-en/05_verbs_1.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5d0415f --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/05_verbs_1.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,5676 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 5: Verb Morphology + + + + + +

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+

 

+

Chapter 5: Verb Morphology

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
5.1 Function 5.5 Phase5.9 Validation
5.2 Mood 5.6 Sanction5.10 Aspect
5.3 Illocution5.7 Valence5.11 Bias
5.4 Case-Frames & Relation5.8 Version 
+


+ The Ithkuil verbal formative (termed “verb” in + this chapter for simplicity’s sake) is the workhorse of the language, + inflecting for twenty-two different morphological categories. These include + the seven categories shared by all formatives and already discussed in Chapter + 3: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension, Essence, + Context, and Designation. Additionally the following + fifteen categories apply solely to verbs: Function, Mood, Illocution, Case-Frame, Relation, Phase, + Sanction, Valence, Version, Validation, Aspect, Format, Modality, Level, and Bias. Additionally, Ithkuil allows for stem incorporation, i.e., for one formative stem to be incorporated inside of another to expand the latter’s semantic range. The verb can also + theoretically take any number of the approximately 1800 suffixes available to formatives. + Such suffixes are analyzed in Chapter + 7.

+

The full structure of a Ithkuil verbal formative is in two parts, + i.e., having two distinct words, these being a valence/modality adjunct + and the verb itself. In simple sentences, the valence/modality adjunct may be missing. The following extreme example of a fully inflected + Ithkuil verb illustrates all 22 of the above-listed categories, as well as demonstrating an incorporated stem:

+

 

+
+
     hruštrul-lyö’ň  ˉhničhâçtàu’watkwöu​​​​​​              
+
+ + + + + +
+

hr.u.štr.u.l-ly.ö.’ň

+ Valence: DEMONSTRATIVE
+Level: SURPASSIVE-RELATIVE
+Phase: RECURRENT
+Sanction: REFUTATIVE
+Illocution: DIRECTIVE
+Modality: DESIDERATIVE
+Aspect 1: REGRESSIVE
+Apect 2: IMMINENT
+Bias: COINCIDENTAL
+
+

ˉ.hn.i.čh.â.çt.àu.’wa.tkw.öu

+

Validation: PRESUMPTIVE 2
+ Function: DYNAMIC
+ Pattern/Stem of Main Root:  Pattern 1, Stem 1
+ Incorporated Root: čh ‘make/construct’
+ Pattern/Stem of Inc. Root:  Pattern 1, Stem 1
+ Designation of Incorporated Root: FORMAL
+ Main Root: çt ‘chamber; spatial enclosure’
+ Case-Frame: CONCESSIVE
+ Mood: SUBJUNCTIVE
+ Essence: REPRESENTATIVE
+ Extension: PROXIMAL
+ Perspective: ABSTRACT
+ Configuration: COMPOSITE
+ Affiliation: COALESCENT
+ Context: AMALGAMATIVE
+ Format: SUBSEQUENT
+ Version: COMPLETIVE
+ Designation: FORMAL
+ Relation: + FRAMED

+
+

A highly stilted but approximate English translation of the + above, capturing as many of the nuances of the Ithkuil phrase as possible, would + be: ‘…despite presumably being on the verge, contrary to the allegation, of just so happening to want to succeed in maybe ordering a periodic return to the honorable practice of superlative architecture for others to follow by example.’

+

Of the 15 morphological + categories particular to verbal formatives, we will examine in this chapter those eleven of them which usually constitute part of the verbal formative itself (Function, Mood, Illocution, Case-Frame, Relation, Phase, Sanction, Valence, Version, Validation and Aspect). The remaining categories specific to valence/modality adjuncts (Modality, Level, and Bias) will be described in Chapter + 6. Additionally, the category of Format, while displayed within the formative, is closely tied to the phenomenon of stem incorporation, which is also discussed in Chapter 6. Therefore, Format will be discussed in that chapter.

+


+
+

+ + + + +
5.1 FUNCTION
+

Function refers to the general relationship a verb has to its noun participants based on whether the verb represents an existential or psychological state, a dynamic action or event, a mere statement of X = Y identification, or a description. Without + a standardized system for the lexico-semantic function of verbs, the meaning of such a form could only be + learned from hearing others using it in context.

+

Note that, although Function is being described here in the chapter on Verbs, Ithkuil nouns, too, carry a Function, specifically the STATIVE function, in that they manifest an inherent, existential (i.e., non-dynamic) state of matter/energy. Because a formative’s Function changes only for verbs, not nouns, Function is being discussed in this chapter.

+

As previously described in Section 2.2.2, Function is shown by the Vr affix in Slot IV, which also conveys the main root’s Stem and Pattern.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+

The values of Vr- by Stem and Pattern and Function are shown in Table 8 below.

+


+Table 8: Values of Vr by Stem, Pattern, and Function (see Section 2.2.2 for a discussion of Stem and Pattern)

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

 

Pattern 1

Pattern 2

Pattern 3

 

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Stem 1

Stem 2

Stem 3

Function
         

STATIVE

(a-)

e-

u-

o-

ö-

î- / û-

â-

ê-

ô-

DYNAMIC

i-

ai-

ei-

au-

eu-

iu-

ia- / ua-

ie- / ue-

io- / uo-

MANIFESTIVE

ui-

ü- / ou-

ëi-

ae-

ea-

oa-

üa- / aì-

iù- / uì-

iö- / uö-

DESCRIPTIVE

oi-

eo-

eö-

oe-

öe-

ëu-

üo- / oì-

üe- / eì-

üö- / aù-

+


+The four Functions are the STATIVE, DYNAMIC, MANIFESTIVE, and DESCRIPTIVE. They are described in the following sections. Note that the previous version of Ithkuil, as well as Ilaksh, had additional functions (previously called Conflations) than the current four. Due to Ithkuil’s new stem-incorporation abilities (described in Section 6.4), those additional functions are no longer necessary.

+

 

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.1
STA
The Stative
+
+

The STATIVE function indicates a stative manifestation, + i.e. to be in a non-causal, non-dynamic (temporary or permanent) state, including states of mind, non-dynamic or affictive physical states (e.g., something being warm, but not making something warm), as well as being the Function associated with all formatives acting as nouns. However, it does NOT mean “be” in the + sense of X=Y copula identification as in “I am John.”

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.2
DYN
The Dynamic
+
+

DYNAMIC function indicates that the verb refers to a tangible or physical act or cause-and-effect event: to perform the action + of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function. Note that the choice of whether a particular situation is to be considered STATIVE or DYNAMIC can be subjective. For example, if a person is chronically coughing due to an illness, one can describe the coughing using either the DYNAMIC (to focus for example on the paroxysmal movements and physical processes undergone by the person during each cough), or the STATIVE (to let the reader/listener know you consider the coughing to be merely a manifestation of an existential state, e.g., an illness, in which the physical motions and processes associated with each cough are not the relevant issue.

+

In the examples from Section 4.3.12 involving anger-inducing clowns and burning trees, we likewise saw the difference in meaning between using STATIVE versus DYNAMIC function for otherwise identical sentences.

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.3
MNF
The Manifestive
+
+

MANIFESTIVE function indicates that the verb represents a manifestion or naming of the identity of a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the X=Y “be” + copula of identification in Western languages, as in She is a manager, That man is secretly a clown, Dogs are mammals, Mrs. Beasly is a fat crone.

+

 

+

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.4
DSC
The Descriptive
+
+

DESCRIPTIVE function indicates descriptive manifestation, + i.e., to appear or manifest in the manner of. This sense is the nearest + Ithkuil equivalent to English adjectives.

+

 

+

5.1.5 Examples of Function

+

Here follow examples of the four functions applied to the same stem egrá- ‘prepare(d) food’:

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
STASTATIVEegrá-   ‘(to be in) a state of preparing food’
DYNDYNAMICaigrá-   ‘prepare food’
MNFMANIFESTIVEügrá-    ‘to be prepared food’
DSCDESCRIPTIVEeográ-   ‘to be like prepared food’
+
+


+Additional examples of Function:

+
+


+ Iek’ás  to  phel.
+ DYN-‘burn’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML       1M-ERG       STA-‘tree’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ I burn the tree.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Êk’ás  phel.
+ STA-‘burn’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML          STA-‘tree’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ The tree is burning / The tree is in flames.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ –Qa  uiphal  êk’àî’sa.
+ mi-OBL         MNF-‘tree’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL          FRAMED-FML-STA-‘burn’-COR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI 
+ It is a burning tree / It is a tree in flames.          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ –Qa    üek’ás.
+ mi-OBL         DSC-‘burn’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML 
+ It is flame-like / It reminds one of burning flames.          LISTEN 

+
+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
5.2 MOOD
+

Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example + moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., Go now!, Sing it for + us! ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., She would travel + if she could), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here), and hortative (indicating + exhortations, e.g., May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!).

+

We will see later in Section 5.3 + that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages + correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically + where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ithkuil, moods + simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance + is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether + the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance + (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality + of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders a total of eight moods in Ithkuil.

+

The eight moods are FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE, + SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE, and ASCRIPTIVE. +They are shown in conjunction with the morphological category of Illocution (see Section 5.3) by the Ci+Vi infix placed in Slot IX. The Ci+Vi infix is of the form consonant Ci followed by a vowel Vi.

+

(NOTE: Under certain circumstances, as an alternate to the Ci+Vi infix in Slot IX, Mood can be shown via the Cs prefix in Slot III usually used to show the category of Aspect. These circumstances are described later in Section 5.10 on Aspect.)
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
+
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+The consonant half of the infix, Ci, has three different forms: -w-, -y-, and -h-.

+

NOTE: If the formative’s Vc case affix is a diphthong ending in -u (i.e., au, eu, iu, ou, öu, ëu), the -w- value of Ci changes to -hw- and the final -u of the Vc diphthong is deleted. Thus, adding the Ci+Vi infix -wa- to the formative daus results in dahwas, not dauwas.

+

Also, if the formative’s Vc case affix is a diphthong ending in -i (i.e., ai, ei, oi, ui, öi, ëi), the -y-value of Ci changes from to -hw- (while the Vc diphthong is left intact). Thus, adding the Ci+Vi infix -ya- to the formative dais results in daihwas, not daiyas.

+

Table 9 below shows the values of the Ci+Vi infix by Illocution and Mood.

+


+Table 9: Ci + Vi infix values indicating 6 Illocutions x 8 Moods

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
MOOD
+
+
ILLOCUTION + (see Sec. 5.3)
+ ↓
+
+
FAC
SUB
ASM
SPC
COU
HYP
IPL
ASC
1 ASSERTIVE
(-wë)*
-wa
-yë
-ya
-yû
-hë
-ha
-hû / -hî
2 DIRECTIVE
-we
-wö
-ye
-yö
-yeu / -wei
-he
-hö
-hei
3 INTERROGATIVE
-wu
-wâ
-yu
-yâ
-yau / -wai
-hu
-hâ
-hai
4 ADMONITIVE
-wo
-wê
-yo
-yê
-you / -woi
-ho
-hê
-hoi
5 HORTATIVE
-wi
-wô
-yi
-yô
-yiu / -wui
-hi
-hô
-hui
6 DECLARATIVE **
-wî
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
+* The combination of FACTUAL Mood + ASSERTIVE Illocution is usually unmarked. It is marked by the infix -wë- only in certain cases where Slots V and VI are filled by the Cv and VL affixes (see note in Section 5.5 for details).
+* * The DECLARATIVE Illocution can only be used in the FACTUAL mood.
+
+

NOTE: The category of Mood (along with the category of Aspect) can alternately be shown via the Cs affix in Slot III; this will be discussed in Section 5.10. Additionally the Cs Mood/Aspect affix can be placed into a verbal adjunct rather than being shown in the formative; this will be discussed in Section 6.3.1.

+

The function of the eight moods is described in the sections immediately below.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.1
FAC
The Factual
+
+

The FACTUAL mood signifies that the + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality + is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. + Examples:

+
+


+
+ Eglas  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-[FAC]-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids are ill. [i.e., it is known he has kids and + it is known they are ill]          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Hëtiun-n  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-FAC    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR   1+ma-ACT
+ She and I are taking a walk later on. [i.e., it is our intention and we have the opportunity to do so]          LISTEN 
+

+

 

+


+ Uzlas  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-[FAC]-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ His wife’s clothes are inside-out.          LISTEN 

+


+
+

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.2
SUB
The Subjunctive
+
+

The SUBJUNCTIVE mood indicates that the + factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the + particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition + is true. Examples:

+
+


+
+ Eglawas  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-SUB-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ Maybe his kids are ill. [i.e., it is known that he has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]

+

 

+


+ Hëtium-m  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-SUB    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ She and I may take a walk later on. [i.e., it is known that the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose to]

+

 

+


+ Uzlawas  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-SUB-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ His wife’s clothes may be inside-out.

+
+


+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.3
ASM
The Assumptive
+
+

The ASSUMPTIVE mood functions identically to the FACTUAL except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore + conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to + the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:

+
+


+
+ Eglayës  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-ASM-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids’ll be ill OR If he has kids, they are ill. [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, but if he does, they are certainly ill.]
+

+

 

+


+ Hëtiul-l  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-ASM    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ She and I will take a walk later on [i.e., if we can] OR We intend to take a walk. [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]

+

 

+


+ Uzlayës  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-ASM-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ If he has a wife her clothes are inside-out.

+
+


+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.4
SPC
The Speculative
+
+

The SPECULATIVE mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement + itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + Compare the examples below to those above:

+
+


+
+ Eglayas  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-SPC-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ Maybe his kids are ill [i.e., it is unknown if he has kids but if he does, they may be ill].

+

 

+


+ Hëtiur-r  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-SPC    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ She and I may take a walk later on [i.e., it is unknown whether we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether we will choose to].

+

 

+


+ Uzlayas  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-SPC-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA- ‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ If he has a wife her clothes may be inside-out.

+
+


+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.5
COU
The Counterfactive
+
+

The COUNTERFACTIVE mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific + translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with + the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

+
+


+
+ Eglayûs  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-COU-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids would be (would have been) ill [i.e., if he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].
+
+

+


+ Hëtiuň-ň  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-COU    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ She and I would take (would have taken) a walk later on [i.e., it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].
+
+
+

+


+ Uzlayûs  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-COU-IFL    STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ If he were to have a wife her clothes would be inside-out.

+

 

+


+ Them-mphâmnas  osmuil.
+ ASR/CTX/ALG-PRL-PRS/COU-STA-‘awe’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ The valley would've been awe-inspiring to you, too [i.e., if you had seen/visited/been to it].          LISTEN 
+
+
+

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.6
HYP
The Hypothetical
+
+

The HYPOTHETICAL mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is + false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if + a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject + to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the + examples below to those above.

+
+


+
+ Eglahës  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-HYP-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids might’ve been ill [if he had kids, but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].

+

 

+


+ Hëtiur-n  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-HYP    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ She and I might’ve taken a walk later on [i.e., but we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].

+

 

+


+ Uzlahës  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-HYP-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ If he were to have a wife her clothes might be inside-out.

+
+


+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.7
IPL
The Implicative
+
+

The IMPLICATIVE mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between + the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect + chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below.

+
+


+
+ Eglahas  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-IPL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids are (must be) ill [i.e., as implied by some other fact such as his staying home from work].

+

 

+


+ Iul-n  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-IPL    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ [If she wears a blue dress,] we’ll be taking a walk later on.  [the dress implies something has happened that will make the walk a certainty]

+

 

+


+ Uzlahas  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-IPL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA- ‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ His wife’s clothes must be inside-out.

+
+


+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.8
ASC
The Ascriptive
+
+

The ASCRIPTIVE mood functions identically to the IMPLICATIVE immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from + the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples:

+
+


+
+ Eglahîs  âmmiļ  qê.
+ STA-‘illness’-ASC-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL   ma-GEN
+ His kids may be ill [i.e., as implied by some other fact such as his staying home from work].

+

 

+


+ Iur-ň  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-ASC    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR  1+ma-ACT
+ [If she wears a blue dress,] we might be taking a walk later on.  [the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility]

+

 

+


+ Uzlahîs  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-ASC-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ That means his wife’s clothes are inside-out.

+
+


+


+

+ + + + +
5.3 + ILLOCUTION
+

Illocution refers to what in linguistics is usually termed + types of speech acts, i.e., the general purpose of a statement such as whether + it is an assertion, a command, a declaratory pronouncement, a question, a warning, + etc. This is a category which is not generally marked within Western languages + in any consistent grammatical sense, the nearest equivalent grammatical category + usually being Mood. As was seen above in Section 5.1, Mood functions in a much narrower grammatical range than in Western languages. + When the moods of Western language actually relate to types of speech acts, + the equivalent function in Ithkuil is shown by the category of Illocution.

+

There are six illocutions in Ithkuil: ASSERTIVE, INTERROGATIVE, DIRECTIVE, ADMONITIVE, HORTATIVE and DECLARATIVE. + They distinguish the type of speech act being performed by the speaker, with + a specific focus on the type of commitment being made on the part of either + the speaker or the hearer to the truth or purpose of the utterance. Illocution is + marked along with the category of Mood (see Section 5.2) by a consonant+vowel Ci+Vi infix to the formative, as previously shown in Table 9 above.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
+
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+ Illocution can alternately be shown via the Cv affix (Slots I or V) as discussed in Section 5.5 below on Phase. Additionally, in Section 6.3.3 we will see that Illocution can be shown by an affix within a verbal adjunct.

+

The six illocutions are described below.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.1
ASR
The Assertive
+
+

The ASSERTIVE is used to express propositions + which purport to describe or name some act, event, or state in the real world, + with the purpose of committing the hearer to the truth of the proposition. Thus, + an utterance in the ASSERTIVE illocution is one that can + be believed or disbelieved, and is either true or false. Such utterances would + include general statements, descriptions, and explanations.

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
5.3.2
DIR
The Directive
+

The DIRECTIVE illocution is for the purpose of committing + the hearer to undertake a course of action represented by the proposition, where + the proposition describes a mental wish, desire, or intention on the part of + the speaker. Thus, an utterance in the DIRECTIVE is one + that is neither true nor false because it is not describing something that purports + to exist in the real world; rather, it describes an act or situation which can + potentially be made real, i.e., that can be fulfilled or carried out. Such utterances + include commands, orders, and requests and would generally be marked in Western + languages by either the imperative, optative, or subjunctive moods. The commitment + on the part of the hearer is not belief or disbelief, but rather whether to + obey, comply with, or grant. The DIRECTIVE is also used for “commissive” types of statements such as promises, vows, pledges, + oaths, contracts, or guarantees, where the + statement is a wish or command directed at oneself.

+


+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.3
IRG
The Interrogative
+
+

The INTERROGATIVE is used for utterances corresponding to questions in other languages. The commitment on the part of the listener in regard to the INTERROGATIVE is one of compliance or non-compliance in divulging the information sought, + and the truth value of the utterance is neutral pending the reply.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.4
ADM
The Admonitive
+
+

The ADMONITIVE is used for admonitions and warnings, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘(I) caution you lest…,’ ‘(I) warn you against…,’ + or ‘Be careful not to….’ The utterance is neither true nor + false because it describes only a potential act or situation which may occur + unless avoided. The commitment on the part of the hearer is to assess the degree + of likelihood of the potentiality, followed by a choice whether to heed or ignore/defy + the utterance.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.5
HOR
The Hortative
+
+

The HORTATIVE is used for statements that are untrue or unreal, but wished to be true or real, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘if only…’, or ‘were it that….’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.6
DEC
The Declarative
+
+

The DECLARATIVE is used for utterances + whose purpose is to themselves effect a change upon the real world, based upon + convention, cultural rules, law, subjective authority, or personal authority + or control of a situation. The commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of + recognition or non-recognition. Such utterances include declarations, announcements, + proclamations, and various “performative” expressions. Certain languages + mark this function of a verb using a mood known as hortative. Examples would + be: I dub thee “Clown Master”!, The king will hear all grievances + at noon each day, This court is now in session, We hereby declare this treaty + null and void!

+

 

+


+ 5.3.7 Examples of Illocution in Use

+
+


+ Aidhawél.
+ DYN-‘water.as.nourishment’-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ Drink some water!          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Ükšoàwîl  âmmell.
+ MNF-‘clown’-TFM-DEC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML     STA-‘child’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL
+ The pair of children are hereby turned into clowns!          LISTEN 

+


+ Iolmawóţ  êļneilüükt.
+ DYN-‘sing.a.song’- ADM-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-FML   STA-‘bird’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8-FML
+ Be aware that this pet bird sings.         LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Aigrawutļáun?
+ DYN-‘prepared.food’-IRG-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-AGC2/2-FML
+ Will the cook prepare some meals?          LISTEN 

+

 

+


+ Igrawileiţrar  oi  eglulôn.
+DYN-‘eat food’-FAC-HOR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT2/6-NA11/5-IFL    PCL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
+ If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.          LISTEN 

+

 

+
+

+

+ + + + +
5.4 CASE-FRAMES AND RELATION
+

Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically + embedded within other sentences, a process termed subordination. + In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause + or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ + ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ + or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by + whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or + gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated + in the following sentences:

+
+

The dog that ate my hat belongs to + them.
+ I want him to stop shouting.
+ The committee voted to fire the superintendant.
+ We demand (that) you give us equal pay.
+ Although he’s a college graduate, he acts like a child.
+ This is the slot through which the letter is passed.
+ In case you’re unaware, I’ll be leaving next + month.
+ The boy walking toward us is my nephew.

+
+

The Ithkuil equivalent to relative or subordinate clauses is + known as a case-frame, or simply, frame. Conceptually, + the sentence to be embedded is simply treated as a noun participant to the main + verb of a sentence and is therefore marked for case like any other noun. For + example, take the following two sentences:

+
+

She and I were working together.
+ The two nations were at war.

+
+

Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal + context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating + the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ + as in She and I were working together while the two nations were at war. + Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional + phrase, as in She and I were working together during the time (that) the + two nations were at war.

+

In Ithkuil, temporal context for a sentence may be provided + by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the CONCURSIVE (see Sec. 4.6.3). A word + such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to create a sentence corresponding to:

+
+

She and I were working together during the summer.
+ She and I were working together at the time of the famine.

+
+

Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ + are placed in the CONCURSIVE case, so an entire sentence + such as The two nations were at war can be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words, + Ithkuil treats the entire subordinate sentence as a noun phrase to be declined + into any required case. That is the purpose of a frame, to place sentences into + noun cases. By doing so, Ithkuil accomplishes the same task for which Western + languages use relative and subordinate conjunctions. In theory, any sentence + can be placed into any of the 96 cases and inserted into another sentence wherever + a simple noun might be placed in the sentence using that same case.

+

 

+

+

5.4.1 Relation and the Placement of Frames

+

To construct a case-frame, the second-order sentence (i.e., + the sentence to be subordinated) is placed in the main sentence at the point + where a noun declined for the required case would appear. The actual case of the second-order sentence is indicated in the verbal +formative the same way as for nominal formatives, i.e., via the Vc affix in Slot VII. Additionally, the syllabic stress of the formative will change to show FRAMED Relation, explained in the next paragraph.

+

Relation is a binary category in Ithkuil, having two values. The main verbal formative of an Ithkuil sentence is in UNFRAMED Relation, marked by penultimate (second-to-last) syllabic stress or by ultimate (final) stress if the formative has FORMAL Designation (see Section 3.7). Once a verbal formative is subordinated within a case-frame, it takes FRAMED relation, shown by antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllabic stress or by preantepenultimate (fourth-from-last) syllabic stress if the formative has FORMAL Designation.

+
+Table 10: Relation x Designation
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

STRESS =
+ 2 relations x
+ 2 designations

UNFRAMED Relation

FRAMED Relation

IFL Designation

FML Designation

IFL Designation

FML Designation

penultimate stress

ultimate stress

antepenultimate stress

pre-antepenultimate stress

+


+If the formative does not have enough syllables to allow for penultimate or pre-antepenultimate stress, any morphophonological Slot (see Section 2.1.1) which is unfilled due to having its unmarked default value, can instead be marked by its alternate default value, e.g., the affix -a- in Slot IV (see Section 2.2.2), and/or the infix -wë- in Slot IX (see Section 5.5), and/or the affix -a- in Slot XII (see Section 3.6), in order to create a sufficient number of syllables.

+

If the case-frame is inserted at the beginning or + into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame will usually + carry a special suffix, -t’ (see details in Section 7.4.13), which signifies the end of the frame if + this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside + the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main +sentence. A case-frame usually has its verb appear + as the first element of the case frame.

+

In general, the perspective of the verb in + the secondary sentence operates independently from that of the main verb, however, + it is also common for the perspective of the verb in the secondary sentence + to be placed in the ABSTRACT, which has the effect of + deferring all Perspective information about the verb to the main verb, similarly to the way English subordinate + clauses using gerunds and infinitives defer all tense information to the main +verb of the sentence.

+


+

+

5.4.2 Reinterpreting the Notion of a Relative Clause

+

There is no direct equivalent in Ithkuil to the relative clauses + of Western languages. Ithkuil treats such clauses the same as subordinate clauses + using case-frames as described above. However, the manner in which this is done, + while ultimately logical, is somewhat complex and confusing from a Western perspective. + Therefore, to analyze how Ithkuil reinterprets Western relative clauses into + subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative + clauses in Western languages such as English.

+

A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies + or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types + of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent). + The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.

+
+

RESTRICTED CLAUSE
+ (1) Lions that like chasing their tails can be seen at + any circus.
+ (2) That book (that) I just finished reading was written + by a priest.

+

UNRESTRICTED CLAUSE
+ (3) Lions, which like chasing their tails, can be seen + at any circus.
+ (4) That book, which I just finished reading, was written + by a priest.

+
+

In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing + their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, + not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just + finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered + by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked + about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the + speaker was referring to.

+

Note the difference in meaning, however, when comparing the + first two sentences to the third and fourth sentences. In the third sentence, + the speaker implies that all lions chase their tails regardless of whether they + are in the circus. In the fourth sentence, the identity of the book is already + known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts + about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author. + Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing + by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ + or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in + a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immediately before and + after the clause.

+


+ 5.4.2.1 Restricted Clauses. Ithkuil treats the above notions + about relative clauses in a different way. We will first analyze how Ithkuil + creates equivalents to restricted relative clauses. This can best be approached + by analyzing the underlying sentences which give rise to the main and relative + clauses. Analyzing Sentence No. 2 above, it can be broken up into two discrete + sentences:

+
+

That book was written by a priest. (= A priest wrote that + book.)
+ I just finished reading that book.

+
+

In Ithkuil, the sentence which will be functioning as the + main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence + is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on + what semantic role, i.e., case (see Chapter + 4) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference + of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that + book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See Sec. + 4.1.2), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the ABSOLUTIVE subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template + ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the OBLIQUE case (See Section 4.3.1). + Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the common point of + reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of + the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have + the two sentences as:

+
+

A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-H.

+
+

The ‘-H’ in the second sentence + above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common + reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ithkuil inserts the + second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the + semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked + by the OBLIQUE case (see Sec. + 4.3.1).

+
+

A priest wrote [OBL]. I just finish + reading that book-H.

+
+

As described in Sec. 5.4.1 above, the verb + of the secondary sentence takes + the relevant case marker (OBLIQUE).

+
+

A priest wrote I just finished reading-OBL that book-H.

+
+

Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest + literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: A priest wrote + what I just finished reading, that book. However, this is how Ithkuil translates + the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’

+

Two observations can be noted from the Ithkuil sentence. First + of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” + Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, + there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types + of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged + (or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence, + the exact same way that subordinate clauses are constructed in Ithkuil. Therefore, + as was previously stated, Ithkuil makes no distinction between subordinate and + relative clauses.

+

Similarly, the other example sentence from above, Lions + that like chasing their tails can be seen at any circus would become in + Ithkuil: At any circus one can see certain lions-H like to chase-OBL their tails. A literal + translation into English would be: At any circus one can see (that) certain + lions like chasing their tails.

+


+ 5.4.2.2 Unrestricted Clauses. As for independent or unrestricted + clauses, as shown in example sentences (3) and (4) earlier, Ithkuil treats these + differently still. In Western languages, an unrestricted clause does not help + to identify a noun or provide a context for it, but simply adds additional information + about an already identified noun. Thus, unrestricted relative clauses serve + a wholly different cognitive-semantic purpose than restricted clauses, a fact + hidden by their nearly identical surface structures. Ithkuil acknowledges this + profound difference at the overt sentence level by not subordinating any clause + at all. Rather, the two sentences are given co-equal status as main clauses + and simply joined by a coordinating affix. Thus sentences (3) and (4) from earlier + become:

+
+

One can see lions at any circus and they like chasing + their tails.
+ A priest wrote that book and I just finished reading it.

+
+


+ 5.4.2.3 Use of the CORRELATIVE Case In Lieu of Simple + Relative Clauses. The CORRELATIVE case (discussed in Section + 4.5.25) is used to create case-frames which are semantically equivalent to the English phrase ‘that/which/who + is/are…’ Such a case-frame would be used in conjunction with specific Functions (see Section 5.1) to convey whether the relationship of the relativized clause to the main clause is one of description, copula identification, etc.

+

 

+

5.4.3 Example of Case-Frames in Use

+

+
+ Âffapka  gvilevum  ‾xhéi’aica  ekšaéţ  odralekhá  gvoecuaţ.         
+STA-‘cry’-NRM/ICP/U/CSL/UNI-IFL     STA-‘article.of.clothing’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-CAP1/3-ROL1/9-IFL  
+FRAMED/DYN-‘know’-PCR-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-CPT-IFL     STA-‘clown’-OGN-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-FML     STA-‘rule’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPP1/3-FML     STA-‘article.of.clothing’-REF-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-DEV2/1-IFL
+ The incompetent tailor began to cry after finding out about the clowns’ new directive on nakedness. +

+


+

+


+ N-nsaixtáš  qu  íkau’šurdûž.            LISTEN 
+ CNT-DYN-‘job/employment’-NRM/PRX/M/ASO/UNI-FML     ma-IND     FRAMED-FML-DYN-‘travel’-CON-NRM/PRX/M/ASO/UNI-EXD1/9-CNS1/6
+ He keeps on working despite his reluctance to having to travel more and more.

+

 

+


+

+
+

+ + + + +
5.5 PHASE
+

Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an + act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive + manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena + that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, + alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of + Extension, previously described in Sec. + 3.4, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative + pattern of a state, action or event.

+

The nine phases are the CONTEXTUAL, + PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE, + and FLUCTUATIVE. They are marked by the Cv affix to a formative, depending on the sanction + (and potentially the illocution) of the verb (discussed in Sections 5.6 and 5.3 respectively). The Cv affix is normally placed in Slot V of the formative’s morphological structure, unless the formative contains an incorporated root (see Section 6.4), in which case Cv is placed in Slot I. (In Section 6.3.3 we will see that Cv can alternately be placed within a verbal adjunct.)

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+(+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+The presence of a Cv infix in Slot V requires the presence of a VL affix in Slot VI (See Section 5.6 below on Valence). However, if the categories of Phase, Sanction, Illocution, and Valence are all in their default modes (i.e., CONTEXTUAL phase, PROPOSITIONAL Sanction, ASSERTIVE illocution, and MONOACTIVE valence), then they normally remained unmarked, i.e., the Cv and VL affixes are deleted and Slots V and VI will be unfilled.

+

NOTE: If Slots V and VI are filled (whether by the Cv + VL infixes or by the Cx + Vp infixes discussed in Section 6.4), it becomes necessary to be able to distinguish them from the Cr + Vc root + case infixes in Slots VII and VIII (so the reader/listener will be able to tell which consonants and vowels belong to which morpho-phonological slot). This is accomplished in either of two ways:

+
    +
  1. The Vr vocalic affix in Slot IV must be filled and must be followed by an additional glottal stop ’. It is this inserted glottal stop that clues the reader/listener that Slots V and VI are filled.
    +
    +
    2. +
  2. Or, if the formative is unmarked for Mood and Illocution (i.e., the formative has FACTUAL mood and ASSERTIVE illocution), then this Mood/Illocution combination becomes marked by the infix -wë- in Slot IX. This option is available only where Slots V and VI are filled by Cx + Vp infixes, not Cv + VL infixes.
    3. +
+

The values for the Cv affix are +shown in Tables 11(a) through 11(f) below. Note that if the formative’s Illocution is already shown by the Ci+Vi infix in Slot IX, then illocution is NOT shown via the Cv infix. In such a case, the Cv infix will display ASSERTIVE illocution only (as a default), i.e., only the values from Table 11(a) below will be utilized for Cv.
+

+


+Tables 11(a)-(f): Cv infixes:  9 Sanction x 9 Phases x 6 Illocutions

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
ASSERTIVE
+
ASR
CTX
Contextual

t

t’

th

l

tr

tl

tř

tw

ty

PCT
Punctual

k

k’

kh

x

kr

kl

kř

kw

ky

ITR
Iterative

p

p’

ph

vv

pr

pl

př

pw

py

REP
Repetitive

q

q’

qh

ř

qr

ql

xr

qw

xl

ITM
Intermittent

b

v

vr

vl

br

bl

bř

bw

by

RCT
Recurrent

d

dh

ż

żż

dr

dl

dř

dw

dy

FRE
Frequentative

g

xh

j

jj

gr

gl

gř

gw

gy

FRG
Fragmentative

m

mm

r

rr

mr

ml

mř

mw

my

FLC
Fluctuative

n

nn

ddh

ll

nr

nl

nř

nw

ny

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
INTERROGATIVE
+

+ IRG
CTX
Contextual

s

ss

sm

sn

sr

sl

sř

sw

sy

PCT
Punctual

š

šš

šm

šn

šr

šl

šř

šw

šy

ITR
Iterative

ç

çç

çm

çn

çl

çr

çř

çw

ly

REP
Repetitive

c

cc

cm

cn

cr

cl

cř

cw

cy

ITM
Intermittent

č

čč

čm

čn

čr

čl

čř

čw

čy

RCT
Recurrent

z

zz

zm

zn

zr

zl

zř

zw

zy

FRE
Frequentative

ž

žž

žm

žn

žr

žl

žř

žw

žy

FRG
Fragmentative

f

ff

fw

fy

fr

fl

fř

vw

vy

FLC
Fluctuative

ţ

ţţ

ţw

ţy

ţr

ţl

ţř

dhw

dhy

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
DIRECTIVE
+
DIR
CTX
Contextual

sk

sk’

skh

zg

skr

skl

skř

skw

sky

PCT
Punctual

st

st’

sth

zd

str

stl

stř

stw

sty

ITR
Iterative

sp

sp’

sph

zb

spr

spl

spř

spw

spy

REP
Repetitive

sq

sq’

sqh

xx

sqr

sql

xw

sqw

řř

ITM
Intermittent

šk

šk’

škh

žg

škr

škl

škř

škw

šky

RCT
Recurrent

št

št’

šth

žd

štr

štl

štř

štw

šty

FRE
Frequentative

šp

šp’

šph

žb

špr

špl

špř

špw

špy

FRG
Fragmentative

šq

šq’

šqh

xxh

šqr

šql

xhw

šqw

řw

FLC
Fluctuative

ň

ňň

rw

ry

ňr

ňl

ňř

ňw

řy

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
ADMONITIVE
+
ADM
CTX
Contextual

ks

kss

ksm

ksn

ksr

ksl

ksř

ksw

ksy

PCT
Punctual

kš

kšš

kšm

kšn

kšr

kšl

kšř

kšw

kšy

ITR
Iterative

ps

pss

psm

psn

psr

psl

psř

psw

psy

REP
Repetitive

pš

pšš

pšm

pšn

pšr

pšl

pšř

pšw

pšy

ITM
Intermittent

gz

gzz

gzm

gzn

gzr

gzl

gzř

gzw

gzy

RCT
Recurrent

gž

gžž

gžm

gžn

gžr

gžl

gžř

gžw

gžy

FRE
Frequentative

bz

bzz

bzm

bzn

bzr

bzl

bzř

bzw

bzy

FRG
Fragmentative

bž

bžž

bžm

bžn

bžr

bžl

bžř

bžw

bžy

FLC
Fluctuative

sx

sxh

šx

šxh

zgr

zgl

zgř

zgw

zgy

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
HORTATIVE
+
HOR
CTX
Contextual

çt

çt’

çth

sţ

çtr

çtl

çtř

çtw

çty

PCT
Punctual

çk

çk’

çkh

šţ

çkr

çkl

çkř

çkw

çky

ITR
Iterative

çp

çp’

çph

sf

çpr

çpl

çpř

çpw

çpy

REP
Repetitive

çq

çq’

çqh

šf

çqr

çql

çqř

çqw

çč

ITM
Intermittent

kt

kt’

kth

gd

ktr

ktl

ktř

ktw

kty

RCT
Recurrent

pt

pt’

pth

bd

ptr

ptl

ptř

ptw

pty

FRE
Frequentative

qt

qt’

qth

tk

qtr

qtl

qtř

qtw

qty

FRG
Fragmentative

sc

sc’

sch

db

żr

żl

żř

żw

ży

FLC
Fluctuative

šč

šč’

ščh

dg

jr

jl

jř

jw

jy

+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
NAME OF
+ ILLOCUTION
PHASE
+ LABEL
NAME OF PHASE
SANCTION
1
+ PPS
2
+ EPI
3
+ ALG
4
+ IPU
5
+ RFU
6
+ REB
7
+ THR
8
+ EXV
9
+ AXM
 
+
 
+
DECLARATIVE
+
DEC
CTX
Contextual

ct

ct’

cth

tm

ctr

ctl

ctř

ctw

cty

PCT
Punctual

ck

ck’

ckh

km

ckr

ckl

ckř

ckw

cky

ITR
Iterative

cp

cp’

cph

pm

cpr

cpl

cpř

cpw

cpy

REP
Repetitive

cq

cq’

cqh

qm

cqr

cql

gm

cqw

xm

ITM
Intermittent

čt

čt’

čth

tn

čtr

čtl

čtř

čtw

čty

RCT
Recurrent

čk

čk’

čkh

kn

čkr

čkl

čkř

čkw

čky

FRE
Frequentative

čp

čp’

čph

pn

čpr

čpl

čpř

čpw

čpy

FRG
Fragmentative

čq

čq’

čqh

qn

čqr

čql

gn

čqw

xn

FLC
Fluctuative

xt

xt’

xth

pk

xtr

xtl

xtř

xtw

xty

+


+ The nine phases + are explained in the following sections. The Category of Sanction is explained in Section 5.6.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.1
CTX
The Contextual
+
+

The CONTEXTUAL is the default phase, + describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not + instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual + duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can +be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., —

+

+


+ +
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.2
PUN
The Punctual
+
+

The PUNCTUAL describes an act, condition, + or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as + an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between + two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It +can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •

+

+


+ +
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.3
ITR
The Iterative
+
+

The ITERATIVE refers to a momentary or + instantaneous event, like the PUNCTUAL above, which repeats + itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe + light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, + the whole comprising a single CONTEXTUAL event.

+

Visual representation: • + • • •

+

+


+ +
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.4
REP
The Repetitive
+
+

The REPETITIVE refers to a relatively + brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the CONTEXTUAL phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being + honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual + representation: — — +——

+

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.5
ITM
The Intermittent
+
+

The INTERMITTENT is similar to the ITERATIVE above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a PUNCTUAL event, however, unlike the ITERATIVE, the duration of + time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would + be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping + of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc.

+

Visual representation: — • — • — • — •
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.6
RCT
The Recurrent
+
+

The RECURRENT is to the REPETITIVE as the INTERMITTENT is to the ITERATIVE. + It indicates a slow repetition of a CONTEXTUAL event, + where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. + Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl.

+

Visual representation: —— ——— ——— ——— —
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.7
FRE
The Frequentative
+
+

The FREQUENTATIVE indicates an iterative + occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, + the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. Examples + would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short + bursts of a jackhammer.

+

Visual representation: ——• + • •— • • + •— • • + •— • • + •
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.8
FRG
The Fragmentative
+
+

The FRAGMENTATIVE indicates a random + pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event.

+

Visual representation: ——• + •— • • • ——• + • —• • • + • •—— • —• + •
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.9
FLC
The Fluctuative
+
+

The FLUCTUATIVE indicates a random pattern + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of + birds in the wild, etc.

+

Visual representation:—— + • • —— • — • •— ——• + • — • + • • —• + •— —— • — • •

+

 

+

5.5.10 Examples of Phase in Use

+

+


+ Hwe’maklás.   (OR   Hweklàsürn.)
+ INF-STA-ASR/FRG/PPS-‘rain’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ It may be raining.

+

 

+


+ Ia’qantas  altaelgôn.
+ DYN-ASR/REP/PPS-MNO-‘sound’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘inscribe’-OGN-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-AGC2/7-IFL
+ The sound coming from the banks of printers keeps on steadily repeating.

+

 

+


+ Ilarburn  êļnuļ.
+ DYN-‘voice’-NRM/PRX/U/VAR/AGG-FLC-IFL    STA-‘bird’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL
+ Birds are chirping, tweeting, and calling.

+

 

+


+

+
+ + + + +
5.6 SANCTION
+

The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related + purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener + should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance + is a neutral proposition or assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption, + a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.

+

There are nine sanctions: the PROPOSITIONAL, + EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE, + and AXIOMATIC. Sanction is shown by the Cv affix to a formative, depending on the phase + (and potentially the illocution) of the verb (discussed in Sections 5.5 and 5.3 respectively). The Cv affix is normally placed in Slot V of the formative’s morphological structure, unless the formative contains an incorporated root (see Section 6.4), in which case Cv is placed in Slot I. (In Section 6.3.3 we will see that Cv can also be placed within a vebal adjunct.)

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

As previously noted in the section on Phase, the presence of a Cv infix entails several other morpho-phonological structural requirements potentially affecting Slots IV, VI and IX. See Section 5.5 above for details of these requirements.

+

Each sanction is explained in the sections below.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.1
PPS
The Propositional
+
+

The PROPOSITIONAL sanction is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents + a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a + statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. + Example of such statements would be That is a mountain, or I’m +hungry.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.2
EPI
The Epistemic
+
+

The EPISTEMIC sanction identifies an utterance as being a statement + of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention + (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human + knowledge. An example would be That mountain is Mount Fuji or The +U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.3
ALG
The Allegative
+
+

The ALLEGATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + or refutation. Examples would be That mountain is beautiful or No +one in the United States goes hungry.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.4
IPU
The Imputative
+
+

The IMPUTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective + or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a + sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be He knows + how to drive [e.g., because he owns a car] or She can’t be hungry +now [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant].
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.5
RFU
The Refutative
+
+

The REFUTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic + in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically +objective fact.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.6
REB
The Rebuttative
+
+

The REBUTTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based + on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief, +or interpretation.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.7
THR
The Theoretical
+
+

The THEORETICAL sanction identifies an utterance +as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.8
EXV
The Expatiative
+
+

The EXPATIATIVE sanction identifies an utterance +as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.9
AXM
The Axiomatic
+
+

The AXIOMATIC sanction identifies an utterance + as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential + fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be Gravity + is ubiquitous, or Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food.

+


+ 5.6.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use

+
+


+
+ Them-mphâmnas  osmuil.
+ ASR/CTX/ALG-PRL-PRS/COU-STA-‘awe’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+The valley would've been awe-inspiring to you, too [i.e., if you had seen/visited/been to it].

+

 

+


+ Tlan-nsachas  ômmil.
+ ASR/CTX/REB-MNO-CNT-STA-‘sadness’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘female.child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ On the contrary, the girl is still sad.

+

 

+


+ Pšei’ùlûrţ  lên-nsa  hwaixtasár  öqeil.
+ STA-‘incident’-PCR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT1/6-FML     IPU-CPC-CNT    INF-DYN-‘job/employment task’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-FML    STA-‘man’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ After an incident like that, it's a fair guess the man won’t be able to work any longer.          LISTEN 

+

 

+
+

+ + + + +
5.7 VALENCE
+

In Ithkuil, the term Valence is used to refer + to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given + verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by + another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, + or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs + of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” + verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ithkuil explicitly + shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate + the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1a) I found an old man.→1b) I found an empty can.
2a) I threw the ball at Sam.→2b) I threw the ball at the window.
3a) I performed in front of her.→3b) I performed in front of the wall.
+

Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate + object of the verb (an old man, Sam, and her), while the second + member of each pair has an inanimate object (an empty can, the window, and the wall). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1c) I met an old man.→1d) * I met an empty can.
2c) I threw Sam the ball.→2d) * I threw the window the ball.
3c) I entertained her.→3d) * I entertained the wall.
+

The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these + pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why? The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except + that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been + replaced by the semantically similar meet, throw, and entertain. + Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears + unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” + i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, + whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that + the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even + being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without the old man also + meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if + I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected to participate by + catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re + asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating + in the situation by observing me. The participatory relationship involving the second party of + a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship + (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb + ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship + as in the sentence I met the old man (i.e., and so he met me) or in + verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We + love each other. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in I + played along with him (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship + as in I threw Sam the ball (i.e., and so he caught it).Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is + the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ithkuil into + the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely + explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ + ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly + specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as find/meet, + throw at/throw, perform/entertain, etc. In Ithkuil, co-activity is explicitly shown morphologically, + and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are + systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus + co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monoactively + as well as co-actively.

+

There are fourteen valences in Ithkuil: the MONOACTIVE, + PARALLEL, COROLLARY, RECIPROCAL, COMPLEMENTARY, NONRELATIONAL, DUPLICATIVE, + DEMONSTRATIVE, RESISTIVE, IMITATIVE, CONTINGENT, PARTICIPATIVE, INDICATIVE, + and MUTUAL. Valence is shown by the VL affix to a formative, normally placed in Slot VI of the formative’s morphological structure (following the Cv affix in Slot V), unless the formative contains an incorporated root (see Section 6.4) or a Cs aspect/mood infix in Slot III, in which case VL is placed in Slot II following the Cv affix in Slot I. As per the Note in Section 5.5, the presence of Cv and VL in Slots V and VI require that the Vr infix in Slot IV be followed by a glottal stop ’.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+(In Section 6.3.4 we will see that Valence can also be shown via a cosonantal prefix to a verbal adjunct.)

+

Table 12 below shows the values for the VL affix for each of the fourteen valences.

+


+ Table 12: VL Valence Prefixes
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Label
Valence name
VL
1
MNO
Monoactive
a
2
PRL
Parallel
e
3
CRO
Corollary
o
4
RCP
Reciprocal
i
5
CPL
Complementary
u
6
NNR
Nonrelational
â
7
DUP
Duplicative
ê
8
DEM
Demonstrative
ô
9
RES
Resistive
û / î
10
IMT
Imitative
ai / au
11
CNG
Contingent
ei / eu
12
PTI
Participative
oi / ou
13
IDC
Indicative
ui / iu
14
MUT
Mutual
ö
+

The fourteen corresponding consonantal prefixes for Valence used with verbal adjuncts are given in Section 6.3.4.

+

The fourteen valences are explained as follows:
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.1
MNO
The Monoactive
+
+

The MONOACTIVE valence is the default + valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second + party is implied.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.2
PRL
The Parallel
+
+

The PARALLEL valence indicates that a + second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children all sang + together, We both went jogging on the parkway.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.3
CRO
The Corollary
+
+

The COROLLARY valence is similar to the PARALLEL, except that the second party engages in related + activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children played in + the yard (i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or The + band played my favorite song (implying that not everyone in the band was + playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed + to playing an instrument).

+

 

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.4
RCP
The Reciprocal
+
+

The RECIPROCAL valence indicates identical + activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial + phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in They + looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.5
CPL
The Complementary
+
+

The COMPLEMENTARY valence indicates that + the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. + By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the + first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., + the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences + such as The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, + The clown read the children a story, My back itches so I scratch it, where ‘played catch’ implies + the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the + woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, ‘read’ + implies a reader and an audience, and ‘itches’ implies scratching.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.6
NNR
The Nonrelational
+
+

The NONRELATIONAL valence indicates that + a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., + an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify + this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause + such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in He shaved + while she did something else. The way an Ithkuil sentence would utilize + this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, + ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one + thing while the other did something else.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.7
DUP
The Duplicative
+
+

The DUPLICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the + sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, + then you draw the same picture), They both read that book (i.e., first + one, then the other), I bought a new car (i.e., and now someone else + is buying a new car, too).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.8
DEM
The Demonstrative
+
+

The DEMONSTRATIVE valence indicates that + the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what + to do. Thus an Ithkuil sentence constructed as We played chess with + the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I + showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They + fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.9
RES
The Resistive
+
+

The RESISTIVE valence indicates that + the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity + of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the + adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases + such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as We took the + children to see the clowns anyway (i.e., they didn’t want to go), They fed me liver just the same (i.e., I can’t stand liver), Nevertheless, he told us the story (i.e., despite our not wanting to + hear it).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.10
IMT
The Imitative
+
+

The IMITATIVE valence indicates that + the second party mimics, imitates, or attempts to duplicate the activity of + the first party. The Ithkuil sentence The clown juggled three balls for + the child in the IMITATIVE valence implies that the + child attempted to juggle the balls as well.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.11
CNG
The Contingent
+
+

The CONTINGENT valence indicates that + the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, + the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ithkuil sentence I started the campfire for my friend in the CONTINGENT implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked + the food.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.12
PTI
The Participative
+
+

The PARTICIPATIVE valence indicates that + the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable + by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ithkuil sentence They raced in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They + each took part in the race.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.13
IDC
The Indicative
+
+

The INDICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s + activity. Thus the sentence I looked at her in the INDICATIVE would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ + while the sentence I spoke to them would mean ‘They gleaned what + I really meant from my words.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.7.14
MUT
The Mutual
+
+

The MUTUAL valence indicates that both + parties alternate performing an activity, as in She and I take turns cleaning or They both alternate teaching the beginning and advanced classes.

+


+
+ 5.7.15 Examples of Valence in Use

+
+


+
+ Tö  ¯um-mixhakc’éçt  eglelôn  ükšàleač.         
+ 1M-EFF       CPL-SUB-DYN-‘study’-NRM/GRA/M/CSL/UNI-FML-CVT1/3-CPT        STA-‘illness’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
+ FRAMED-FML-MNF-‘clown’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-QUA2/8
+ I may secretly teach the doctor to be a truly oustanding clown.               

+


+ Il-lrazgall  eqill.
+ RCP-HAB-STA-‘smile’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL    STA-‘person’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL
+ The couple are always smiling at each other.          LISTEN 

+


+

+


+ Uin-ntixal  ömmul  ekšíl.
+ IDC-SUB/RTR-DYN-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘father’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘clown’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ Maybe the clown understood the meaning of father’s look.

+


+

+


+ Ailtac  wëtöin-n  qeiwi.
+ DYN-‘write.message’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL   RCP-PPS/CTX/ASR-DVR-FAC     ma-ACT-CSL-NRM/DPX
+ The two of them like writing to each other.

+

 
+

+


+ Em-mrigradh  ekšóll  âmmeļ.
+ PRL-PRS-DYN-‘eat/drink food’-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘clown’-ERG-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-FML    STA-‘child’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL
+ The pair of clowns will make the children eat together from now on.

+

 

+
+ A’tukças  tê  oxnall
+ STA-PPS/CTX/ASR-CPL-‘itch’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    1m-GEN    STA-‘back’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL
+ My back itches so I scratch it.          LISTEN 
+

 

+


+ Them-mphâmnas  osmuil.
+ ASR/CTX/ALG-PRL-PRS/COU-STA-‘awe’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ You, too, would've found the valley to be awe-inspiring [i.e., if you had seen/visited/been to it].          

+

NOTE: The example sentence immediately above is interesting in that there is no overt reference in the Ithkuil sentence to any subject “you.” The idea that there are two parties involved, i.e., the speaker and the listener(s), is conveyed solely by the presence of PARALLEL valence. Without PRL valence, the sentence would simply mean ‘the valley would have been awe-inspiring’; the added PRL valence implies the speaker is alleging to another party (i.e., the listener/reader) that the latter would have also enjoyed the valley's awesomeness.

+
+

+

 

+

+ + + + +
5.8 VERSION
+

Version refers to a six-way aspectual distinction indicating + whether the verb refers to an act, event or state which is goal- or result-oriented, + and/or whether it has been successfully actualized subsequent to one’s + initial intention. Like many Ithkuil morphological categories, version addresses + semantic distinctions which are usually rendered by lexical differentiation + (i.e., word choice) in other languages.

+

Version is shown by the formative’s tone (see Section 1.3.2 for an explanation of how tone functions in Ithkuil formatives). The six versions are PROCESSUAL, COMPLETIVE, INEFFECTUAL, INCOMPLETIVE, POSITIVE and EFFECTIVE.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

The six versions are explained below:
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.8.1
PRC
The Processual
+
+

The PROCESSUAL version is marked by falling tone. It is the default version and describes all acts, conditions, + or events which are ends in themselves and not goal-oriented, i.e., are not + focused on an anticipated outcome or final purpose toward which a progressive + effort is being made.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.8.2
CPT
The Completive
+
+

The COMPLETIVE version is marked by high tone. It describes acts, conditions, + or events which achieve, or are intended to achieve, an anticipated outcome, + i.e., which are oriented toward the achievement of some purpose, outcome, or + final state. Such a distinction is usually handled by word choice in Western + languages. The dynamism of Version can be seen in the following comparisons:

+
+

PROCESSUAL → COMPLETIVE

+

hunt → to hunt down
+ to be losing → to lose
+ to study → to learn
+ to be winning → to win
+ to strive for → to accomplish, achieve
+ to risk → to defeat the odds; win
+ to work → to build, construct, make
+ to displace; infiltrate → infest, to take over; vanquish
+ to pour out → to drain
+ to remove (incrementally) → to eliminate
+ to increase → to maximize
+ to read → to read to the end; finish reading
+ to decrease → minimize
+ to flank → to surround
+ to enlarge → to make gigantic
+ to spread upon or over → to cover, engulf, envelop
+ to shrink → miniaturize
+ to chase → to catch up to
+ to eat → eat + all up
+ to pursue → to capture
+ to compete → to win
+ to be pregnant → to give birth
+ to throw at → to hit (with a throw)
+ to run low on → to run out of, deplete
+ to grow → to grow up
+ to use → use + up
+ to possess, hold → to keep
+ to tear/ rip → to tear/rip up or to pieces
+ to join together → to unify
+ to accelerate, speed up → to achieve maximum speed
+ to pour into → to fill (up)
+ to bleed → to bleed to death
+ to run → to + run all the way
+ to descend, go down → to get to the bottom
+ to brighten → to illuminate
+ to decelerate, slow down → to stop
+ to search for, seek → to find
+ to polish → to burnish
+ to practice → to perfect
+ to darken → to make dark
+ to ascend, rise → to reach the top
+ to explore → to discover

+
+
+ + + + + + + + +
5.8.3
INE
The Ineffectual
+

The INEFFECTUAL version is marked by rising tone. It, and the INCOMPLETIVE which follows, operate in parallel fashion to + the PROCESSUAL and the COMPLETIVE versions respectively but are specific to acts, events, or states initially + expressed (whether explicitly or implicitly) as unrealized intentions, attempts, + desires, needs, etc., often in conjunction with a modality affix to the verb + (see Section 6.1). Such “unrealized” + verbs are exemplified in the following sentences: I want to dance, She needs + to work, I tried to finish, She must find him, I choose to celebrate. Each + of these sentences in itself does not specify whether the action was “realized” + or not, i.e., just because I want to dance doesn’t necessarily mean that + I actually do dance; her need to work doesn’t tell us by itself whether + she in fact will work, etc.

+

The INEFFECTUAL version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” PROCESSUAL verb is unsuccessful. Thus the sentence I want to dance in the INEFFECTUAL would be translated as I want to dance but I’m not going to, + while the sentence I tried to eat in the INEFFECTUAL means I tried to eat but couldn’t.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.8.4
INC
The Incompletive
+
+

The INCOMPLETIVE version is marked by low tone. It indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” COMPLETIVE verb is unsuccessful. It functions identically to the INEFFECTUAL, + except that it refers to a verb that is result/goal-oriented, as illustrated + in the comparative chart shown above for the COMPLETIVE version. Thus, the sentence I tried to eat in the INCOMPLETIVE means I tried to eat all of it but couldn’t.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.8.5
PST
The Positive
+
+

The POSITIVE version is marked by rising-falling tone. Complementing the INEFFECTUAL, the POSITIVE indicates an intention brought to reality. Thus the sentence I want + to dance in the POSITIVE would be translated as I + want to dance and so I’m going to, while the sentence I tried + to eat in the POSITIVE means I succeeded in eating + something.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.8.6
EFC
The Effective
+
+

Likewise, the EFFECTIVE version complements + the INCOMPLETIVE, indicating the same successful effort + implied by the POSITIVE version, only applied to goal-/result-oriented + verbs. Thus I wanted to finish in the EFFECTIVE implies that the desire was successfully carried out; I tried to eat in the EFFECTIVE means I succeeded in eating it all + up. The EFFECTIVE is marked by falling-rising tone.

+


+ 5.8.7 Examples of Version in Use

+
+


+
+ ˇIxhát’  êpal  Iţkuil  efneil  tê.
+ DYN-‘study’-NRM/TRM/M/CSL/UNI-FML-EFC    STA-[carrier stem]-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI       “Ithkuil”     STA-‘male cousin’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    1M-GEN    
+My cousin has finally learned Ithkuil.          LISTEN 

+

 

+

      →     
+ Uakal  egruláun.     →    ¯Uakal  egruláun.
+ [PRC]-DYN-‘come’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     STA-‘prepare.food’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/2-FML    
+  →      CPT-DYN-‘come’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL         STA-‘prepare.food’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/2-FML
+ The cook is on his way.      →      The cook has arrived.          LISTEN 

+

 

+
+


+

+ + + + +
5.9 VALIDATION
+

Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. There are 14 validations in Ithkuil, five refer to non-hearsay types of evidence, while nine refer to hearsay situations. These nine hearsay categories are distinguished by a two-fold matrix of whether the source of the hearsay is considered by the speaker to be trustworthy and whether the statement/information is potentially verifiable. The exactitude of Ithkuil evidential categories is impossible to capture in English translation except through cumbersome paraphrase, but can be approximated in a rough way using phrases such as reportedly, presumably, supposedly, purportedly, allegedly, rumour has it, I have a feeling that, etc.

+

The 14 validations are shown by a consonantal prefix Cg in Slot III.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+ The values for the Cg prefix are shown in Table 13 below as well as the meaning (description of evidential basis) of each validation.
+

+
+Table 13(a) and (b): Cg Validation Prefixes
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Label
Name
Cg
Evidential Basis
1
CNF
CONFIRMATIVE
(h-)*
direct observation/knowledge and verifiable by others
2
AFM
AFFIRMATIVE
y-
direct observation/knowledge but unknown verifiability by others
3
RPT
REPORTIVE
w-
direct observation/knowledge but unverifiable by others
4
INF
INFERENTIAL
hw-
inference
5
ITU
INTUITIVE
hh-
intuition/feeling
+* The CONFIRMATIVE Validation is unmarked unless the formative displays a VL value in Slot II, in which case Cg is h-. +


+ Hearsay Categories
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Label
Name
Cv
Source
+ Trustworthy?
Verifiable?
+
6
PSM
PRESUMPTIVE
hm-
Yes
Yes
7
PSM2
PRESUMPTIVE 2
hn-
Yes
Unknown
8
PPT
PURPORTIVE
hr-
Yes
No
9
PPT2
PURPORTIVE 2
lw-
Unknown
Yes
10
CJT
CONJECTURAL
ly-
Unknown
Unknown
11
DUB
DUBITATIVE
rw-
Unknown
No
12
TEN
TENTATIVE
ry-
No
Yes
13
PUT
PUTATIVE
řw-
No
Unknown
14
IPB
IMPROBABLE
řy-
No
No
+


+
+ 5.9.1 Examples of Validation in Use

+
+

                    
+ Qö  ¯uhmixhákc’  eglelôn  ükšàwëla.
+ ma-EFF       CPT-CPL-PSM-DYN-‘study’-GRA/M/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘illness’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL     FRAMED/FML-MNF-‘clown’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ Presumably he is teaching the doctor to be a clown.         

+

 

+


+ Ihrazgallamz  eqill.
+ RCP-PPT-STA-‘smile’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-MOT2/5-IFL    STA-‘person’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL
+ Purportedly, the couple can’t help smiling at each other.          

+

 

+


+ Irwailtac  qeiwi.
+ RCP-DUB-DYN-‘write.message’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL       ma-ACT-CSL-NRM/DPX
+ Supposedly the two of them write to each other but who knows if it’s true or not.         

+

 

+
+

+


+

+
+ + + + +
5.10 + ASPECT
+
+

Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + (as with Perspective in Sec. 3.3), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects in Ithkuil. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial + phrases used in English.

+

Generally, Aspect is usually shown by affixes to a verbal adjunct, since such adjuncts allow for a second aspect to be conveyed, and any other morphological information carried by the adjunct requires the adjunct to carry an aspectual marker as well. However, it is also possible to show a single aspect within the formative itself, by means of the Cs consonantal prefix in Slot III. Such an alernative would be available when Slots I and II of the formative are filled, thus requiring the presence of either Cg or Cs in Slot III.
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect ( + Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+The Cs consonantal affix will always contain one of the specialized dyssyllabic geminate clusters described in Section 1.2.1.3, written n-n, m-m, l-l, r-r, etc. or various other syllabic consonant clusters, e.g., l-m, l-n, r-m, r-n, and r-ň. The only appearance in Ithkuil of these specialized consonantal clusters is in the Cs affix used in Slot III of formatives (as well as in Slot D of verbal adjuncts, discussed in Section 6.0). In this way, the reader/listener can always distinguish whether the consonantal form in Slot III represents Cs showing Aspect as opposed to Cg showing Validation (see Section 5.9 above).

+

Besides showing Aspect, Cs also shows Mood. If the formative’s Mood is already shown via the Ci+Vi infix in Slot IX (see Section 5.2), then Cs will show a FACTUAL mood solely as a placeholder/default value, and only the Aspect value of Cs will be semantically active.

+

The values for Cs are shown in Table 14 below. (The forms of alternate vocalic affixes used for showing Aspect within verbal adjuncts will be discussed in Section 6.3.1.)

+


+ Table + 14: Values for Cs (32 Aspects x 8 Moods)

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  
MOOD

Aspect

 

FAC

SUB

ASM

SPC

COU

HYP

IPL

ASC

 

none

 

n-n

m-m

l-l

r-r

ň-ň

r-n

l-ň

r-ň

1

RTR
RETROSPECTIVE

n-nr

n-nt

n-nt’

n-nd

n-nth

n-nţ

n-ndh

n-nh

2

PRS
PROSPECTIVE

m-mr

m-mp

m-mp’

m-mb

m-mph

m-mf

m-mv

m-mh

3

HAB
HABITUAL

l-lr

l-lt

l-lt’

l-ld

l-lth

l-lţ

l-ldh

l-lh

4

PRG
PROGRESSIVE

r-rn

r-rt

r-rt’

r-rd

r-rth

r-rţ

r-rdh

r-rh

5

IMM
IMMINENT

ň-ňr

ň-ňk

ň-ňk’

ň-ňg

ň-ňkh

ň-ňx

ň-ňq

ň-ňh

6

PCS
PRECESSIVE

n-nw

n-ntw

n-nt’w

n-ndw

n-nthw

n-nţw

n-ndhw

n-nhw

7

REG
REGULATIVE

m-mw

m-mpw

m-mp’w

m-mbw

m-mphw

m-mfw

m-mvw

m-mhw

8

EXP
EXPERIENTIAL

l-lw

l-ltw

l-lt’w

l-ldw

l-lthw

l-lţw

l-ldhw

l-lhw

9

RSM
RESUMPTIVE

r-rw

r-rtw

r-rt’w

r-rdw

r-rthw

r-rţw

r-rdhw

r-rhw

10

CSS
CESSATIVE

ň-ňw

ň-ňkw

ň-ňk’w

ň-ňgw

ň-ňkhw

ň-ňxw

ň-ňqw

ň-ňhw

11

RCS
RECESSATIVE

n-ny

n-nty

n-nt’y

n-ndy

n-nthy

n-nţy

n-ndhy

n-nç

12

PAU
PAUSAL

m-my

m-mpy

m-mp’y

m-mby

m-mphy

m-mfy

m-mvy

m-mç

13

RGR
REGRESSIVE

l-ly

l-lty

l-lt’y

l-ldy

l-lthy

l-lţy

l-ldhy

l-lç

14

PCL
PRECLUSIVE

r-ry

r-rty

r-rt’y

r-rdy

r-rthy

r-rţy

r-rdhy

r-rç

15

CNT
CONTINUATIVE

n-ns

n-nz

n-nsw

n-nzw

n-nc’

n-nch

n-nc’w

n-nchw

16

ICS
INCESSATIVE

m-ms

m-mz

m-msw

m-mzw

m-mc’

m-mch

m-mc’w

m-mchw

17
PMP
PREEMPTIVE

ň-ňs

ň-ňz

ň-ňsw

ň-ňzw

ň-ňc’

ň-ňch

ň-ňc’w

ň-ňchw

18
CLM
CLIMACTIC

l-ls

l-lz

l-lsw

l-lzw

l-lc’

l-lch

l-lc’w

l-lchw

19
PTC
PROTRACTIVE

r-rs

r-rz

r-rsw

r-rzw

r-rc’

r-rch

r-rc’w

r-rchw

20
TMP
TEMPORARY

n-nš

n-nž

n-nšw

n-nžw

n-nč’

n-nčh

n-nč’w

n-nčhw

21
MTV
MOTIVE

m-mš

m-mž

m-mšw

m-mžw

m-mč’

m-mčh

m-mč’w

m-mčhw

22
CSQ
CONSEQUENTIAL

ň-ňš

ň-ňž

ň-ňšw

ň-ňžw

ň-ňč’

ň-ňčh

ň-ňč’w

ň-ňčhw

23
SQN
SEQUENTIAL

l-lš

l-lž

l-lšw

l-lžw

l-lč’

l-lčh

l-lč’w

l-lčhw

24
EPD
EXPEDITIVE

r-rš

r-rž

r-ršw

r-ržw

r-rč’

r-rčh

r-rč’w

r-rčhw

25
DCL
DISCLUSIVE

n-nļ

m-mļ

ň-ňļ

n-ntļ

m-mtļ

ň-ňtļ

l-ltļ

r-rtļ

26
CCL
CONCLUSIVE

l-lm

l-lļ

n-nl

ň-ňm

m-mř

m-mt

ň-ňt

ň-ňn

27
CUL
CULMINATIVE

r-rm

r-rl

m-ml

m-mn

r-mř

m-mt’

ň-ňt’

ň-ňç

28
IMD
INTERMEDIATIVE

l-ln

l-nļ

l-lř

n-nm

ň-ňř

m-mth

ň-ňth

ň-ňţ

29
TRD
TARDATIVE

l-nw

l-ny

l-lg

l-lgw

l-lx

l-lxw

l-lv

l-lcw

30
TNS
TRANSITIONAL

r-nw

r-my

r-rg

r-rgw

r-rx

r-rxw

r-rv

r-rcw

31
ITC
INTERCOMMUTATIVE

l-mw

l-my

l-lb

l-lbw

l-lf

l-lfw

l-ňw

l-lčw

32
CSM
CONSUMPTIVE

r-mw

r-ny

r-rb

r-rbw

r-rf

r-rfw

r-ňw

r-rčw

+


+

+

The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below.

+
+ + + + + + +
5.10.1
RTR
    RETROSPECTIVE
+

This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create + various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the MONADIC, + the RETROSPECTIVE can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the UNBOUNDED, + the RETROSPECTIVE is equates with the English simple past + tense. With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + verb.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.2
PRS
    PROSPECTIVE
+

Like the RETROSPECTIVE above, this aspect operates in + conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense + categories. With the MONADIC, the PROSPECTIVE equates with the English future tense. With the UNBOUNDED, + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, it + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.3
HAB
    HABITUAL
+

When used with the MONADIC perspective, this aspect conveys + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the UNBOUNDED, the English ‘used to’ construction + offers an equivalent translation, as in She used to come see me on Wednesdays.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.4
PRG
    PROGRESSIVE
+

This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + in Spanish.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.5
IMM
    IMMINENT
+

Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in I + think Carl is about to cry.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.6
PCS
    PRECESSIVE
+

Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in We just + saw a clown in the toy store.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.7
REG
    REGULATIVE
+

Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event + over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + the new bridge.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.8
EPR
    EXPERIENTIAL
+

Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + as in Does he ever shut up? Note the EXPERIENTIAL does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + in Ever does he seek his destiny nor as an adverb of mere emphasis + as in Was she ever tired.
+

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.9
RSM
    RESUMPTIVE
+

Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously + ceased, as in The girl resumed singing, or He is starting to laugh + again.
+

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.10
CSS
    CESSATIVE
+

Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + as in They stopped dancing at midnight.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.11
RCS
    RECESSATIVE
+

Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased + then resumed, as in Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy + a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.12
PAU
    PAUSAL
+

Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with + her friends.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.13
RGR
    REGRESSIVE
+

Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event + after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The REGRESSIVE should be distinguished from the RESUMPTIVE above, which + merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change + of state or situation. An example would be Mr. Yates returned to golf after + recovering from his stroke.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.14
PCL
    PRECLUSIVE
+

Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + etc. as in Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.15
CNT
    CONTINUATIVE
+

Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.16
ICS
    INCESSATIVE
+

Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in They danced the night away or They’ve been battling + on and on since last year.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.17
PMP
    PREEMPTIVE
+

Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence of an action, state or event, + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.18
CLM
    CLIMACTIC
+

Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.19
PTC
    PROTRACTIVE
+

Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. + If used with the CONTEXTUAL or PUNCTUAL phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the PROTRACTIVE conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: It + rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a + long time coming.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.20
TMP
    TEMPORARY
+

Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable + only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in This will be sufficient + for now or For the time being you’ll have to drink water.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.21
MTV
    MOTIVE
+

Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence + of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in Dad’s off hunting or They went off to cavort with the clowns.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.22
CSQ
    CONSEQUENTIAL
+

This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event + despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in She went + ahead and bought the furniture or I decided to go there anyway.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.23
SQN
    SEQUENTIAL
+

This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single + event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English + use of ‘off’ as in He's checking off each item as it is inventoried, + or The sheep died off from the disease.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.24
EPD
    EXPEDITIVE
+

Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English + ‘hurry (up)’ as in Hurry up and finish or They ate + in a hurry.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.25
DCL
    DISCLUSIVE
+

Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.26
CCL
    CONCLUSIVE
+

Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in I ended up crashing the car or He drank to the point where he passed out.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.27
CUL
    CULMINATIVE
+

Similar to the CONCLUSIVE above, but with a focus on the + eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series + of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the CONCLUSIVE aspect above: In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.28
IMD
    INTERMEDIATIVE
+

Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point + along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.29
TRD
    TARDATIVE
+

Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens + in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source + of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.30
TNS
    TRANSITIONAL
+

Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in I’m planning to take up golf.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.31
ITC
    INTERCOMMUTATIVE
+

Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + as in The boy threw it back or She stared back at the men ogling + her.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.10.32CSM    CONSUMPTIVE
+

Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in Mother spends her life + worrying or He’s pining away.

+

 

+
+


+5.10.33 Examples of Aspect In Use

+
+


+
+ Al-lsinyat  eqţulisqa  tê.
+ MNO-CLM-DYN-‘choose’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘brother’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DCS2/1-IFL    1M-GEN
+My indecisive brother made a choice once and for all.

+

 

+


+ Al-lyuolmát  êqul.
+ MNO-RGR-DYN-‘sing.a.song’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML     STA-‘woman’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ The woman returned to singing.

+

 

+


+ Çtar-ryo  igraleiţrar  eglulôn.
+ HOR/CTX/PPS-PCL-HAB     DYN-‘eat.food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6-IFL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
+ If only the physician wouldn’t always eat his food in one gulp like that.

+

 

+


+ Lêr-rwia  hwaixtasár  öqeil.
+ ASR/CTX/IPU-CPC-RSM-TMP     INF-DYN-‘job/employment.task’-PRX/M/ASO/UNI-NA11/5-FML     STA-‘man’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ I’d venture to say the man won't be able to resume working anytime soon.

+
+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
5.11 BIAS
+

Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which +often warrants a change in English translation.

+


+ 5.11.1 Bias Categories and Usage

+

Bias is shown as a word-final consonantal suffix to formative with a glottal stop being infixed between the suffix and the Vf mood/context suffix, +e.g., uprexalo’ss. (The glottal stop is necessary so that the reader/listener does not confuse it with a word-final VxC suffix in Slot XI.
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+OR
+Aspect (+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
+

Illocution +
+ Mood

+
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+NOTE: We will see in Section 6.3.2 that, as an alternative to the Cb bias suffix on a formative, Bias can instead be shown via a word-final consonantal suffix to to a verbal adjunct.

+

These Cb affix forms are shown in Table 15 below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms +described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.

+


+ Table 15: Morpho-Phonological + Markers for Bias

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
LABEL
NAME OF BIAS
Cb AFFIX →
+ Cb INTENSIVE AFFIX
1
ASU
ASSURATIVEn → nn
2
HPB
HYPERBOLICm → mm
3
COI
COINCIDENTALň → ňň
4
ACP
ACCEPTIVE

ţ → ţţ

5
RAC
REACTIVEç → çç
6
STU
STUPEFACTIVEs → ss
7
CTV
CONTEMPLATIVEz → zz
8
DPV
DESPERATIVEš → šš
9
RVL
REVELATIVEl → ll
10
GRT
GRATIFICATIVEr → rr
11
SOL
SOLICITIVEř → řř
12
SEL
SELECTIVEļ  → ļļ
13
IRO
IRONICkç → kçç
14
EXA
EXASPERATIVEpļ → pļļ
15
LTL
LITERALpç → pçç
16
CRR
CORRECTIVEx → xx
17
EUP
EUPHEMISTICxh → xxh
18
SKP
SKEPTICALks → kss
19
CYN
CYNICALf → ff
20
CTP
CONTEMPTIVEkš → kšš
21
DSM
DISMISSIVEkf → kff
22
IDG
INDIGNATIVEpš → pšš
23
SGS
SUGGESTIVEps → pss
24
PPV
PROPOSITIVEpf → pff
+


+

+
+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.1
ASU
    ASSURATIVE
+

This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by I told you so! or You see?!

+

 

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.2
HPB
    HYPERBOLIC
+

This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in I + so don’t care! or That is totally not what I wanted. The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.3
COI
    COINCIDENTAL
+

This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in I happened to run into Jane or It + just so happens that I’m busy. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.4
ACP
    ACCEPTIVE
+

This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.5
RAC
    REACTIVE
+

This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.6
STU
    STUPEFACTIVE
+

This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.7
CTV
    CONTEMPLATIVE
+

This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.8
DPV
    DESPERATIVE
+

This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.9
RVL
    REVELATIVE
+

This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.10
GRT
    GRATIFICATIVE
+

This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.11
SOL
    SOLICITIVE
+

This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence So dance already!

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.12
SEL
    SELECTIVE
+

This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.13
IRO
    IRONIC
+

This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.14
EXA
    EXASPERATIVE
+

This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.15
LTL
    LITERAL
+

This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.16
CRR
    CORRECTIVE
+

This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.17
EUP
    EUPHEMISTIC
+

This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.18
SKP
    SKEPTICAL
+

This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.19
CYN
    CYNICAL
+

This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.20
CTP
    CONTEMPTIVE
+

This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.21
DSM
    DISMISSIVE
+

This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.22
IDG
    INDIGNATIVE
+

This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.23
SGS
    SUGGESTIVE
+

This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’

+


+

+ + + + + + +
5.11.1.24
PPV
     PROPOSITIVE
+ This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences How about going for a stroll?, We + could meet the clowns behind the barn if you want, or You can sit on my lap. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’
+


+ 5.11.2 Examples of Bias in Use

+
+


+ Isvala’kss  êzguirs  èkšôt  âmmit.          LISTEN 
+ DYN-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXS-IFL-SKP+    STA-‘sound.of.laughter’-DER-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/AGG-IFL  STA-‘clown’-ATT-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML    STA-‘child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ You can hardly expect us to believe that the sound of the clowns’ laughter frightens the children.

+


+ Uzlasa’nn  gvarl  âpcââl.
+ STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-EXS-IFL-ASU+    ‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
+ You see?! I told you his wife’s clothes are inside-out!

+

 

+


+ Hwe’maklasá’ň.   (OR   Hweklasürná’ň.)
+ INF-STA-ASR/FRG/PPS-‘rain’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML-COI
+ It may just so happen to be raining.

+

 

+
+

+


+

+
+

Proceed to Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology >>

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
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Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
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+https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

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FAQs&nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/p;1 Phttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/honology5 https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Verb Morphologyhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/9 Syntaxhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/List of Abbreviations
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Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology

+ + + + + + + + + + 6.4 Incorporation and Format + +
 6.1 Modalityhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ 6.3 Alternate Representation of Forhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/mative Categories
 6.2 Level
+


+In this chapter, we examine two additional morphological categories — Modality and Level — https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/as well as the morpho-syntactic process called Incorporation and its associated morphological category Format. Modality and Level are shownhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ via a word separate from the formative itsehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/lf, the verbal adjunct. The concephttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/t of adjuncts was previously discussed in Section 2.4 and 2.4.2. A verbal adjunct is placed either immediately preceding or immediately following a verbal formative, and provides additional morphological information about the formative.

+

Note that, in addition to conveying Modality and Level, the verbal adjunct also has slots for conveying certain categories usually conveyed by the formative, specifically Valence, Phasehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/, Sanction, Illocution, Aspect, Mood, Bias, and Extension. Thehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/refore, a verbal adjunct can be used to convey these other categories in order to decrease the number of syllables of the formative and facilitate pronunciation/euphony of the sentence as whole. This is discussed in Section 6.3.

+ +

The structure of a verbal adjunct is as follows. Those slots which are exclusive to verbal adjuncts (i.e., not also found in the formative) are Slots B and D:
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Saction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+


+The Cs aspectual infix in Slot E is mandatory, even if it carries a null value (i.e., no aspect). The Cs consonantal affix will always contain one of the specialized dyssyllabic geminate clusters described in Section 1.2.1.3, written n-n, m-m, l-l, r-r, etc. as well as various other syllabic consonant clusters, e.g., l-m, l-n, r-m, r-n, and r-ň. The second member of the dyssyllabic consonant cluster always carries the word stress and tone in a verbal adjunct. It is the appearance of such a dyssyllabhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ic geminate cluster as the last, or second-to-last consonantal form in the word that identifies the word to readers/listeners as a verbal adjunct.

+

The default tone of a verbal adjunct is falling. However, variations in the tone of a verbal adjunct can be used to convey the accompanying formative’s Extension category, in order to simplify the phonetic structure of the Formative's Ca affix (see Chapter 3) for purposes of euphony and ease of pronunciation. This is discussed in Section 6.3.5 below.

+


+For an example of a verbal adjunct, the example verb at the beginning of Chapter 5 (Section 5.0) is repeated here:

+

hruštrul-lyö’ň ˉhničhâçtàu’watkwöu

+

The first word of this two-word phrase https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/is the adjunct, analyzable as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
hr
u
štr
u
l-ly
ö
+
’ň
+
[falling tone]

+  DEMONSTRATIVE valence
+
+


+ SURPASSIVE-RELATIVE level
+

+

+ RECURRENT phase
+ REFUTATIVE sanction
+ DIRECTIVE illocution
+

+ DESIDERATIVE modality
+

+ REGRESSIVE aspect

+ IMMINENT aspect

+ COINCIDENTAL
+ bias

+ [default EXTENSION]
+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
6.1 MODALITY
+

Modality corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., can, may, must, should, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as to want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that, etc. However, + in Ithkuil, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see Sec. + 3.5) and the Perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. + 4.3.9). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows: As we saw in Sections + 3.5 and 4.3.9, + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterpahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/tive mental space is essentially the + psychological realm https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in +the following sentences.

+
+

1) You must come home at once.
+ 2) That girl can sing better than anybody.
+ 3) Our troops should attack at dawn.
+ 4) Mother needs you to come with her.
+ 5) The teacher requests that I dance for you.
+ 6) The man believes clowns are dangerous.

+
+

Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.Because the clauses following the verbs must, can, should, + need, request, believe, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) and the REPRESENTATIVE essence (see Sec. + 3.5). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns you, girl, troops, mother, teacher, and man in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see Sec. + 4.3.9). It should be noted that not all Ithkuihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/l modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentencehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ She + chose to move to Australia, the verb chose signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ct, move to Australia). Thus, the move to Australia clause would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective but + would not be marked in the REPRESENTATIVE essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ithkuil modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.

+

There are 30 modalities in Ithkuil. Modality is marked by the Vm vocalic affix in Slot D of a verbal adjunct.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Sactions +
+ Illocutions

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect

+ Bias
+


+The 30 modalities and their respective Vm affixes are shown in Table 16 below. The function of each modality is described in the sub-sections following the table.

+


+Table 16: Vm Modality Affixes 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
1Label
Name
Vm-affix
  
Label
Name
Vm-affix
 
--
(no modality)
a
15
ITV
Intentive
iu
1
DES
Desiderative
u
16
ANT
Anticipative
au
2
ASP
Aspirative
e
17
DSP
Dispositive
eu
3
EPC
Expectative
o
18
PRE
Preparative
ou
4
CRD
Credential
i
19
NEC
Necessitative
ae
5
REQ
Requisitive
ö
20
DCV
Decisive
ia / ua
6
EXH
Exhortative
î / û
21
PTV
Proclivitive
ie / ue
7
OPR
Opportunitive
â
22
VOL
Voluntative
io / uo
8
CPC
Capacitative
ê
23
ACC
Accordative
iö / uö
9
PRM
Permissive
ô
24
ICL
Inclinative
ea
10
PTN
Potential
ü / oe
25
CML
Compulsive
oa
11
CLS
Compulsory
ai
26
DVR
Divertive
öi / ië
12
OBG
Obligative
ei
27
DVT
Devotive
öu / uë
13
IMS
Impositive
ui
28
PFT
Preferential
eo
14
ADV
Advocative
oi
29
IPS
Impressional
ëi
30
PMS
Promissory
ëu
+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.1
DES
The Desiderative
+
+

The DESIDERATIVE more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in The teacher wants the students to study hard.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.2
ASP
The Aspirative
+
+

The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.3
EPC
The Expectative
+
+

The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in He expected her to be beautiful, + or I imagine he’s reached his destination.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.4
CRD
The Credential
+
+

The CREDENTIAL corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in I think she has two sons, or We believe the earth to be round. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as I think she’s pretty.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.5
REQ
The Requisitive
+
+

The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in I request his presence at the banquet, +or I’d like you to visit your father.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.6
EXH
The Exhortative
+
+

The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in I demand you return my book or Let the gates be opened!

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.7
OPR
The Opportunitive
+
+

The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in Can we pass by our old house when we visit town? or Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.8
CPC
The Capacitative
+
+

The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in Can she sing opera? or He could run + like the wind. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in He speaks French like + a native [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so].

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.9
PRM
The Permissive
+
+

The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs can/could/be able or may/might where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert; or Could I talk to you?

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.10
PTN
The Potential
+
+

The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area, or That man could fly into rages for no reason. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in It rains unpredictably in the Northwest.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.11
CLS
The Compulsory
+
+

The COMPULSORY corresponds to the English + modal verbs must or have to/had to in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in You must get up now, or I had to attend the ceremony.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.12
OBG
The Obligative
+
+

The OBLIGATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs should, ought to, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel, or It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.13
IMS
The Impositive
+
+

The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as be supposed to, be expected to, or be to which impose an expectation upon a party, as in You’re supposed to + smile when introduced, or He is to give a speech at the banquet.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.14
ADV
The Advocative
+
+

The ADVOCATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as suggest that or propose that which advocate + a position, as in I suggest you study harder or They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.15
ITV
The Intentive
+
+

The INTENTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as intend to, plan on or shall which + convey an intention, as in The girls plan on travelling to Europe, + or I shall see to it.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.16
ANT
The Anticipative
+
+

The ANTICIPATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to look forward to or to eagerly await which convey positive anticipation, as in We look forward to the clowns coming + to town.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.17
DSP
The Dispositive
+
+

The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English + expression to be willing to, conveying willingness as in He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.18
PRE
The Preparative
+
+

The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English + expressions be ready to or be prepared to, indicating readiness, + as in She’s ready to host the party, or They are prepared + to endure harsh weather.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.19
NEC
The Necessitative
+
+

The NECESSITATIVE corresponds to the + English expressions need to or be necessary to, indicating + necessity, as in You need to do something about those clowns in the yard, + or It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.20
DCV
The Decisive
+
+

The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in Peter decided to cook + breakfast or Colleen chose to visit the clowns.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.21
PTV
The Proclivitive
+
+

The PROCLIVITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as tend to, be apt to, or be prone to, indicating + tendency, as in The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs, or Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.22
VOL
The Voluntative
+
+

The VOLUNTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as offer to or volunteer to, indicating an act of offering + as in The foreman offered to put poison in my beer, or Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.23
ACC
The Accordative
+
+

The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English + expression agree to, as in Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.24
ICL
The Inclinative
+
+

The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to feel like or be up for, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in He’s up for going to the shindig, + or Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + + + +
6.1.25
CML
The Compulsive
+
+

The COMPULSIVE corresponds to English expressions such as feel driven to or feel a need to, indicating compulsion, as in Jack feels driven to hunt wolverines, or My hairdresser feels a need to date bikers. It is marked by addition of the suffix -uï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.26
DVR
The Divertive
+
+

The DIVERTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as like to, or enjoy, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in Boys like to dream about cars, or My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.27
DVT
The Devotive
+
+

The DEVOTIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as be devoted to or be committed to, indicating devotion + as in Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town, + or They were devoted to rooting for the losing team.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.28
PFT
The Preferential
+
+

The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English + expressions such as prefer, or would rather that, indicating + preference as in He’d rather work by himself, or Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.29
IPS
The Impressional
+
+

The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English + expressions such as have an impression that, have a hunch that, or feel that, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic, or Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.30
PMS
The Promissory
+
+

The PROMISSORY corresponds to English + expressions such as promise, or swear that, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in She promised that her son would visit my daughter, + or Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient.

+

 

+

6.1.31 Examples of Modality in Use

+
+


+ Wëtöin-n  ailtac  qeiwi.
+ RCP-PPS/CTX/ASR-DVR-FAC     DYN-‘write.message’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL   ma-ACT-CSL-NRM/DPX
+ The two of them like writing to each other.

+

 

+


+ Hëtiun-n  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-FAC    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM-DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-ISR   1+ma-ACT
+ She and I are planning on taking a walk later on.

+

 

+


+ On-n  amnadya  osmuil.
+ EPC-FAC    STA-‘awe’-RPV/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL    IFL-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ The valley is expected to be awe-inspiring.

+

 

+


+ Ur-rwu  ivadya  âbyeil.
+ DES-FAC/RSM-RTR    DYN-‘play’-RPV/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘dog’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ The dog wanted to play some more.

+

+

 

+
+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
6.2 LEVEL
+

Level corresponds roughly to what is known + as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate + degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -er and +-est seen in great-greater-greatest, or alternately with the adverbs more and most, as well as their negative counterparts less and least. The Ithkuil comparison schema is much more complex than those found in natural languages and is designed to eliminate various ambiguities that arise from those simpler schemata, as discussed below.
+

+


+6.2.1 Ambiguity and Under-specification in Natural Languages

+

The comparison schemata of natural languages tend to grossly under-specify the exact semantic nature of the comparison. A clear case of such under-specification can be seen in an English example sentence such as Jane is healthier. This sentence can mean any of the following:

+
+

(a) Jane's state of health has improved, although she is still unwell.
+ (b) Jane's state of health has improved so that now she is well (whereas before she was unwell).
+ (c) Jane's state of health is even better than it previously was (i.e., she was healthy before, but is even healthier now).
+ (d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as someone else's state of health (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).
+ (e) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, so that Jane can be considered healthy while the other is unwell.
+ (f) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, even though both can be considered healthy.

+
+


+This ambiguity is not alleviated even when we specify a party to which Jane's health is being compared as in Jane is healthier than Sue, which can mean:

+
+

(a) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's although both are unwell.
+ (b) Jane's state of health is better than Sue's, so that Jane can be considered well while Sue is unwell.
+ (c) Both Jane and Sue are healthy, but Jane's state of health is even better than Sue's.
+ (d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).

+
+


+This sort of ambiguity allows odd-sounding sentences such as Snow is warmer (e.g., than liquid nitrogen) to be perfectly grammatical. What is important to note about the above analysis is that the words healthier or warmer do not indicate in the actual context of usage whether a person is actually healthy or whether snow is actually warm. Rather English -er and -est (and more and most) as well as their negative counterparts (less and least) merely serve to indicate on a relative scale a relationship between two entities being compared (or where only one party is mentioned, in relationship to some unspecified standard or expectation). Additional statements are needed to clarify the actual context to determine where the entities fall on the quantitative "spectrum" or range of the particular quality or attribute pair in question, e.g., unhealthy <—> healthy.

+

The comparison scheme of Ithkuil has been designed to inherently specify such relative comparison while simultaneously specifying placement within the qualitative spectrum, so that ambiguity as to whether “healthier” means the person is well or unwell is eliminated.

+

 

+

6.2.2 Relative Versus Absolute Comparison

+

An additional aspect of Ithkuil comparison is the concept of relative comparison versus absolute comparison. This is an important concept which impacts the truth value of a statement based upon context. Specifically, relative comparison allows for statements to be true within the narrow confines of the context-at-hand, whereas absolute comparison allows for statements to be true without reference to any specific context. This can be illustrated by the following examples.

+

(a) Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky.
+ (b) That highway is the fastest way into town.

+


+Both of these sentences are true in certain pragmatic contexts and not true in others. For example, while Sirius is the most luminous star as seen from Earth, this is merely due to its relative nearness to Earth (8.4 light years) as compared to most other stars. There are thousands of known stars which are larger (and inherently more luminous) than Sirius but are much further away from Earth. So Sentence (a) is true in a relative context but false in an absolute context. Similarly the highway in Sentence (b) may be the fastest way in most conditions, but if there is a traffic jam or an accident blocking the highway, or if one has access to a private helicopter, then the statement would be false. Therefore, it is only true in a narrow context determined by the pragmatics of the moment it is spoken. Ithkuil allows speakers to specify whether a comparison is to be interpreted within the context-at-hand (relative comparison) or as an absolute statement irrespective of the context-at-hand.

+

 

+


+ 6.2.3 Comparison Operators (Levels)

+

There are nine comparison operators for the Ithkuil verb, called Levels, which specify the comparative relationship involved, e.g., same as, more than, less than, etc. These levels are marked by a word-initial vocalic prefix to the verb, Ve. Each prefix comes in two varieties, to distinguish between relative versus absolute comparison. Additionally there is an unmarked default zero-level in which no comparison is being made). The presence of a Ve prefix in Slot B of the verbal adjunct requires Slots C And D to be filled by their respective affixes as well.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Sanction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+


+NOTE: As an alternative to using Ve, Level can also be conveyed by the suffixes -V1mļ and -V2mļ added to the formative (placed in Slot XI), explained in Section 7.4.13 - LVL suffix.

+

 

+

In interpreting the meaning of the various Levels, the terms used in the formulas refer to the following X-M-(Y) model, where M represents a verb or an adjectival description, X is the "subject" of the verb, and Y is the standard being compared to.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Sue
dances as well as /
+ dances better than /
+ dances worse than
+ etc.
+
+
Mary
OR
+
Sue
+
is as smart
+ is smarter than
+ is less smart than
+ etc.
+
+
Mary
X
M
(Y)
X
M
(Y)
+

Note that the meaning of each Level allows for an interpretation in which there is no Y term so that the standard of comparison is a previous state of X, e.g., the difference between Sue dances better than Mary versus Sue dances better than before.
+

+

 

+


+ Table 17: Ve Level prefixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  
VL Prefix
Meaning
LabelName of Level
RELATIVE
+
ABSOLUTE
 
EQUEQUATIVE
a-
â-
X M ’s the same as Y ( or as before) / X is as M as Y ( or as before)
SURSURPASSIVE
u-
û / î-
X M ’s more than Y ( or than before) / X is more M than Y ( or than before)
DFCDEFICIENT
i-
ö-
X M ’s less than Y ( or than before) / X is less M than Y ( or than before)
OPT OPTIMAL
o-
ô-
X M ’s at its most possible / X is at its most M possible
MIN MINIMAL
e-
ê-
X M ’s at its least possible / X is at its least M possible
SPLSUPERLATIVE
ai-
au-
X M ’s at its most yet / X is at its most M yet
IFRINFERIOR
ui-
iu-
X M ’s at its least yet / X is at its least M yet
SPQSUPEREQUATIVE
ei-
eu-
X M ’s more than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is more M than or = to Y / before
SBESUBEQUATIVE
oi-
ou-
X M ’s less than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is less M than or = to Y / before
+

Note that in verbal adjuncts where Valence is marked by a word-initial CL consonantal prefix in Slot A (see Sec. 6.3.4), but there is no Level, the neutral value of Ve in Slot B is ë.

+

 

+

+

6.2.4 The Comparison Cases

+

In addition to Level, there are 24 specialized noun cases which identify the exact nature of the comparison in relation to the quantitative spectrum, range, https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/or standard for the particular attribute, quality, or act in question. These cases are applied to the noun to which something is compared, i.e., the term Y in the above formulas. So, for example, in the Ithkuil translation of the sentence Jane is healthier than her sister, the equivalent to is healthier would be shown by a Level prefix meaning "more than" applied to a formative meaning "manifesting a state of health," while the phrase corresponding to than her sister would be the word sister marked for a case which specifies whether the other noun to which the sister is being compared (i.e., Jane) is now well, or is nevertheless still unhealthy, etc.

+

It is primarily through the use of these specialized comparison cases that the ambiguities discussed above in Sec. 6.2.1 are eliminated. The meaning of each case as applied to Y, in terms of the X-M-Y formula discussed above, would be:

+

"in comparison to Y, where X Q in terms of reference standard S"

+

where Q indicates the change (or lack thereof) in X over time and S indicates an external standard of comparhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ison for M. An example of this formula in use would be where the term Q = "was previously less M than Y" and S = "although X (still) isn't very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness" applied to the sentence Jane is healthier than Sue, now disambiguated to mean that Jane, while being in a healthier stated than Sue, still isn't very healthy.

+

There are eight possible values for Q and three possible values for S, rendering a total of 24 possible Q + S combinations. It is these 24 possible Q + S combinations that are rendered as the Comparison cases in Ithkuil. The eight possible values for Q are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1
was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y
2
was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y
3
is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y
4
is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y
5
is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y
6
is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y
7
was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y
8
where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant
+

The three possible values for S are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
although X (still) isn’t very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness
B
where X meets/exceeds some some external standard or expectation of M-ness and Y does not
C
where both X and Y meet/exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y met/exceeded it
+

The eight values of Q combine with the three values of S to give the specific meanings of the 24 comparison cases as shown below in Table 18. As with the 72 primary cases (see Chapter 4) the 24 comparison cases are shown by the Vc infix to the formative in Slot VIII.

+


+Table 18: The 24 Comparison Cases (as per the formula: [X] [M] [in comparison to Y] where X Q in terms of reference standard S)

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Mutation Series
Label
Name of Case
Vc
Value of Q
+ (change in X over time)
+
Value of S
+(Comparison to external standard)
73
CMP1A
COMPARATIVE 1A
aì
 + where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y + although X (or X and Y) (still) isn’t/aren't very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness
74
CMP2A
COMPARATIVE 2A
eì
 + where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y +
75
CMP3A
COMPARATIVE 3A
oì
 + where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
76
CMP4A
COMPARATIVE 4A
uì
 + where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
77
CMP5A
COMPARATIVE 5A
aù
 + where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
78
CMP6A
COMPARATIVE 6A
eù
 + where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
79
CMP7A
COMPARATIVE 7A
où
 + where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y +
80
CMP8A
COMPARATIVE 8A
iù
 + where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant +
81
CMP1B
COMPARATIVE 1B
ao
 + where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y + and where X (or Y) meets/exceeds some some extrenal standard or expectation of M-ness and Y (or X) does not
82
CMP2B
COMPARATIVE 2B
aü
 + where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y +
83
CMP3B
COMPARATIVE 3B
eü
 + where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
84
CMP4B
COMPARATIVE 4B
oü
 + where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
85
CMP5B
COMPARATIVE 5B
ëì
 + where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
86
CMP6B
COMPARATIVE 6B
öì
 + where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
87
CMP7B
COMPARATIVE 7B
ëù
 + where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y +
88
CMP8B
COMPARATIVE 8B
öù
 + where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant +
89
CMP1C
COMPARATIVE 1C
eai
 + where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y + and where both X and Y meet/exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y met/exceeded it
90
CMP2C
COMPARATIVE 2C
oai
 + where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y +
91
CMP3C
COMPARATIVE 3C
eau
 + where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
92
CMP4C
COMPARATIVE 4C
oau
 + where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
93
CMP5C
COMPARATIVE 5C
uai / iau
 + where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
94
CMP6C
COMPARATIVE 6C
uei / ieu
 + where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
95
CMP7C
COMPARATIVE 7C
uoi / iou
 + where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y +
96
CMP8C
COMPARATIVE 8C
uëi / iëu
 + where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant +
+

 

+

+

6.2.5 The COS Suffix

+

Since Level affixes modify a verb directly, there is still a potential for ambiguity due to the fact that Levels and the Comparison cases specify the relationship between two entities being compared, but they do not specify the particular parameter of the term M. In other words, the verb "laugh" in the SURPASSIVE Level might be best translated as "out-laugh," as in Sam out-laughed George, but we still do not know if this means the laugh was louder, longer, or "harder." Therefore, verbs marked for Levels often take the COS suffix as well, to specify the parameters of the quality or act in question. This suffix is found in the list of derivational suffixes in Chapter 7, but is shown here as well, for the sake of convenience. (See Chapter 7 for an explanation of the nine degrees and three suffix-types associated with derivational suffixes).

+

-Vx ks  COS  Comparison Specifications

+
    +
  1. “more”/“less” = extent/amount/volume
    2. +
  2. “harder”/“weaker” = degree of intensity or effort
    3. +
  3. “longer”/“shttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/horter” = duration; time spent being/doing
    4. +
  4. “better”/“worse” = quality / style
    5. +
  5. “more efficiently”/“less efficiently” = efficiency / effort relative to outcome
    6. +
  6. “greater”/“poorer” = relevant outcome / bottom-line result
    7. +
  7. combo of 4, 5, and 6
    8. +
  8. combo of 1, 2, and 3
    9. +
  9. combo of 1 through 6
    10. +
+


+ 6.2.6 Examples of Level and the Comparison Cases in Use

+

(Note that in the morphological interlinear analysis below, the distinction between absolute versus relative Level is indicated by a small “a” versus a small “r” attached to the label/abbreviation for the particular Level.)

+
+


+
+ Ulan-n  oxassûg  êqil  ôqoìl.          LISTEN 
+ SURr-ASR/CTX/IPU-FAC    STA-‘have.eyesight’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/DPX-FLS1/6-IFL    STA-‘woman’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL  https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/  STA-‘man’-CMP3Ahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ It is clear the woman’s eyesight has improved, but she still doesn’t see as well as the man, who doesn't see very well either.

+

 

+


+ Rril  eglalaimļ  byoail.          LISTEN 
+ STA-‘cat’-AFF-NRMDEhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/L/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘sickness/illness’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SPQa-IFL    STA-‘dog’-CMP2C-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ The cat is nowhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ at least as sick as the dog, if not more so, whereas previously only the dog was sick.

+

 

+
+

+ + + + +
6.3 ALTERNATE REPRESENTATION OF FORMATIVE CATEGORIES
+

In Chapter 5 we discussed the verbal categories of Mood, Aspect, Bias, Phase, Sanction, Illocution, and Valence, and showed how each of these categories is manifested by various affixes within the structure of a formative. However, the structure of the verbal adjunct, discussed at the beginning of this chapter, allows for each of the aforementioned morphological categories to alternately be displayed via a verbal adjunct rather than a formative. This is often desirable for purposes of phonological euphony or to address the limitations of phonotactic constraints (see Section 1.4). The sub-sections below discuss the specifics on the alternate representations of these categories via a verbal adjunct.

+

 

+

+

6.3.1 Alternate Representation of Mood and/or Aspect

+

The categories of Mood and Aspect were previouslyhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ discussed in Section 5.2 and Section 5.10 respectively. Mood is normally shown (along with Illocution) via the Ci+Vi infix to a formative in Slot IX, although it can alternately be shown along with Aspect via the Cs affix to a formative in Slot III. However, the use of the Cs affix in Slot III of a formative, unless required by the presence of affixes in Slots I or II, is generally undesirablehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ as its presence adds two syllables to the length of thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/he formative. Therefore, as an alternative, Aspect and/or Mood can be conveyed by the same Cs affix within a verbal adjunct in Slot E. This Cs affix is mandatory for all verbal adjunct.

+

The second syllable of the Cs affix (i.e., the second member of one of the dyssyllabic consonant clusters l-l, m-m, n-n, ň-ň, r-r, l-m, l-n, r-m, r-n, and r-ň) always receives the syllabic stress and tone in a verbal adjunct.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Saction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+


+A second verbal aspect can be shown within a verbal adjunct utilizing the Vs affix in Slot F. Each of the 32 aspects, in addition to their consonantal Cs form, has a vocalic affixual form Vs, shown in the table below.
+

+


+Table 19: Values for Vs Aspectual Markers and Cs Aspect+Mood Markers
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  
MOOD
   

FAC

SUB

ASM

SPC

COU

HYP

IPL

ASC

Aspect

 
Vs
        

 

(none)

 

a

n-n

m-m

l-l

r-r

ň-ň

r-n

l-ň

r-ň

1

RTR
RETROSPECTIVE

u

n-nr

n-nt

n-nt’

n-nd

n-nth

n-nţ

n-ndh

n-nh

2

PRS
PROSPECTIVE

e

m-mr

m-mp

m-mp’

m-mb

m-mph

m-mf

m-mv

m-mh

3

HAB
HABITUAL

o

l-lr

l-lt

l-lt’

l-ld

l-lth

l-lţ

l-ldh

l-lh

4

PRG
PROGRESSIVE

i

r-rn

r-rt

r-rt’

r-rd

r-rth

r-rţ

r-rdh

r-rh

5

IMM
IMMINENT

ö

ň-ňr

ň-ňk

ň-ňk’

ň-ňg

ň-ňkh

ň-ňx

ň-ňq

ň-ňh

6

PCS
PRECESSIVE

î/û

n-nw

n-ntw

n-nt’w

n-ndw

n-nthw

n-nţw

n-ndhw

n-nhw

7

REG
REGULATIVE

â

m-mw

m-mpw

m-mp’w

m-mbw

m-mphw

m-mfw

m-mvw

m-mhw

8

EXP
EXPERIENTIAL

ê

l-lw

l-ltw

l-lt’w

l-ldw

l-lthw

l-lţw

l-lđw

l-lhw

9

RSM
RESUMPTIVE

ô

r-rw

r-rtw

r-rt’w

r-rdw

r-rthw

r-rţw

r-rdhw

r-rhw

10

CSS
CESSATIVE

ü/oe

ň-ňw

ň-ňkw

ň-ňk’w

ň-ňgw

ň-ňkhw

ň-ňxw

ň-ňqw

ň-ňhw

11

RCS
RECESSATIVE

ai

n-ny

n-nty

n-nt’y

n-ndy

n-nthy

n-nţy

n-ndhy

n-nç

12

PAU
PAUSAL

ei

m-my

m-mpy

m-mp’y

m-mby

m-mphy

m-mfy

m-mvy

m-mç

13

RGR
REGRESSIVE

ui

l-ly

l-lty

l-lt’y

l-ldy

l-lthy

l-lţy

l-ldhy

l-lç

14

PCL
PRECLUSIVE

oi

r-ry

r-rty

r-rt’y

r-rdy

r-rthy

r-rţy

r-rdhy

r-rç

15

CNT
CONTINUATIVE

iu

n-ns

n-nz

n-nsw

n-nzw

n-nc’

n-nch

n-nc’w

n-nchw

16

ICS
INCESSATIVE

au

m-ms

m-mz

m-msw

m-mzw

m-mc’

m-mch

m-mc’w

m-mchw

17
PMP
PREEMPTIVE

eu

ň-ňs

ň-ňz

ň-ňsw

ň-ňzw

ň-ňc’

ň-ňch

ň-ňc’w

ň-ňchw

18
CLM
CLIMACTIC

ou

l-ls

l-lz

l-lsw

l-lzw

l-lc’

l-lch

l-lc’w

l-lch’w

19
PTC
PROTRACTIVE

ae

r-rs

r-rz

r-rsw

r-rzw

r-rc’

r-rch

r-rc’w

r-rchw

20
TMP
TEMPORARY

ia/ua

n-nš

n-nž

n-nšw

n-nžw

n-nč’

n-nčh

n-nč’w

n-nčhw

21
MTV
MOTIVE

ie/ue

m-mš

m-mž

m-mšw

m-mžw

m-mč’

m-mčh

m-mč’w

m-mčhw

22
CSQ
CONSEQUENTIAL

io/uo

ň-ňš

ň-ňž

ň-ňšw

ň-ňžw

ň-ňč’

ň-ňčh

ň-ňč’w

ň-ňčhw

23
SQN
SEQUENTIAL

iù /uì

l-lš

l-lž

l-lšw

l-lžw

l-lč’

l-lčh’

l-lč’w

l-lčhw

24
EPD
EXPEDITIVE

iö/uö

r-rš

r-rž

r-ršw

r-ržw

r-rč’

r-rčh

r-rč’w

r-rčhw

25
DCL
DISCLUSIVE

ea

n-nļ

m-mļ

ň-ňļ

n-ntļ

m-mtļ

ň-ňtļ

l-ltļ

r-rtļ

26
CCL
CONCLUSIVE

oa

l-lm

l-lļ

n-nl

ň-ňm

m-mř

m-mt

ň-ňt

ň-ňn

27
CUL
CULMINATIVE

eö

r-rm

r-rl

m-ml

m-mn

r-mř

m-mt’

ň-ňt’

ň-ňç

28
IMD
INTERMEDIATIVE

öi/öa

l-ln

l-nļ

l-lř

n-nm

ň-ňř

m-mth

ň-ňth

ň-ňţ

29
TRD
TARDATIVE

öu/öe

l-nw

l-ny

l-lg

l-lgw

l-lx

l-lxw

l-lv

l-lcw

30
TNS
TRANSITIONAL

eo

r-nw

r-my

r-rg

r-rgw

r-rx

r-rxw

r-rv

r-rcw

31
ITC
INTERCOMMUTATIVE

ëi

l-mw

l-my

l-lb

l-lbw

l-lf

l-lfw

l-ňw

l-lčw

32
CSM
CONSUMPTIVE

ëu

r-mw

r-ny

r-rb

r-rbw

r-rf

r-rfw

r-ňw

r-rčw

+

 

+

+

6.3.2 Alternate Representation of Bias

+

Bias was previously discussed in Section 5.11, shown by the word-final Cb suffix to a formative. As an alternative, however, the same Cb suffix can instead be placed in word-final position on a verbal adjunct (in which case a Vs affix in Slot F becomes mandatory). The forms of Cb used in verbal adjunct are the same as those used with formatives, except that, unlike formatives, there is no preceding glottal stop. See Table 15 in Section 5.11.1 fhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/or the specific Cb suffix for each bias.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valences
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Saction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+

 

+

+

6.3.3 Alternate Represenation of Phase, Sanction, and Illocution

+

The categories of Phase, Sanction, and Illocution were previously discussed in Sections 5.5, 5.6, and 5.3 respectively. In a formative, they are shown by a combination affix, Cv, placed in Slot V, or if an incorporated stem is present, in Slot I. Alternately, however, they may be shown by the same Cv affix in Slot C of a verbal adjunct (which entails the mandatory presence of a Vm modality infix in Slot D). The forms of Cv for a verbal adjunct are the samhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e as those for formatives, shown in Tables 11(a) through (f) inhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ Section 5.5.
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Saction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+

 

+

+

6.3.4 Alternate Representation of Valence

+

The category of Valence was previously discussed in Section 5.7, shown by the vocalic prefix, VL in Slot VI, or, if an incorporated stem is present, in Slot II. Alternately, however, Valence may be shown by consonantal counterpart to the VL prefix, CL, placed in Slot A of a verbal adjunct (which entails the mandatory presence of affixes in Slots B, C, and D).

+ + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Saction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+

The forms of CL for a verbal adjunct are the same as those for formatives, shown in Table 20 below:

+


+ Table 20: CL Valence Prefixes for Verbal Adjuncts
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Label
Valence name
CL
1
MNO
Monoactive
—
2
PRL
Parallel
h-
3
CRO
Corollary
y-
4
RCP
Reciprocal
w-
5
CPL
Complementary
hw-
6
NNR
Nonrelational
hm-
7
DUP
Duplicative
hn-
8
DEM
Demonstrative
hr-
9
RES
Resistive
lw-
10
IMT
Imitative
ly-
11
CNG
Contingent
rw-
12
PTI
Participative
ry-
13
IDC
Indicative
řw-
14
MUT
Mutual
řy-
+


+

+

6.3.5 Alternate Representation of Extension

+

The category of Extension is normally shown by means of the Ca affix in Slot X of the formative (see Sections 2.1, 3.4 and 3.5.3). However, in order to simplify the phonological structure of the Ca affix for purposes of euphony, Extension may be shown via the tone of the adjacent verbal adjunct. The default tone of a verbal adjunct is falling, which indicates deferral of Extension information to the Ca affix of the formative. Otherwise, Extension is conveyed by the following shifts in tone of the verbal adjunct.

+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Tone
Extension
Falling[Extension shown by formative]
HighPROXIMAL
RisingINCEPTIVE
LowTERMINATIVE
Falling-RisingDEPLETIVE
Rising-FallingGRADUATIVE
+
+

 

+
+

+ + + + +
6.4 INCORPORATION AND FORMAT
+

Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings + into a single verb, a process termed conflation. This is illustrated +in the following English sentences:

+
+

1. He bicycled south. = He traveled south by bicycle.
+ 2. She dolled herself up. = She made herself look as pretty as a + doll.
+ 3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the + books on the shelf/shelves.
+ 4. Slide me a beer. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the + bar).

+
+

The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry + inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and + giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random + and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English to bicycle in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to + make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the + verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but + rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means + ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ + or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first + three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does slide in sentence (4).

+

As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” + way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, + placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary + sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our + four sentences above as follows:

+
+

He [1: + (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle]
+ = He bicycled south.

+

She [1: + (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll]
+ = She dolled herself up.

+

They [1: + (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves]
+ = They’re shelving the books.

+

[1: (GIVE+imperative)] + a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me
+ = Slide me a beer.

+
+

Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown + by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb + and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English + must learn that to hand means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, + but to shoulder does not mean to GIVE by MEANS of + one’s shoulder.

+

Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity + for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack + of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use + when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form.

+

Ithkuil systemizes verb conflation into a productive +scheme, in which any formative stem can be incorporated directly into another formative stem. The operational sense of the incorporated stem and its semantic relation to the primary formative stem is conveyed by a morphological category called format (discussed in Section 6.4.1 below). The incorporated stem is shown via the Cx and Vp affixes in Slots V and VI, where Cx indicates the root and Vp its Pattern, Stem and Designation. Format is shown as part of the Vf prefix which also shows the category of Context (previously discussed in Section 3.6).
+
+

+ + + + + + + + +
VII
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood +
+ Polarity
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+ If an incorporated stem is present (i.e., Cx and Vp are present in Slots V and VI) then a Vf affix showing the incorporated stem’s Format must also be present in Slot XII (see Section 6.4.1 below for an explanation of Format).

+

The values for the Vp infix are shown in Table 22 below.

+


+ Table 22: Vp infixes indicating Pattern, Stem and Designation of an Incorporated Root
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Stem Vowel —>
Pattern 1
Pattern 2
Pattern 3
Informal
+ Designation
Stem 1
a
i
u
Stem 2
o
e
ö
Stem 3
ai
ui
ei
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Formal Designation
Stem 1
â
î / û
ô
Stem 2
ê
oi
au
Stem 3
eu
iu
ou
+

 

+

+

6.4.1 Format

+

As described above, a conflated verb in English can convey different senses such as means, manner, or location, the specific sense being learnable only through actual usage and context. In Ithkuil, this sense is overtly identified by the format of the verb, shown by the Vf affix in Slot XII. The Vf affix was previously discussed in Section 3.6 on Context. + Table 23 below shows the values of Vf.

+


+ Tables 23: Vf Affixes:  Context & Format

+ + + + + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
FORMAT
Context↓ (see Sec. 3.6)

(none)

 SCH

ISR

ATH

RSL

SBQ

CCM

OBJ

PRT

AFI
EXISTENTIAL

(a)

o

ai

â

au

ëi

oa

ea

aì

aù

FUNCTIONAL

i

ö

ui

ae

iu

ëu

oe

ia / ua

uì

iù

REPRESENTATIONAL

e

ü / öe

ei

ê

eu

öi

eo

ie / ue

eì

eù

AMALGAMATE

u

öa

oi

ô

ou

öu

iö / uö

io / uo

oì

où

+


+ The specific interpretation of the nine formats is often dependent on the verb’s Function (see Section 5.1). This is explained in the sub-sections below for each format:

+

 

+
+ + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + +
6.4.1.1
SCH
The Schematic
+
+

For verbs carrying DYNAMIC Function (see Sec. 5.1.2), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies the manner of the primary stem. So for example, when translating the English sentence I’m + speeding through dinner [= eating speedily], the Ithkuil sentence would incorporate the stem corresponding to ‘speed’ into the stem ‘eat’ plus SCHEMATIC format to convey a sentence literally translatable as https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/I'm speed-eating dinner [= eating in a manner characterized by speed.]

+

Similarly, the Ithkuil translation of Clouds blanketed + the city would incorporate the stem corresponding to ‘blanket’ into the stem for ‘cover/engulf’ plus SCHEMATIC format to convey a sentence literally translatable as Clouds blanket-cover the city [= cover like a blanket.]

+

For verbs carrying STATIVE Function (see Sec. 5.1.1), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the incorporated stem characterizes the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem has the characteristics, behavior, or acts like the incorporated stem.

+

For verbs carrying MANIFESTIVE Function (see Sec. 5.1.3), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the incorporated is equivalent in identity (i.e., a copula relathttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ionship) to the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem is the incorporated stem in an existential sense.

+

For verbs carrying DESCRIPTIVE Function (see Sec. 5.1.4), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the incorporated has the superficial appearancehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ or physically or (metaphorically) resembles the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem resembles/looks like the incorporated stem.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.2
ISR
The Instrumentative
+
+

The INSTRUMENTATIVE format indicates that the incorporated stem specifies the means, + cause, or instrument of causation of the conflated primary sense, so that the sentence I clubbed him would be translated by incorporating the stem for ‘club’ into the stem for ‘hit/beat’ plus the INSTRUMENTATIVE format, rendering a sentence literally translatable as I club-hit him or I club-beat him [= I hit/beat him with a club].

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.3
OBJ
The Objective
+
+

The OBJECTIVE format indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies the Patient (see Sec. + 4.1.1) of the primary stem. So, for example, the Ithkuil translation of She dusted + the table would incorporate the stem ‘dust’ into the stem ‘remove’ to render a sentence literally translatable as She dust-removed the table [= removed dust]. Similarly the sentence They fish that river each + spring would incorporate the stem ‘fish’ into the stem Rhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/16;gather/collect’ to render They fish-gather that river each spring [= gather fish]

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.4
ATH
The Authoritive
+
+

The AUTHORITIVE format indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies the entity of which the primary stem is the indirect/enabling cause or derivational source. So, for example, the Ithkuil translation of the English sentence He sang her cares away (= + his singing allowed her to forget her cares) would incorporate the verb ‘forget’ into the verb ‘sing’ with AUTHORITATIVE format, the party ‘he’ in the EFFECTUATIVE case, and the party ‘she’ in the AFFECTIVE case.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.5
PRT
The Precurrent
+ The PRECURRENT format indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies an initial event immediately preceding or continuing on into + the main verb , where the initial event is not the cause of the conflated + sense, i.e., the main act/state/event would have occurred anyway, e.g., I + bought some lunch (conflated sense: EAT). First X, then Y (non-causal).
+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.6
RSL
The Resultative
+
+

The RESULTATIVE format indicates that the + verb specifies the concurrent result of the conflated sense, i.e., an event + which occurs in conjunction with the conflated sense but is also caused + by it, e.g., The plane crashed into the water (conflated sense: + FLY) First X, then Y as a result; X causes Y

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.7
SBQ
The Subsequent
+
+

The SUBSEQUENT format indicates that the + verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect purpose (not the + concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., I’ll look in + on the stew (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen]) X or the purpose of Y; X in order to Y

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.8
CCM
The Concommitant
+
+

The CONCOMMITANT format indicates that the + verb specifies an incidental simultaneous event having no causal relationship, + e.g., She wore jeans to church (conflated sense: GO); He sweated + through her recital (Conflated sense: LISTEN) X while Y

+


+

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.9
AFI
The Affinitive
+
+

The AFFINITIVE format indicates that the + incorporated stem is associated with, represents, or acts in behalf of the primary stem. So, for example, the English sentence ‘They are a group of sports officiators’ would utilize the stem for ‘sport’ incorporated into the stem for ‘officiate’ along with the AFFINITIVE format.

+


+
+ 6.4.2 Examples of Incorporation and Format

+
+


+
+ Hëtiun-n  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-FAC    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-IFL-‘ambulate’-NRM-DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR   1+ma-ACT
+ She and I are planning on taking a walk later on.

+

 

+


+ hremsoqaiţsurkoi
+ PPT-STA-[inc.stem: ‘value’]-IFL-‘human.being’-INS-NRM-DEL/A/VAR/CST-MET1/9-IFL-AMG/ATH  
+ ‘purportedly by means ohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/f the value derived from all the varied attributes of humanity’

+

 

+


+ Xha  üvôqalsâniú.
+ ua-OBL    MNF-[inc.stem: ‘sport’]-FML-‘official’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/DCT-AGC2/5-FML-FNC/AFI   + They are a group of sports officiators.

+

 

+
+

6.4.3 Expansion of Format via Specialized Suffixes

+

In addition to the nine formats shown solely by the Vf vocalic suffix described above in Section 6.4.1, the category of Format can be expanded via a set of specialized suffixes, so that an incorporated root can be associated with any of the 72 main noun cases from Chapter 4.  Additionally, these suffixes allow the categories of Configuration (see Sec. 3.1) and Perspective (see Sec. 3.4) to be specified for the incorporated root.

+

These Format expansion suffixes are of the type VxC (Slot XI) which will be discussed in Chapter 7.  These Format expansion suffixes allow one to specify the exact meaning of a word like “child-love” using the stem for ‘love’ with an incorporated root ‘child’ so that the resulting combinations can distinguish meanings such as:

+
+

the love one has for a child
+ the love one has for a group of children
+ the love one has for children in general
+ the love one has for a pair of children
+ the love a child feels
+ the love that children feel in general
+ love experienced for the sake of a child
+ love experienced for the sake of a group of children
+ love experienced for the sake of children in general

+
+

The specifics of how these suffixes work are described in Section 7.4.15.

+
+
 
+ +

Proceed to Chapter 7: Suffixes >>

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
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+ + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + +
Cover of Ithkuil https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Grammar book 

+

For those who would like a cophttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065812id_/http:/ithkuil.net/y of the Ithkuil Grammar
+ in book form, it is now available!

+

And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
+ wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

+

(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
+ philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
+ Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

+

 

+

 

+

 

+
+

©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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+
+ + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/06_verbs_2.html.orig b/2004-en/06_verbs_2.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3170c15 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/06_verbs_2.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2920 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology + + + + + +

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
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Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+

 

+

 

+

Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology

+ + + + + + + + + + + +
 6.1 Modality 6.3 Alternate Representation of Formative Categories
 6.2 Level 6.4 Incorporation and Format
+


+In this chapter, we examine two additional morphological categories — Modality and Level — as well as the morpho-syntactic process called Incorporation and its associated morphological category Format. Modality and Level are shown via a word separate from the formative itself, the verbal adjunct. The concept of adjuncts was previously discussed in Section 2.4 and 2.4.2. A verbal adjunct is placed either immediately preceding or immediately following a verbal formative, and provides additional morphological information about the formative.

+

Note that, in addition to conveying Modality and Level, the verbal adjunct also has slots for conveying certain categories usually conveyed by the formative, specifically Valence, Phase, Sanction, Illocution, Aspect, Mood, Bias, and Extension. Therefore, a verbal adjunct can be used to convey these other categories in order to decrease the number of syllables of the formative and facilitate pronunciation/euphony of the sentence as whole. This is discussed in Section 6.3.

+ +

The structure of a verbal adjunct is as follows. Those slots which are exclusive to verbal adjuncts (i.e., not also found in the formative) are Slots B and D:
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Saction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+


+The Cs aspectual infix in Slot E is mandatory, even if it carries a null value (i.e., no aspect). The Cs consonantal affix will always contain one of the specialized dyssyllabic geminate clusters described in Section 1.2.1.3, written n-n, m-m, l-l, r-r, etc. as well as various other syllabic consonant clusters, e.g., l-m, l-n, r-m, r-n, and r-ň. The second member of the dyssyllabic consonant cluster always carries the word stress and tone in a verbal adjunct. It is the appearance of such a dyssyllabic geminate cluster as the last, or second-to-last consonantal form in the word that identifies the word to readers/listeners as a verbal adjunct.

+

The default tone of a verbal adjunct is falling. However, variations in the tone of a verbal adjunct can be used to convey the accompanying formative’s Extension category, in order to simplify the phonetic structure of the Formative's Ca affix (see Chapter 3) for purposes of euphony and ease of pronunciation. This is discussed in Section 6.3.5 below.

+


+For an example of a verbal adjunct, the example verb at the beginning of Chapter 5 (Section 5.0) is repeated here:

+

hruštrul-lyö’ň ˉhničhâçtàu’watkwöu

+

The first word of this two-word phrase is the adjunct, analyzable as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
hr
u
štr
u
l-ly
ö
+
’ň
+
[falling tone]

+  DEMONSTRATIVE valence
+
+


+ SURPASSIVE-RELATIVE level
+

+

+ RECURRENT phase
+ REFUTATIVE sanction
+ DIRECTIVE illocution
+

+ DESIDERATIVE modality
+

+ REGRESSIVE aspect

+ IMMINENT aspect

+ COINCIDENTAL
+ bias

+ [default EXTENSION]
+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
6.1 MODALITY
+

Modality corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., can, may, must, should, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as to want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that, etc. However, + in Ithkuil, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see Sec. + 3.5) and the Perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. + 4.3.9). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows: As we saw in Sections + 3.5 and 4.3.9, + it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the + psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in +the following sentences.

+
+

1) You must come home at once.
+ 2) That girl can sing better than anybody.
+ 3) Our troops should attack at dawn.
+ 4) Mother needs you to come with her.
+ 5) The teacher requests that I dance for you.
+ 6) The man believes clowns are dangerous.

+
+

Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.Because the clauses following the verbs must, can, should, + need, request, believe, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) and the REPRESENTATIVE essence (see Sec. + 3.5). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns you, girl, troops, mother, teacher, and man in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see Sec. + 4.3.9). It should be noted that not all Ithkuil modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence She + chose to move to Australia, the verb chose signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the move to Australia clause would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective but + would not be marked in the REPRESENTATIVE essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ithkuil modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.

+

There are 30 modalities in Ithkuil. Modality is marked by the Vm vocalic affix in Slot D of a verbal adjunct.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Sactions +
+ Illocutions

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect

+ Bias
+


+The 30 modalities and their respective Vm affixes are shown in Table 16 below. The function of each modality is described in the sub-sections following the table.

+


+Table 16: Vm Modality Affixes 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
1Label
Name
Vm-affix
  
Label
Name
Vm-affix
 
--
(no modality)
a
15
ITV
Intentive
iu
1
DES
Desiderative
u
16
ANT
Anticipative
au
2
ASP
Aspirative
e
17
DSP
Dispositive
eu
3
EPC
Expectative
o
18
PRE
Preparative
ou
4
CRD
Credential
i
19
NEC
Necessitative
ae
5
REQ
Requisitive
ö
20
DCV
Decisive
ia / ua
6
EXH
Exhortative
î / û
21
PTV
Proclivitive
ie / ue
7
OPR
Opportunitive
â
22
VOL
Voluntative
io / uo
8
CPC
Capacitative
ê
23
ACC
Accordative
iö / uö
9
PRM
Permissive
ô
24
ICL
Inclinative
ea
10
PTN
Potential
ü / oe
25
CML
Compulsive
oa
11
CLS
Compulsory
ai
26
DVR
Divertive
öi / ië
12
OBG
Obligative
ei
27
DVT
Devotive
öu / uë
13
IMS
Impositive
ui
28
PFT
Preferential
eo
14
ADV
Advocative
oi
29
IPS
Impressional
ëi
30
PMS
Promissory
ëu
+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.1
DES
The Desiderative
+
+

The DESIDERATIVE more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in The teacher wants the students to study hard.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.2
ASP
The Aspirative
+
+

The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.3
EPC
The Expectative
+
+

The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in He expected her to be beautiful, + or I imagine he’s reached his destination.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.4
CRD
The Credential
+
+

The CREDENTIAL corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in I think she has two sons, or We believe the earth to be round. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as I think she’s pretty.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.5
REQ
The Requisitive
+
+

The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in I request his presence at the banquet, +or I’d like you to visit your father.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.6
EXH
The Exhortative
+
+

The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in I demand you return my book or Let the gates be opened!

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.7
OPR
The Opportunitive
+
+

The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in Can we pass by our old house when we visit town? or Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.8
CPC
The Capacitative
+
+

The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in Can she sing opera? or He could run + like the wind. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in He speaks French like + a native [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so].

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.9
PRM
The Permissive
+
+

The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs can/could/be able or may/might where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert; or Could I talk to you?

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.10
PTN
The Potential
+
+

The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area, or That man could fly into rages for no reason. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in It rains unpredictably in the Northwest.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.11
CLS
The Compulsory
+
+

The COMPULSORY corresponds to the English + modal verbs must or have to/had to in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in You must get up now, or I had to attend the ceremony.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.12
OBG
The Obligative
+
+

The OBLIGATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs should, ought to, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel, or It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.13
IMS
The Impositive
+
+

The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as be supposed to, be expected to, or be to which impose an expectation upon a party, as in You’re supposed to + smile when introduced, or He is to give a speech at the banquet.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.14
ADV
The Advocative
+
+

The ADVOCATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as suggest that or propose that which advocate + a position, as in I suggest you study harder or They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.15
ITV
The Intentive
+
+

The INTENTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as intend to, plan on or shall which + convey an intention, as in The girls plan on travelling to Europe, + or I shall see to it.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.16
ANT
The Anticipative
+
+

The ANTICIPATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to look forward to or to eagerly await which convey positive anticipation, as in We look forward to the clowns coming + to town.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.17
DSP
The Dispositive
+
+

The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English + expression to be willing to, conveying willingness as in He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.18
PRE
The Preparative
+
+

The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English + expressions be ready to or be prepared to, indicating readiness, + as in She’s ready to host the party, or They are prepared + to endure harsh weather.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.19
NEC
The Necessitative
+
+

The NECESSITATIVE corresponds to the + English expressions need to or be necessary to, indicating + necessity, as in You need to do something about those clowns in the yard, + or It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.20
DCV
The Decisive
+
+

The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in Peter decided to cook + breakfast or Colleen chose to visit the clowns.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.21
PTV
The Proclivitive
+
+

The PROCLIVITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as tend to, be apt to, or be prone to, indicating + tendency, as in The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs, or Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.22
VOL
The Voluntative
+
+

The VOLUNTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as offer to or volunteer to, indicating an act of offering + as in The foreman offered to put poison in my beer, or Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.23
ACC
The Accordative
+
+

The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English + expression agree to, as in Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.24
ICL
The Inclinative
+
+

The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to feel like or be up for, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in He’s up for going to the shindig, + or Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + + + +
6.1.25
CML
The Compulsive
+
+

The COMPULSIVE corresponds to English expressions such as feel driven to or feel a need to, indicating compulsion, as in Jack feels driven to hunt wolverines, or My hairdresser feels a need to date bikers. It is marked by addition of the suffix -uï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.26
DVR
The Divertive
+
+

The DIVERTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as like to, or enjoy, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in Boys like to dream about cars, or My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.27
DVT
The Devotive
+
+

The DEVOTIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as be devoted to or be committed to, indicating devotion + as in Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town, + or They were devoted to rooting for the losing team.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.28
PFT
The Preferential
+
+

The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English + expressions such as prefer, or would rather that, indicating + preference as in He’d rather work by himself, or Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.29
IPS
The Impressional
+
+

The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English + expressions such as have an impression that, have a hunch that, or feel that, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic, or Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.30
PMS
The Promissory
+
+

The PROMISSORY corresponds to English + expressions such as promise, or swear that, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in She promised that her son would visit my daughter, + or Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient.

+

 

+

6.1.31 Examples of Modality in Use

+
+


+ Wëtöin-n  ailtac  qeiwi.
+ RCP-PPS/CTX/ASR-DVR-FAC     DYN-‘write.message’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL   ma-ACT-CSL-NRM/DPX
+ The two of them like writing to each other.

+

 

+


+ Hëtiun-n  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-FAC    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM-DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-ISR   1+ma-ACT
+ She and I are planning on taking a walk later on.

+

 

+


+ On-n  amnadya  osmuil.
+ EPC-FAC    STA-‘awe’-RPV/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL    IFL-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ The valley is expected to be awe-inspiring.

+

 

+


+ Ur-rwu  ivadya  âbyeil.
+ DES-FAC/RSM-RTR    DYN-‘play’-RPV/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘dog’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ The dog wanted to play some more.

+

+

 

+
+

 

+


+

+ + + + +
6.2 LEVEL
+

Level corresponds roughly to what is known + as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate + degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -er and +-est seen in great-greater-greatest, or alternately with the adverbs more and most, as well as their negative counterparts less and least. The Ithkuil comparison schema is much more complex than those found in natural languages and is designed to eliminate various ambiguities that arise from those simpler schemata, as discussed below.
+

+


+6.2.1 Ambiguity and Under-specification in Natural Languages

+

The comparison schemata of natural languages tend to grossly under-specify the exact semantic nature of the comparison. A clear case of such under-specification can be seen in an English example sentence such as Jane is healthier. This sentence can mean any of the following:

+
+

(a) Jane's state of health has improved, although she is still unwell.
+ (b) Jane's state of health has improved so that now she is well (whereas before she was unwell).
+ (c) Jane's state of health is even better than it previously was (i.e., she was healthy before, but is even healthier now).
+ (d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as someone else's state of health (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).
+ (e) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, so that Jane can be considered healthy while the other is unwell.
+ (f) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, even though both can be considered healthy.

+
+


+This ambiguity is not alleviated even when we specify a party to which Jane's health is being compared as in Jane is healthier than Sue, which can mean:

+
+

(a) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's although both are unwell.
+ (b) Jane's state of health is better than Sue's, so that Jane can be considered well while Sue is unwell.
+ (c) Both Jane and Sue are healthy, but Jane's state of health is even better than Sue's.
+ (d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).

+
+


+This sort of ambiguity allows odd-sounding sentences such as Snow is warmer (e.g., than liquid nitrogen) to be perfectly grammatical. What is important to note about the above analysis is that the words healthier or warmer do not indicate in the actual context of usage whether a person is actually healthy or whether snow is actually warm. Rather English -er and -est (and more and most) as well as their negative counterparts (less and least) merely serve to indicate on a relative scale a relationship between two entities being compared (or where only one party is mentioned, in relationship to some unspecified standard or expectation). Additional statements are needed to clarify the actual context to determine where the entities fall on the quantitative "spectrum" or range of the particular quality or attribute pair in question, e.g., unhealthy <—> healthy.

+

The comparison scheme of Ithkuil has been designed to inherently specify such relative comparison while simultaneously specifying placement within the qualitative spectrum, so that ambiguity as to whether “healthier” means the person is well or unwell is eliminated.

+

 

+

6.2.2 Relative Versus Absolute Comparison

+

An additional aspect of Ithkuil comparison is the concept of relative comparison versus absolute comparison. This is an important concept which impacts the truth value of a statement based upon context. Specifically, relative comparison allows for statements to be true within the narrow confines of the context-at-hand, whereas absolute comparison allows for statements to be true without reference to any specific context. This can be illustrated by the following examples.

+

(a) Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky.
+ (b) That highway is the fastest way into town.

+


+Both of these sentences are true in certain pragmatic contexts and not true in others. For example, while Sirius is the most luminous star as seen from Earth, this is merely due to its relative nearness to Earth (8.4 light years) as compared to most other stars. There are thousands of known stars which are larger (and inherently more luminous) than Sirius but are much further away from Earth. So Sentence (a) is true in a relative context but false in an absolute context. Similarly the highway in Sentence (b) may be the fastest way in most conditions, but if there is a traffic jam or an accident blocking the highway, or if one has access to a private helicopter, then the statement would be false. Therefore, it is only true in a narrow context determined by the pragmatics of the moment it is spoken. Ithkuil allows speakers to specify whether a comparison is to be interpreted within the context-at-hand (relative comparison) or as an absolute statement irrespective of the context-at-hand.

+

 

+


+ 6.2.3 Comparison Operators (Levels)

+

There are nine comparison operators for the Ithkuil verb, called Levels, which specify the comparative relationship involved, e.g., same as, more than, less than, etc. These levels are marked by a word-initial vocalic prefix to the verb, Ve. Each prefix comes in two varieties, to distinguish between relative versus absolute comparison. Additionally there is an unmarked default zero-level in which no comparison is being made). The presence of a Ve prefix in Slot B of the verbal adjunct requires Slots C And D to be filled by their respective affixes as well.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Sanction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+


+NOTE: As an alternative to using Ve, Level can also be conveyed by the suffixes -V1mļ and -V2mļ added to the formative (placed in Slot XI), explained in Section 7.4.13 - LVL suffix.

+

 

+

In interpreting the meaning of the various Levels, the terms used in the formulas refer to the following X-M-(Y) model, where M represents a verb or an adjectival description, X is the "subject" of the verb, and Y is the standard being compared to.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Sue
dances as well as /
+ dances better than /
+ dances worse than
+ etc.
+
+
Mary
OR
+
Sue
+
is as smart
+ is smarter than
+ is less smart than
+ etc.
+
+
Mary
X
M
(Y)
X
M
(Y)
+

Note that the meaning of each Level allows for an interpretation in which there is no Y term so that the standard of comparison is a previous state of X, e.g., the difference between Sue dances better than Mary versus Sue dances better than before.
+

+

 

+


+ Table 17: Ve Level prefixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  
VL Prefix
Meaning
LabelName of Level
RELATIVE
+
ABSOLUTE
 
EQUEQUATIVE
a-
â-
X M ’s the same as Y ( or as before) / X is as M as Y ( or as before)
SURSURPASSIVE
u-
û / î-
X M ’s more than Y ( or than before) / X is more M than Y ( or than before)
DFCDEFICIENT
i-
ö-
X M ’s less than Y ( or than before) / X is less M than Y ( or than before)
OPT OPTIMAL
o-
ô-
X M ’s at its most possible / X is at its most M possible
MIN MINIMAL
e-
ê-
X M ’s at its least possible / X is at its least M possible
SPLSUPERLATIVE
ai-
au-
X M ’s at its most yet / X is at its most M yet
IFRINFERIOR
ui-
iu-
X M ’s at its least yet / X is at its least M yet
SPQSUPEREQUATIVE
ei-
eu-
X M ’s more than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is more M than or = to Y / before
SBESUBEQUATIVE
oi-
ou-
X M ’s less than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is less M than or = to Y / before
+

Note that in verbal adjuncts where Valence is marked by a word-initial CL consonantal prefix in Slot A (see Sec. 6.3.4), but there is no Level, the neutral value of Ve in Slot B is ë.

+

 

+

+

6.2.4 The Comparison Cases

+

In addition to Level, there are 24 specialized noun cases which identify the exact nature of the comparison in relation to the quantitative spectrum, range, or standard for the particular attribute, quality, or act in question. These cases are applied to the noun to which something is compared, i.e., the term Y in the above formulas. So, for example, in the Ithkuil translation of the sentence Jane is healthier than her sister, the equivalent to is healthier would be shown by a Level prefix meaning "more than" applied to a formative meaning "manifesting a state of health," while the phrase corresponding to than her sister would be the word sister marked for a case which specifies whether the other noun to which the sister is being compared (i.e., Jane) is now well, or is nevertheless still unhealthy, etc.

+

It is primarily through the use of these specialized comparison cases that the ambiguities discussed above in Sec. 6.2.1 are eliminated. The meaning of each case as applied to Y, in terms of the X-M-Y formula discussed above, would be:

+

"in comparison to Y, where X Q in terms of reference standard S"

+

where Q indicates the change (or lack thereof) in X over time and S indicates an external standard of comparison for M. An example of this formula in use would be where the term Q = "was previously less M than Y" and S = "although X (still) isn't very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness" applied to the sentence Jane is healthier than Sue, now disambiguated to mean that Jane, while being in a healthier stated than Sue, still isn't very healthy.

+

There are eight possible values for Q and three possible values for S, rendering a total of 24 possible Q + S combinations. It is these 24 possible Q + S combinations that are rendered as the Comparison cases in Ithkuil. The eight possible values for Q are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1
was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y
2
was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y
3
is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y
4
is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y
5
is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y
6
is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y
7
was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y
8
where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant
+

The three possible values for S are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
although X (still) isn’t very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness
B
where X meets/exceeds some some external standard or expectation of M-ness and Y does not
C
where both X and Y meet/exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y met/exceeded it
+

The eight values of Q combine with the three values of S to give the specific meanings of the 24 comparison cases as shown below in Table 18. As with the 72 primary cases (see Chapter 4) the 24 comparison cases are shown by the Vc infix to the formative in Slot VIII.

+


+Table 18: The 24 Comparison Cases (as per the formula: [X] [M] [in comparison to Y] where X Q in terms of reference standard S)

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Mutation Series
Label
Name of Case
Vc
Value of Q
+ (change in X over time)
+
Value of S
+(Comparison to external standard)
73
CMP1A
COMPARATIVE 1A
aì
 + where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y + although X (or X and Y) (still) isn’t/aren't very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness
74
CMP2A
COMPARATIVE 2A
eì
 + where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y +
75
CMP3A
COMPARATIVE 3A
oì
 + where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
76
CMP4A
COMPARATIVE 4A
uì
 + where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
77
CMP5A
COMPARATIVE 5A
aù
 + where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
78
CMP6A
COMPARATIVE 6A
eù
 + where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
79
CMP7A
COMPARATIVE 7A
où
 + where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y +
80
CMP8A
COMPARATIVE 8A
iù
 + where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant +
81
CMP1B
COMPARATIVE 1B
ao
 + where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y + and where X (or Y) meets/exceeds some some extrenal standard or expectation of M-ness and Y (or X) does not
82
CMP2B
COMPARATIVE 2B
aü
 + where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y +
83
CMP3B
COMPARATIVE 3B
eü
 + where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
84
CMP4B
COMPARATIVE 4B
oü
 + where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
85
CMP5B
COMPARATIVE 5B
ëì
 + where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
86
CMP6B
COMPARATIVE 6B
öì
 + where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
87
CMP7B
COMPARATIVE 7B
ëù
 + where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y +
88
CMP8B
COMPARATIVE 8B
öù
 + where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant +
89
CMP1C
COMPARATIVE 1C
eai
 + where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y + and where both X and Y meet/exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y met/exceeded it
90
CMP2C
COMPARATIVE 2C
oai
 + where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y +
91
CMP3C
COMPARATIVE 3C
eau
 + where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
92
CMP4C
COMPARATIVE 4C
oau
 + where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
93
CMP5C
COMPARATIVE 5C
uai / iau
 + where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y +
94
CMP6C
COMPARATIVE 6C
uei / ieu
 + where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y +
95
CMP7C
COMPARATIVE 7C
uoi / iou
 + where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y +
96
CMP8C
COMPARATIVE 8C
uëi / iëu
 + where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant +
+

 

+

+

6.2.5 The COS Suffix

+

Since Level affixes modify a verb directly, there is still a potential for ambiguity due to the fact that Levels and the Comparison cases specify the relationship between two entities being compared, but they do not specify the particular parameter of the term M. In other words, the verb "laugh" in the SURPASSIVE Level might be best translated as "out-laugh," as in Sam out-laughed George, but we still do not know if this means the laugh was louder, longer, or "harder." Therefore, verbs marked for Levels often take the COS suffix as well, to specify the parameters of the quality or act in question. This suffix is found in the list of derivational suffixes in Chapter 7, but is shown here as well, for the sake of convenience. (See Chapter 7 for an explanation of the nine degrees and three suffix-types associated with derivational suffixes).

+

-Vx ks  COS  Comparison Specifications

+
    +
  1. “more”/“less” = extent/amount/volume
    2. +
  2. “harder”/“weaker” = degree of intensity or effort
    3. +
  3. “longer”/“shorter” = duration; time spent being/doing
    4. +
  4. “better”/“worse” = quality / style
    5. +
  5. “more efficiently”/“less efficiently” = efficiency / effort relative to outcome
    6. +
  6. “greater”/“poorer” = relevant outcome / bottom-line result
    7. +
  7. combo of 4, 5, and 6
    8. +
  8. combo of 1, 2, and 3
    9. +
  9. combo of 1 through 6
    10. +
+


+ 6.2.6 Examples of Level and the Comparison Cases in Use

+

(Note that in the morphological interlinear analysis below, the distinction between absolute versus relative Level is indicated by a small “a” versus a small “r” attached to the label/abbreviation for the particular Level.)

+
+


+
+ Ulan-n  oxassûg  êqil  ôqoìl.          LISTEN 
+ SURr-ASR/CTX/IPU-FAC    STA-‘have.eyesight’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/DPX-FLS1/6-IFL    STA-‘woman’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘man’-CMP3A-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ It is clear the woman’s eyesight has improved, but she still doesn’t see as well as the man, who doesn't see very well either.

+

 

+


+ Rril  eglalaimļ  byoail.          LISTEN 
+ STA-‘cat’-AFF-NRMDEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-‘sickness/illness’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SPQa-IFL    STA-‘dog’-CMP2C-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
+ The cat is now at least as sick as the dog, if not more so, whereas previously only the dog was sick.

+

 

+
+

+ + + + +
6.3 ALTERNATE REPRESENTATION OF FORMATIVE CATEGORIES
+

In Chapter 5 we discussed the verbal categories of Mood, Aspect, Bias, Phase, Sanction, Illocution, and Valence, and showed how each of these categories is manifested by various affixes within the structure of a formative. However, the structure of the verbal adjunct, discussed at the beginning of this chapter, allows for each of the aforementioned morphological categories to alternately be displayed via a verbal adjunct rather than a formative. This is often desirable for purposes of phonological euphony or to address the limitations of phonotactic constraints (see Section 1.4). The sub-sections below discuss the specifics on the alternate representations of these categories via a verbal adjunct.

+

 

+

+

6.3.1 Alternate Representation of Mood and/or Aspect

+

The categories of Mood and Aspect were previously discussed in Section 5.2 and Section 5.10 respectively. Mood is normally shown (along with Illocution) via the Ci+Vi infix to a formative in Slot IX, although it can alternately be shown along with Aspect via the Cs affix to a formative in Slot III. However, the use of the Cs affix in Slot III of a formative, unless required by the presence of affixes in Slots I or II, is generally undesirable as its presence adds two syllables to the length of the formative. Therefore, as an alternative, Aspect and/or Mood can be conveyed by the same Cs affix within a verbal adjunct in Slot E. This Cs affix is mandatory for all verbal adjunct.

+

The second syllable of the Cs affix (i.e., the second member of one of the dyssyllabic consonant clusters l-l, m-m, n-n, ň-ň, r-r, l-m, l-n, r-m, r-n, and r-ň) always receives the syllabic stress and tone in a verbal adjunct.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Saction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+


+A second verbal aspect can be shown within a verbal adjunct utilizing the Vs affix in Slot F. Each of the 32 aspects, in addition to their consonantal Cs form, has a vocalic affixual form Vs, shown in the table below.
+

+


+Table 19: Values for Vs Aspectual Markers and Cs Aspect+Mood Markers
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  
MOOD
   

FAC

SUB

ASM

SPC

COU

HYP

IPL

ASC

Aspect

 
Vs
        

 

(none)

 

a

n-n

m-m

l-l

r-r

ň-ň

r-n

l-ň

r-ň

1

RTR
RETROSPECTIVE

u

n-nr

n-nt

n-nt’

n-nd

n-nth

n-nţ

n-ndh

n-nh

2

PRS
PROSPECTIVE

e

m-mr

m-mp

m-mp’

m-mb

m-mph

m-mf

m-mv

m-mh

3

HAB
HABITUAL

o

l-lr

l-lt

l-lt’

l-ld

l-lth

l-lţ

l-ldh

l-lh

4

PRG
PROGRESSIVE

i

r-rn

r-rt

r-rt’

r-rd

r-rth

r-rţ

r-rdh

r-rh

5

IMM
IMMINENT

ö

ň-ňr

ň-ňk

ň-ňk’

ň-ňg

ň-ňkh

ň-ňx

ň-ňq

ň-ňh

6

PCS
PRECESSIVE

î/û

n-nw

n-ntw

n-nt’w

n-ndw

n-nthw

n-nţw

n-ndhw

n-nhw

7

REG
REGULATIVE

â

m-mw

m-mpw

m-mp’w

m-mbw

m-mphw

m-mfw

m-mvw

m-mhw

8

EXP
EXPERIENTIAL

ê

l-lw

l-ltw

l-lt’w

l-ldw

l-lthw

l-lţw

l-lđw

l-lhw

9

RSM
RESUMPTIVE

ô

r-rw

r-rtw

r-rt’w

r-rdw

r-rthw

r-rţw

r-rdhw

r-rhw

10

CSS
CESSATIVE

ü/oe

ň-ňw

ň-ňkw

ň-ňk’w

ň-ňgw

ň-ňkhw

ň-ňxw

ň-ňqw

ň-ňhw

11

RCS
RECESSATIVE

ai

n-ny

n-nty

n-nt’y

n-ndy

n-nthy

n-nţy

n-ndhy

n-nç

12

PAU
PAUSAL

ei

m-my

m-mpy

m-mp’y

m-mby

m-mphy

m-mfy

m-mvy

m-mç

13

RGR
REGRESSIVE

ui

l-ly

l-lty

l-lt’y

l-ldy

l-lthy

l-lţy

l-ldhy

l-lç

14

PCL
PRECLUSIVE

oi

r-ry

r-rty

r-rt’y

r-rdy

r-rthy

r-rţy

r-rdhy

r-rç

15

CNT
CONTINUATIVE

iu

n-ns

n-nz

n-nsw

n-nzw

n-nc’

n-nch

n-nc’w

n-nchw

16

ICS
INCESSATIVE

au

m-ms

m-mz

m-msw

m-mzw

m-mc’

m-mch

m-mc’w

m-mchw

17
PMP
PREEMPTIVE

eu

ň-ňs

ň-ňz

ň-ňsw

ň-ňzw

ň-ňc’

ň-ňch

ň-ňc’w

ň-ňchw

18
CLM
CLIMACTIC

ou

l-ls

l-lz

l-lsw

l-lzw

l-lc’

l-lch

l-lc’w

l-lch’w

19
PTC
PROTRACTIVE

ae

r-rs

r-rz

r-rsw

r-rzw

r-rc’

r-rch

r-rc’w

r-rchw

20
TMP
TEMPORARY

ia/ua

n-nš

n-nž

n-nšw

n-nžw

n-nč’

n-nčh

n-nč’w

n-nčhw

21
MTV
MOTIVE

ie/ue

m-mš

m-mž

m-mšw

m-mžw

m-mč’

m-mčh

m-mč’w

m-mčhw

22
CSQ
CONSEQUENTIAL

io/uo

ň-ňš

ň-ňž

ň-ňšw

ň-ňžw

ň-ňč’

ň-ňčh

ň-ňč’w

ň-ňčhw

23
SQN
SEQUENTIAL

iù /uì

l-lš

l-lž

l-lšw

l-lžw

l-lč’

l-lčh’

l-lč’w

l-lčhw

24
EPD
EXPEDITIVE

iö/uö

r-rš

r-rž

r-ršw

r-ržw

r-rč’

r-rčh

r-rč’w

r-rčhw

25
DCL
DISCLUSIVE

ea

n-nļ

m-mļ

ň-ňļ

n-ntļ

m-mtļ

ň-ňtļ

l-ltļ

r-rtļ

26
CCL
CONCLUSIVE

oa

l-lm

l-lļ

n-nl

ň-ňm

m-mř

m-mt

ň-ňt

ň-ňn

27
CUL
CULMINATIVE

eö

r-rm

r-rl

m-ml

m-mn

r-mř

m-mt’

ň-ňt’

ň-ňç

28
IMD
INTERMEDIATIVE

öi/öa

l-ln

l-nļ

l-lř

n-nm

ň-ňř

m-mth

ň-ňth

ň-ňţ

29
TRD
TARDATIVE

öu/öe

l-nw

l-ny

l-lg

l-lgw

l-lx

l-lxw

l-lv

l-lcw

30
TNS
TRANSITIONAL

eo

r-nw

r-my

r-rg

r-rgw

r-rx

r-rxw

r-rv

r-rcw

31
ITC
INTERCOMMUTATIVE

ëi

l-mw

l-my

l-lb

l-lbw

l-lf

l-lfw

l-ňw

l-lčw

32
CSM
CONSUMPTIVE

ëu

r-mw

r-ny

r-rb

r-rbw

r-rf

r-rfw

r-ňw

r-rčw

+

 

+

+

6.3.2 Alternate Representation of Bias

+

Bias was previously discussed in Section 5.11, shown by the word-final Cb suffix to a formative. As an alternative, however, the same Cb suffix can instead be placed in word-final position on a verbal adjunct (in which case a Vs affix in Slot F becomes mandatory). The forms of Cb used in verbal adjunct are the same as those used with formatives, except that, unlike formatives, there is no preceding glottal stop. See Table 15 in Section 5.11.1 for the specific Cb suffix for each bias.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valences
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Saction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+

 

+

+

6.3.3 Alternate Represenation of Phase, Sanction, and Illocution

+

The categories of Phase, Sanction, and Illocution were previously discussed in Sections 5.5, 5.6, and 5.3 respectively. In a formative, they are shown by a combination affix, Cv, placed in Slot V, or if an incorporated stem is present, in Slot I. Alternately, however, they may be shown by the same Cv affix in Slot C of a verbal adjunct (which entails the mandatory presence of a Vm modality infix in Slot D). The forms of Cv for a verbal adjunct are the same as those for formatives, shown in Tables 11(a) through (f) in Section 5.5.
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Saction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+

 

+

+

6.3.4 Alternate Representation of Valence

+

The category of Valence was previously discussed in Section 5.7, shown by the vocalic prefix, VL in Slot VI, or, if an incorporated stem is present, in Slot II. Alternately, however, Valence may be shown by consonantal counterpart to the VL prefix, CL, placed in Slot A of a verbal adjunct (which entails the mandatory presence of affixes in Slots B, C, and D).

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
(((CL)
+
Ve)
Cv)
Vm)
Cs
(Vs
(Cb))
[tone]

+  Valence
+

+ Level

+ Phase +
+ Saction +
+ Illocution

+ Modality
+
+

+ Aspect
+

+ Aspect


+ Bias

+


+ Extension
+

+
+

The forms of CL for a verbal adjunct are the same as those for formatives, shown in Table 20 below:

+


+ Table 20: CL Valence Prefixes for Verbal Adjuncts
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Label
Valence name
CL
1
MNO
Monoactive
—
2
PRL
Parallel
h-
3
CRO
Corollary
y-
4
RCP
Reciprocal
w-
5
CPL
Complementary
hw-
6
NNR
Nonrelational
hm-
7
DUP
Duplicative
hn-
8
DEM
Demonstrative
hr-
9
RES
Resistive
lw-
10
IMT
Imitative
ly-
11
CNG
Contingent
rw-
12
PTI
Participative
ry-
13
IDC
Indicative
řw-
14
MUT
Mutual
řy-
+


+

+

6.3.5 Alternate Representation of Extension

+

The category of Extension is normally shown by means of the Ca affix in Slot X of the formative (see Sections 2.1, 3.4 and 3.5.3). However, in order to simplify the phonological structure of the Ca affix for purposes of euphony, Extension may be shown via the tone of the adjacent verbal adjunct. The default tone of a verbal adjunct is falling, which indicates deferral of Extension information to the Ca affix of the formative. Otherwise, Extension is conveyed by the following shifts in tone of the verbal adjunct.

+


+Table 21: Extension As Shown by Tone Shifts in Verbal Adjunct

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Tone
Extension
Falling[Extension shown by formative]
HighPROXIMAL
RisingINCEPTIVE
LowTERMINATIVE
Falling-RisingDEPLETIVE
Rising-FallingGRADUATIVE
+
+

 

+
+

+ + + + +
6.4 INCORPORATION AND FORMAT
+

Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings + into a single verb, a process termed conflation. This is illustrated +in the following English sentences:

+
+

1. He bicycled south. = He traveled south by bicycle.
+ 2. She dolled herself up. = She made herself look as pretty as a + doll.
+ 3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the + books on the shelf/shelves.
+ 4. Slide me a beer. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the + bar).

+
+

The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry + inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and + giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random + and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English to bicycle in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to + make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the + verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but + rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means + ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ + or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first + three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does slide in sentence (4).

+

As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” + way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, + placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary + sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our + four sentences above as follows:

+
+

He [1: + (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle]
+ = He bicycled south.

+

She [1: + (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll]
+ = She dolled herself up.

+

They [1: + (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves]
+ = They’re shelving the books.

+

[1: (GIVE+imperative)] + a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me
+ = Slide me a beer.

+
+

Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown + by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb + and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English + must learn that to hand means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, + but to shoulder does not mean to GIVE by MEANS of + one’s shoulder.

+

Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity + for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack + of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use + when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form.

+

Ithkuil systemizes verb conflation into a productive +scheme, in which any formative stem can be incorporated directly into another formative stem. The operational sense of the incorporated stem and its semantic relation to the primary formative stem is conveyed by a morphological category called format (discussed in Section 6.4.1 below). The incorporated stem is shown via the Cx and Vp affixes in Slots V and VI, where Cx indicates the root and Vp its Pattern, Stem and Designation. Format is shown as part of the Vf prefix which also shows the category of Context (previously discussed in Section 3.6).
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood +
+ Polarity
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+


+ If an incorporated stem is present (i.e., Cx and Vp are present in Slots V and VI) then a Vf affix showing the incorporated stem’s Format must also be present in Slot XII (see Section 6.4.1 below for an explanation of Format).

+

The values for the Vp infix are shown in Table 22 below.

+


+ Table 22: Vp infixes indicating Pattern, Stem and Designation of an Incorporated Root
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Stem Vowel —>
Pattern 1
Pattern 2
Pattern 3
Informal
+ Designation
Stem 1
a
i
u
Stem 2
o
e
ö
Stem 3
ai
ui
ei
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Formal Designation
Stem 1
â
î / û
ô
Stem 2
ê
oi
au
Stem 3
eu
iu
ou
+

 

+

+

6.4.1 Format

+

As described above, a conflated verb in English can convey different senses such as means, manner, or location, the specific sense being learnable only through actual usage and context. In Ithkuil, this sense is overtly identified by the format of the verb, shown by the Vf affix in Slot XII. The Vf affix was previously discussed in Section 3.6 on Context. + Table 23 below shows the values of Vf.

+


+ Tables 23: Vf Affixes:  Context & Format

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
FORMAT
Context↓ (see Sec. 3.6)

(none)

 SCH

ISR

ATH

RSL

SBQ

CCM

OBJ

PRT

AFI
EXISTENTIAL

(a)

o

ai

â

au

ëi

oa

ea

aì

aù

FUNCTIONAL

i

ö

ui

ae

iu

ëu

oe

ia / ua

uì

iù

REPRESENTATIONAL

e

ü / öe

ei

ê

eu

öi

eo

ie / ue

eì

eù

AMALGAMATE

u

öa

oi

ô

ou

öu

iö / uö

io / uo

oì

où

+


+ The specific interpretation of the nine formats is often dependent on the verb’s Function (see Section 5.1). This is explained in the sub-sections below for each format:

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.1
SCH
The Schematic
+
+

For verbs carrying DYNAMIC Function (see Sec. 5.1.2), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies the manner of the primary stem. So for example, when translating the English sentence I’m + speeding through dinner [= eating speedily], the Ithkuil sentence would incorporate the stem corresponding to ‘speed’ into the stem ‘eat’ plus SCHEMATIC format to convey a sentence literally translatable as I'm speed-eating dinner [= eating in a manner characterized by speed.]

+

Similarly, the Ithkuil translation of Clouds blanketed + the city would incorporate the stem corresponding to ‘blanket’ into the stem for ‘cover/engulf’ plus SCHEMATIC format to convey a sentence literally translatable as Clouds blanket-cover the city [= cover like a blanket.]

+

For verbs carrying STATIVE Function (see Sec. 5.1.1), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the incorporated stem characterizes the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem has the characteristics, behavior, or acts like the incorporated stem.

+

For verbs carrying MANIFESTIVE Function (see Sec. 5.1.3), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the incorporated is equivalent in identity (i.e., a copula relationship) to the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem is the incorporated stem in an existential sense.

+

For verbs carrying DESCRIPTIVE Function (see Sec. 5.1.4), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the incorporated has the superficial appearance or physically or (metaphorically) resembles the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem resembles/looks like the incorporated stem.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.2
ISR
The Instrumentative
+
+

The INSTRUMENTATIVE format indicates that the incorporated stem specifies the means, + cause, or instrument of causation of the conflated primary sense, so that the sentence I clubbed him would be translated by incorporating the stem for ‘club’ into the stem for ‘hit/beat’ plus the INSTRUMENTATIVE format, rendering a sentence literally translatable as I club-hit him or I club-beat him [= I hit/beat him with a club].

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.3
OBJ
The Objective
+
+

The OBJECTIVE format indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies the Patient (see Sec. + 4.1.1) of the primary stem. So, for example, the Ithkuil translation of She dusted + the table would incorporate the stem ‘dust’ into the stem ‘remove’ to render a sentence literally translatable as She dust-removed the table [= removed dust]. Similarly the sentence They fish that river each + spring would incorporate the stem ‘fish’ into the stem ‘gather/collect’ to render They fish-gather that river each spring [= gather fish]

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.4
ATH
The Authoritive
+
+

The AUTHORITIVE format indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies the entity of which the primary stem is the indirect/enabling cause or derivational source. So, for example, the Ithkuil translation of the English sentence He sang her cares away (= + his singing allowed her to forget her cares) would incorporate the verb ‘forget’ into the verb ‘sing’ with AUTHORITATIVE format, the party ‘he’ in the EFFECTUATIVE case, and the party ‘she’ in the AFFECTIVE case.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.5
PRT
The Precurrent
+ The PRECURRENT format indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies an initial event immediately preceding or continuing on into + the main verb , where the initial event is not the cause of the conflated + sense, i.e., the main act/state/event would have occurred anyway, e.g., I + bought some lunch (conflated sense: EAT). First X, then Y (non-causal).
+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.6
RSL
The Resultative
+
+

The RESULTATIVE format indicates that the + verb specifies the concurrent result of the conflated sense, i.e., an event + which occurs in conjunction with the conflated sense but is also caused + by it, e.g., The plane crashed into the water (conflated sense: + FLY) First X, then Y as a result; X causes Y

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.7
SBQ
The Subsequent
+
+

The SUBSEQUENT format indicates that the + verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect purpose (not the + concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., I’ll look in + on the stew (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen]) X or the purpose of Y; X in order to Y

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.8
CCM
The Concommitant
+
+

The CONCOMMITANT format indicates that the + verb specifies an incidental simultaneous event having no causal relationship, + e.g., She wore jeans to church (conflated sense: GO); He sweated + through her recital (Conflated sense: LISTEN) X while Y

+


+

+
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1.9
AFI
The Affinitive
+
+

The AFFINITIVE format indicates that the + incorporated stem is associated with, represents, or acts in behalf of the primary stem. So, for example, the English sentence ‘They are a group of sports officiators’ would utilize the stem for ‘sport’ incorporated into the stem for ‘officiate’ along with the AFFINITIVE format.

+


+
+ 6.4.2 Examples of Incorporation and Format

+
+


+
+ Hëtiun-n  ivogwařļokkai  ţei.
+ PRL-ITV-FAC    DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-IFL-‘ambulate’-NRM-DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP1/7-IFL-ISR   1+ma-ACT
+ She and I are planning on taking a walk later on.

+

 

+


+ hremsoqaiţsurkoi
+ PPT-STA-[inc.stem: ‘value’]-IFL-‘human.being’-INS-NRM-DEL/A/VAR/CST-MET1/9-IFL-AMG/ATH  
+ ‘purportedly by means of the value derived from all the varied attributes of humanity’

+

 

+


+ Xha  üvôqalsâniú.
+ ua-OBL    MNF-[inc.stem: ‘sport’]-FML-‘official’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/DCT-AGC2/5-FML-FNC/AFI  
+ They are a group of sports officiators.

+

 

+
+

6.4.3 Expansion of Format via Specialized Suffixes

+

In addition to the nine formats shown solely by the Vf vocalic suffix described above in Section 6.4.1, the category of Format can be expanded via a set of specialized suffixes, so that an incorporated root can be associated with any of the 72 main noun cases from Chapter 4.  Additionally, these suffixes allow the categories of Configuration (see Sec. 3.1) and Perspective (see Sec. 3.4) to be specified for the incorporated root.

+

These Format expansion suffixes are of the type VxC (Slot XI) which will be discussed in Chapter 7.  These Format expansion suffixes allow one to specify the exact meaning of a word like “child-love” using the stem for ‘love’ with an incorporated root ‘child’ so that the resulting combinations can distinguish meanings such as:

+
+

the love one has for a child
+ the love one has for a group of children
+ the love one has for children in general
+ the love one has for a pair of children
+ the love a child feels
+ the love that children feel in general
+ love experienced for the sake of a child
+ love experienced for the sake of a group of children
+ love experienced for the sake of children in general

+
+

The specifics of how these suffixes work are described in Section 7.4.15.

+
+
 
+ +

Proceed to Chapter 7: Suffixes >>

+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  

 

 

  
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And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
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+ + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/07_suffixes.html b/2004-en/07_suffixes.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8547e6c --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/07_suffixes.html @@ -0,0 +1,8434 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 7: Suffixes + + + + + +

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypotheticalhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ Language
+

+ + + + +

 

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Chindex.html/h2> +

  

 

  
Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonologyhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/6 More Verb Mohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
+ +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  7.1 VxC Suffixes  https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/7.3 Special Use of V3C Suffixes  
  7.2 Suffix-Types  7.4 List of Suffixes  +
+


+ As we have seen in https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/previous chapters, Ithkuil, like most languages, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. However, one type of affix tohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ the formative, the Vx+C suffix from Slot XI, operates inhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ a manner warranting separate analysis. This chapter describes the morpho-phonological structure of these Vx+C suffixes (how they are + formed from consonants and vowels), as well as their function.
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
(((Cv)
VL)
Cg/Cs)
Vr
(Cx/Cv
Vp/VL)
Cr
Vc
Ci +Vi
Ca
VxC
(Vf
(’Cb))
[tone]
[stress]

Phase +
+ Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)

Valence
Validation
+ OR
+ Aspect
+(+ Mood)
Pattern +
+ Stem +
+ Function
Incorp.Root
+ OR
+ Phase + Sanction
+ (+ Illocution)
Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
+ OR
+ Valence
Root
Case
Illocution +
+ Mood +
+ Polarity
Essence +
+ Extension +
+ Perspective +
+ Configuration + Affiliation
Deriv.
+ Suffix
Context + Format
Bias
Version
Designa-
+ tion + Relation
+

 

+

+ + + + +
7.1 VxC SUFFIXES
+

All Ithkuil affixes we have analyzed up to this point, whether prefixes or infixes, have consisted of either a single vocalic form (i.e., a single vowel, a diphthong, or a dyssyllabic vocalic conjunct), or a single consonantal form (i.e., a single consonant, a geminated consonant, or a consonant cluster), each of which has been invariable in its form. Furthermore, we have found that only one such affix can occupy its given slot in the formative’s structure.

+

However, the VxC suffix from Slot XI is different in three respects: (1) it is comprised of both a vowel form and a consonantal form, (2) the vocalic portion of the suffix can mutate, and (3) more than one VxC suffix can occupy Slot XI in the formative (i.e., VxC suffixes can be strung together sequentially one after the other).

+ +


+7.1.1 Mutation of the Vowel Vx

+

While the consonantal portion of the suffix, C, is always invariable, + the vocalic portion Vx mutates depending on two morphological factors known as degree and suffix-type. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for suffix-type, + every consonantal-based Vx+C suffix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before the invariable consonant + C. The three suffix-types are labelled V1, V2, and V3, + in reference to the vowel portion of the suffix.

+


+ 7.1.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting

+

In addition to the three suffix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three suffix-types. Table 24 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each suffix-type.

+


+ Table 24: +Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Suffix Type

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Suffix: + -V1C
Suffix + Type 2: -V2C
Suffix + Type 3: -V3C
Degree + 1
-iC
-iuC / -uaC
-ieC
Degree + 2
-öC
-auC /-oaC
-iöC
Degree + 3
-eC
-êC
-ioC
Degree + 4
-îC / -uëC
-euC / -oeC
-oiC / -öaC
Degree + 5
-(a)C
-âC
-üaC / -uìC / -iùC
Degree + 6
-ûC / -iëC
-eiC / -eoC
-ouC / -öeC
Degree + 7
-oC
-ôC
-uoC
Degree + 8
-üC
-aiC / -eaC
-uöC
Degree + 9
-uC
-iaC / -uiC
-ueC
+

Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 25 below how these suffixes + would actually appear in conjunction with the word eqal ‘person’ :

+


+ TABLE 25: Example of Application of Suffixes to a Stem

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Suffix: + -V1k
Suffix + Type 2: -V2k
Suffix + Type 3: -V3k
Degree + 1
eqalik
eqaliuk / eqaluak
eqaliek
Degree + 2
eqalök
eqalauk /eqaloak
eqaliök
Degree + 3
eqalek
eqalêk
eqaliok
Degree + 4
eqalîk / eqaluëk
eqaleuk / eqaloek
eqaloik / eqalöak
Degree + 5
eqalak
eqalâk
eqalüak / eqaluìk / eqaliùk
Degree + 6
eqalûk / eqaliëk
eqaleik / eqaleok
eqalouk / eqalöek
Degree + 7
eqalok
eqalôk
eqaluok
Degree + 8
eqalük
eqalaik / eqaleak
eqaluök
Degree + 9
eqaluk
eqaliak / eqaluik
eqaluek
+


+ As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ithkuil to create a gradient system for all consonantal suffixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + suffix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in the tables of suffixes in Section 7.4 how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated + with the nine degrees for the suffix -V1d.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Degree
Suffix
Meaning
 
1
-id wholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all
 
2
-ödway too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough
 
3
-ed not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]
 
4
-îdnot quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]
 
5
 -adenough (of) / sufficient(ly)
 
6
-ûda little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]
 
7
-odtoo / too much / over-[+verb]
 
8
-üdway too much / totally over-[+verb]
 
9
-udnothing but / to the exclusion of all else
+
+
+There are approximatey 200 different consonantal suffix categories, each + of which divides into the nine degrees discussed above to render over 1800 distinct suffixes. Each degree of a suffix has a distinct meaning, often representing a point along + a continuum in terms of how much or how little the underlying semantic sense +of the suffix category is being manifested by the particular formative. +

It is important to remember that, since all morpho-semantic + stems are both nominal and verbal in meaning, all suffixes to a stem have both + a nominal and a verbal meaning. Therefore, the choice whether to translate the + suffixes below into their nominal or verbal meaning is entirely dependent on + the morpho-syntactical structure of the word within the context of its use in + a phrase or sentence as a whole.
+
+
+

+

7.1.3 Notational Scheme

+

For convenience’ sake, when referring to a particular + suffix of specific type and degree, we will use the notation in the section + above, utilizing a V for the variable vocalic component, a subscript 1, 2, or 3 indicating the suffix-type, followed by a slash and a number indicating the degree. Thus, the suffix + -nt of Type 1 and 4th degree will be written -V1nt/4, + while the suffix -r of Type 3 and 8th degree will be written -V3r/8, and so forth.

+


+
+

+ + + + +
7.2 SUFFIX-TYPES
+

Each suffix category comes in three types, numbered 1, 2, and 3, indicated by variances in the initial vocalic component of the suffix. Use of the Type 1 version of a suffix caries a mere circumstantial meaning applicable to the context at hand in a subjectively incidental, happenstance, temporary, or informal manner, whereas the Type 2 version of a suffix implies a derivational meaning which can entail lexical differences when translating into English.

+

For example, the Type 1 suffix -up, + i.e., -V1p/9, and its Type 2 counterpart + -uip , i.e., -V2p/9, + which both mean ‘exactly similar to…/identical…,’ the + difference in usage being that the Type 1 suffix conveys merely a circumstantial + or incidental similarity, while the Type 2 suffix implies that the similarity + is an integral aspect of the word. In English, such a distinction would most + likely be conveyed by using a different word. For example, note the difference + when we add these two suffixes to the Ithkuil word eqal ‘person’: eqalup means ‘identical-looking person,’ whereas eqaluip means ‘twin.’ In this way, we can say + that the suffix -Vp with Type 1 vocalic infixes conveys a circumstantial + application of its meaning to a stem, while with Type 2 vocalic infixes, it + conveys a derivational application of its meaning (i.e., wholly new concepts + or words are derived from the stem).

+

As for Type 3 suffixes, these are used in circumstances where the meaning of the suffix is meant to be applied not to the formative itself, but rather to the immediately adjacent suffix. This + is somewhat analogous to the way that adverbs can be used to modify descriptive + adjectives in English. For example, in the phrase suddenly blue sky, + it is the blueness that is sudden, not the sky. In Ithkuil, Type 3 suffixes modify another suffix (usually the one following, unless there + are only two suffixes on the stem, in which case the suffix order is irrelevant); + this is done by using Type 3 vocalic infixes. For example, the suffix -Vd/5, + which means ‘enough / sufficient(ly),’ can be used both circumstantially + (using Type 1 infixes) and derivationally (using Type 2 infixes) to modify a + stem, or can be used to modify only the adjacent suffix (using Type 3 infixes). + Such suffixes must immediately precede + the suffix they are modifying, unless they are in word-final position, in which +case they modify the immediately preceding suffix. This is illustrated below:

+
+

eqalad: ‘a + sufficient person’ (i.e., one able to perform the task at hand)
+ eqalâd: ‘a recruit’ + (i.e., one able to meet performance or entry requirements)
+ eqalüadûx: + ‘a sufficiently large person’ (where suffix -V1x/6 = ‘large’)

+
+

 

+


+ 7.2.1 Multiple Suffixation and Ordering of Suffixes

+

When adding two or more suffixes to a stem, the suffixes generally + can be added to the stem in any order desired, with the exception of V3C suffixes + which modify an adjacent suffix. This latter type must precede the suffix it modifies, unless there are only two VxC suffixes to the word, in which case the order is irrelevant.

+


+
+

+ + + + +
7.3 SPECIAL USE OF V3C SUFFIXES
+

Note that when a Type 3 suffix appears alone in Slot XI, unaccompanied by another VxC suffix, it serves a different purpose than normal. Such lone Type 3 suffixes are used as “short-cut” ways of displaying a type of adunct we will discuss in Chapter 8, called a personal reference adjunct. In these cases, the consonant portion of the suffix, rather than repesenting its usual suffix category, instead corresponds to one of the numerous personal reference categories we will discuss in Chapter 8, while the vowel portion of the suffix, rather than corresponding to one of nine degrees, instead correponds to one of nine noun cases. The details for utilizing these special V3C suffixes are discussed in Section 8.1.5.

+


+
+

+ + + + +
7.4 LIST OF SUFFIXES
+

Thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/he 200 suffix categories are listed in the sections which follow, indicating the difference in meaning for each of the nine degrees. Recall that each of these suffixes may (theoretically) function as both Type 1 and Type 2 suffixes, the latter type often entailing a change of meaning or lexical shift when translating into English.

+


+ 7.4.1 Demonstrative Suffixes

+

These suffixes correspond to various determiners and modifying + adjectives in English having to do with denoting or identifying a noun within + a larger context or discourse.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-kt
DEF
Degree Of Definiteness
Degree 1any (number + of) [random selection - NOT quantitative/partitive “any”]; in + any manner
Degree 2almost + any; in almost any (number of) way(s)
Degree 3some X + or other; in some way or other
Degree 4some certain + X ; in some certain way [identity unknown]
Degree 5this X + or that; a certain X or more; in this way or that [identity almost known + – choices limited]
Degree 6a certain + / a particular; in a certain or particular way [identity ascertainable]
Degree 7presumably + this/that; apparently this X ; in that way presumably [tentatively identified]
Degree 8 this/that/said; + in said manner/(in) that way [identity known]
Degree 9at hand/under + discussion/this one now/instant; in this manner [identity = present context]
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-q’
DSR
Degree Of Discretion
Degree 1announced/advertised/heralded; + w/ public disclosure
Degree 2open & + well-known; with full public knowledge
Degree 3open/public; + for all to see/publicly/openly
Degree 4shown, + open, or available by request/ by request
Degree 5semi-public(ly), + exclusive(ly)
Degree 6own/personal; + personally
Degree 7own private; + privately
Degree 8 secret; + secretly
Degree 9confidential/classified
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-qh
INL
Degree Of Inclusion
Degree 1not a(ny), + not one, no X whatsoever, none of X; in no such manner
Degree 2hardly + any, barely any X; in hardly any such manner
Degree 3some few/a + few certain … ; in a few certain ways
Degree 4some (of)/certain + . . .; in certain ways
Degree 5several + / more than a few / various / in various ways / in several different ways
Degree 6a significant + portion of/a fair number of; in a fair number of ways
Degree 7most/in + most ways
Degree 8 almost + every; in almost every way
Degree 9each/every; + in each way
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rţ / -ţr
EXT
Exactness of Identity / Identity As a Referent Or Standard
Degree 1nothing + like that X; nothing like that ; in no way similar
Degree 2somewhat + like that X; somewhat so
Degree 3nearly + or almost that X; nearly or almost so
Degree 4just about + . . . / for all intents and purposes
Degree 5kind of + / type of / this sort of; typically
Degree 6such (a); + in such a manner
Degree 7clear (case + of); clearly / certainly / indeed[in negative sentences = no way / at all]
Degree 8 just like + that; just so, thus(ly)
Degree 9the exact + X / the very (one); exactly thus / exactly so
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ňs
FAM
Degree Of Familiarity
Degree 1unknowable + / alien; unable to even try X-ing
Degree 2totally + unfamiliar; totally unaccustomed to X-ing
Degree 3unfamiliar; + unaccustomed to X-ing
Degree 4somewhat + unfamiliar; somewhat unaccustomed to X-ing
Degree 5only just + (recently) familiar; only just recently familiar to X-ing
Degree 6somewhat + familiar; somewhat accustomed to X-ing
Degree 7familiar/known; + accustomed to X-ing
Degree 8 well-known + / utterly familiar with / ingrained; inherently accustomed or used to X-ing
Degree 9intimate + with; intimately involved with / intimately accustomed to
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-p
SIM
Degree Of Similarity
Degree 1opposite; + as different as possible / at the other extreme
Degree 2completely + different/dissimilar; in a totally different or dissimilar way
Degree 3rather + different / barely similar / almost completely different or dissimilar; + in an almost completely different way
Degree 4other [=different]; + in another [=different] way
Degree 5somewhat + different, only superficially similar; somewhat differently
Degree 6similar + in the ways that count/similar down deep, some sort of X; similarly at deep + level
Degree 7(somewhat) + similar, only superficially different, sort of like, something like, X-like; + similarly
Degree 8 very similar; + very similarly
Degree 9[exactly + the] same, indistinguishable from; in the [exactly] same way
+

 

+

7.4.2 Deictic Suffixes

+

Deictic suffixes refer to the grammatical process of deixis, + the act of pointing to or pointing out. The suffixes correspond to the different + variants of the concepts of ‘here’ and ‘there.’ In Ithkuil, + distinctions are made in these suffixes as to whether a referent is near the + speaker, near the listener, distant from both, whether it is observable or accessible, + and in some case, whether it is alienable or inalienable (i.e., whether the + entity can be separated from the associated person).
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-č’
DEX
Deixis Categories
Degree 1yonder + / way over there somewhere / a long way away (not near anyone) [inaccessible + or unobservable]
Degree 2over there + somewhere (by third party) [inaccessible or observable]
Degree 3there somewhere + (by listener) [inaccessible or observable]
Degree 4here somewhere + (by speaker] [inaccessible or observable]
Degree 5here (by + speaker and accessible]
Degree 6here with + us (by speaker and listener and accessible]
Degree 7there [by + listener and accessible]
Degree 8 there (by + third party, but accessible to speaker and listener)
Degree 9yonder + / way over there [not near any party but accessible]
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-čh
DXX
Additional Deixis Categories
Degree 1spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [inaccessible]
Degree 2spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [inaccessible]
Degree 3spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over the place / here + and there [inaccessible]
Degree 4spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over / here & there + [observable but inaccessible]
Degree 5spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [inalienable]
Degree 6spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [alienable]
Degree 7spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker/all over the place / here + and there [accessible]
Degree 8 spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [accessible]
Degree 9spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [accessible]
+

+

7.4.3 Sequential Suffixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-nn
SEQ
Numerical Sequence
Degree 1first / + initial; first(ly) / first of all
Degree 2second; + secondly
Degree 3third; + thirdly
Degree 4still near + the beginning / not yet halfway
Degree 5the middle + one, in between (sequentially)/ just about halfway there
Degree 6nearing + the end
Degree 7third from + last; antepenultimately
Degree 8 next to + last; penultimately
Degree 9last / + final; last(ly) / finally (in terms of sequence)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-nš / -šn
SQT
Sequence Relative to Present Context
Degree 1immediately + beforehand / first
Degree 2one before + preceding
Degree 3the former; + primarily
Degree 4two before + preceding
Degree 5current/at + hand; now/currently / at the moment [in sequence of events]
Degree 6second + one after next
Degree 7the latter; + secondarily
Degree 8 one after + next
Degree 9next / + following; then / next
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-c’
SQC
Sequence of Cause and Effect
Degree 1originating; + originally / in the first place / initially / at the outset
Degree 2preliminary; + preliminarily
Degree 3preparatory + / in preparation for / getting ready to
Degree 4awaited; + waiting to/ waiting for [focus on imminency or sequential position, NOT + on anticipation]
Degree 5precursor + to; but just beforehand
Degree 6based on + the preceding and setting the stage for what follows
Degree 7eventual + / at last; at last / finally (result)
Degree 8 following + /...which follows; then subsequent to that / following that...
Degree 9subsequent + / consequent; then / so / thus / therefore
+

+

7.4.4 Coordinative Suffixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ň
COO
Adjunctive Coordination
Degree 1in conjunction + with / combined with / including X
Degree 2and / also + / additionally/ furthermore/ moreover/ what’s more
Degree 3 . . . + and so forth / and so on / and all that/ and whatever else
Degree 4and at + the same time / and simultaneously
Degree 5and [all + in a series]
Degree 6or [potentially + inclusive] = and/or
Degree 7either + . . . or [exclusive or] / or else
Degree 8 . . . or + something else / or whatever / or whatever else
Degree 9either + . . . or [exclusive or in a series]
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ňň
CTR
Contrastive Coordination
Degree 1still / + nevertheless / however — (despite seemingly inherent conflict or contradiction)
Degree 2besides + / not just . . . but also / in addition to X… also
Degree 3even / + or even / … still [e.g., thicker still]
Degree 4or [= otherwise]
Degree 5as opposed + to / but not
Degree 6but [qualifying]
Degree 7however + / on the other hand — (simple difference in expected outcome, no inherent + conflict)
Degree 8 but (rather) + [= substitute]
Degree 9just in + case / should the need arise
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-nz / -zn
DST
Distributive Coordination
Degree 1applying + to each equally [unfairly]
Degree 2applied + selectively by decision/preference [unfairly]
Degree 3respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [unfairly]
Degree 4selectively + at random [unfairly]
Degree 5respectively + [= applied in the sequentially spoken order]
Degree 6selectively + at random [fairly]
Degree 7respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [fairly]
Degree 8 applied + selectively by decision/calculation [fairly]
Degree 9applying + to each equally [fairly]
+

 

+

+

+

7.4.5 Temporal Suffixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-th
TPI
Impact or Duration Over Time
Degree 1immediate + / at this instant / for this moment; momentary
Degree 2temporary + / for right now / for the moment; temporarily / in the meantime [duration + of context. recent]
Degree 3short term/for + now; in the short term/for now/ / for the immediate future [hours to days]
Degree 4for the + meantime / for the meanwhile [days to weeks to months]
Degree 5for a while + / for some time to come [months to several years]
Degree 6for the + foreseeable future [years to decades]
Degree 7long term/in + the long run; over the course of time [over the course of a lifetime, decades + to centuries]
Degree 8 through + the ages / over the course of the ages [centuries to millenia]; permanent
Degree 9ever-present + / eternal / constant / incessant / neverending; from now on / eternally + / all the time / for all time
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rč
TPD
Temporary Duration
Degree 1brief, momentary (lasting a few seconds)
Degree 2for a "minute"
Degree 3for a few minutes (e.g., "while you wait")
Degree 4for a little while (i.e., up to an hour approximately)
Degree 5for a while (i.e., from one to several hours)
Degree 6for today (i.e., from several hours to 24 hours approximately)
Degree 7for one or two days
Degree 8 from two to four days
Degree 9up to a week
+

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ll
FRQ
Degree Of Frequency
Degree 1never
Degree 2rare / + hardly ever / once in a great while; rarely / almost unheard of
Degree 3infrequent; + seldom / infrequently
Degree 4now and + then / from time to time / off and on / every so often / now and again occasionally + / sometimes
Degree 5frequent; + frequently / often
Degree 6usual; + usually / customarily / generally
Degree 7almost + always / rarely fail to / routinely
Degree 8 ever-faithful + / unwavering; always / every time / without fail / like clockwork / never + fail to
Degree 9constant + / continuous; constantly / continuously / all the time
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-z
TPR
Temporal Placement/Reaction/Viewpoint
Degree 1wistfully + looking back / in the (good) old days [with longing]
Degree 2in hindsight + / looking back
Degree 3upon further + consideration/upon reflection
Degree 4initial; + at first/initially / at first blush / at first glance
Degree 5now that + the moment has come / now that the time is here / now that the deed or event + is at hand
Degree 6any moment + now; on the verge of; just about to
Degree 7imminent(ly) + ; very soon
Degree 8 soon [w/ + anticipation]
Degree 9someday. + . . / one day [with longing]
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-kk
TPP
Temporal Position Relative to Present
Degree 1in the + remote past, once upon a time
Degree 2past/former/previous; + once [e.g., I was young once], a long time ago
Degree 3recent; + recently
Degree 4. . . just + past / just (happened)
Degree 5present/current/present + day; now / at present / presently / currently
Degree 6imminent; + just about to / about to / on the verge of
Degree 7forthcoming + / soon to arrive; soon
Degree 8 future + / -- to be / --to come / eventual(ly); someday...
Degree 9in the + remote future / far in the future / long after we’re gone
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-pţ
ATC
Degree Of Anticipation
Degree 1long-awaited + / long looked for
Degree 2eagerly + awaited; can’t wait for / dying to
Degree 3anticipated + / awaited; in anticipation of / look forward to
Degree 4up for + / up to
Degree 5await / + wait to / wait for / waiting to
Degree 6ambivalent + about ; could take or leave it
Degree 7not looking + forward to
Degree 8 dreaded; + dread X-ing
Degree 9long-dreaded; + dread the day when
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-nž / -žn
LAT
Degree Of Lateness/Earliness
Degree 1way too + early / way too soon
Degree 2too early + / too soon
Degree 3a little + early / a bit soon
Degree 4almost + late / not a moment too soon
Degree 5just in + time / sharp / on the dot
Degree 6a little + late
Degree 7late
Degree 8 too late
Degree 9way too + late
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-nt / -tn
ITN
Degree Of Iteration
Degree 1just once + / once only
Degree 2again / + once more / one more time / re-
Degree 3again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on habit, not periodicity]
Degree 4again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on periodicity, not habit]
Degree 5irregular, + unpredictable ; at irregular or unpredictable intervals
Degree 6[cyclic] + return of... / ...once again; return to / …back again [e.g., summer’s + back]
Degree 7intermittent; + intermittently / at regular intervals
Degree 8 repetitive + / repeating; repeatedly
Degree 9constantly + cycling or repeating / continuously or perpetually repeating / constant, + eternal, perpetual repetition of
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-kţ
RPN
Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set + Members
Degree 1slow-paced + repetition at regular intervals
Degree 2slow-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
Degree 3slow-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
Degree 4mid-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
Degree 5mid-paced + repetition at regular intervals
Degree 6mid-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
Degree 7fast-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
Degree 8 fast-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
Degree 9fast-paced + repetition at regular intervals
+

 

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rl
CAL
Calendrical Sequencing (used with numerical stems to indicate calendrical concepts)
Degree 1[sequential number +] day of the week
Degree 2[sequential number +] day of the month
Degree 3[sequential number +] day of the year
Degree 4[sequential number +] week of the month
Degree 5[sequential number +] month of the year
Degree 6[sequential number +] year
Degree 7[sequential number +] decade of the century
Degree 8 [sequential number +] century
Degree 9[sequential number +] millenium
+

The V1 value of these suffixes merely indicates sequential position on the calendar, e.g., llalirl 'the first day of the week,' whereas V2 values give the names of the days of the weeks, days of the month, months of the year, etc., e.g., llaluarl 'Sunday,' ksaluarl 'Monday,' ksalârl 'February,' llalökearl 'the 21st Century', mřalik (ňial) xmalukeorl 'the year 1999.'

+

Note: the CAL suffix inherently conveys Functional (FNC) Context, since calendrical notions are, of course, societal conventions as opposed to being natural ontological concepts. Therefore, for formatives carrying the CAL suffix it is not necessary to inflect for FNC Context.

+

 

+

7.4.6 Quantifying Suffixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lz / -zl
DGR
Exactness of Degree
Degree 1unknowable + degree or amount of
Degree 2unknown + degree or amount of
Degree 3almost + impossible to determine degree of
Degree 4nowhere + near the desired degree of
Degree 5hard to + pinpoint / hard to determine / difficult to determine
Degree 6fluctuating, + ever-changing (amount of); to changing/fluctuating degree or extent of
Degree 7vaguely + around / vaguely in the range of / somewhere around / loosely in the vicinity + of
Degree 8 approximate(ly) + / somewhere around / just about; or something like that / …or so
Degree 9exact/specific; + exactly / specifically / on the dot / sharp / to the letter
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ss
PTW
Contiguous Portion of the Whole
Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
Degree 3few / a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite; a lot / very much / to + a large extent
Degree 7a whole + lot of / a verly large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
Degree 8 most of + / mostly
Degree 9 every + / all (of)/whole; entirely/in its entirety
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ns / -sn
PTT
Non-Contiguous (i.e., Intermixed) Portion of the Whole
Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
Degree 3 few/a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite /; a lot / very much / + to a large extent
Degree 7a whole + lot of / a very large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
Degree 8 most of + / mostly
Degree 9every / + all (of) / whole; entirely / in its entirety
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-mt / -tm
CNM
Type of Container/Packaging/Conveyance/Holder
Degree 1jar/pot + of X [storage + containment]
Degree 2dispensor-type + container/package, e.g., tube, barrel, bottle for multiple use
Degree 3can/tin/bottle/sealed + pouch [= storage + packaging + protection/preservation]
Degree 4carton/box/basket + [= temporary containment]
Degree 5natural + or generic mass containment/packaging/holder (e.g., a loaf of bread, a lump + of clay)
Degree 6satchel, + pack of [= for personal conveyance/moving]
Degree 7pile of, + load of [= in context of conveyance/moving or bulk storage]
Degree 8 X-ful of + [+ Partitive], e.g., a roomful of clowns, a skyful of clouds, a treeful + of leaves, a spoonful
Degree 9embodiment/manifestation + of abstract essence, e.g., a life form [= an embodiment of life]
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-d
SUF
Degree Of Sufficiency
Degree 1none at + all; not…at all
Degree 2way too + little / woefully insufficient / way too few; not...anywhere enough / totally + under-[+verb]
Degree 3not enough + / insufficient / too few; not...enough / insufficiently / under-[+verb]
Degree 4not quite + enough / slightly insufficient; not...quite enough / a bit insufficiently + / slightly under-[+verb]
Degree 5enough + (of) / sufficient; enough / sufficiently
Degree 6a little + too / a little too much; a little too much / slightly over- [+verb]
Degree 7too / toomuch; + too much / too many / over- [+verb]
Degree 8 way too + / way too much; way too much / totally over- [+verb]
Degree 9inundated + with; to the exclusion of all else / to the point that X overwhelms or takes + over
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-b
EXN
Degree or Extent
Degree 1none (at + all); to no extent at all
Degree 2tiniest + part of / a bit of; to smallest extent / hardly / barely
Degree 3only a + part of / only some of; to some extent / partially / partly / somewhat
Degree 4less than + usual / below normal; less so than usual/ to a lesser degree or extent than + usual
Degree 5the normal, + expected or usual amount (of)
Degree 6more than + usual / above normal; more so than usual; to a greater degree or extent + than normal
Degree 7way more + than usual / way above normal or expected; to a much greater degree or extent + than normal
Degree 8 almost + as much as possible / near(ly) maximum
Degree 9total, + -ful; to greatest extent / maximum / maximal; maximally / at full capacity, + e.g., She bought out the store.
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rd / -dr
EXD
Dynamically Changing Degree or Extent
Degree 1less and + less / fewer and fewer / ongoing decrease in; decreasingly
Degree 2a lot fewer + / a lot less (of); a lot less
Degree 3fewer / + less (of); less
Degree 4a little + less (of) / a bit less (of); a little less / a bit less
Degree 5a fluctuating + amount or degree of; to a fluctuating degree or extent
Degree 6a little + more (of) / a bit more (of); a little more / a bit more
Degree 7more (of); + more
Degree 8 a lot more + (of); a lot more
Degree 9more and + more / continuing increase in / increasingly more / ever-increasing
+

This suffix is used with all vector-like or gradient concepts. When used with + the COMPLETIVE version, degrees 1 and 9 imply attainment + of a change in state, e.g., sleepiness → sleep.

+


+ 7.4.7 Modulative Suffixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-zb
RCO
Recoil in place (spring back; snap back; fall back into place)
-zg
TFI
Back & forth; to & fro in place (e.g., pendulum, wagging tail)
-žd
TFV
Back & forth over linear vector (e.g., snake-like; zig-zag)
-zd
CRI
Cycle or circular motion in place (spin, revolve)
-žb
CRV
Cycle or circular motion over linear vector (e.g., train wheels, bike + wheels)
-žg
MDL
Random pattern of modulation (unpredictable/irregular movement pattern)
+

These suffixes operate in conjunction with Phase (see + Sec. 5.3) to describe contexts involving recoil, spring motion, oscillative, + cyclic, reflective or vibrative motion, using the following degrees:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1not enough
Degree 2hardly + at all
Degree 3to a small + degree
Degree 4to a less + than normal degree
Degree 5to the + normal / standard / usual degree
Degree 6to a greater + than normal degree
Degree 7to a large + degree
Degree 8 to a very + large degree
Degree 9too much + / overly
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-g
FLS
Degree of Fluctuation/Stability
Degree 1inherently + and consistently unstable and random to a high degree
Degree 2highly + variable/random fluctuation or instability
Degree 3moderately + variable/random fluctuation or instability
Degree 4increasing + fluctuation or destabilization in pattern
Degree 5tending + toward fluctuations and periods of instability
Degree 6decreasing + fluctuation or instability in pattern = increasing stability
Degree 7moderately + stable and lacking in fluctuations
Degree 8 complete + lack of fluctuation or instability; highly stable
Degree 9inherently + and consistently stable
+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-f
ICR
Increase
-ftDCRDecrease
-pfICDIncrease then Decrease
-kfDCIDecrease then Increase
-qţIDRRandom/Varying Increases and Decreases 
+

Used with the following degrees, the above five suffixes operate to expand Phase + into showing increases or decreases (or wavering) of intensity of an action + during its duration.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1so slowly + as to seem immovable
Degree 2very slowly
Degree 3slowly
Degree 4somewhat slower than + normal
Degree 5normal/usual/standard + speed
Degree 6somewhat faster than + normal
Degree 7fast/quickly
Degree 8 very rapidly
Degree 9so rapidly as to be + unable to follow
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-fs
MVT
Degree of Stillness/Movement
Degree 1unmovable + – integrated
Degree 2unmovable + due to mass
Degree 3not easily + moved
Degree 4inclined + to stillness
Degree 5holding + still
Degree 6moving + around slightly, stirring
Degree 7moving + around in one place
Degree 8 moving + around, agitated
Degree 9highly agitated, unable to keep still
+


+
+
+ 7.4.8 Qualifying Suffixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-x
SIZ
Degree of Size
Degree 1too small
Degree 2very small/ + very little/ miniscule/ tiny/ itty-bitty;in a very small manner; barely/hardly
Degree 3small/little
Degree 4a little + on the small size / undersized / petite
Degree 5a little + on the large size / oversized / jumbo
Degree 6big/large; + in a large manner
Degree 7very big/very + large; in a very large manner
Degree 8 enormous(ly) + / huge(ly) / humoungous(ly) / gigantic(ally)
Degree 9too big + / too large / too huge; in too large a manner
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-xh
SCO
Dynamic Change of Size
Degree 1smallest + single manifestation of / particle of
Degree 2runaway + shrinkage of / rapid disappearance or diminishment of
Degree 3solitary + / only / sole / lone / unaccompanied; alone / by -self / on his own / unaccompanied + / solely
Degree 4decreasing + / de-escalating / shrinking
Degree 5compact/concentrated; + in efficient or compact way [e.g., canyon → gorge]
Degree 6expanded/enhanced; + in expanded or enhanced way [e.g., canyon → rift valley]
Degree 7growing, + increasing, escalating
Degree 8 runaway + / runaway growth, increase or expansion of
Degree 9synergistic + expansion e.g., hit (+ RCP valence) → fight
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ç
AFT
Degree of Affect
Degree 1cute/darling + / in a cute or darling manner
Degree 2too cute + / schmaltzy / in a maudlin way
Degree 3kitschy + / quaint(ly)
Degree 4dear, endearing(ly)
Degree 5lovely + / elegant
Degree 6esteemed
Degree 7imperious + / royal / most high / most excellent / revered
Degree 8 too grand + / too imperious
Degree 9great / + grand; in a great / grand / grandiose manner
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-č
QUA
Degree of Quality, Effectiveness or Adequacy
Degree 1too poor(ly); + too badly
Degree 2very bad(ly) + / very poor(ly) / very inadequate(ly) / intolerable / intolerably / terrible + / terribly
Degree 3bad / poor + / inadequate; badly / poorly / inadequately / wanting / lacking
Degree 4not-so-good + / could be better; somewhat poor(ly) or bad(ly) / somewhat wanting or lacking + / below average
Degree 5not-so-bad + / average; could be worse; so-so / somewhat well / OK, I guess / adequate(ly) + / acceptably
Degree 6good/effective; + well/effectively/ more than adequate / above-average
Degree 7very good + / very effective(ly) / very well
Degree 8 excellent(ly) + / superb(ly) / outstanding(ly)
Degree 9astounding(ly) + / amazing(ly) great or well / unbelievably excellent / absolutely superb(ly) + / unsurpassable(ly)
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-c
UNQ
Degree of Specialness or Uniqueness
Degree 1vulgar, + trashy, too cheap / in a vulgar or trashy manner
Degree 2cheap, + tasteless, gaudy, gauche / in a cheap, gaudy, gauche or tasteless manner
Degree 3run of + the mill / unexceptional / average / commonplace / ordinary; in a commonplace + or unexceptional manner
Degree 4somewhat + ordinary / somewhat common(place)
Degree 5somewhat + special / somewhat out of the ordinary / interesting(ly) / intriguing(ly) + / eye-catching / appealing(ly)
Degree 6special; + epecially
Degree 7extraordinary + / highly unusual; extraordinarily
Degree 8 (one and) + only/unique; in the only way / uniquely / unparallelled
Degree 9marvelous + / wonderful / wondrous / awesome / awe-inspiring
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rň
IPT
Degree of Importance/Impact/Signficance
Degree 1utterly unimportant, insignficant, unnecessary, irrelevant
Degree 2hardly necessary, seemingly unimportant, essentially insignificant, essentially irrelevant
Degree 3third-string / no remaining alternative but X
Degree 4back-up / understudy / second-string
Degree 5secondary
Degree 6fairly significant, somewhat important
Degree 7importan t/ significant / considerable
Degree 8 primary / foremost / very significant
Degree 9Indispensable/crucial/critical
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-kh
CNQ
Degree of Consequentiality, Finality or Irrevocability
Degree 1inconsequential/sham/having + no effect; like it didn’t even happen/with no effect
Degree 2relatively + inconsequential / having little effect / easily reversible or undone / to + little effect / minor / to minor degree
Degree 3somewhat + inconsequential/having only some effect/reparable/reversible/to some effect + / somewhat minor
Degree 4not so + minor / somwhat significant degree / reversible with effort / having a somewhat + significant impact or effect
Degree 5consequential + / having a fair effect / reversible only with concerted effort / to good + effect
Degree 6Overall + / signifcant degree of; all in all / for the most part/to great effect / + on the whole
Degree 7virtually + total/near total; nearly for good/almost completely
Degree 8 utter / + complete / total; altogether / completely / for good / utterly / irrevocably + for all intents and purposes
Degree 9for all + time / forever / finally
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-q
NTR
Degree of Notoriety, Acceptance, Respect, Honor
Degree 1pariah-like + / ostracized; in an alienating or self-ostracizing manner
Degree 2infamous; + infamously
Degree 3frowned-upon + / disapproved ; in a manner guaranteed to arouse disapproval
Degree 4tolerated; + in a tolerated manner
Degree 5common + / customary / expected / accepted; in an common, customary, expected, or + accepted manner
Degree 6notorious(ly)
Degree 7well-known + / well-liked / well thought of; in a totally appropriate way / in a manner + befitting a gentleman or lady
Degree 8 respected + / honored; respectfully / honorably
Degree 9highly + praised / highly honored / highly esteemed / highly respected / most excellent + / most honorable
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rg
BEH
Degree of Subjective Effect or Behavioral Appropriateness
Degree 1grotesque, gross, nauseating, sickening
Degree 2repugnant, revolting, repulsive
Degree 3despicable, deplorable, detestable
Degree 4lurid, spectacle-inducing
Degree 5offensive, ill-mannered, in poor taste
Degree 6lewd
Degree 7spectacular, showy, larger-than-life
Degree 8 well-mannered, polite
Degree 9classy, dignified, in good taste
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-xht
APR
Degree of Contextual Appropriateness
Degree 1contemptable(-ly) + / utterly inappropriate(ly)
Degree 2scandalous(ly) + / trashy(-ly) / inappropriate(ly)
Degree 3 ill-mannered + / boorish(ly) / improper(ly) / tasteless(ly)
Degree 4eyebrow-raising + / questionable(-ly)
Degree 5somewhat + improper(ly) / unorthodox(ically)
Degree 6acceptable(-ly) + / adequate(ly)
Degree 7appropriate(ly) + / proper(ly) / correct(ly)
Degree 8 utterly + appropriate(ly), very proper(ly); strictly correct(ly)
Degree 9stuffy + / orthodox / old-fashioned; utterly predictable(ly)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-tļ
HRC
Position on Social, Occupational, or (Para-) Military Hierarchy
Degree 1bottom + rung / the “dregs”
Degree 2rank & + file
Degree 3lower echeleon
Degree 4lower-mid
Degree 5mid-level
Degree 6upper mid
Degree 7upper echeleon
Degree 8 senior
Degree 9head / + chief / top / executive
+

This suffix, for example, would be used to distinguish the names of the various + ranks within a military or paramilitary organization such as private, corporal, + sergeant, lieutenant, etc. all the way up to general and supreme + commander.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ż
FRM
Degree of Formality
Degree 1too casual + / overly casual
Degree 2very casual
Degree 3casual
Degree 4somewhat + casual
Degree 5neither + casual nor formal
Degree 6somewhat + formal
Degree 7formal
Degree 8 very formal
Degree 9too formal + / overly formal
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-j
TYP
Degree of Typicalness
Degree 1unique + / never-before-seen / one of a kind / shocking
Degree 2original + / avante-garde; surprising(ly) / innovative(ly)
Degree 3atypical(ly) + / unusual(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + atypical(ly) or unusual(ly)
Degree 5garden + variety / run-of-the-mill / typical(ly)
Degree 6expected + / common; in a commonplace manner
Degree 7disappointingly + typical; very typically
Degree 8 unoriginal + / mundane; in an uninspired way
Degree 9stereotyped + / stereotypical(ly)
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ňx
PTY
Degree of Prototypicalness
Degree 1very dissimilar + to prototype, very atypical member, closer to members of different set
Degree 2dissimilar + to prototype, atypical member
Degree 3having + noticeable dissimilarities from prototype
Degree 4somewhat + dissimilar to prototype
Degree 5having + unknown degree of closeness or similarity to prototype
Degree 6adequately + similar to prototype
Degree 7as close + to prototype as is typically found
Degree 8 as close + to prototype as possible
Degree 9prototype/archetype/model
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-mž / -žm
ITG
Degree of Intelligence Manifested
Degree 1dumb / + stupid / assinine; idiotic(ally) / moronic(ally)
Degree 2foolhearty + / foolish(ly)
Degree 3ill-conceived(ly) + / (in a) poorly thought out (way)
Degree 4naïve(ly) + / simplistic(ally)
Degree 5well-intentioned + but ill-conceived / reckless(ly); risky
Degree 6well-reasoned + / intelligent(ly)
Degree 7innovative(ly) + / daring [based on analysis and judgement]
Degree 8 ingenious + / brilliant
Degree 9wise(ly); + [V2 = ‘philosophical(ly)]
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ļ
MDN
Degree of Age or Modernity
Degree 1prehistoric + / proto-
Degree 2ancient
Degree 3old (first) + / archaic
Degree 4classic(al)
Degree 5old-fashioned; + in the old-fashioned way
Degree 6“yesteryear”; + in the era just passed; in the previous zeitgeist
Degree 7modern, + contemporary, present-day
Degree 8 innovative + / trailblazing; innovatively, trailblazingly, cutting-edge
Degree 9avant-garde
+

+

7.4.9 Modifying Suffixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-r
NA1
Negation/affirmation of all morphological components
-l
NA2
Negation/affirmation of stem + affixes but not adjunct information
-ř
NA3
Negation/affirmation of all morphological components except Modality
-řř
NA4
Negation/affirmation of all but aspectual or Modality information
+

The above four suffixes are used to affirm or negate a formative. Because much + of the information associated with an Ithkuil formative is carried in adjuncts, + the above suffixes are used to indicate exactly which morpho-semantic information + is being affirmed or negated. For example, in English the sentences I don’t + want to stop eating, I want to not stop eating, and I want to stop not eating mean different things. The above four suffixes are used with the following degrees.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1on + the contrary…most cerainly does NOT/is NOT [absolute negation]; no + X whatsoever; absolutely not = emphatic negation/denial
Degree 2on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [absolute negation contrary to expectation]
Degree 3on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [relative negation contrary to expectation]
Degree 4no; not + [absolute negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (because I’m + not in the race)
Degree 5no; not + [relative negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (although I am in + the race)
Degree 6almost + / near(ly)
Degree 7hardly + / barely
Degree 8 …does + (too) / is (too) [= simple affirmation contrary to expectation]
Degree 9…is + indeed / does indeed / most certainly is / most certainly does [emphatic + affirmation]
+

 

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rr
PLV
Polarity / Logical valence values
Degree 1false/negative [bivalent polarity or logic]
Degree 2false/negative [trivalent polarity or logic]
Degree 3superpositional – neither true/positive nor false/negative
Degree 4unknown polarity or logical state/value [trivalent polarity or logic]
Degree 5neutral [trivalent polarity or logic]
Degree 6unknown polarity or logical state/value [bivalent polarity or logic]
Degree 7superpositional – both true/positive and false/negative
Degree 8 true/positive [trivalent polarity or logic]
Degree 9 true/positive [bivalent polarity or logic]
+


+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ţ
DEV
Degree of Development
Degree 1reversal + or undoing of process = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
Degree 2reversal/undoing + of process in large chunks = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
Degree 3reversal + little by little / a little at a time = entropic change in / slowly falling + apart / unravelling
Degree 4moribund + / stagnant; in a moribund or stagnant manner
Degree 5well-maintained + / well-kept / “healthy”; keep X going / maintain X-ing
Degree 6one by + one / one at a time / one after another
Degree 7little + by little / a little at a time / bit by bit / a piece at a time
Degree 8 by leaps + and bounds / in large amounts at a time
Degree 9complete + achievement now irreversible / set in stone
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-pt
REA
Degree of Genuineness or Veracity
Degree 1real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed [affirmation + contrary to suggestion otherwise]
Degree 2real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed
Degree 3apparent + / seeming / looks like a; apparently / appears to have / seems to have
Degree 4suspicious-looking + / ”fishy” seeming; presumably /allegedly / gives the appearance + of having
Degree 5ersatz + / facsimile; as an equivalent to
Degree 6substitute + / replacement / proxy / fill-in / placeholder; as a substitue or proxy for
Degree 7fake / + pretend / mock; pretend to, fake X-ing
Degree 8 imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing
Degree 9imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing [contrary to suggestion + otherwise]
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rk / -kr
SCS
Degree of Success versus Failure
Degree 1total failure + in; completely fail to
Degree 2failed, + would-be; unsuccessfully, fail to
Degree 3= INEFFECTUAL + or INCOMPLETIVE version (see Sec. 5.8)
Degree 4certain + to be a failed / certain to fail in
Degree 5marginally + successful(ly) / barely, hardly [in terms of adequacy or success]
Degree 6certain + to be a successful ; certain to succeed in
Degree 7= POSITIVE + or EFFECTIVE version (see Sec. 5.8)
Degree 8 successful(-ly + completed); successfully
Degree 9overwhelmingly + successful(ly)
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-v
CAP
Degree of Potential or Capability
Degree 1utterly + incapable / completely lacking in all necessary abilities or capacities
Degree 2underqualified; + almost totally lacking in necessary abilities or capacities
Degree 3lacking + in certain key capabilities; mostly inadequate to task
Degree 4possible + but less than likely due to underdeveloped capabilities
Degree 5unknown + if capable or not
Degree 6somewhat + capable / has possible potential to perform
Degree 7sufficiently + capable / adequate potential to perform
Degree 8 fully capable; + well within abilities
Degree 9overly + qualified; more capable than necessary or required
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-çq
PRB
Degree of Probability or Likelihood
Degree 1impossible + / hopeless / lost cause
Degree 2almost + no chance of / virtually impossible
Degree 3highly + unlikely
Degree 4unlikely + / improbable(ly)
Degree 5possible; + possibly
Degree 6hopeful(ly)
Degree 7probable; + probably
Degree 8 highly + probable / highly likely / certain to be a. . . certain to
Degree 9forgone + conclusion that / in the can / done deal
+

+

7.4.10 Adverbial Suffixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-nţ / -ţn
STR
Degree of Physical Strength Possible or Used
Degree 1barely + / hardly / very weak(ly)
Degree 2weak(ly) + / to small degree
Degree 3soft(ly) + / guarded(ly)
Degree 4measured(ly)
Degree 5somewhat + strong(ly) / somewhat powerful(ly)
Degree 6adequately + strong; with adequate strength
Degree 7strong(ly) + / powerful(ly)
Degree 8 very strong(ly) + / very powerful(ly)
Degree 9with maximum + power
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-kç
FRC
Degree of Physical Force Exerted
Degree 1too light(ly) + / too soft(ly) / too delicate(ly)
Degree 2light as + a feather/ baby soft; extremely delicately or lightly or softly
Degree 3light/soft/hardly + a; softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
Degree 4somewhat + on the light or soft side; somewhat softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
Degree 5neither + soft(ly) nor forceful(ly); with the right touch
Degree 6somewhat + violent(ly) / somewhat forceful(ly)
Degree 7violent/forceful + / rough; violently / with force / roughly
Degree 8 very violent(ly) + / very forceful(ly) / very rough(ly)
Degree 9too violent(ly) + / too forceful(ly) / too rough(ly)
+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-sk
ITY
Degree of Speed (i.e., Intensity of Movement or Change)
Degree 1too slow(ly)
Degree 2very slow(ly)
Degree 3slow(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
Degree 5at just + the right speed or intensity
Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly); at fast pace
Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-st
SPD
Degree of Speed (i.e., Velocity = Distance Over Time)
Degree 1too slow(ly)
Degree 2very slow(ly)
Degree 3slow(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
Degree 5at just + the right speed
Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly)/; at fast pace
Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lt / -tl
CFD
Degree of Forthrightness, Confidence or Humility
Degree 1

too + meek(ly) / too submissive(ly) / too obedient(ly) / too docile(ly)

Degree 2very meek(ly) + / very submissive(ly) / very obedient(ly) / very docile(ly)
Degree 3meek(ly) + / submissive(ly) / obedient(ly) / docile(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + meek(ly) / somewhat submissive(ly) / somewhat obedient(ly) / somewhat docile(ly)
Degree 5properly + humble / properly forthright ; with proper degree of humility or forthrightness
Degree 6somewhat + confident(ly) / somewhat strong(ly) / somewhat definite(ly) / somewhat definitive(ly) + or authoritative(ly)
Degree 7confident(ly) + /strong(ly) / definite(ly)/ definitive(ly) / authoritative(ly)
Degree 8 very confident(ly) + / very strong(ly) / very definite(ly) / very definitive(ly) / very authoritative(ly)
Degree 9over-confident(ly) + / too strong(ly) / too definite(ly) / too definitive(ly) / too authoritative(ly)
+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-dh
EFI
Degree of Efficiency or Efficacy
Degree 1destructively + wasteful / disastrous(ly) / accomplishing the opposite of intention / making + things worse
Degree 2very wasteful + / accomplishing nothing / making a mess of it
Degree 3wasteful + / accomplishing little
Degree 4somewhat + wasteful / accomplishing somewhat less than expected
Degree 5adequate(ly) + [in terms of efficiency]
Degree 6rather + efficient(ly) / fairly efficient(ly) / accomplishing somewhat more than + expected
Degree 7efficient(ly) + / with little or no waste(d effort)
Degree 8 extremely + efficient(ly) / with no waste(d effort) whatsoever
Degree 9a synergy + of… / sum beyond total of parts / a synergistic composite of ; to + X synergistically
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-šq
ERR
Degree of Correctness versus Error
Degree 1totally + wrong / totally mis- or mal-; totally in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
Degree 2wrong/incorrect(ly) + / mis- / mal- ; in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
Degree 3fairly + wrong / fairly incorrect(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + wrong / more wrong than right
Degree 5so-so; + barely adequate(ly) / barely correct(ly)
Degree 6somewhat + right / more right than wrong
Degree 7fairly + right / fairly correct(ly)
Degree 8 right / + correctly
Degree 9totally + right / totally correct(ly) / totally well-X’d
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ph
MAT
Degree of Maturation
Degree 1undeveloped + / immature(ly) / seed / embryo
Degree 2under-developed + / newborn [stage, not age] / seedling / baby
Degree 3growing + / budding / youthful / young
Degree 4maturing + / developing / getting stronger or bigger or more complex or sophisticated
Degree 5fully developed + / fully mature(d) / robust / ripe
Degree 6overly + developed / overripe / showing signs of wear and tear / stressed / under + stress / fatigued
Degree 7declining/fading; + trail off/fade / getting softer or weaker / faded / decrepit / has-been + / past one’s prime
Degree 8 disintegrating + / utterly deteriorated / beyond repair or rehabilitation / irreparable / + dying
Degree 9dead / + defunct / disintegrated
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ňz
SBT
Degree of Subtlety
Degree 1too subtle(ly)
Degree 2very subtle(ly)
Degree 3subtle(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + subtle(ly)
Degree 5somewhat + unsubtle(ly)
Degree 6unsubtle(ly) + / lumbering(ly) rather obvious/ fairly blatant / belabored ; belabor / lumber + along X-ing
Degree 7obvious(ly) + / blatant(ly) / exaggerated(ly)
Degree 8 very obvious(ly) + / very blatant(ly)
Degree 9over-the-top + / in-your-face / to obvious(ly) / too blatant(ly)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-kš
DRC
Degree of Directness
Degree 1too indirect(ly)
Degree 2very indirect(ly)
Degree 3indirect(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + indirect(ly)
Degree 5somewhat + direct(ly)
Degree 6fairly + direct(ly) / rather direct(ly)
Degree 7direct(ly) + / straightforward
Degree 8 very direct(ly) + / very straightforward
Degree 9too direct(ly) + / painfully straightforward
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-mš / -šm
SUD
Degree of Suddenness
Degree 1too slow(ly) + in happening, too long in X-ing, overdue, delayed
Degree 2very slow(ly) + in happening or developing
Degree 3slow(ly) + ; long in developing or happening
Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly) ; somewhat long in developing or happening
Degree 5taking + just the right amount of time to develop or occur
Degree 6somewhat + immediate / somewhat sudden; somewhat imediately / somewhat suddenly
Degree 7immediate + / sudden; imediately / suddenly
Degree 8 very immediate + / very sudden; very imediately / very suddenly
Degree 9too immediate + / too sudden; too imediately / too suddenly
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-pç
PCN
Degree of Care, Precision or Scrutiny
Degree 1utterly + sloppy(ily) / totally careless(ly)
Degree 2 very sloppy(ily) + / very careless(ly)
Degree 3 sloppy(ily) + / careless(ly) / with poor attention to detail
Degree 4somewhat + sloppy(ily) / somewhat careless(ly)
Degree 5less than + careful(ly) / with only some degree of care
Degree 6somewhat + careful(ly) / fairly precise(ly)
Degree 7precise(ly) + / careful(ly) / detailed
Degree 8 extremely + precise(ly) / with great care or precision or scrutiny / meticulous(ly)
Degree 9overly + precise(ly) / ‘nit-picky’ / with too much scrutiny / overly + meticulous(ly)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ch
CNC
Degree of Concern or Consideration
Degree 1…the + hell…! / what the hell . . . / . . . who cares
Degree 2self-centered(ly) + / without thought or concern for others
Degree 3at the + very least / at the least level of concern required
Degree 4 without + concern / indifferent(ly) / without consideration / unconcerned(ly) / thoughtless(ly)
Degree 5reluctant(ly)
Degree 6at best + / with the most concern one can muster
Degree 7concerned(ly) + / with concern / with consideration for others
Degree 8 very concerned(ly) + / highly concerned(ly) / with great concern or consideration for others
Degree 9overly + concerned(ly) / worrisome(ly) / with too much concern or consideration for + others / altruistically
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lk / -kl
SPH
Degree of Sophistication
Degree 1too crude(ly) + / too primitive(ly)
Degree 2very crude(ly) + / very primitive(ly)
Degree 3crude(ly) + / primitive(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + crude(ly) / somewhat primitive(ly)
Degree 5with expected/normal + degree or level of sophistication
Degree 6somewhat + sophisticated or refined
Degree 7 sophisticated + or refined
Degree 8 very sophisticated + or refined
Degree 9too sophisticated + or refined
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-çt
CVT
Degree of Covertness versus Overtness
Degree 1too secretive(ly) + / overly covert(ly)
Degree 2very secretive(ly) + / highly covert(ly) / hidden / well behind the scenes
Degree 3secretive(ly) + / covert(ly) / behind the scenes / between the lines / under the table / + “back-room”
Degree 4somewhat + secretive(ly) / somewhat covert(ly)
Degree 5not too + secretive(ly) / not so open(ly)
Degree 6somewhat + open(ly) / somewhat “up front”
Degree 7open(ly) + / overt(ly) / “up front” / out in the open / honest / forthcoming(ly)
Degree 8 very open(ly) + / very overt(ly) / very “up front” / flaunting(ly) / brutally + honest
Degree 9too open(ly) + / too overt(ly) / overly flaunting(ly) / vulgar(ly)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rt / -tr
EFT
Degree of Effort
Degree 1too difficult + / overly difficult
Degree 2very difficult + / so difficult
Degree 3strained + / difficult; strain to / with difficulty / struggle to / to work at X-ing + / to X hard
Degree 4somewhat + difficult / not that easy
Degree 5neither + easy nor difficult
Degree 6somewhat + easy; not so difficult
Degree 7 easy / + certain / unhindered / with ease / without resistance / effortlessly
Degree 8 very easy + / so easy
Degree 9too easy + / overly easy
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ňž
DSG
Degree of Design or Purposefulness
Degree 1purposeless(ly) + /random(ly) / utterly unorganized / chaotic(ally)
Degree 2haphazard(ly) + / without plan or guidance/ disorganized(ly) / poorly planned
Degree 3 fairly + haphazard(ly) / not well-planned / not well-organized
Degree 4somewhat + haphazard(ly) / somewhat disorganized
Degree 5slightly + disorganized / less than well-planned
Degree 6somewhat + organized / somewhat well-planned
Degree 7organized(ly) + / purposeful(ly) / well-planned
Degree 8 very organized + / very structured
Degree 9too organized + / overly structured / “anal(ly)”
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-sq
DCS
Degree of Decisiveness, Commitment or Emphasis
Degree 1indecisive + / meandering; indecisively / first one way then another
Degree 2wishy washy + / flaky
Degree 3some sort + of / some kind of / sort of (like) / ”kind of”; in a way / halfway + / does and doesn’t
Degree 4apparent(ly); + seeming(ly)
Degree 5mere(ly) + / only (a); merely / only
Degree 6deliberate + / decisive; deliberately / decisively / purposefully
Degree 7a real + / certainly a ; really / certainly [emphasis, not genuineness or veracity]
Degree 8 the (one); + in the only way that counts
Degree 9what (a) + ...!; how . . .! ; Boy! Did (does) X ever …
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-št
CTN
Degree of Contrariness to Expectation(s) or Shift in Subject
Degree 1but X would… + / if things were otherwise X WOULD… / on the contrary, X WOULD [affirmation + of hypothetical contrary to statement/suggestion otherwise
Degree 2but / X + DOES/IS . . . / on the contrary … [affirmation of fact contrary to + suggestion or statement otherwise]
Degree 3like it + or not…/ well, as much as we didn’t want to think it would happen...
Degree 4against + expectation or belief ‘… after all’ ‘well, what + do you know…X!’
Degree 5a genuine + / real / true ; really do, [contrary to expectation]
Degree 6as a matter + of fact
Degree 7‘at + least/at any rate’
Degree 8 ‘by + the way/ just to mention’
Degree 9not to + change the subject but…/ sorry to change the subject, but…/ + I don’t mean to change the subject, but…
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-çk
PHY
Degree of Physical Control
Degree 1uncontrolled/helpless(ly) + ; without control/ out of control
Degree 2almost + completely out of control / almost totally helpless
Degree 3losing + control / losing the ability to…
Degree 4insufficiently + trained in...
Degree 5amateur(ishly) + / superficially able to…
Degree 6learn(ing) + to… / begin(ning) to be able to…
Degree 7w/ growing + proficiency or expertise (in)
Degree 8 proficient(ly)
Degree 9in full + control / expert(ly)
+

+

7.4.11 Modality Suffixes

+

Many of these correspond to the modality suffixes used in valence/modality adjuncts (see Chapter 6). The nine degrees associated with each + suffix allow a speaker control over the extent to which the modality category + should apply to the utterance. These suffix forms function, then, as an alternative + to adjunct forms for greater nuance in the applicability of the modality category + and to apply them to nouns. The nine degrehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/es of each suffix are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1not at + all
Degree 2to too + little a degree; to an insufficient degree
Degree 3hardly + at all
Degree 4to a small + degree
Degree 5to a fair + degree/somewhat
Degree 6fairly + much/more so than not
Degree 7very much + so / decidedly so / to a great degree
Degree 8 too much + so / to too great a degree
Degree 9to the + exclusion of all else / without consideration for anything else
+

The specific modality suffixes are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-řbMD01resigned to
-řdMD02devoted; committed to / devoted to
-řčMD03desired / sought-after; want to
-řţMD04attempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt to
-řç MD05capable, able; can / able to / capable of
-řcMD06knowledgeable; can = know how to / familiar with
-řfMD07mandatory; must / have to
-řxhMD08required; should / be to
-řkMD09expected; be supposed to
-ndMD10intended; mean to / intend to / shall
-řgMD11chosen, selected; choose to / elect to
-řqMD12…on impulse; feel like X-ing
-řżMD13 promised; promise to
-řjMD14well-liked; like (to)
-řtļMD15feared; fear (to)
-řsMD16willing; willing to
-řšMD17prepared / ready; prepared to/ready to
-řvMD18necessary / needed; need to
-řňMD19Daring; dare to
-řdhMD20decided-upon; decide to
-řzMD21offered/offer of; offer to
-řžMD22aided / assisted; help to / aid in X-ing
-řnMD23not unexpected; be prone to / be apt to / tend to
-rm MD24agreed-upon; agree to
-řl MD25responsible for/in charge of
-řp MD26remember to
-mdMD27feel a need to / feel one should / feel one must / feel driven to
-qfMD28to guess or think [that]…
-tfMD29available; available to/for
-mvMD30potential; can = have potential to
-řt MD31permitted; can = permitted to
-ňg MD32hoped-for; hope/wish to
-mfMD33X by inclination; be inclined to
+

+

7.4.12 Agential/Participant Suffixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-n
AGC
Degree of Agency
Degree 1[AGENT] + = one who forces/causes
Degree 2[ENABLER] + = one who enables to happen
Degree 3[INFLUENCE] + = one who persuades/influences
Degree 4ENABLER + BY PERMISSION] = one who permits/allows/lets happen
Degree 5[PATIENT] + = one who does/is made to do
Degree 6[EXPERIENCER] + = one who undergoes/experiences
Degree 7[INSTRUMENT] + = instrument which causes
Degree 8 [STIMULUS] + = one whose status is as stimulus of affective experience
Degree 9[SOURCE] + = that which gives rise to, provides underlying reason for, source of
+

This suffix and the following identify a formative as filling a specific semantic + role corresponding in many cases to the semantic roles discussed in Sections + 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. In + several instances, these suffixes would translate the English “agentive” + suffixes -er, or -or.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-
ROL
Role
Degree 1that which + contains or functions as the enclosure / container / house / shelter of + or for
Degree 2that which + results from
Degree 3 [RECIPIENT] + = one who receives / has / "-ee"
Degree 4one who + is / acts as / functions as
Degree 5one who + is characterized by / described by...
Degree 6one who + is similar to/functions or acts similarly to
Degree 7one whose + responsibility is / who is responsible for / runs the business of (operationally + speaking)
Degree 8 one who + constructs / makes / creates
Degree 9one who + manages / oversees / supervises / coordinates / runs the business of (managerially + speaking)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-pš
UTE
Utilitative or Enabling Means
Degree 1

tool/device/apparatus + specifically designed for X-ing

Degree 2medium + by/through which one X’s
Degree 3conduit-like + tool/apparatus for X-ing
Degree 4natural/standard + body part for X-ing
Degree 5object + employed circumstantially as implement for X-ing
Degree 6covering/protective + element employed to allow/permit X-ing
Degree 7enabling + element/device/apparatus to allow/foster X-ing
Degree 8 environment/situaton/circumstances/setting + which allows/fosters X-ing
Degree 9FORCE which + causes/permits X-ing
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ž
CNS
Degree of Consent
Degree 1deliberately + without consent of knowledge
Degree 2without + consent or knowledge as a precaution or “for their own good”
Degree 3without + consent or knowledge due to circumstances
Degree 4with their + knowledge but w/o consent; against their will
Degree 5consent + obtained under pressure, threat, coercion
Degree 6w/ reluctant + consent
Degree 7willingly; + with full consent
Degree 8 with enthusiastic + approval and support
Degree 9at their + request
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-t
MEC
Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
Degree 1the body’s + natural method of doing so (e.g., on foot, by hand, etc.)
Degree 2a manually + manipulated generic tool or implement
Degree 3a specialized + tool for that specific purpose or activity
Degree 4a machine + or via mechanical means or process
Degree 5 a virtual, + electronic means or via engineering
Degree 6mental + power, force of will, concentration
Degree 7a redirection + or collation of energy specially applied
Degree 8 a collective + pooling of manual labor resources
Degree 9a collective + pooling of electronic/mechanical/engineering resources
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rx / -xr
BOD
Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
Degree 1

a hand

Degree 2an arm
Degree 3a foot
Degree 4a leg
Degree 5one’s + eyes
Degree 6both legs
Degree 7both feet
Degree 8 both arms
Degree 9both hands
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-mp
DBI
Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
Degree 1

a finger

Degree 2a thumb
Degree 3a knee
Degree 4one’s + head
Degree 5one’s + teeth
Degree 6one’s + lips
Degree 7one’s + tongue
Degree 8 one’s + elbow
Degree 9one’s + fingers
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ld / -dl
SOC
Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
Degree 1via lackeys, + grunt labor, go-fors or henchmen
Degree 2by coercion, + threat, blackmail
Degree 3 “fronts”, + or disguised go-betweens
Degree 4indirectly + through actions of others (unbeknownst to them)
Degree 5indirectly + through actions of others (with their knowledge)
Degree 6by leveraging + existing resources / personnel (deploying existing methods in a new application)
Degree 7via a proxy + or proxies
Degree 8 hired help + or staff
Degree 9by delegation + of task to experts
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ňq
OAU
Origin/Association/Utilization
Degree 1entity/thing/phenomenon that hails from X
Degree 2entity/thing/phenomenon associated with X
Degree 3entity/thing/phenomenon that utilizes X
Degree 4person that hails from X
Degree 5person associated with X
Degree 6person that utilizes X
Degree 7idea/practice/custom that hails from X
Degree 8 idea/practice/custom associated with X
Degree 9idea/practice/custom that utilizes X
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ndh
AUT
Authorization
Degree 1by being granted a personal privilege / via the generosity or largess of another or others
Degree 2by inalienable human right / by natural right
Degree 3by right of a legal claim / by right of statute or law
Degree 4by right of custom or social convention / by right of general agreement or common knowledge
Degree 5by granting of a personal favor or claim on a favor owed
Degree 6by making of a threat or via a quid-pro-quo agreement
Degree 7by one's own formal authority, rank, or formal position
Degree 8 by authority of one's social position, class, or position in informal or subjective hierarchy
Degree 9as authorized by a governing entity or formal collective authority
+

 

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-šš
RSN
Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action
Degree 1for evil + or perverse reasons
Degree 2for foolish + or naïve reason
Degree 3due to + deception by another
Degree 4due to + faulty information provided by another [no deception intended]
Degree 5due to + or based on faulty perception or misinterpretation of information or evidence
Degree 6despite + negative circumstances or reasons not to
Degree 7for no + reason
Degree 8 for appropriate + reasons / for good reason
Degree 9for virtuous, + healthy reasons
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ps
MTA
Additional Motivation for an Action or State
Degree 1in anger
Degree 2in repugnance/revulsion
Degree 3in irritation
Degree 4in defense/for protection
Degree 5in fear
Degree 6out of curiosity/to see what happens
Degree 7to provoke/elicit reaction
Degree 8 to entice
Degree 9to show appreciation
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ňt
XPT
Expectation of Outcome
Degree 1shockingly + unexpected; without precedent or rumour
Degree 2surprise + X / unexpected X; completely by surprise/ completely unexpected(ly)
Degree 3manage + to X despite inadequacy of preparation or effort
Degree 4manage + to X despite misguided or misdirected preparation or effort
Degree 5managed + to X despite hindrance(s) or obstacles; hard-won
Degree 6manage + to X due to hindrances or obstacles being overestimated; easier than thought + to be
Degree 7manage + to X due to excellent preparation / planning / execution
Degree 8 completely + as expected / totally as anticipated / as predicted
Degree 9pat; outcome + pre-ordained or predetermined
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-sp
DLB
Degree of Deliberateness/Agency
Degree 1accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) and unaware of consequences
Degree 2unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to and unaware of consequences
Degree 3accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) but now aware of consequences
Degree 4unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to but now aware of consequences
Degree 5unforseeable + / unpredictable; unforeseeably / unpredictably
Degree 6without + realizing or considering potential consequences
Degree 7thinking + one can get away without reaping consequences / furtive(ly)
Degree 8 realizing + potential risks or consequences / cognizant of potential risks or consequences
Degree 9intentional(ly) + / deliberate(ly) / on purpose / by choice; choose to
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-mz / -zm
MOT
Degree of Self-Conscious Deliberation or Motivation
Degree 1affected, + ostentatious; affectedly/ostentatiously
Degree 2self-conscious(ly)
Degree 3guilty + / guiltily
Degree 4half-hearted(ly)
Degree 5against + better judgement / can’t help but / can’t help it
Degree 6ingrained, + by upbringing
Degree 7learned + / habitual; by habit / trained to
Degree 8 natural(ly) + / un-self-conscious(ly)
Degree 9autonomic + / unaware, automatic
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ls / -sl
ENB
Degree of Enablement
Degree 1by inadvertent + gesture/word/sign taken as order or permission
Degree 2by granting + of permission
Degree 3by cajoling + or persuasion
Degree 4by direct + request or imploring
Degree 5by direct + order based on one’s real or perceived authority
Degree 6by inadvertent + removal of hindrance
Degree 7by inadvertent + action that initiates a chain of events
Degree 8 by deliberate + removal of hindrance
Degree 9by deliberate + action that initiates a chain of events
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ms / -sm
AGN
Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness
Degree 1with the + anticipated max. resulting effect possible
Degree 2with the + anticipated resulting effect to a high degree
Degree 3with the + anticipated resulting effect to a moderate degree
Degree 4with the + anticipated resulting effect but only to a marginal, superficial or baredly + noticable degree
Degree 5with no + noticeable effect or resulting change
Degree 6with only + marginal, superficial, or barely noticeable effect or resulting change unanticipated
Degree 7with moderate + effect or resulting change — unanticipated
Degree 8 with the + resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated
Degree 9with the + max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rz / -zr
IMP
Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome
Degree 1target + can do nothing - utterly inevitable
Degree 2target + chooses to do nothing - resigned to fate
Degree 3target + tries to prevent/avoid but fails
Degree 4target + tries to prevent/avoid and does so partially or mitigates impact somewhat
Degree 5target + tries to prevent/avoid and succeeds
Degree 6target + helps/enables outcome inadvertently
Degree 7target + helps/enables outcome against own interest (i.e., without thinking)
Degree 8 target + helps/enables outcome intentionally despite negative consequences
Degree 9target + helps/enables outcome intentionally for own benefit
+

+

7.4.13 Miscellaneous Suffixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-t’
TPF
Topic, Frame and Focus
Degree 1[sentence + topic]
Degree 2[end of + frame]
Degree 3[head of + relative clause]
Degree 4[sentence + topic + head of relative clause]
Degree 5[end of + frame + head of relative clause]
Degree 6[sentence + topic + end of frame]
Degree 7[sentence + focus + end of frame + head of rel. clause]
Degree 8 [sentence + focus]
Degree 9[sentence + focus + end of frame]
+

The various functions of the above suffix are explained in Sec. 5.4 on + Frames, and Sec. 9.1 on Topic and Focus.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + 2nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/d to + nearest preceding referent + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rm / -mr
SWR
Switch Referencehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ & Obviative Specification (For an explanation + and ilhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/lustration of this suffix, see Sec. + 8.1.4 and Sec. + 8.1.1.7)
Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
Degree 2
Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
Degree 5first referent + mentioned
Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-s
PLA
Place, State, Setting Where…
Degree 1place where + one learns to
Degree 2place where + one does, performs, carries out X
Degree 3place where + one obtains
Degree 4place where + one stores or inventories
Degree 5place where + one keeps or shelters
Degree 6place where + one sees or views
Degree 7natural + habitat or environment of
Degree 8 place where + one deals with/ treats/ confronts
Degree 9place where + one feels affected by
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-mm
APT
Aspects
Degree 1yet, still
Degree 2‘even’ + as in “I don’t even like them” = in the least bit, to + the slightest extent
Degree 3Contemplative: + upon reflection/ in hindsight
Degree 4upon deep + introspection / following careful consideration or meditation on the matter
Degree 5on first + blush / at first / upon initial impression / [my] first thought is/was…
Degree 6natural(ly) + / obvious(ly) / clear(ly) [in terms of naturalness, not blatancy]
Degree 7Experiential: + ever
Degree 8 Regressive: + return to previous state
Degree 9Protractive: + over a long period of time / long-delayed
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ňš
TEM
Alternative Temporal Aspects
Degree 1Inceptive: + begin to / start to
Degree 2Resumptive: + begin again / start again / resume
Degree 3Continuative: + keep on / still / continue / stay / yet
Degree 4Incessative: + to X away / not stop
Degree 5tire of + X-ing / get tired of X-ing / become weary of X-ing
Degree 6Cessative: + stop / discontinue / cease
Degree 7 Pausal: + take a break from [stop with intention to re-sume]
Degree 8 Recessative: + stop again
Degree 9Terminative: + finish / complete
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rs / -sr
PTF
Part/Whole Functional Metaphors
Degree 1engine + / motor / heart / pump / core / driver mechanism
Degree 2brain / + computer / chip / instruction set
Degree 3input / + feeder / access point
Degree 4exit point + / anus / exhaust / tailpipe / smokestack / vent
Degree 5wing/ arm + / branch / extensor / manipulator
Degree 6support + / leg / stand / base
Degree 7skeleton + / frame
Degree 8 wiring + / conduits / plumbing
Degree 9sensor + / eye / ear / antennae
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-š
PTG
Part/Whole Gestalt Componential Metaphors
Degree 1“base”portion + (e.g., upper arm)
Degree 2“extension” + portion (e.g., forearm) or “flange”
Degree 3“trunk” + or central bulk portion
Degree 4middle + or divisional segment or joint
Degree 5top/upper + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
Degree 6bottom/lower + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
Degree 7side/flank/ + lateral component
Degree 8 “head” + extension or main interface area
Degree 9extension/”arm”
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-qt
MET
Metonymic Categories
Degree 1part for + whole
Degree 2producer + for product
Degree 3object + used or owned for user/owner
Degree 4controller + for controlled
Degree 5institution + for people responsible
Degree 6place for + inhabitants/occupants
Degree 7place for + event
Degree 8 place for + institution
Degree 9attribute + or characteristic for owner
+

Metonymy is the reference to an entity via one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business.
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-k
SSD
Stem-Specific Derivatives
Degree 1derivative + 1
Degree 2derivative + 2
Degree 3derivative + 3
Degree 4derivative + 4
Degree 5derivative + 5
Degree 6derivative + 6
Degree 7derivative + 7
Degree 8 derivative + 8
Degree 9derivative + 9
+

This suffix is used to distinguish particular instantiations of a more generic + entity; their meaning is semantically specific to the particular stem.

+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-k’
SBS
 Subset of Configurative Set
Degree 1single + specific member (random, i.e., any given member)
Degree 2natural + first level subset, e.g., a cell among a network, a clique within a + club, a row of an orchard
Degree 3natural + 2nd level subset, e.g., a section of a network, a subcommittee within + a club, a section of an orchard
Degree 4complex + natural system or pattern within a set (e.g., the circulatory system, + the heating system)
Degree 5subset + of set (unknown if natural or select subconfiguration)
Degree 6complex/circumstantial + select pattern/arrangement within a set (e.g., the parts/things of a + house damaged by fire)
Degree 72nd level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select section of trees of an + orchard
Degree 8 first level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select rocks from a pile, select + trees of an orchard
Degree 9single + select member (externally determined)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rq
SPS
Supersets/Multi-Level Gestalts (e.g., musical note --> melody --> movement of musical piece --> symphony/suite, etc.)
Degree 13rd-level superset/gestalt based on number nodes
Degree 23rd-level superset/gestalt based on new layer of infrastructure
Degree 33rd-level superset/gestalt based on complexity leading to the appearance/manifestaton of emergent properties
Degree 42nd-level superset/gestalt based on number nodes
Degree 52nd-level superset/gestalt based on new layer of infrastructure
Degree 62nd-level superset/gestalt based on complexity leading to the appearance/manifestaton of emergent properties
Degree 74th-level superset/gestalt based on number nodes
Degree 8 4th-level superset/gestalt based on new layer of infrastructure
Degree 94th-level superset/gestalt based on complexity leading to the appearance/manifestaton of emergent properties
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-p’
ATN
Degree of Attention or Determination
Degree 1concentrate + fully upon; pay utmost attention to
Degree 2concentrate + to point of distraction, to be ‘lost’ in X-ing
Degree 3pay strict + attention to
Degree 4determined + to
Degree 5pay attention + to; attend to; be careful that you…; heed
Degree 6keep an + eye on
Degree 7take some + notice of
Degree 8 barely + notice; take little notice of
Degree 9ignore + completely
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-šk
DPR
Dispersion or Separability of a Configurative Set
Degree 1in total + contact / contiguous mass of; pile, “ball of…”
Degree 2non-contiguous + but closely connected, interlinked, each linked to adjacent via connecting + medium (like web); cluster
Degree 3connected + via intervening central medium (like a vine or branches); bunch
Degree 4not physically + connected but with immediate accessibility and knowledge of other member + actions
Degree 5scattered + - contact with nearest member possible but less possible with others
Degree 6“virtual” + association only
Degree 7temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at long intervals
Degree 8 temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at frequent intervals
Degree 9temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at very short, immediate intervals / one + after another
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-mb
SEP
Spatio-Temporal Separability of a Configurative Set
Degree 1

Logical + connectedness only (spatial)

Degree 2Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned far away from another
Degree 3Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned a little ways away from another
Degree 4Well-integrated + spatially – one positioned right next to or behind another
Degree 5Both spatially + and temporally well-integrated (one right after another)
Degree 6Well-integrated + temporally – one right after the other
Degree 7Loosely + integrated temporally – one a little while after the other
Degree 8 Loosely + integrated temporally – one a long while after the other
Degree 9Logical + connectedness only (temporal)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ňk
SDP
Subset of Duplex Set
Degree 1first, + top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + upper lip, inhale/inhalation, left hand)
Degree 2beginning + or leading “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
Degree 3middle + section of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of + a duplex event or object
Degree 4ending + or trailing “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
Degree 5midpoint, + peak, or lull between the 2 halves of a duplex set or pair
Degree 6beginning + or leading “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
Degree 7middle + section of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing “half” of + a duplex event or object
Degree 8 ending + or trailing “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
Degree 92nd, bottom, + back, righthand or trailing “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + lower lip, exhale/exhalation, right hand)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-xt
NEW
Degree of Newness/Revision
Degree 1new = original + new, i.e., never before seen
Degree 2new = never before seen within current context, e.g., a new student
Degree 3new = role, i.e., never functioning/existing in this capacity/manner before
Degree 4new/other = replacement + new
Degree 5new/other = additional instance + new
Degree 6new/other = revision + additional
Degree 7new/other = revision + replacement
Degree 8 new/other/different = different, not seen/used before within current context; status as addition/replacement unknown or inapplicable
Degree 9new/other/different = different + new; status as addition/replacement unknown or inapplicable
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ks
COS
Comparison Specifications (Used with Levels ) - see Section 6.2 and Section 6.2.5
Degree 1“more”/“less” = extent/amount/volume
Degree 2“harder”/“weaker” https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/= degree of intensity or effort
Degree 3“longer”/“shorter” = duration; time spent being/doing
Degree 4“better”/“worse” = quality / style
Degree 5“more efficiently”/“less efficiently” = efficiency / effort relative to outcome
Degree 6“greater”/“poorer” = relevant outcome / bottom-line result
Degree 7combo of 4, 5, and 6
Degree 8 combo of 1, 2, and 3
Degree 9combo of 1 through 6
+
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ln / -nl
WAK
Spread/wake/trail/area/expanse created by passage of entity
Degree 1quasi-linear “trail” or wake left behind on path of linear movement; trail or wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., slime trail left by snail, footprints left on snow, mowed down foliage left by moving convoy, etc.)
Degree 2quasi-linear spread of entity stretching behind linearly moving “head” (e.g., a line of soldiers put in place to create a front, a line left on a piece of paper as written by an ink pen, path of a ball of string or skein of yarn as it unravels while rolling down an incline)
Degree 3quasi-linear trail/wake/spread left behind passage as line of demarcation/boundary/barrier
Degree 42-d quasi-planar wake left behind on path of movement; wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., aftermath of a forest fire, cleaned area of dirty floor or wall after it has been wiped by a mop or dustcloth)
Degree 52-d quasi-planar spread stretching behind moving front (e.g., area of spreading flames in a forest fire, area being inundated by a flood, area of a wall being covered up by plaster by workmen, coating of an apple dipped in chocolate, area of floor covered up by a rug)
Degree 62-d quasi-planar wake/spread left behind passage as area of demarcation/zone/restricted area
Degree 73-d volume left behind a moving front; volume is not composed of or inundated with the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., area left behind the passage of a tidal wave, column of superheated air left behind the passage of a rocket
Degree 8 3-d volume inundated by spread of moving front (e.g., spread of a gas within a room, area inundated by fog, volume of a container taken up by substance placed/poured/stuffed into it)
Degree 93-d volume left behind passage of moving front as volume/spatial area of demarcation/zone/restricted space
+

The above affix distinguishes movement of an entity from the “trail” or spread left behind, e.g., movement which leaves behind a wake or affected area; used with motion roots as well as roots designating shapes/forms. Use of the above suffixes in conjunction with the various roots pertaining to paths of translative movement allows for very nuanced translations of English words such as surround, cover, inundate, enclose, expand, spread out, encompass, etc.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-šp
SCT
Degree of Shift/Change/Transition (used for both spatial and temporal contexts)
Degree 1sharp break, sudden shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another with no discernible transition period/zone (i.e., point-like/instantaneous transition)
Degree 2disjointed/non-contiguous/non-continuous break/shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 3extremely brief/small/barely discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 4somewhat brief/small/discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 5normal/standard/expected transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 6somewhat variable/changing/fluctuating transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 7highly variable/chaotic transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 8 smooth, gradual transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 9very gradual/almost imperceptible rate/degree of change/transition from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lm / -ml
NNN
n-numbered angles/facets/faces/sides/points/forms
Degree 1uneven /assymmetrical n–sided 2-D obtusely angled form (e.g., quadrilateral, pentagonoid, hexagonoid
Degree 2uneven/assymetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation
Degree 3uneven/assymetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
Degree 4uneven/assymmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., n-hedron-like solid)
Degree 5having n number of 3-D projections/spikes/pointed surfaces
Degree 6symmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., tetrahedron, dodecahedron)
Degree 7symetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
Degree 8 symetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation (can be used with numbers as low as 2, which would refer to an elongated diamond shape)
Degree 9symmetrical n–sided 2-D form (e.g., square, pentagon, hexagon)
+

The above affix is used with the number stems (see Chapter 12) to provide words for forms, shapes, and solids bearing a distinct number of angles, points, sides, facets, etc.

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-mļ
LVL
Alternate forms of Comparison Operators ( Levels) (see Section 6.2.3) - V1C forms correspond to relative comparison, V2C forms to absolute comparison.
Degree 1EQUEQUATIVE
Degree 2SURSURPASSIVE
Degree 3DFCDEFICIENT
Degree 4OPT OPTIMAL
Degree 5MIN MINIMAL
Degree 6SPLSUPERLATIVE
Degree 7IFRINFERIOR
Degree 8 SPQSUPEREQUATIVE
Degree 9SBESUBEQUATIVE
+
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lţ
FNS
Material States/Forms (non-solid / quasi-solid)
Degree 1X as liquid
Degree 2X as goo or slime-like substance
Degree 3X as powder or dust-like substance
Degree 4X as gravel or sand-like substance
Degree 5X as gas
Degree 6X as wax(y) or clay-like substance
Degree 7X as rubber(y) or eslastic substance
Degree 8 X as flexible subtance like cotton or cloth
Degree 9X as flaky subtance or shavings
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lf
FMS
Material States/Forms (solids)
Degree 1X as frozen
Degree 2X as carvable substance (like wood or soap)
Degree 3X as chalk-like, friable substance
Degree 4X as rock or cement-like substance
Degree 5X as solid
Degree 6X in natural chunks or randomly-shaped solid pieces
Degree 7X as block-like or formed pieces
Degree 8 X as hardened/durable subtance
Degree 9X as metal(lic)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lv
TRF

Transformation for Use

Degree 1Cured (transformed by natural chemical process)
Degree 2Treated
Degree 3Processed (transformed by artificial/man-made process)
Degree 4Transformed via exposure to or saturation w/ other substance(s)
Degree 5Cooked
Degree 6Soaked/saturated/marinated with liquid(s)
Degree 7Derived (chemically or processually) from something else
Degree 8 Fermented
Degree 9Pickled/Brined
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lb
CVY
 Means of Transportation/Conveyance
Degree 1holder / stabilizer for (transporting/holding) X
Degree 2mystical/magical/supernatural means for (transporting/holding) X
Degree 3automatic or separately controlled vehicle/vessel used for (transporting/holding) X
Degree 4automated/electronic means for (transporting/holding) X
Degree 5manually operated vessel/vehicle used for (transporting/holding) X
Degree 6jury-rigged means for (transporting/holding) X
Degree 7method/practice used for (transporting/holding) X
Degree 8 device used for (transporting/holding) X
Degree 9rule/regulation/by-law for (transporting/holding) X
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lš
FEA
 Featural Properties
Degree 1functional mainfestation/portion/piece of X
Degree 2container(ful) of X
Degree 3a sample of X
Degree 4a display(ing) of X
Degree 5an instance of X
Degree 6an aspect/characteristic/trait of X
Degree 7a feature/function of X
Degree 8 a highlight / key feature of X
Degree 9an example of X
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-nļ
STG
 Stage of a Process
Degree 1onset/initiation/birth of X
Degree 2development/build-up of X
Degree 3point of no return/iminent transition of X
Degree 4plateau stage, rest or pause before next stage of X
Degree 5(at) peak / in prime / mature stage
Degree 6abrupt or premature termination of X
Degree 7gradual decline of X
Degree 8 end stage / final state / terminal or last stage
Degree 9cessation / finished / over / dead
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lc
CGL
 Motive/Reason for Conglomeration/Coming Together of Gestalt Entity
Degree 1by voluntary/volitional association
Degree 2by appointment to the task
Degree 3by custom/societal convention/expectation
Degree 4by random chance
Degree 5by being forced to
Degree 6by being pressured
Degree 7by reluctant volunteering
Degree 8 for pragmatic/utilitarian reasons
Degree 9by eager/enthusiastic volunteering
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lq
INB
 Inability/Incapacity Due To . . .
Degree 1inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to absence/loss of resource(s)
Degree 2inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to absence/loss of physical means
Degree 3inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to absence/loss of skill/knowledge
Degree 4inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to blockage/prevention of access to resource(s)
Degree 5inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to blockage/prevention of access to physical means
Degree 6inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to blockage/prevention of access to skill/knowledge
Degree 7inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to psychological trauma
Degree 8 inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to physical trauma
Degree 9inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to loss/absence of desire
+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-ff
PLE
Degree of (Un-)Pleasantness (of Effect or Result)
Degree 1maximally unpleasant, horrible, ghastly, terrible
Degree 2very unpleasant, awful
Degree 3unpleasant, mildly awful
Degree 4somewhat unpleasant, disagreeable
Degree 5neutral, neither pleasant nor unpleasant, bland
Degree 6somewhat pleasant, agreeable
Degree 7pleasant, a nice experience
Degree 8 very pleasant, pleasureable
Degree 9maximally pleasant, very pleasureable, exstacy
+

 

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rc
ACQ
Acquisition
Degree 1acquired by chance/whim/having stumbled upon
Degree 2acquired by mental effort/learning/study/creation
Degree 3acquired by informal, spur-of-the-moment search
Degree 4acquired by trickery/subterfuge
Degree 5innate/inherent
Degree 6acquired by formal search
Degree 7acquired by informal agreement/negotiation
Degree 8 acquired by formally negotiated trade or deal
Degree 9acquired by purchase
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rf
TAL
Degree of Capacity or Talent for...
Degree 1no capacity/talent for X(-ing)
Degree 2almost no capacity/talent for X(-ing)
Degree 3poor/little capacity/talent for X(-ing)
Degree 4 capacity/talent for X(-ing)
Degree 5 capacity/talent for X(-ing)
Degree 6 above average/good capacity/talent for X(-ing)
Degree 7 very good capacity/talent for X(-ing)
Degree 8 excellent capacity/talent for X(-ing)
Degree 9 outstanding capacity/talent for X(-ing)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rtļ
RNC
Renunciation
Degree 1give up X-ing / give up on X
Degree 2lose faith/belief in X(-ing)
Degree 3stop trying to X
Degree 4undermine (efforts to) X
Degree 5refuse to X
Degree 6lose sense of resolve/commitment to X
Degree 7no longer have passion for X / lose passion for X
Degree 8 lose ability to do/be/make X
Degree 9lack means/ability to X
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-mx
DPT
Depiction/Representation/Record
Degree 1symbol/emblem/logo representing/standing for X
Degree 2allegorical reference to X
Degree 3stand-in/substitute for X
Degree 4symptom/consequence of X
Degree 5representation/depiction/illustration of X
Degree 6trace/clue/vestige of X
Degree 7record of X
Degree 8 pointer to/indicator of X
Degree 9map/blueprint/schematic diagram of X
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lč
ENG
Degree of Engagement/Involvement
Degree 1avoiding X(-ing) at all costs; run away from X(-ing)
Degree 2averse to X(-ing); fear X(-ing)
Degree 3shirk involvement in X(-ing); not be/get involved in
Degree 4to X for appearance' sake only; to X solely for show
Degree 5lackluster interest/involvement in X(-ing)
Degree 6marginal interest/involvement in X(-ing)
Degree 7limited/partial involvement in X(-ing)
Degree 8 fully involved/engrossed in X(-ing)
Degree 9irreversibly involved/engrossed in X(-ing)
+

 

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-lg
OPF
Degree of Operational Functionality
Degree 1disintegrated, in pieces, shattered
Degree 2irreparably damaged, ruined
Degree 3badly damaged, non-operational, non-functional (with possibilty of being repaired)
Degree 4damaged -- only partially functional (i.e., some parts/aspects are functional while others are not)
Degree 5something wrong with X, not functioning properly, something not right with X
Degree 6impaired -- functional but not performing to full extent of output or efficiency
Degree 7in fair working order/condition
Degree 8 in good working order/condition
Degree 9in optimum working order / in excellent condition
+

 

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rç
MLR
Meta-level representation/coordination/analysis
Degree 1formal theory explaining/coordinating X
Degree 2plan explaining/coordinating X
Degree 3idea explaining/coordinating X
Degree 4folk theory or accepted societal convention explaining/coordinating X
Degree 5illustration/picture/graphic representation explaining/coordinating X
Degree 6physical model explaining/coordinating X
Degree 7mathematical model explaining/coordinating X
Degree 8 logical model explaining/coordinating X
Degree 9metaphorical representation of X
+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rp
HG1
Linguistic Hedges (1st group)
Degree 1

more or less

Degree 2

for all practical purposes / to all intents and purposes / practically / virtually/all but technically

Degree 3

sort of / kind of

Degree 4

strictly speaking

Degree 5

essentially /  in essence / basically

Degree 6

might as well be

Degree 7

in one sense

Degree 8

in some sense

Degree 9

par excellence

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-lp
HG2
Linguistic Hedges (2nd group)
Degree 1

in a sense  /  in a way

Degree 2

in a manner of speaking

Degree 3

more of a ___ than anything else

Degree 4

(what can be looked at (as) / (what) can be viewed as / (what) one thinks of (as) / one might say that

Degree 5

loosely speaking

Degree 6

so-called

Degree 7

in name only

Degree 8

so to say

Degree 9

for all I know / for all one knows

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-rn
PHS
Alternative suffix forms for Phase categories (see Sec. 5.5)
Degree 1Contextual
Degree 2Punctual
Degree 3Iterative
Degree 4Repetitive
Degree https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/5Intermittent
Degree 6Recurrent
Degree 7Frequentative
Degree 8 Fragmentative
Degree 9

Fluctuative

+

 

+

 

+


+ 7.4.14 Locational Suffixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rš / -šr
LCT
Locational Octant Markers for Object Being Located (see Section 10.3.3)
Degree 1+X / +Y + / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Octant 1
Degree 2+X / +Y + / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Octant 2
Degree 3+X / -Y + / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Octant 3
Degree 4+X / -Y + / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Octant 4
Degree 5object + at rest relative to other object
Degree 6-X / +Y + / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Octant 5
Degree 7-X / +Y + / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Octant 6
Degree 8 -X / -Y + / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Octant 7
Degree 9-X / -Y + / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Octant 8
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-bz
PXM
Degree of Proximity
Degree 1too close
Degree 2 as close + as possible without contact
Degree 3 very close + to
Degree 4close to
Degree 5somewhat + close to
Degree 6not very + close to / somewhat far from
Degree 7far from + / distant from
Degree 8 far away + / very far from
Degree 9too far + away
+

 

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-gz
CTC
Degree of Contact
Degree 1melded + with / blended with / fused
Degree 2inseparable(ly) + / locked together / bonded
Degree 3linked + / attached / connected / joined
Degree 4touching + intimately / touching all over / flush with / in close contact with
Degree 5deliberately + touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
Degree 6deliberately + touching at one spot or place
Degree 7casually + or incidentally touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
Degree 8 casually + or incidentally touching at one spot or place
Degree 9barely + touching / hardly touching at all / touching at one small spot
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + +
-rb
VWP
From Viewpoint/Perspective of
Degree 1from viewpoint/perspective of speaker
Degree 2from viewpoint/perspective of 3rd party visible/near to speaker
Degree 3from viewpoint/perspective of the last-mentioned argumenhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/t/referent
Degree 4from viewpoint/perspective of a party other than one under discussion
Degree 5from viewpoint/perspective of 3rd party under discussion
Degree 6from viewpoint/perspective of an as-yet-undetermined 3rd party
Degree 7from viewpoint/phttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/erspective of the first-mentioned argument/referent
Degree 8 from viewpoint/perspective of 3rdhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ party visible/near to listener
Degree 9from viewpoint/perspective of listener
+

 

+

7.4.15 https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/;  Format Expansion Suffixes

+

These VxC suffixes were first https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ mentioned in Section 6.4.3 and are used in conhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/junction with the Vf Format/Context suffix in Slot XII to accomplish the following:

+ +
  • Specify the Configuration and Perspective of an incorporathttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ed stem (see Sec. 6.4)
    +
    • +
  • Expand the category of Format (see Sec. 6.4.1) sohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ that it is associated with the 72 primary noun cases (see Chapterhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ 4), i.e., so that the semantically conflated relationship of the incorporated stem https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/to the main stem of the formative can be specifically defined by a noun case.  For ehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/xample, the Format of an incorporated stem ‘cat’ can be marked as INDUCIVEhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ case (see Sec. 4.3.2) in conjunction with the main stem ‘vocalize’ to ghttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ive a word meaning ‘meow.’
    • + +

     

    +Twelve consonant forms are used for these Slot XI suffixes, which combine with the three suhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ffix-types to give the 36 forms necessary to specify the nine possible configuratiohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ns and four possible perspectives of the incorporated stem.  In turn, the nine suffix-degrees times eight vhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065539id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ocalic Vf suffixes in Slot XII combine to identify which of the 72 primary noun cases constitutes the Format of the incorporated stem.  All these forms are shown in the matrices below.

    +

    Perspective & Configuration of Incorporated Stem – Shown by VxC value

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    + PER-SPECTIVE

    CONFIGURATION

    1 UNI

    2 DPX

    3 DCT

    4 AGG

    5 SEG

    6 CPN

    7 COH

    8 CST

    9 MLT

    M

    -V1tt

    -V2tt

    -V3tt

    -V1st’

    -V2st’

    -V3st’

    -V1št’

    -V2št’

    -V3št’

    U

    -V1pk

    -V2pk

    -V3pk

    -V1sp’

    -V2sp’

    -V3sp’

    -V1šp’

    -V2šp’

    -V3šp’

    N

    -V1qq

    -V2qq

    -V3qq

    -V1sq’

    -V2sq’

    -V3sq’

    -V1šq’

    -V2šq’

    -V3šq’

    A

    -V1tk

    -V2tk

    -V3tk

    -V1sk’

    -V2sk’

    -V3sk’

    -V1šk’

    -V2šk’

    -V3šk’

    +

     

    +

    Expanded Format Corresponding to Case – Shown by VXC suffix degree x Vf suffix value

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    degree

     

     

    degree

     

     

    degree

     

     

    degree

     

    1 OBL

    1

     

    +

    *

    19 PAR

    1

     

    +

    ISR

    37 CMM

    1

     

    +

    RSL

    55 DFF

    1

     

    +

    CCM

    2 IND

    2

    20 CRS

    2

    38 COM

    2

    56 PER

    2

    3 ABS

    3

    21 CPS

    3

    39 CNJ

    3

    57 PRO

    3

    4 ERG

    4

    22 PRD

    4

    40 UTL

    4

    58 PCV

    4

    5 EFF

    5

    23 MED

    5

    41 ABE

    5

    59 PCR

    5

    6 AFF

    6

    24 APL

    6

    42 CVS

    6

    60 ELP

    6

    7 DAT

    7

    25 PUR

    7

    43 COR

    7

    61 ALP

    7

    8 INS

    8

    26 CSD

    8

    44 DEP

    8

    62 INP

    8

    9 ACT

    9

    27 ESS

    9

    45 PVS

    9

    63 EPS

    9

    10 DER

    1

     

    +

    SCH

    28 ASI

    1

     

    +

    ATH

    46 PTL

    1

     

    +

    SBQ

    64 PLM

    1

     

    +

    OBJ

    11 SIT

    2

    29 FUN

    2

    47 CON

    2

    65 LIM

    2

    12 POS

    3

    30 TFM

    3

    48 EXC

    3

    66 LOC

    3

    13 PRP

    4

    31 REF

    4

    49 AVR

    4

    67 ORI

    4

    14 GEN

    5

    32 CLA

    5

    50 CMP

    5

    68 PSV

    5

    15 ATT

    6

    33 CNV

    6

    51 SML

    6

    69 ALL

    6

    16 PDC

    7

    34 IDP

    7

    52 ASS

    7

    70 ABL

    7

    17 ITP

    8

    35 BEN

    8

    53 CNR

    8

    71 NAV

    8

    18 OGN

    9

    36 TSP

    9

    54 ACS

    9

    72 VOC

    9

    +

     * the default Vf suffix form is used (i.e., -a, -i, -e, or -u, depending on the formative’s Context)

    +

     

    +

    Proceed to Chapter 8: Adjuncts >>

    +

     

    +

     

    +
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    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

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    + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/07_suffixes.html.orig b/2004-en/07_suffixes.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa06176 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/07_suffixes.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,8434 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 7: Suffixes + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

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    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
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    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Chapter 7: Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      7.1 VxC Suffixes  7.3 Special Use of V3C Suffixes  
      7.2 Suffix-Types  7.4 List of Suffixes 
    +


    + As we have seen in previous chapters, Ithkuil, like most languages, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. However, one type of affix to the formative, the Vx+C suffix from Slot XI, operates in a manner warranting separate analysis. This chapter describes the morpho-phonological structure of these Vx+C suffixes (how they are + formed from consonants and vowels), as well as their function.
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    I
    II
    III
    IV
    V
    VI
    VII
    VIII
    IX
    X
    XI
    XII
    XIII
    XIV
    XV
    (((Cv)
    VL)
    Cg/Cs)
    Vr
    (Cx/Cv
    Vp/VL)
    Cr
    Vc
    Ci +Vi
    Ca
    VxC
    (Vf
    (’Cb))
    [tone]
    [stress]

    Phase +
    + Sanction
    + (+ Illocution)

    Valence
    Validation
    + OR
    + Aspect
    +(+ Mood)
    Pattern +
    + Stem +
    + Function
    Incorp.Root
    + OR
    + Phase + Sanction
    + (+ Illocution)
    Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root
    + OR
    + Valence
    Root
    Case
    Illocution +
    + Mood +
    + Polarity
    Essence +
    + Extension +
    + Perspective +
    + Configuration + Affiliation
    Deriv.
    + Suffix
    Context + Format
    Bias
    Version
    Designa-
    + tion + Relation
    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    7.1 VxC SUFFIXES
    +

    All Ithkuil affixes we have analyzed up to this point, whether prefixes or infixes, have consisted of either a single vocalic form (i.e., a single vowel, a diphthong, or a dyssyllabic vocalic conjunct), or a single consonantal form (i.e., a single consonant, a geminated consonant, or a consonant cluster), each of which has been invariable in its form. Furthermore, we have found that only one such affix can occupy its given slot in the formative’s structure.

    +

    However, the VxC suffix from Slot XI is different in three respects: (1) it is comprised of both a vowel form and a consonantal form, (2) the vocalic portion of the suffix can mutate, and (3) more than one VxC suffix can occupy Slot XI in the formative (i.e., VxC suffixes can be strung together sequentially one after the other).

    + +


    +7.1.1 Mutation of the Vowel Vx

    +

    While the consonantal portion of the suffix, C, is always invariable, + the vocalic portion Vx mutates depending on two morphological factors known as degree and suffix-type. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for suffix-type, + every consonantal-based Vx+C suffix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before the invariable consonant + C. The three suffix-types are labelled V1, V2, and V3, + in reference to the vowel portion of the suffix.

    +


    + 7.1.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting

    +

    In addition to the three suffix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three suffix-types. Table 24 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each suffix-type.

    +


    + Table 24: +Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Suffix Type

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Suffix: + -V1C
    Suffix + Type 2: -V2C
    Suffix + Type 3: -V3C
    Degree + 1
    -iC
    -iuC / -uaC
    -ieC
    Degree + 2
    -öC
    -auC /-oaC
    -iöC
    Degree + 3
    -eC
    -êC
    -ioC
    Degree + 4
    -îC / -uëC
    -euC / -oeC
    -oiC / -öaC
    Degree + 5
    -(a)C
    -âC
    -üaC / -uìC / -iùC
    Degree + 6
    -ûC / -iëC
    -eiC / -eoC
    -ouC / -öeC
    Degree + 7
    -oC
    -ôC
    -uoC
    Degree + 8
    -üC
    -aiC / -eaC
    -uöC
    Degree + 9
    -uC
    -iaC / -uiC
    -ueC
    +

    Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 25 below how these suffixes + would actually appear in conjunction with the word eqal ‘person’ :

    +


    + TABLE 25: Example of Application of Suffixes to a Stem

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Suffix: + -V1k
    Suffix + Type 2: -V2k
    Suffix + Type 3: -V3k
    Degree + 1
    eqalik
    eqaliuk / eqaluak
    eqaliek
    Degree + 2
    eqalök
    eqalauk /eqaloak
    eqaliök
    Degree + 3
    eqalek
    eqalêk
    eqaliok
    Degree + 4
    eqalîk / eqaluëk
    eqaleuk / eqaloek
    eqaloik / eqalöak
    Degree + 5
    eqalak
    eqalâk
    eqalüak / eqaluìk / eqaliùk
    Degree + 6
    eqalûk / eqaliëk
    eqaleik / eqaleok
    eqalouk / eqalöek
    Degree + 7
    eqalok
    eqalôk
    eqaluok
    Degree + 8
    eqalük
    eqalaik / eqaleak
    eqaluök
    Degree + 9
    eqaluk
    eqaliak / eqaluik
    eqaluek
    +


    + As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ithkuil to create a gradient system for all consonantal suffixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + suffix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in the tables of suffixes in Section 7.4 how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated + with the nine degrees for the suffix -V1d.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Degree
    Suffix
    Meaning
     
    1
    		-id wholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all
     
    2
    		-ödway too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough
     
    3
    		-ed not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]
     
    4
    		-îdnot quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]
     
    5
    		 -adenough (of) / sufficient(ly)
     
    6
    		-ûda little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]
     
    7
    		-odtoo / too much / over-[+verb]
     
    8
    		-üdway too much / totally over-[+verb]
     
    9
    		-udnothing but / to the exclusion of all else
    +
    +
    +There are approximatey 200 different consonantal suffix categories, each + of which divides into the nine degrees discussed above to render over 1800 distinct suffixes. Each degree of a suffix has a distinct meaning, often representing a point along + a continuum in terms of how much or how little the underlying semantic sense +of the suffix category is being manifested by the particular formative.     +

    It is important to remember that, since all morpho-semantic + stems are both nominal and verbal in meaning, all suffixes to a stem have both + a nominal and a verbal meaning. Therefore, the choice whether to translate the + suffixes below into their nominal or verbal meaning is entirely dependent on + the morpho-syntactical structure of the word within the context of its use in + a phrase or sentence as a whole.
    +
    +
    +

    +

    7.1.3 Notational Scheme

    +

    For convenience’ sake, when referring to a particular + suffix of specific type and degree, we will use the notation in the section + above, utilizing a V for the variable vocalic component, a subscript 1, 2, or 3 indicating the suffix-type, followed by a slash and a number indicating the degree. Thus, the suffix + -nt of Type 1 and 4th degree will be written -V1nt/4, + while the suffix -r of Type 3 and 8th degree will be written -V3r/8, and so forth.

    +


    +
    +

    + + + + +
    7.2 SUFFIX-TYPES
    +

    Each suffix category comes in three types, numbered 1, 2, and 3, indicated by variances in the initial vocalic component of the suffix. Use of the Type 1 version of a suffix caries a mere circumstantial meaning applicable to the context at hand in a subjectively incidental, happenstance, temporary, or informal manner, whereas the Type 2 version of a suffix implies a derivational meaning which can entail lexical differences when translating into English.

    +

    For example, the Type 1 suffix -up, + i.e., -V1p/9, and its Type 2 counterpart + -uip , i.e., -V2p/9, + which both mean ‘exactly similar to…/identical…,’ the + difference in usage being that the Type 1 suffix conveys merely a circumstantial + or incidental similarity, while the Type 2 suffix implies that the similarity + is an integral aspect of the word. In English, such a distinction would most + likely be conveyed by using a different word. For example, note the difference + when we add these two suffixes to the Ithkuil word eqal ‘person’: eqalup means ‘identical-looking person,’ whereas eqaluip means ‘twin.’ In this way, we can say + that the suffix -Vp with Type 1 vocalic infixes conveys a circumstantial + application of its meaning to a stem, while with Type 2 vocalic infixes, it + conveys a derivational application of its meaning (i.e., wholly new concepts + or words are derived from the stem).

    +

    As for Type 3 suffixes, these are used in circumstances where the meaning of the suffix is meant to be applied not to the formative itself, but rather to the immediately adjacent suffix. This + is somewhat analogous to the way that adverbs can be used to modify descriptive + adjectives in English. For example, in the phrase suddenly blue sky, + it is the blueness that is sudden, not the sky. In Ithkuil, Type 3 suffixes modify another suffix (usually the one following, unless there + are only two suffixes on the stem, in which case the suffix order is irrelevant); + this is done by using Type 3 vocalic infixes. For example, the suffix -Vd/5, + which means ‘enough / sufficient(ly),’ can be used both circumstantially + (using Type 1 infixes) and derivationally (using Type 2 infixes) to modify a + stem, or can be used to modify only the adjacent suffix (using Type 3 infixes). + Such suffixes must immediately precede + the suffix they are modifying, unless they are in word-final position, in which +case they modify the immediately preceding suffix. This is illustrated below:

    +
    +

    eqalad: ‘a + sufficient person’ (i.e., one able to perform the task at hand)
    + eqalâd: ‘a recruit’ + (i.e., one able to meet performance or entry requirements)
    + eqalüadûx: + ‘a sufficiently large person’ (where suffix -V1x/6 = ‘large’)

    +
    +

     

    +


    + 7.2.1 Multiple Suffixation and Ordering of Suffixes

    +

    When adding two or more suffixes to a stem, the suffixes generally + can be added to the stem in any order desired, with the exception of V3C suffixes + which modify an adjacent suffix. This latter type must precede the suffix it modifies, unless there are only two VxC suffixes to the word, in which case the order is irrelevant.

    +


    +
    +

    + + + + +
    7.3 SPECIAL USE OF V3C SUFFIXES
    +

    Note that when a Type 3 suffix appears alone in Slot XI, unaccompanied by another VxC suffix, it serves a different purpose than normal. Such lone Type 3 suffixes are used as “short-cut” ways of displaying a type of adunct we will discuss in Chapter 8, called a personal reference adjunct. In these cases, the consonant portion of the suffix, rather than repesenting its usual suffix category, instead corresponds to one of the numerous personal reference categories we will discuss in Chapter 8, while the vowel portion of the suffix, rather than corresponding to one of nine degrees, instead correponds to one of nine noun cases. The details for utilizing these special V3C suffixes are discussed in Section 8.1.5.

    +


    +
    +

    + + + + +
    7.4 LIST OF SUFFIXES
    +

    The 200 suffix categories are listed in the sections which follow, indicating the difference in meaning for each of the nine degrees. Recall that each of these suffixes may (theoretically) function as both Type 1 and Type 2 suffixes, the latter type often entailing a change of meaning or lexical shift when translating into English.

    +


    + 7.4.1 Demonstrative Suffixes

    +

    These suffixes correspond to various determiners and modifying + adjectives in English having to do with denoting or identifying a noun within + a larger context or discourse.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -kt
    DEF
    		Degree Of Definiteness
    Degree 1any (number + of) [random selection - NOT quantitative/partitive “any”]; in + any manner
    Degree 2almost + any; in almost any (number of) way(s)
    Degree 3some X + or other; in some way or other
    Degree 4some certain + X ; in some certain way [identity unknown]
    Degree 5this X + or that; a certain X or more; in this way or that [identity almost known + – choices limited]
    Degree 6a certain + / a particular; in a certain or particular way [identity ascertainable]
    Degree 7presumably + this/that; apparently this X ; in that way presumably [tentatively identified]
    Degree 8 this/that/said; + in said manner/(in) that way [identity known]
    Degree 9at hand/under + discussion/this one now/instant; in this manner [identity = present context]
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -q’
    DSR
    		Degree Of Discretion
    Degree 1announced/advertised/heralded; + w/ public disclosure
    Degree 2open & + well-known; with full public knowledge
    Degree 3open/public; + for all to see/publicly/openly
    Degree 4shown, + open, or available by request/ by request
    Degree 5semi-public(ly), + exclusive(ly)
    Degree 6own/personal; + personally
    Degree 7own private; + privately
    Degree 8 secret; + secretly
    Degree 9confidential/classified
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -qh
    INL
    		Degree Of Inclusion
    Degree 1not a(ny), + not one, no X whatsoever, none of X; in no such manner
    Degree 2hardly + any, barely any X; in hardly any such manner
    Degree 3some few/a + few certain … ; in a few certain ways
    Degree 4some (of)/certain + . . .; in certain ways
    Degree 5several + / more than a few / various / in various ways / in several different ways
    Degree 6a significant + portion of/a fair number of; in a fair number of ways
    Degree 7most/in + most ways
    Degree 8 almost + every; in almost every way
    Degree 9each/every; + in each way
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rţ / -ţr
    EXT
    		Exactness of Identity / Identity As a Referent Or Standard
    Degree 1nothing + like that X; nothing like that ; in no way similar
    Degree 2somewhat + like that X; somewhat so
    Degree 3nearly + or almost that X; nearly or almost so
    Degree 4just about + . . . / for all intents and purposes
    Degree 5kind of + / type of / this sort of; typically
    Degree 6such (a); + in such a manner
    Degree 7clear (case + of); clearly / certainly / indeed[in negative sentences = no way / at all]
    Degree 8 just like + that; just so, thus(ly)
    Degree 9the exact + X / the very (one); exactly thus / exactly so
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ňs
    FAM
    		Degree Of Familiarity
    Degree 1unknowable + / alien; unable to even try X-ing
    Degree 2totally + unfamiliar; totally unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 3unfamiliar; + unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 4somewhat + unfamiliar; somewhat unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 5only just + (recently) familiar; only just recently familiar to X-ing
    Degree 6somewhat + familiar; somewhat accustomed to X-ing
    Degree 7familiar/known; + accustomed to X-ing
    Degree 8 well-known + / utterly familiar with / ingrained; inherently accustomed or used to X-ing
    Degree 9intimate + with; intimately involved with / intimately accustomed to
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -p
    SIM
    		Degree Of Similarity
    Degree 1opposite; + as different as possible / at the other extreme
    Degree 2completely + different/dissimilar; in a totally different or dissimilar way
    Degree 3rather + different / barely similar / almost completely different or dissimilar; + in an almost completely different way
    Degree 4other [=different]; + in another [=different] way
    Degree 5somewhat + different, only superficially similar; somewhat differently
    Degree 6similar + in the ways that count/similar down deep, some sort of X; similarly at deep + level
    Degree 7(somewhat) + similar, only superficially different, sort of like, something like, X-like; + similarly
    Degree 8 very similar; + very similarly
    Degree 9[exactly + the] same, indistinguishable from; in the [exactly] same way
    +

     

    +

    7.4.2 Deictic Suffixes

    +

    Deictic suffixes refer to the grammatical process of deixis, + the act of pointing to or pointing out. The suffixes correspond to the different + variants of the concepts of ‘here’ and ‘there.’ In Ithkuil, + distinctions are made in these suffixes as to whether a referent is near the + speaker, near the listener, distant from both, whether it is observable or accessible, + and in some case, whether it is alienable or inalienable (i.e., whether the + entity can be separated from the associated person).
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -č’
    DEX
    		Deixis Categories
    Degree 1yonder + / way over there somewhere / a long way away (not near anyone) [inaccessible + or unobservable]
    Degree 2over there + somewhere (by third party) [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 3there somewhere + (by listener) [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 4here somewhere + (by speaker] [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 5here (by + speaker and accessible]
    Degree 6here with + us (by speaker and listener and accessible]
    Degree 7there [by + listener and accessible]
    Degree 8 there (by + third party, but accessible to speaker and listener)
    Degree 9yonder + / way over there [not near any party but accessible]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -čh
    DXX
    		Additional Deixis Categories
    Degree 1spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [inaccessible]
    Degree 2spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [inaccessible]
    Degree 3spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over the place / here + and there [inaccessible]
    Degree 4spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over / here & there + [observable but inaccessible]
    Degree 5spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [inalienable]
    Degree 6spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [alienable]
    Degree 7spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker/all over the place / here + and there [accessible]
    Degree 8 spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [accessible]
    Degree 9spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [accessible]
    +

    +

    7.4.3 Sequential Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -nn
    SEQ
    		Numerical Sequence
    Degree 1first / + initial; first(ly) / first of all
    Degree 2second; + secondly
    Degree 3third; + thirdly
    Degree 4still near + the beginning / not yet halfway
    Degree 5the middle + one, in between (sequentially)/ just about halfway there
    Degree 6nearing + the end
    Degree 7third from + last; antepenultimately
    Degree 8 next to + last; penultimately
    Degree 9last / + final; last(ly) / finally (in terms of sequence)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -nš / -šn
    SQT
    		Sequence Relative to Present Context
    Degree 1immediately + beforehand / first
    Degree 2one before + preceding
    Degree 3the former; + primarily
    Degree 4two before + preceding
    Degree 5current/at + hand; now/currently / at the moment [in sequence of events]
    Degree 6second + one after next
    Degree 7the latter; + secondarily
    Degree 8 one after + next
    Degree 9next / + following; then / next
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -c’
    SQC
    		Sequence of Cause and Effect
    Degree 1originating; + originally / in the first place / initially / at the outset
    Degree 2preliminary; + preliminarily
    Degree 3preparatory + / in preparation for / getting ready to
    Degree 4awaited; + waiting to/ waiting for [focus on imminency or sequential position, NOT + on anticipation]
    Degree 5precursor + to; but just beforehand
    Degree 6based on + the preceding and setting the stage for what follows
    Degree 7eventual + / at last; at last / finally (result)
    Degree 8 following + /...which follows; then subsequent to that / following that...
    Degree 9subsequent + / consequent; then / so / thus / therefore
    +

    +

    7.4.4 Coordinative Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ň
    COO
    		Adjunctive Coordination
    Degree 1in conjunction + with / combined with / including X
    Degree 2and / also + / additionally/ furthermore/ moreover/ what’s more
    Degree 3 . . . + and so forth / and so on / and all that/ and whatever else
    Degree 4and at + the same time / and simultaneously
    Degree 5and [all + in a series]
    Degree 6or [potentially + inclusive] = and/or
    Degree 7either + . . . or [exclusive or] / or else
    Degree 8 . . . or + something else / or whatever / or whatever else
    Degree 9either + . . . or [exclusive or in a series]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ňň
    CTR
    		Contrastive Coordination
    Degree 1still / + nevertheless / however — (despite seemingly inherent conflict or contradiction)
    Degree 2besides + / not just . . . but also / in addition to X… also
    Degree 3even / + or even / … still [e.g., thicker still]
    Degree 4or [= otherwise]
    Degree 5as opposed + to / but not
    Degree 6but [qualifying]
    Degree 7however + / on the other hand — (simple difference in expected outcome, no inherent + conflict)
    Degree 8 but (rather) + [= substitute]
    Degree 9just in + case / should the need arise
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -nz / -zn
    DST
    		Distributive Coordination
    Degree 1applying + to each equally [unfairly]
    Degree 2applied + selectively by decision/preference [unfairly]
    Degree 3respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [unfairly]
    Degree 4selectively + at random [unfairly]
    Degree 5respectively + [= applied in the sequentially spoken order]
    Degree 6selectively + at random [fairly]
    Degree 7respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [fairly]
    Degree 8 applied + selectively by decision/calculation [fairly]
    Degree 9applying + to each equally [fairly]
    +

     

    +

    +

    +

    7.4.5 Temporal Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -th
    TPI
    		Impact or Duration Over Time
    Degree 1immediate + / at this instant / for this moment; momentary
    Degree 2temporary + / for right now / for the moment; temporarily / in the meantime [duration + of context. recent]
    Degree 3short term/for + now; in the short term/for now/ / for the immediate future [hours to days]
    Degree 4for the + meantime / for the meanwhile [days to weeks to months]
    Degree 5for a while + / for some time to come [months to several years]
    Degree 6for the + foreseeable future [years to decades]
    Degree 7long term/in + the long run; over the course of time [over the course of a lifetime, decades + to centuries]
    Degree 8 through + the ages / over the course of the ages [centuries to millenia]; permanent
    Degree 9ever-present + / eternal / constant / incessant / neverending; from now on / eternally + / all the time / for all time
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rč
    TPD
    		Temporary Duration
    Degree 1brief, momentary (lasting a few seconds)
    Degree 2for a "minute"
    Degree 3for a few minutes (e.g., "while you wait")
    Degree 4for a little while (i.e., up to an hour approximately)
    Degree 5for a while (i.e., from one to several hours)
    Degree 6for today (i.e., from several hours to 24 hours approximately)
    Degree 7for one or two days
    Degree 8 from two to four days
    Degree 9up to a week
    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ll
    FRQ
    		Degree Of Frequency
    Degree 1never
    Degree 2rare / + hardly ever / once in a great while; rarely / almost unheard of
    Degree 3infrequent; + seldom / infrequently
    Degree 4now and + then / from time to time / off and on / every so often / now and again occasionally + / sometimes
    Degree 5frequent; + frequently / often
    Degree 6usual; + usually / customarily / generally
    Degree 7almost + always / rarely fail to / routinely
    Degree 8 ever-faithful + / unwavering; always / every time / without fail / like clockwork / never + fail to
    Degree 9constant + / continuous; constantly / continuously / all the time
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -z
    TPR
    		Temporal Placement/Reaction/Viewpoint
    Degree 1wistfully + looking back / in the (good) old days [with longing]
    Degree 2in hindsight + / looking back
    Degree 3upon further + consideration/upon reflection
    Degree 4initial; + at first/initially / at first blush / at first glance
    Degree 5now that + the moment has come / now that the time is here / now that the deed or event + is at hand
    Degree 6any moment + now; on the verge of; just about to
    Degree 7imminent(ly) + ; very soon
    Degree 8 soon [w/ + anticipation]
    Degree 9someday. + . . / one day [with longing]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -kk
    TPP
    		Temporal Position Relative to Present
    Degree 1in the + remote past, once upon a time
    Degree 2past/former/previous; + once [e.g., I was young once], a long time ago
    Degree 3recent; + recently
    Degree 4. . . just + past / just (happened)
    Degree 5present/current/present + day; now / at present / presently / currently
    Degree 6imminent; + just about to / about to / on the verge of
    Degree 7forthcoming + / soon to arrive; soon
    Degree 8 future + / -- to be / --to come / eventual(ly); someday...
    Degree 9in the + remote future / far in the future / long after we’re gone
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -pţ
    ATC
    		Degree Of Anticipation
    Degree 1long-awaited + / long looked for
    Degree 2eagerly + awaited; can’t wait for / dying to
    Degree 3anticipated + / awaited; in anticipation of / look forward to
    Degree 4up for + / up to
    Degree 5await / + wait to / wait for / waiting to
    Degree 6ambivalent + about ; could take or leave it
    Degree 7not looking + forward to
    Degree 8 dreaded; + dread X-ing
    Degree 9long-dreaded; + dread the day when
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -nž / -žn
    LAT
    		Degree Of Lateness/Earliness
    Degree 1way too + early / way too soon
    Degree 2too early + / too soon
    Degree 3a little + early / a bit soon
    Degree 4almost + late / not a moment too soon
    Degree 5just in + time / sharp / on the dot
    Degree 6a little + late
    Degree 7late
    Degree 8 too late
    Degree 9way too + late
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -nt / -tn
    ITN
    		Degree Of Iteration
    Degree 1just once + / once only
    Degree 2again / + once more / one more time / re-
    Degree 3again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on habit, not periodicity]
    Degree 4again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on periodicity, not habit]
    Degree 5irregular, + unpredictable ; at irregular or unpredictable intervals
    Degree 6[cyclic] + return of... / ...once again; return to / …back again [e.g., summer’s + back]
    Degree 7intermittent; + intermittently / at regular intervals
    Degree 8 repetitive + / repeating; repeatedly
    Degree 9constantly + cycling or repeating / continuously or perpetually repeating / constant, + eternal, perpetual repetition of
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -kţ
    RPN
    		Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set + Members
    Degree 1slow-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    Degree 2slow-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 3slow-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 4mid-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 5mid-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    Degree 6mid-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 7fast-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 8 fast-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 9fast-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rl
    CAL
    		Calendrical Sequencing (used with numerical stems to indicate calendrical concepts)
    Degree 1[sequential number +] day of the week
    Degree 2[sequential number +] day of the month
    Degree 3[sequential number +] day of the year
    Degree 4[sequential number +] week of the month
    Degree 5[sequential number +] month of the year
    Degree 6[sequential number +] year
    Degree 7[sequential number +] decade of the century
    Degree 8 [sequential number +] century
    Degree 9[sequential number +] millenium
    +

    The V1 value of these suffixes merely indicates sequential position on the calendar, e.g., llalirl 'the first day of the week,' whereas V2 values give the names of the days of the weeks, days of the month, months of the year, etc., e.g., llaluarl 'Sunday,' ksaluarl 'Monday,' ksalârl 'February,' llalökearl 'the 21st Century', mřalik (ňial) xmalukeorl 'the year 1999.'

    +

    Note: the CAL suffix inherently conveys Functional (FNC) Context, since calendrical notions are, of course, societal conventions as opposed to being natural ontological concepts. Therefore, for formatives carrying the CAL suffix it is not necessary to inflect for FNC Context.

    +

     

    +

    7.4.6 Quantifying Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lz / -zl
    DGR
    		Exactness of Degree
    Degree 1unknowable + degree or amount of
    Degree 2unknown + degree or amount of
    Degree 3almost + impossible to determine degree of
    Degree 4nowhere + near the desired degree of
    Degree 5hard to + pinpoint / hard to determine / difficult to determine
    Degree 6fluctuating, + ever-changing (amount of); to changing/fluctuating degree or extent of
    Degree 7vaguely + around / vaguely in the range of / somewhere around / loosely in the vicinity + of
    Degree 8 approximate(ly) + / somewhere around / just about; or something like that / …or so
    Degree 9exact/specific; + exactly / specifically / on the dot / sharp / to the letter
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ss
    PTW
    		Contiguous Portion of the Whole
    Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
    Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
    Degree 3few / a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
    Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
    Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
    Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite; a lot / very much / to + a large extent
    Degree 7a whole + lot of / a verly large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
    Degree 8 most of + / mostly
    Degree 9 every + / all (of)/whole; entirely/in its entirety
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ns / -sn
    PTT
    		Non-Contiguous (i.e., Intermixed) Portion of the Whole
    Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
    Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
    Degree 3 few/a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
    Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
    Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
    Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite /; a lot / very much / + to a large extent
    Degree 7a whole + lot of / a very large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
    Degree 8 most of + / mostly
    Degree 9every / + all (of) / whole; entirely / in its entirety
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -mt / -tm
    CNM
    		Type of Container/Packaging/Conveyance/Holder
    Degree 1jar/pot + of X [storage + containment]
    Degree 2dispensor-type + container/package, e.g., tube, barrel, bottle for multiple use
    Degree 3can/tin/bottle/sealed + pouch [= storage + packaging + protection/preservation]
    Degree 4carton/box/basket + [= temporary containment]
    Degree 5natural + or generic mass containment/packaging/holder (e.g., a loaf of bread, a lump + of clay)
    Degree 6satchel, + pack of [= for personal conveyance/moving]
    Degree 7pile of, + load of [= in context of conveyance/moving or bulk storage]
    Degree 8 X-ful of + [+ Partitive], e.g., a roomful of clowns, a skyful of clouds, a treeful + of leaves, a spoonful
    Degree 9embodiment/manifestation + of abstract essence, e.g., a life form [= an embodiment of life]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -d
    SUF
    		Degree Of Sufficiency
    Degree 1none at + all; not…at all
    Degree 2way too + little / woefully insufficient / way too few; not...anywhere enough / totally + under-[+verb]
    Degree 3not enough + / insufficient / too few; not...enough / insufficiently / under-[+verb]
    Degree 4not quite + enough / slightly insufficient; not...quite enough / a bit insufficiently + / slightly under-[+verb]
    Degree 5enough + (of) / sufficient; enough / sufficiently
    Degree 6a little + too / a little too much; a little too much / slightly over- [+verb]
    Degree 7too / toomuch; + too much / too many / over- [+verb]
    Degree 8 way too + / way too much; way too much / totally over- [+verb]
    Degree 9inundated + with; to the exclusion of all else / to the point that X overwhelms or takes + over
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -b
    EXN
    		Degree or Extent
    Degree 1none (at + all); to no extent at all
    Degree 2tiniest + part of / a bit of; to smallest extent / hardly / barely
    Degree 3only a + part of / only some of; to some extent / partially / partly / somewhat
    Degree 4less than + usual / below normal; less so than usual/ to a lesser degree or extent than + usual
    Degree 5the normal, + expected or usual amount (of)
    Degree 6more than + usual / above normal; more so than usual; to a greater degree or extent + than normal
    Degree 7way more + than usual / way above normal or expected; to a much greater degree or extent + than normal
    Degree 8 almost + as much as possible / near(ly) maximum
    Degree 9total, + -ful; to greatest extent / maximum / maximal; maximally / at full capacity, + e.g., She bought out the store.
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rd / -dr
    EXD
    		Dynamically Changing Degree or Extent
    Degree 1less and + less / fewer and fewer / ongoing decrease in; decreasingly
    Degree 2a lot fewer + / a lot less (of); a lot less
    Degree 3fewer / + less (of); less
    Degree 4a little + less (of) / a bit less (of); a little less / a bit less
    Degree 5a fluctuating + amount or degree of; to a fluctuating degree or extent
    Degree 6a little + more (of) / a bit more (of); a little more / a bit more
    Degree 7more (of); + more
    Degree 8 a lot more + (of); a lot more
    Degree 9more and + more / continuing increase in / increasingly more / ever-increasing
    +

    This suffix is used with all vector-like or gradient concepts. When used with + the COMPLETIVE version, degrees 1 and 9 imply attainment + of a change in state, e.g., sleepiness → sleep.

    +


    + 7.4.7 Modulative Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -zb
    RCO
    		Recoil in place (spring back; snap back; fall back into place)
    -zg
    TFI
    		Back & forth; to & fro in place (e.g., pendulum, wagging tail)
    -žd
    TFV
    		Back & forth over linear vector (e.g., snake-like; zig-zag)
    -zd
    CRI
    		Cycle or circular motion in place (spin, revolve)
    -žb
    CRV
    		Cycle or circular motion over linear vector (e.g., train wheels, bike + wheels)
    -žg
    MDL
    		Random pattern of modulation (unpredictable/irregular movement pattern)
    +

    These suffixes operate in conjunction with Phase (see + Sec. 5.3) to describe contexts involving recoil, spring motion, oscillative, + cyclic, reflective or vibrative motion, using the following degrees:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1not enough
    Degree 2hardly + at all
    Degree 3to a small + degree
    Degree 4to a less + than normal degree
    Degree 5to the + normal / standard / usual degree
    Degree 6to a greater + than normal degree
    Degree 7to a large + degree
    Degree 8 to a very + large degree
    Degree 9too much + / overly
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -g
    FLS
    		Degree of Fluctuation/Stability
    Degree 1inherently + and consistently unstable and random to a high degree
    Degree 2highly + variable/random fluctuation or instability
    Degree 3moderately + variable/random fluctuation or instability
    Degree 4increasing + fluctuation or destabilization in pattern
    Degree 5tending + toward fluctuations and periods of instability
    Degree 6decreasing + fluctuation or instability in pattern = increasing stability
    Degree 7moderately + stable and lacking in fluctuations
    Degree 8 complete + lack of fluctuation or instability; highly stable
    Degree 9inherently + and consistently stable
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -f
    ICR
    		Increase
    -ftDCRDecrease
    -pfICDIncrease then Decrease
    -kfDCIDecrease then Increase
    -qţIDRRandom/Varying Increases and Decreases 
    +

    Used with the following degrees, the above five suffixes operate to expand Phase + into showing increases or decreases (or wavering) of intensity of an action + during its duration.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1so slowly + as to seem immovable
    Degree 2very slowly
    Degree 3slowly
    Degree 4somewhat slower than + normal
    Degree 5normal/usual/standard + speed
    Degree 6somewhat faster than + normal
    Degree 7fast/quickly
    Degree 8 very rapidly
    Degree 9so rapidly as to be + unable to follow
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -fs
    MVT
    		Degree of Stillness/Movement
    Degree 1unmovable + – integrated
    Degree 2unmovable + due to mass
    Degree 3not easily + moved
    Degree 4inclined + to stillness
    Degree 5holding + still
    Degree 6moving + around slightly, stirring
    Degree 7moving + around in one place
    Degree 8 moving + around, agitated
    Degree 9highly agitated, unable to keep still
    +


    +
    +
    +     7.4.8 Qualifying Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -x
    SIZ
    		Degree of Size
    Degree 1too small
    Degree 2very small/ + very little/ miniscule/ tiny/ itty-bitty;in a very small manner; barely/hardly
    Degree 3small/little
    Degree 4a little + on the small size / undersized / petite
    Degree 5a little + on the large size / oversized / jumbo
    Degree 6big/large; + in a large manner
    Degree 7very big/very + large; in a very large manner
    Degree 8 enormous(ly) + / huge(ly) / humoungous(ly) / gigantic(ally)
    Degree 9too big + / too large / too huge; in too large a manner
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -xh
    SCO
    		Dynamic Change of Size
    Degree 1smallest + single manifestation of / particle of
    Degree 2runaway + shrinkage of / rapid disappearance or diminishment of
    Degree 3solitary + / only / sole / lone / unaccompanied; alone / by -self / on his own / unaccompanied + / solely
    Degree 4decreasing + / de-escalating / shrinking
    Degree 5compact/concentrated; + in efficient or compact way [e.g., canyon → gorge]
    Degree 6expanded/enhanced; + in expanded or enhanced way [e.g., canyon → rift valley]
    Degree 7growing, + increasing, escalating
    Degree 8 runaway + / runaway growth, increase or expansion of
    Degree 9synergistic + expansion e.g., hit (+ RCP valence) → fight
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ç
    AFT
    		Degree of Affect
    Degree 1cute/darling + / in a cute or darling manner
    Degree 2too cute + / schmaltzy / in a maudlin way
    Degree 3kitschy + / quaint(ly)
    Degree 4dear, endearing(ly)
    Degree 5lovely + / elegant
    Degree 6esteemed
    Degree 7imperious + / royal / most high / most excellent / revered
    Degree 8 too grand + / too imperious
    Degree 9great / + grand; in a great / grand / grandiose manner
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -č
    QUA
    		Degree of Quality, Effectiveness or Adequacy
    Degree 1too poor(ly); + too badly
    Degree 2very bad(ly) + / very poor(ly) / very inadequate(ly) / intolerable / intolerably / terrible + / terribly
    Degree 3bad / poor + / inadequate; badly / poorly / inadequately / wanting / lacking
    Degree 4not-so-good + / could be better; somewhat poor(ly) or bad(ly) / somewhat wanting or lacking + / below average
    Degree 5not-so-bad + / average; could be worse; so-so / somewhat well / OK, I guess / adequate(ly) + / acceptably
    Degree 6good/effective; + well/effectively/ more than adequate / above-average
    Degree 7very good + / very effective(ly) / very well
    Degree 8 excellent(ly) + / superb(ly) / outstanding(ly)
    Degree 9astounding(ly) + / amazing(ly) great or well / unbelievably excellent / absolutely superb(ly) + / unsurpassable(ly)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -c
    UNQ
    		Degree of Specialness or Uniqueness
    Degree 1vulgar, + trashy, too cheap / in a vulgar or trashy manner
    Degree 2cheap, + tasteless, gaudy, gauche / in a cheap, gaudy, gauche or tasteless manner
    Degree 3run of + the mill / unexceptional / average / commonplace / ordinary; in a commonplace + or unexceptional manner
    Degree 4somewhat + ordinary / somewhat common(place)
    Degree 5somewhat + special / somewhat out of the ordinary / interesting(ly) / intriguing(ly) + / eye-catching / appealing(ly)
    Degree 6special; + epecially
    Degree 7extraordinary + / highly unusual; extraordinarily
    Degree 8 (one and) + only/unique; in the only way / uniquely / unparallelled
    Degree 9marvelous + / wonderful / wondrous / awesome / awe-inspiring
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rň
    IPT
    		Degree of Importance/Impact/Signficance
    Degree 1utterly unimportant, insignficant, unnecessary, irrelevant
    Degree 2hardly necessary, seemingly unimportant, essentially insignificant, essentially irrelevant
    Degree 3third-string / no remaining alternative but X
    Degree 4back-up / understudy / second-string
    Degree 5secondary
    Degree 6fairly significant, somewhat important
    Degree 7importan t/ significant / considerable
    Degree 8 primary / foremost / very significant
    Degree 9Indispensable/crucial/critical
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -kh
    CNQ
    		Degree of Consequentiality, Finality or Irrevocability
    Degree 1inconsequential/sham/having + no effect; like it didn’t even happen/with no effect
    Degree 2relatively + inconsequential / having little effect / easily reversible or undone / to + little effect / minor / to minor degree
    Degree 3somewhat + inconsequential/having only some effect/reparable/reversible/to some effect + / somewhat minor
    Degree 4not so + minor / somwhat significant degree / reversible with effort / having a somewhat + significant impact or effect
    Degree 5consequential + / having a fair effect / reversible only with concerted effort / to good + effect
    Degree 6Overall + / signifcant degree of; all in all / for the most part/to great effect / + on the whole
    Degree 7virtually + total/near total; nearly for good/almost completely
    Degree 8 utter / + complete / total; altogether / completely / for good / utterly / irrevocably + for all intents and purposes
    Degree 9for all + time / forever / finally
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -q
    NTR
    		Degree of Notoriety, Acceptance, Respect, Honor
    Degree 1pariah-like + / ostracized; in an alienating or self-ostracizing manner
    Degree 2infamous; + infamously
    Degree 3frowned-upon + / disapproved ; in a manner guaranteed to arouse disapproval
    Degree 4tolerated; + in a tolerated manner
    Degree 5common + / customary / expected / accepted; in an common, customary, expected, or + accepted manner
    Degree 6notorious(ly)
    Degree 7well-known + / well-liked / well thought of; in a totally appropriate way / in a manner + befitting a gentleman or lady
    Degree 8 respected + / honored; respectfully / honorably
    Degree 9highly + praised / highly honored / highly esteemed / highly respected / most excellent + / most honorable
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rg
    BEH
    		Degree of Subjective Effect or Behavioral Appropriateness
    Degree 1grotesque, gross, nauseating, sickening
    Degree 2repugnant, revolting, repulsive
    Degree 3despicable, deplorable, detestable
    Degree 4lurid, spectacle-inducing
    Degree 5offensive, ill-mannered, in poor taste
    Degree 6lewd
    Degree 7spectacular, showy, larger-than-life
    Degree 8 well-mannered, polite
    Degree 9classy, dignified, in good taste
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -xht
    APR
    		Degree of Contextual Appropriateness
    Degree 1contemptable(-ly) + / utterly inappropriate(ly)
    Degree 2scandalous(ly) + / trashy(-ly) / inappropriate(ly)
    Degree 3 ill-mannered + / boorish(ly) / improper(ly) / tasteless(ly)
    Degree 4eyebrow-raising + / questionable(-ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + improper(ly) / unorthodox(ically)
    Degree 6acceptable(-ly) + / adequate(ly)
    Degree 7appropriate(ly) + / proper(ly) / correct(ly)
    Degree 8 utterly + appropriate(ly), very proper(ly); strictly correct(ly)
    Degree 9stuffy + / orthodox / old-fashioned; utterly predictable(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -tļ
    HRC
    		Position on Social, Occupational, or (Para-) Military Hierarchy
    Degree 1bottom + rung / the “dregs”
    Degree 2rank & + file
    Degree 3lower echeleon
    Degree 4lower-mid
    Degree 5mid-level
    Degree 6upper mid
    Degree 7upper echeleon
    Degree 8 senior
    Degree 9head / + chief / top / executive
    +

    This suffix, for example, would be used to distinguish the names of the various + ranks within a military or paramilitary organization such as private, corporal, + sergeant, lieutenant, etc. all the way up to general and supreme + commander.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ż
    FRM
    		Degree of Formality
    Degree 1too casual + / overly casual
    Degree 2very casual
    Degree 3casual
    Degree 4somewhat + casual
    Degree 5neither + casual nor formal
    Degree 6somewhat + formal
    Degree 7formal
    Degree 8 very formal
    Degree 9too formal + / overly formal
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -j
    TYP
    		Degree of Typicalness
    Degree 1unique + / never-before-seen / one of a kind / shocking
    Degree 2original + / avante-garde; surprising(ly) / innovative(ly)
    Degree 3atypical(ly) + / unusual(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + atypical(ly) or unusual(ly)
    Degree 5garden + variety / run-of-the-mill / typical(ly)
    Degree 6expected + / common; in a commonplace manner
    Degree 7disappointingly + typical; very typically
    Degree 8 unoriginal + / mundane; in an uninspired way
    Degree 9stereotyped + / stereotypical(ly)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ňx
    PTY
    		Degree of Prototypicalness
    Degree 1very dissimilar + to prototype, very atypical member, closer to members of different set
    Degree 2dissimilar + to prototype, atypical member
    Degree 3having + noticeable dissimilarities from prototype
    Degree 4somewhat + dissimilar to prototype
    Degree 5having + unknown degree of closeness or similarity to prototype
    Degree 6adequately + similar to prototype
    Degree 7as close + to prototype as is typically found
    Degree 8 as close + to prototype as possible
    Degree 9prototype/archetype/model
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -mž / -žm
    ITG
    		Degree of Intelligence Manifested
    Degree 1dumb / + stupid / assinine; idiotic(ally) / moronic(ally)
    Degree 2foolhearty + / foolish(ly)
    Degree 3ill-conceived(ly) + / (in a) poorly thought out (way)
    Degree 4naïve(ly) + / simplistic(ally)
    Degree 5well-intentioned + but ill-conceived / reckless(ly); risky
    Degree 6well-reasoned + / intelligent(ly)
    Degree 7innovative(ly) + / daring [based on analysis and judgement]
    Degree 8 ingenious + / brilliant
    Degree 9wise(ly); + [V2 = ‘philosophical(ly)]
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ļ
    MDN
    		Degree of Age or Modernity
    Degree 1prehistoric + / proto-
    Degree 2ancient
    Degree 3old (first) + / archaic
    Degree 4classic(al)
    Degree 5old-fashioned; + in the old-fashioned way
    Degree 6“yesteryear”; + in the era just passed; in the previous zeitgeist
    Degree 7modern, + contemporary, present-day
    Degree 8 innovative + / trailblazing; innovatively, trailblazingly, cutting-edge
    Degree 9avant-garde
    +

    +

    7.4.9 Modifying Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -r
    NA1
    		Negation/affirmation of all morphological components
    -l
    NA2
    		Negation/affirmation of stem + affixes but not adjunct information
    -ř
    NA3
    		Negation/affirmation of all morphological components except Modality
    -řř
    NA4
    		Negation/affirmation of all but aspectual or Modality information
    +

    The above four suffixes are used to affirm or negate a formative. Because much + of the information associated with an Ithkuil formative is carried in adjuncts, + the above suffixes are used to indicate exactly which morpho-semantic information + is being affirmed or negated. For example, in English the sentences I don’t + want to stop eating, I want to not stop eating, and I want to stop not eating mean different things. The above four suffixes are used with the following degrees.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1on + the contrary…most cerainly does NOT/is NOT [absolute negation]; no + X whatsoever; absolutely not = emphatic negation/denial
    Degree 2on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [absolute negation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 3on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [relative negation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 4no; not + [absolute negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (because I’m + not in the race)
    Degree 5no; not + [relative negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (although I am in + the race)
    Degree 6almost + / near(ly)
    Degree 7hardly + / barely
    Degree 8 …does + (too) / is (too) [= simple affirmation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 9…is + indeed / does indeed / most certainly is / most certainly does [emphatic + affirmation]
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rr
    PLV
    		Polarity / Logical valence values
    Degree 1false/negative [bivalent polarity or logic]
    Degree 2false/negative [trivalent polarity or logic]
    Degree 3superpositional – neither true/positive nor false/negative
    Degree 4unknown polarity or logical state/value [trivalent polarity or logic]
    Degree 5neutral [trivalent polarity or logic]
    Degree 6unknown polarity or logical state/value [bivalent polarity or logic]
    Degree 7superpositional – both true/positive and false/negative
    Degree 8 true/positive [trivalent polarity or logic]
    Degree 9 true/positive [bivalent polarity or logic]
    +


    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ţ
    DEV
    		Degree of Development
    Degree 1reversal + or undoing of process = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
    Degree 2reversal/undoing + of process in large chunks = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
    Degree 3reversal + little by little / a little at a time = entropic change in / slowly falling + apart / unravelling
    Degree 4moribund + / stagnant; in a moribund or stagnant manner
    Degree 5well-maintained + / well-kept / “healthy”; keep X going / maintain X-ing
    Degree 6one by + one / one at a time / one after another
    Degree 7little + by little / a little at a time / bit by bit / a piece at a time
    Degree 8 by leaps + and bounds / in large amounts at a time
    Degree 9complete + achievement now irreversible / set in stone
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -pt
    REA
    		Degree of Genuineness or Veracity
    Degree 1real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed [affirmation + contrary to suggestion otherwise]
    Degree 2real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed
    Degree 3apparent + / seeming / looks like a; apparently / appears to have / seems to have
    Degree 4suspicious-looking + / ”fishy” seeming; presumably /allegedly / gives the appearance + of having
    Degree 5ersatz + / facsimile; as an equivalent to
    Degree 6substitute + / replacement / proxy / fill-in / placeholder; as a substitue or proxy for
    Degree 7fake / + pretend / mock; pretend to, fake X-ing
    Degree 8 imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing
    Degree 9imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing [contrary to suggestion + otherwise]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rk / -kr
    SCS
    		Degree of Success versus Failure
    Degree 1total failure + in; completely fail to
    Degree 2failed, + would-be; unsuccessfully, fail to
    Degree 3= INEFFECTUAL + or INCOMPLETIVE version (see Sec. 5.8)
    Degree 4certain + to be a failed / certain to fail in
    Degree 5marginally + successful(ly) / barely, hardly [in terms of adequacy or success]
    Degree 6certain + to be a successful ; certain to succeed in
    Degree 7= POSITIVE + or EFFECTIVE version (see Sec. 5.8)
    Degree 8 successful(-ly + completed); successfully
    Degree 9overwhelmingly + successful(ly)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -v
    CAP
    		Degree of Potential or Capability
    Degree 1utterly + incapable / completely lacking in all necessary abilities or capacities
    Degree 2underqualified; + almost totally lacking in necessary abilities or capacities
    Degree 3lacking + in certain key capabilities; mostly inadequate to task
    Degree 4possible + but less than likely due to underdeveloped capabilities
    Degree 5unknown + if capable or not
    Degree 6somewhat + capable / has possible potential to perform
    Degree 7sufficiently + capable / adequate potential to perform
    Degree 8 fully capable; + well within abilities
    Degree 9overly + qualified; more capable than necessary or required
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -çq
    PRB
    		Degree of Probability or Likelihood
    Degree 1impossible + / hopeless / lost cause
    Degree 2almost + no chance of / virtually impossible
    Degree 3highly + unlikely
    Degree 4unlikely + / improbable(ly)
    Degree 5possible; + possibly
    Degree 6hopeful(ly)
    Degree 7probable; + probably
    Degree 8 highly + probable / highly likely / certain to be a. . . certain to
    Degree 9forgone + conclusion that / in the can / done deal
    +

    +

    7.4.10 Adverbial Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -nţ / -ţn
    STR
    		Degree of Physical Strength Possible or Used
    Degree 1barely + / hardly / very weak(ly)
    Degree 2weak(ly) + / to small degree
    Degree 3soft(ly) + / guarded(ly)
    Degree 4measured(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + strong(ly) / somewhat powerful(ly)
    Degree 6adequately + strong; with adequate strength
    Degree 7strong(ly) + / powerful(ly)
    Degree 8 very strong(ly) + / very powerful(ly)
    Degree 9with maximum + power
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -kç
    FRC
    		Degree of Physical Force Exerted
    Degree 1too light(ly) + / too soft(ly) / too delicate(ly)
    Degree 2light as + a feather/ baby soft; extremely delicately or lightly or softly
    Degree 3light/soft/hardly + a; softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
    Degree 4somewhat + on the light or soft side; somewhat softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
    Degree 5neither + soft(ly) nor forceful(ly); with the right touch
    Degree 6somewhat + violent(ly) / somewhat forceful(ly)
    Degree 7violent/forceful + / rough; violently / with force / roughly
    Degree 8 very violent(ly) + / very forceful(ly) / very rough(ly)
    Degree 9too violent(ly) + / too forceful(ly) / too rough(ly)
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -sk
    ITY
    		Degree of Speed (i.e., Intensity of Movement or Change)
    Degree 1too slow(ly)
    Degree 2very slow(ly)
    Degree 3slow(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
    Degree 5at just + the right speed or intensity
    Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
    Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -st
    SPD
    		Degree of Speed (i.e., Velocity = Distance Over Time)
    Degree 1too slow(ly)
    Degree 2very slow(ly)
    Degree 3slow(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
    Degree 5at just + the right speed
    Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
    Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly)/; at fast pace
    Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lt / -tl
    CFD
    		Degree of Forthrightness, Confidence or Humility
    Degree 1

    too + meek(ly) / too submissive(ly) / too obedient(ly) / too docile(ly)

    Degree 2very meek(ly) + / very submissive(ly) / very obedient(ly) / very docile(ly)
    Degree 3meek(ly) + / submissive(ly) / obedient(ly) / docile(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + meek(ly) / somewhat submissive(ly) / somewhat obedient(ly) / somewhat docile(ly)
    Degree 5properly + humble / properly forthright ; with proper degree of humility or forthrightness
    Degree 6somewhat + confident(ly) / somewhat strong(ly) / somewhat definite(ly) / somewhat definitive(ly) + or authoritative(ly)
    Degree 7confident(ly) + /strong(ly) / definite(ly)/ definitive(ly) / authoritative(ly)
    Degree 8 very confident(ly) + / very strong(ly) / very definite(ly) / very definitive(ly) / very authoritative(ly)
    Degree 9over-confident(ly) + / too strong(ly) / too definite(ly) / too definitive(ly) / too authoritative(ly)
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -dh
    EFI
    		Degree of Efficiency or Efficacy
    Degree 1destructively + wasteful / disastrous(ly) / accomplishing the opposite of intention / making + things worse
    Degree 2very wasteful + / accomplishing nothing / making a mess of it
    Degree 3wasteful + / accomplishing little
    Degree 4somewhat + wasteful / accomplishing somewhat less than expected
    Degree 5adequate(ly) + [in terms of efficiency]
    Degree 6rather + efficient(ly) / fairly efficient(ly) / accomplishing somewhat more than + expected
    Degree 7efficient(ly) + / with little or no waste(d effort)
    Degree 8 extremely + efficient(ly) / with no waste(d effort) whatsoever
    Degree 9a synergy + of… / sum beyond total of parts / a synergistic composite of ; to + X synergistically
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -šq
    ERR
    		Degree of Correctness versus Error
    Degree 1totally + wrong / totally mis- or mal-; totally in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
    Degree 2wrong/incorrect(ly) + / mis- / mal- ; in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
    Degree 3fairly + wrong / fairly incorrect(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + wrong / more wrong than right
    Degree 5so-so; + barely adequate(ly) / barely correct(ly)
    Degree 6somewhat + right / more right than wrong
    Degree 7fairly + right / fairly correct(ly)
    Degree 8 right / + correctly
    Degree 9totally + right / totally correct(ly) / totally well-X’d
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ph
    MAT
    		Degree of Maturation
    Degree 1undeveloped + / immature(ly) / seed / embryo
    Degree 2under-developed + / newborn [stage, not age] / seedling / baby
    Degree 3growing + / budding / youthful / young
    Degree 4maturing + / developing / getting stronger or bigger or more complex or sophisticated
    Degree 5fully developed + / fully mature(d) / robust / ripe
    Degree 6overly + developed / overripe / showing signs of wear and tear / stressed / under + stress / fatigued
    Degree 7declining/fading; + trail off/fade / getting softer or weaker / faded / decrepit / has-been + / past one’s prime
    Degree 8 disintegrating + / utterly deteriorated / beyond repair or rehabilitation / irreparable / + dying
    Degree 9dead / + defunct / disintegrated
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ňz
    SBT
    		Degree of Subtlety
    Degree 1too subtle(ly)
    Degree 2very subtle(ly)
    Degree 3subtle(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + subtle(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + unsubtle(ly)
    Degree 6unsubtle(ly) + / lumbering(ly) rather obvious/ fairly blatant / belabored ; belabor / lumber + along X-ing
    Degree 7obvious(ly) + / blatant(ly) / exaggerated(ly)
    Degree 8 very obvious(ly) + / very blatant(ly)
    Degree 9over-the-top + / in-your-face / to obvious(ly) / too blatant(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -kš
    DRC
    		Degree of Directness
    Degree 1too indirect(ly)
    Degree 2very indirect(ly)
    Degree 3indirect(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + indirect(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + direct(ly)
    Degree 6fairly + direct(ly) / rather direct(ly)
    Degree 7direct(ly) + / straightforward
    Degree 8 very direct(ly) + / very straightforward
    Degree 9too direct(ly) + / painfully straightforward
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -mš / -šm
    SUD
    		Degree of Suddenness
    Degree 1too slow(ly) + in happening, too long in X-ing, overdue, delayed
    Degree 2very slow(ly) + in happening or developing
    Degree 3slow(ly) + ; long in developing or happening
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly) ; somewhat long in developing or happening
    Degree 5taking + just the right amount of time to develop or occur
    Degree 6somewhat + immediate / somewhat sudden; somewhat imediately / somewhat suddenly
    Degree 7immediate + / sudden; imediately / suddenly
    Degree 8 very immediate + / very sudden; very imediately / very suddenly
    Degree 9too immediate + / too sudden; too imediately / too suddenly
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -pç
    PCN
    		Degree of Care, Precision or Scrutiny
    Degree 1utterly + sloppy(ily) / totally careless(ly)
    Degree 2 very sloppy(ily) + / very careless(ly)
    Degree 3 sloppy(ily) + / careless(ly) / with poor attention to detail
    Degree 4somewhat + sloppy(ily) / somewhat careless(ly)
    Degree 5less than + careful(ly) / with only some degree of care
    Degree 6somewhat + careful(ly) / fairly precise(ly)
    Degree 7precise(ly) + / careful(ly) / detailed
    Degree 8 extremely + precise(ly) / with great care or precision or scrutiny / meticulous(ly)
    Degree 9overly + precise(ly) / ‘nit-picky’ / with too much scrutiny / overly + meticulous(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ch
    CNC
    		Degree of Concern or Consideration
    Degree 1…the + hell…! / what the hell . . . / . . . who cares
    Degree 2self-centered(ly) + / without thought or concern for others
    Degree 3at the + very least / at the least level of concern required
    Degree 4 without + concern / indifferent(ly) / without consideration / unconcerned(ly) / thoughtless(ly)
    Degree 5reluctant(ly)
    Degree 6at best + / with the most concern one can muster
    Degree 7concerned(ly) + / with concern / with consideration for others
    Degree 8 very concerned(ly) + / highly concerned(ly) / with great concern or consideration for others
    Degree 9overly + concerned(ly) / worrisome(ly) / with too much concern or consideration for + others / altruistically
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lk / -kl
    SPH
    		Degree of Sophistication
    Degree 1too crude(ly) + / too primitive(ly)
    Degree 2very crude(ly) + / very primitive(ly)
    Degree 3crude(ly) + / primitive(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + crude(ly) / somewhat primitive(ly)
    Degree 5with expected/normal + degree or level of sophistication
    Degree 6somewhat + sophisticated or refined
    Degree 7 sophisticated + or refined
    Degree 8 very sophisticated + or refined
    Degree 9too sophisticated + or refined
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -çt
    CVT
    		Degree of Covertness versus Overtness
    Degree 1too secretive(ly) + / overly covert(ly)
    Degree 2very secretive(ly) + / highly covert(ly) / hidden / well behind the scenes
    Degree 3secretive(ly) + / covert(ly) / behind the scenes / between the lines / under the table / + “back-room”
    Degree 4somewhat + secretive(ly) / somewhat covert(ly)
    Degree 5not too + secretive(ly) / not so open(ly)
    Degree 6somewhat + open(ly) / somewhat “up front”
    Degree 7open(ly) + / overt(ly) / “up front” / out in the open / honest / forthcoming(ly)
    Degree 8 very open(ly) + / very overt(ly) / very “up front” / flaunting(ly) / brutally + honest
    Degree 9too open(ly) + / too overt(ly) / overly flaunting(ly) / vulgar(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rt / -tr
    EFT
    		Degree of Effort
    Degree 1too difficult + / overly difficult
    Degree 2very difficult + / so difficult
    Degree 3strained + / difficult; strain to / with difficulty / struggle to / to work at X-ing + / to X hard
    Degree 4somewhat + difficult / not that easy
    Degree 5neither + easy nor difficult
    Degree 6somewhat + easy; not so difficult
    Degree 7 easy / + certain / unhindered / with ease / without resistance / effortlessly
    Degree 8 very easy + / so easy
    Degree 9too easy + / overly easy
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ňž
    DSG
    		Degree of Design or Purposefulness
    Degree 1purposeless(ly) + /random(ly) / utterly unorganized / chaotic(ally)
    Degree 2haphazard(ly) + / without plan or guidance/ disorganized(ly) / poorly planned
    Degree 3 fairly + haphazard(ly) / not well-planned / not well-organized
    Degree 4somewhat + haphazard(ly) / somewhat disorganized
    Degree 5slightly + disorganized / less than well-planned
    Degree 6somewhat + organized / somewhat well-planned
    Degree 7organized(ly) + / purposeful(ly) / well-planned
    Degree 8 very organized + / very structured
    Degree 9too organized + / overly structured / “anal(ly)”
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -sq
    DCS
    		Degree of Decisiveness, Commitment or Emphasis
    Degree 1indecisive + / meandering; indecisively / first one way then another
    Degree 2wishy washy + / flaky
    Degree 3some sort + of / some kind of / sort of (like) / ”kind of”; in a way / halfway + / does and doesn’t
    Degree 4apparent(ly); + seeming(ly)
    Degree 5mere(ly) + / only (a); merely / only
    Degree 6deliberate + / decisive; deliberately / decisively / purposefully
    Degree 7a real + / certainly a ; really / certainly [emphasis, not genuineness or veracity]
    Degree 8 the (one); + in the only way that counts
    Degree 9what (a) + ...!; how . . .! ; Boy! Did (does) X ever …
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -št
    CTN
    		Degree of Contrariness to Expectation(s) or Shift in Subject
    Degree 1but X would… + / if things were otherwise X WOULD… / on the contrary, X WOULD [affirmation + of hypothetical contrary to statement/suggestion otherwise
    Degree 2but / X + DOES/IS . . . / on the contrary … [affirmation of fact contrary to + suggestion or statement otherwise]
    Degree 3like it + or not…/ well, as much as we didn’t want to think it would happen...
    Degree 4against + expectation or belief ‘… after all’ ‘well, what + do you know…X!’
    Degree 5a genuine + / real / true ; really do, [contrary to expectation]
    Degree 6as a matter + of fact
    Degree 7‘at + least/at any rate’
    Degree 8 ‘by + the way/ just to mention’
    Degree 9not to + change the subject but…/ sorry to change the subject, but…/ + I don’t mean to change the subject, but…
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -çk
    PHY
    		Degree of Physical Control
    Degree 1uncontrolled/helpless(ly) + ; without control/ out of control
    Degree 2almost + completely out of control / almost totally helpless
    Degree 3losing + control / losing the ability to…
    Degree 4insufficiently + trained in...
    Degree 5amateur(ishly) + / superficially able to…
    Degree 6learn(ing) + to… / begin(ning) to be able to…
    Degree 7w/ growing + proficiency or expertise (in)
    Degree 8 proficient(ly)
    Degree 9in full + control / expert(ly)
    +

    +

    7.4.11 Modality Suffixes

    +

    Many of these correspond to the modality suffixes used in valence/modality adjuncts (see Chapter 6). The nine degrees associated with each + suffix allow a speaker control over the extent to which the modality category + should apply to the utterance. These suffix forms function, then, as an alternative + to adjunct forms for greater nuance in the applicability of the modality category + and to apply them to nouns. The nine degrees of each suffix are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1not at + all
    Degree 2to too + little a degree; to an insufficient degree
    Degree 3hardly + at all
    Degree 4to a small + degree
    Degree 5to a fair + degree/somewhat
    Degree 6fairly + much/more so than not
    Degree 7very much + so / decidedly so / to a great degree
    Degree 8 too much + so / to too great a degree
    Degree 9to the + exclusion of all else / without consideration for anything else
    +

    The specific modality suffixes are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -řbMD01resigned to
    -řdMD02devoted; committed to / devoted to
    -řčMD03desired / sought-after; want to
    -řţMD04attempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt to
    -řç MD05capable, able; can / able to / capable of
    -řcMD06knowledgeable; can = know how to / familiar with
    -řfMD07mandatory; must / have to
    -řxhMD08required; should / be to
    -řkMD09expected; be supposed to
    -ndMD10intended; mean to / intend to / shall
    -řgMD11chosen, selected; choose to / elect to
    -řqMD12…on impulse; feel like X-ing
    -řżMD13 promised; promise to
    -řjMD14well-liked; like (to)
    -řtļMD15feared; fear (to)
    -řsMD16willing; willing to
    -řšMD17prepared / ready; prepared to/ready to
    -řvMD18necessary / needed; need to
    -řňMD19Daring; dare to
    -řdhMD20decided-upon; decide to
    -řzMD21offered/offer of; offer to
    -řžMD22aided / assisted; help to / aid in X-ing
    -řnMD23not unexpected; be prone to / be apt to / tend to
    -rm MD24agreed-upon; agree to
    -řl MD25responsible for/in charge of
    -řp MD26remember to
    -mdMD27feel a need to / feel one should / feel one must / feel driven to
    -qfMD28to guess or think [that]…
    -tfMD29available; available to/for
    -mvMD30potential; can = have potential to
    -řt MD31permitted; can = permitted to
    -ňg MD32hoped-for; hope/wish to
    -mfMD33X by inclination; be inclined to
    +

    +

    7.4.12 Agential/Participant Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -n
    AGC
    		Degree of Agency
    Degree 1[AGENT] + = one who forces/causes
    Degree 2[ENABLER] + = one who enables to happen
    Degree 3[INFLUENCE] + = one who persuades/influences
    Degree 4ENABLER + BY PERMISSION] = one who permits/allows/lets happen
    Degree 5[PATIENT] + = one who does/is made to do
    Degree 6[EXPERIENCER] + = one who undergoes/experiences
    Degree 7[INSTRUMENT] + = instrument which causes
    Degree 8 [STIMULUS] + = one whose status is as stimulus of affective experience
    Degree 9[SOURCE] + = that which gives rise to, provides underlying reason for, source of
    +

    This suffix and the following identify a formative as filling a specific semantic + role corresponding in many cases to the semantic roles discussed in Sections + 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. In + several instances, these suffixes would translate the English “agentive” + suffixes -er, or -or.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -m
    ROL
    		Role
    Degree 1that which + contains or functions as the enclosure / container / house / shelter of + or for
    Degree 2that which + results from
    Degree 3 [RECIPIENT] + = one who receives / has / "-ee"
    Degree 4one who + is / acts as / functions as
    Degree 5one who + is characterized by / described by...
    Degree 6one who + is similar to/functions or acts similarly to
    Degree 7one whose + responsibility is / who is responsible for / runs the business of (operationally + speaking)
    Degree 8 one who + constructs / makes / creates
    Degree 9one who + manages / oversees / supervises / coordinates / runs the business of (managerially + speaking)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -pš
    UTE
    		Utilitative or Enabling Means
    Degree 1

    tool/device/apparatus + specifically designed for X-ing

    Degree 2medium + by/through which one X’s
    Degree 3conduit-like + tool/apparatus for X-ing
    Degree 4natural/standard + body part for X-ing
    Degree 5object + employed circumstantially as implement for X-ing
    Degree 6covering/protective + element employed to allow/permit X-ing
    Degree 7enabling + element/device/apparatus to allow/foster X-ing
    Degree 8 environment/situaton/circumstances/setting + which allows/fosters X-ing
    Degree 9FORCE which + causes/permits X-ing
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ž
    CNS
    		Degree of Consent
    Degree 1deliberately + without consent of knowledge
    Degree 2without + consent or knowledge as a precaution or “for their own good”
    Degree 3without + consent or knowledge due to circumstances
    Degree 4with their + knowledge but w/o consent; against their will
    Degree 5consent + obtained under pressure, threat, coercion
    Degree 6w/ reluctant + consent
    Degree 7willingly; + with full consent
    Degree 8 with enthusiastic + approval and support
    Degree 9at their + request
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -t
    MEC
    		Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1the body’s + natural method of doing so (e.g., on foot, by hand, etc.)
    Degree 2a manually + manipulated generic tool or implement
    Degree 3a specialized + tool for that specific purpose or activity
    Degree 4a machine + or via mechanical means or process
    Degree 5 a virtual, + electronic means or via engineering
    Degree 6mental + power, force of will, concentration
    Degree 7a redirection + or collation of energy specially applied
    Degree 8 a collective + pooling of manual labor resources
    Degree 9a collective + pooling of electronic/mechanical/engineering resources
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rx / -xr
    BOD
    		Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1

    a hand

    Degree 2an arm
    Degree 3a foot
    Degree 4a leg
    Degree 5one’s + eyes
    Degree 6both legs
    Degree 7both feet
    Degree 8 both arms
    Degree 9both hands
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -mp
    DBI
    		Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1

    a finger

    Degree 2a thumb
    Degree 3a knee
    Degree 4one’s + head
    Degree 5one’s + teeth
    Degree 6one’s + lips
    Degree 7one’s + tongue
    Degree 8 one’s + elbow
    Degree 9one’s + fingers
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ld / -dl
    SOC
    		Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1via lackeys, + grunt labor, go-fors or henchmen
    Degree 2by coercion, + threat, blackmail
    Degree 3 “fronts”, + or disguised go-betweens
    Degree 4indirectly + through actions of others (unbeknownst to them)
    Degree 5indirectly + through actions of others (with their knowledge)
    Degree 6by leveraging + existing resources / personnel (deploying existing methods in a new application)
    Degree 7via a proxy + or proxies
    Degree 8 hired help + or staff
    Degree 9by delegation + of task to experts
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ňq
    OAU
    		Origin/Association/Utilization
    Degree 1entity/thing/phenomenon that hails from X
    Degree 2entity/thing/phenomenon associated with X
    Degree 3entity/thing/phenomenon that utilizes X
    Degree 4person that hails from X
    Degree 5person associated with X
    Degree 6person that utilizes X
    Degree 7idea/practice/custom that hails from X
    Degree 8 idea/practice/custom associated with X
    Degree 9idea/practice/custom that utilizes X
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ndh
    AUT
    		Authorization
    Degree 1by being granted a personal privilege / via the generosity or largess of another or others
    Degree 2by inalienable human right / by natural right
    Degree 3by right of a legal claim / by right of statute or law
    Degree 4by right of custom or social convention / by right of general agreement or common knowledge
    Degree 5by granting of a personal favor or claim on a favor owed
    Degree 6by making of a threat or via a quid-pro-quo agreement
    Degree 7by one's own formal authority, rank, or formal position
    Degree 8 by authority of one's social position, class, or position in informal or subjective hierarchy
    Degree 9as authorized by a governing entity or formal collective authority
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -šš
    RSN
    		Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action
    Degree 1for evil + or perverse reasons
    Degree 2for foolish + or naïve reason
    Degree 3due to + deception by another
    Degree 4due to + faulty information provided by another [no deception intended]
    Degree 5due to + or based on faulty perception or misinterpretation of information or evidence
    Degree 6despite + negative circumstances or reasons not to
    Degree 7for no + reason
    Degree 8 for appropriate + reasons / for good reason
    Degree 9for virtuous, + healthy reasons
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ps
    MTA
    		Additional Motivation for an Action or State
    Degree 1in anger
    Degree 2in repugnance/revulsion
    Degree 3in irritation
    Degree 4in defense/for protection
    Degree 5in fear
    Degree 6out of curiosity/to see what happens
    Degree 7to provoke/elicit reaction
    Degree 8 to entice
    Degree 9to show appreciation
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ňt
    XPT
    		Expectation of Outcome
    Degree 1shockingly + unexpected; without precedent or rumour
    Degree 2surprise + X / unexpected X; completely by surprise/ completely unexpected(ly)
    Degree 3manage + to X despite inadequacy of preparation or effort
    Degree 4manage + to X despite misguided or misdirected preparation or effort
    Degree 5managed + to X despite hindrance(s) or obstacles; hard-won
    Degree 6manage + to X due to hindrances or obstacles being overestimated; easier than thought + to be
    Degree 7manage + to X due to excellent preparation / planning / execution
    Degree 8 completely + as expected / totally as anticipated / as predicted
    Degree 9pat; outcome + pre-ordained or predetermined
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -sp
    DLB
    		Degree of Deliberateness/Agency
    Degree 1accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) and unaware of consequences
    Degree 2unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to and unaware of consequences
    Degree 3accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) but now aware of consequences
    Degree 4unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to but now aware of consequences
    Degree 5unforseeable + / unpredictable; unforeseeably / unpredictably
    Degree 6without + realizing or considering potential consequences
    Degree 7thinking + one can get away without reaping consequences / furtive(ly)
    Degree 8 realizing + potential risks or consequences / cognizant of potential risks or consequences
    Degree 9intentional(ly) + / deliberate(ly) / on purpose / by choice; choose to
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -mz / -zm
    MOT
    		Degree of Self-Conscious Deliberation or Motivation
    Degree 1affected, + ostentatious; affectedly/ostentatiously
    Degree 2self-conscious(ly)
    Degree 3guilty + / guiltily
    Degree 4half-hearted(ly)
    Degree 5against + better judgement / can’t help but / can’t help it
    Degree 6ingrained, + by upbringing
    Degree 7learned + / habitual; by habit / trained to
    Degree 8 natural(ly) + / un-self-conscious(ly)
    Degree 9autonomic + / unaware, automatic
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ls / -sl
    ENB
    		Degree of Enablement
    Degree 1by inadvertent + gesture/word/sign taken as order or permission
    Degree 2by granting + of permission
    Degree 3by cajoling + or persuasion
    Degree 4by direct + request or imploring
    Degree 5by direct + order based on one’s real or perceived authority
    Degree 6by inadvertent + removal of hindrance
    Degree 7by inadvertent + action that initiates a chain of events
    Degree 8 by deliberate + removal of hindrance
    Degree 9by deliberate + action that initiates a chain of events
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ms / -sm
    AGN
    		Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness
    Degree 1with the + anticipated max. resulting effect possible
    Degree 2with the + anticipated resulting effect to a high degree
    Degree 3with the + anticipated resulting effect to a moderate degree
    Degree 4with the + anticipated resulting effect but only to a marginal, superficial or baredly + noticable degree
    Degree 5with no + noticeable effect or resulting change
    Degree 6with only + marginal, superficial, or barely noticeable effect or resulting change unanticipated
    Degree 7with moderate + effect or resulting change — unanticipated
    Degree 8 with the + resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated
    Degree 9with the + max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rz / -zr
    IMP
    		Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome
    Degree 1target + can do nothing - utterly inevitable
    Degree 2target + chooses to do nothing - resigned to fate
    Degree 3target + tries to prevent/avoid but fails
    Degree 4target + tries to prevent/avoid and does so partially or mitigates impact somewhat
    Degree 5target + tries to prevent/avoid and succeeds
    Degree 6target + helps/enables outcome inadvertently
    Degree 7target + helps/enables outcome against own interest (i.e., without thinking)
    Degree 8 target + helps/enables outcome intentionally despite negative consequences
    Degree 9target + helps/enables outcome intentionally for own benefit
    +

    +

    7.4.13 Miscellaneous Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -t’
    TPF
    		Topic, Frame and Focus
    Degree 1[sentence + topic]
    Degree 2[end of + frame]
    Degree 3[head of + relative clause]
    Degree 4[sentence + topic + head of relative clause]
    Degree 5[end of + frame + head of relative clause]
    Degree 6[sentence + topic + end of frame]
    Degree 7[sentence + focus + end of frame + head of rel. clause]
    Degree 8 [sentence + focus]
    Degree 9[sentence + focus + end of frame]
    +

    The various functions of the above suffix are explained in Sec. 5.4 on + Frames, and Sec. 9.1 on Topic and Focus.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rm / -mr
    SWR
    		Switch Reference & Obviative Specification (For an explanation + and illustration of this suffix, see Sec. + 8.1.4 and Sec. + 8.1.1.7)
    Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
    Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
    Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
    Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
    Degree 5first referent + mentioned
    Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
    Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
    Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
    Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -s
    PLA
    		Place, State, Setting Where…
    Degree 1place where + one learns to
    Degree 2place where + one does, performs, carries out X
    Degree 3place where + one obtains
    Degree 4place where + one stores or inventories
    Degree 5place where + one keeps or shelters
    Degree 6place where + one sees or views
    Degree 7natural + habitat or environment of
    Degree 8 place where + one deals with/ treats/ confronts
    Degree 9place where + one feels affected by
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -mm
    APT
    		Aspects
    Degree 1yet, still
    Degree 2‘even’ + as in “I don’t even like them” = in the least bit, to + the slightest extent
    Degree 3Contemplative: + upon reflection/ in hindsight
    Degree 4upon deep + introspection / following careful consideration or meditation on the matter
    Degree 5on first + blush / at first / upon initial impression / [my] first thought is/was…
    Degree 6natural(ly) + / obvious(ly) / clear(ly) [in terms of naturalness, not blatancy]
    Degree 7Experiential: + ever
    Degree 8 Regressive: + return to previous state
    Degree 9Protractive: + over a long period of time / long-delayed
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ňš
    TEM
    		Alternative Temporal Aspects
    Degree 1Inceptive: + begin to / start to
    Degree 2Resumptive: + begin again / start again / resume
    Degree 3Continuative: + keep on / still / continue / stay / yet
    Degree 4Incessative: + to X away / not stop
    Degree 5tire of + X-ing / get tired of X-ing / become weary of X-ing
    Degree 6Cessative: + stop / discontinue / cease
    Degree 7 Pausal: + take a break from [stop with intention to re-sume]
    Degree 8 Recessative: + stop again
    Degree 9Terminative: + finish / complete
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rs / -sr
    PTF
    		Part/Whole Functional Metaphors
    Degree 1engine + / motor / heart / pump / core / driver mechanism
    Degree 2brain / + computer / chip / instruction set
    Degree 3input / + feeder / access point
    Degree 4exit point + / anus / exhaust / tailpipe / smokestack / vent
    Degree 5wing/ arm + / branch / extensor / manipulator
    Degree 6support + / leg / stand / base
    Degree 7skeleton + / frame
    Degree 8 wiring + / conduits / plumbing
    Degree 9sensor + / eye / ear / antennae
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -š
    PTG
    		Part/Whole Gestalt Componential Metaphors
    Degree 1“base”portion + (e.g., upper arm)
    Degree 2“extension” + portion (e.g., forearm) or “flange”
    Degree 3“trunk” + or central bulk portion
    Degree 4middle + or divisional segment or joint
    Degree 5top/upper + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
    Degree 6bottom/lower + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
    Degree 7side/flank/ + lateral component
    Degree 8 “head” + extension or main interface area
    Degree 9extension/”arm”
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -qt
    MET
    		Metonymic Categories
    Degree 1part for + whole
    Degree 2producer + for product
    Degree 3object + used or owned for user/owner
    Degree 4controller + for controlled
    Degree 5institution + for people responsible
    Degree 6place for + inhabitants/occupants
    Degree 7place for + event
    Degree 8 place for + institution
    Degree 9attribute + or characteristic for owner
    +

    Metonymy is the reference to an entity via one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business.
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -k
    SSD
    		Stem-Specific Derivatives
    Degree 1derivative + 1
    Degree 2derivative + 2
    Degree 3derivative + 3
    Degree 4derivative + 4
    Degree 5derivative + 5
    Degree 6derivative + 6
    Degree 7derivative + 7
    Degree 8 derivative + 8
    Degree 9derivative + 9
    +

    This suffix is used to distinguish particular instantiations of a more generic + entity; their meaning is semantically specific to the particular stem.

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -k’
    SBS
    		 Subset of Configurative Set
    Degree 1single + specific member (random, i.e., any given member)
    Degree 2natural + first level subset, e.g., a cell among a network, a clique within a + club, a row of an orchard
    Degree 3natural + 2nd level subset, e.g., a section of a network, a subcommittee within + a club, a section of an orchard
    Degree 4complex + natural system or pattern within a set (e.g., the circulatory system, + the heating system)
    Degree 5subset + of set (unknown if natural or select subconfiguration)
    Degree 6complex/circumstantial + select pattern/arrangement within a set (e.g., the parts/things of a + house damaged by fire)
    Degree 72nd level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select section of trees of an + orchard
    Degree 8 first level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select rocks from a pile, select + trees of an orchard
    Degree 9single + select member (externally determined)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rq
    SPS
    		Supersets/Multi-Level Gestalts (e.g., musical note --> melody --> movement of musical piece --> symphony/suite, etc.)
    Degree 13rd-level superset/gestalt based on number nodes
    Degree 23rd-level superset/gestalt based on new layer of infrastructure
    Degree 33rd-level superset/gestalt based on complexity leading to the appearance/manifestaton of emergent properties
    Degree 42nd-level superset/gestalt based on number nodes
    Degree 52nd-level superset/gestalt based on new layer of infrastructure
    Degree 62nd-level superset/gestalt based on complexity leading to the appearance/manifestaton of emergent properties
    Degree 74th-level superset/gestalt based on number nodes
    Degree 8 4th-level superset/gestalt based on new layer of infrastructure
    Degree 94th-level superset/gestalt based on complexity leading to the appearance/manifestaton of emergent properties
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -p’
    ATN
    		Degree of Attention or Determination
    Degree 1concentrate + fully upon; pay utmost attention to
    Degree 2concentrate + to point of distraction, to be ‘lost’ in X-ing
    Degree 3pay strict + attention to
    Degree 4determined + to
    Degree 5pay attention + to; attend to; be careful that you…; heed
    Degree 6keep an + eye on
    Degree 7take some + notice of
    Degree 8 barely + notice; take little notice of
    Degree 9ignore + completely
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -šk
    DPR
    		Dispersion or Separability of a Configurative Set
    Degree 1in total + contact / contiguous mass of; pile, “ball of…”
    Degree 2non-contiguous + but closely connected, interlinked, each linked to adjacent via connecting + medium (like web); cluster
    Degree 3connected + via intervening central medium (like a vine or branches); bunch
    Degree 4not physically + connected but with immediate accessibility and knowledge of other member + actions
    Degree 5scattered + - contact with nearest member possible but less possible with others
    Degree 6“virtual” + association only
    Degree 7temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at long intervals
    Degree 8 temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at frequent intervals
    Degree 9temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at very short, immediate intervals / one + after another
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -mb
    SEP
    		Spatio-Temporal Separability of a Configurative Set
    Degree 1

    Logical + connectedness only (spatial)

    Degree 2Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned far away from another
    Degree 3Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned a little ways away from another
    Degree 4Well-integrated + spatially – one positioned right next to or behind another
    Degree 5Both spatially + and temporally well-integrated (one right after another)
    Degree 6Well-integrated + temporally – one right after the other
    Degree 7Loosely + integrated temporally – one a little while after the other
    Degree 8 Loosely + integrated temporally – one a long while after the other
    Degree 9Logical + connectedness only (temporal)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ňk
    SDP
    		Subset of Duplex Set
    Degree 1first, + top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + upper lip, inhale/inhalation, left hand)
    Degree 2beginning + or leading “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 3middle + section of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of + a duplex event or object
    Degree 4ending + or trailing “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 5midpoint, + peak, or lull between the 2 halves of a duplex set or pair
    Degree 6beginning + or leading “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 7middle + section of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing “half” of + a duplex event or object
    Degree 8 ending + or trailing “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 92nd, bottom, + back, righthand or trailing “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + lower lip, exhale/exhalation, right hand)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -xt
    NEW
    		Degree of Newness/Revision
    Degree 1new = original + new, i.e., never before seen
    Degree 2new = never before seen within current context, e.g., a new student
    Degree 3new = role, i.e., never functioning/existing in this capacity/manner before
    Degree 4new/other = replacement + new
    Degree 5new/other = additional instance + new
    Degree 6new/other = revision + additional
    Degree 7new/other = revision + replacement
    Degree 8 new/other/different = different, not seen/used before within current context; status as addition/replacement unknown or inapplicable
    Degree 9new/other/different = different + new; status as addition/replacement unknown or inapplicable
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ks
    COS
    		Comparison Specifications (Used with Levels ) - see Section 6.2 and Section 6.2.5
    Degree 1“more”/“less” = extent/amount/volume
    Degree 2“harder”/“weaker” = degree of intensity or effort
    Degree 3“longer”/“shorter” = duration; time spent being/doing
    Degree 4“better”/“worse” = quality / style
    Degree 5“more efficiently”/“less efficiently” = efficiency / effort relative to outcome
    Degree 6“greater”/“poorer” = relevant outcome / bottom-line result
    Degree 7combo of 4, 5, and 6
    Degree 8 combo of 1, 2, and 3
    Degree 9combo of 1 through 6
    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ln / -nl
    WAK
    		Spread/wake/trail/area/expanse created by passage of entity
    Degree 1quasi-linear “trail” or wake left behind on path of linear movement; trail or wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., slime trail left by snail, footprints left on snow, mowed down foliage left by moving convoy, etc.)
    Degree 2quasi-linear spread of entity stretching behind linearly moving “head” (e.g., a line of soldiers put in place to create a front, a line left on a piece of paper as written by an ink pen, path of a ball of string or skein of yarn as it unravels while rolling down an incline)
    Degree 3quasi-linear trail/wake/spread left behind passage as line of demarcation/boundary/barrier
    Degree 42-d quasi-planar wake left behind on path of movement; wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., aftermath of a forest fire, cleaned area of dirty floor or wall after it has been wiped by a mop or dustcloth)
    Degree 52-d quasi-planar spread stretching behind moving front (e.g., area of spreading flames in a forest fire, area being inundated by a flood, area of a wall being covered up by plaster by workmen, coating of an apple dipped in chocolate, area of floor covered up by a rug)
    Degree 62-d quasi-planar wake/spread left behind passage as area of demarcation/zone/restricted area
    Degree 73-d volume left behind a moving front; volume is not composed of or inundated with the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., area left behind the passage of a tidal wave, column of superheated air left behind the passage of a rocket
    Degree 8 3-d volume inundated by spread of moving front (e.g., spread of a gas within a room, area inundated by fog, volume of a container taken up by substance placed/poured/stuffed into it)
    Degree 93-d volume left behind passage of moving front as volume/spatial area of demarcation/zone/restricted space
    +

    The above affix distinguishes movement of an entity from the “trail” or spread left behind, e.g., movement which leaves behind a wake or affected area; used with motion roots as well as roots designating shapes/forms. Use of the above suffixes in conjunction with the various roots pertaining to paths of translative movement allows for very nuanced translations of English words such as surround, cover, inundate, enclose, expand, spread out, encompass, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -šp
    SCT
    		Degree of Shift/Change/Transition (used for both spatial and temporal contexts)
    Degree 1sharp break, sudden shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another with no discernible transition period/zone (i.e., point-like/instantaneous transition)
    Degree 2disjointed/non-contiguous/non-continuous break/shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 3extremely brief/small/barely discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 4somewhat brief/small/discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 5normal/standard/expected transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 6somewhat variable/changing/fluctuating transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 7highly variable/chaotic transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 8 smooth, gradual transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 9very gradual/almost imperceptible rate/degree of change/transition from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lm / -ml
    NNN
    		n-numbered angles/facets/faces/sides/points/forms
    Degree 1uneven /assymmetrical n–sided 2-D obtusely angled form (e.g., quadrilateral, pentagonoid, hexagonoid
    Degree 2uneven/assymetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation
    Degree 3uneven/assymetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
    Degree 4uneven/assymmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., n-hedron-like solid)
    Degree 5having n number of 3-D projections/spikes/pointed surfaces
    Degree 6symmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., tetrahedron, dodecahedron)
    Degree 7symetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
    Degree 8 symetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation (can be used with numbers as low as 2, which would refer to an elongated diamond shape)
    Degree 9symmetrical n–sided 2-D form (e.g., square, pentagon, hexagon)
    +

    The above affix is used with the number stems (see Chapter 12) to provide words for forms, shapes, and solids bearing a distinct number of angles, points, sides, facets, etc.

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -mļ
    LVL
    		Alternate forms of Comparison Operators ( Levels) (see Section 6.2.3) - V1C forms correspond to relative comparison, V2C forms to absolute comparison.
    Degree 1EQUEQUATIVE
    Degree 2SURSURPASSIVE
    Degree 3DFCDEFICIENT
    Degree 4OPT OPTIMAL
    Degree 5MIN MINIMAL
    Degree 6SPLSUPERLATIVE
    Degree 7IFRINFERIOR
    Degree 8 SPQSUPEREQUATIVE
    Degree 9SBESUBEQUATIVE
    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lţ
    FNS
    		Material States/Forms (non-solid / quasi-solid)
    Degree 1X as liquid
    Degree 2X as goo or slime-like substance
    Degree 3X as powder or dust-like substance
    Degree 4X as gravel or sand-like substance
    Degree 5X as gas
    Degree 6X as wax(y) or clay-like substance
    Degree 7X as rubber(y) or eslastic substance
    Degree 8 X as flexible subtance like cotton or cloth
    Degree 9X as flaky subtance or shavings
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lf
    FMS
    		Material States/Forms (solids)
    Degree 1X as frozen
    Degree 2X as carvable substance (like wood or soap)
    Degree 3X as chalk-like, friable substance
    Degree 4X as rock or cement-like substance
    Degree 5X as solid
    Degree 6X in natural chunks or randomly-shaped solid pieces
    Degree 7X as block-like or formed pieces
    Degree 8 X as hardened/durable subtance
    Degree 9X as metal(lic)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lv
    TRF

    Transformation for Use

    Degree 1Cured (transformed by natural chemical process)
    Degree 2Treated
    Degree 3Processed (transformed by artificial/man-made process)
    Degree 4Transformed via exposure to or saturation w/ other substance(s)
    Degree 5Cooked
    Degree 6Soaked/saturated/marinated with liquid(s)
    Degree 7Derived (chemically or processually) from something else
    Degree 8 Fermented
    Degree 9Pickled/Brined
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lb
    CVY
    		 Means of Transportation/Conveyance
    Degree 1holder / stabilizer for (transporting/holding) X
    Degree 2mystical/magical/supernatural means for (transporting/holding) X
    Degree 3automatic or separately controlled vehicle/vessel used for (transporting/holding) X
    Degree 4automated/electronic means for (transporting/holding) X
    Degree 5manually operated vessel/vehicle used for (transporting/holding) X
    Degree 6jury-rigged means for (transporting/holding) X
    Degree 7method/practice used for (transporting/holding) X
    Degree 8 device used for (transporting/holding) X
    Degree 9rule/regulation/by-law for (transporting/holding) X
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lš
    FEA
    		 Featural Properties
    Degree 1functional mainfestation/portion/piece of X
    Degree 2container(ful) of X
    Degree 3a sample of X
    Degree 4a display(ing) of X
    Degree 5an instance of X
    Degree 6an aspect/characteristic/trait of X
    Degree 7a feature/function of X
    Degree 8 a highlight / key feature of X
    Degree 9an example of X
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -nļ
    STG
    		 Stage of a Process
    Degree 1onset/initiation/birth of X
    Degree 2development/build-up of X
    Degree 3point of no return/iminent transition of X
    Degree 4plateau stage, rest or pause before next stage of X
    Degree 5(at) peak / in prime / mature stage
    Degree 6abrupt or premature termination of X
    Degree 7gradual decline of X
    Degree 8 end stage / final state / terminal or last stage
    Degree 9cessation / finished / over / dead
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lc
    CGL
    		 Motive/Reason for Conglomeration/Coming Together of Gestalt Entity
    Degree 1by voluntary/volitional association
    Degree 2by appointment to the task
    Degree 3by custom/societal convention/expectation
    Degree 4by random chance
    Degree 5by being forced to
    Degree 6by being pressured
    Degree 7by reluctant volunteering
    Degree 8 for pragmatic/utilitarian reasons
    Degree 9by eager/enthusiastic volunteering
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lq
    INB
    		 Inability/Incapacity Due To . . .
    Degree 1inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to absence/loss of resource(s)
    Degree 2inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to absence/loss of physical means
    Degree 3inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to absence/loss of skill/knowledge
    Degree 4inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to blockage/prevention of access to resource(s)
    Degree 5inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to blockage/prevention of access to physical means
    Degree 6inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to blockage/prevention of access to skill/knowledge
    Degree 7inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to psychological trauma
    Degree 8 inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to physical trauma
    Degree 9inability/incapacity to [perform/achieve/realize] X due to loss/absence of desire
    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ff
    PLE
    		Degree of (Un-)Pleasantness (of Effect or Result)
    Degree 1maximally unpleasant, horrible, ghastly, terrible
    Degree 2very unpleasant, awful
    Degree 3unpleasant, mildly awful
    Degree 4somewhat unpleasant, disagreeable
    Degree 5neutral, neither pleasant nor unpleasant, bland
    Degree 6somewhat pleasant, agreeable
    Degree 7pleasant, a nice experience
    Degree 8 very pleasant, pleasureable
    Degree 9maximally pleasant, very pleasureable, exstacy
    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rc
    ACQ
    		Acquisition
    Degree 1acquired by chance/whim/having stumbled upon
    Degree 2acquired by mental effort/learning/study/creation
    Degree 3acquired by informal, spur-of-the-moment search
    Degree 4acquired by trickery/subterfuge
    Degree 5innate/inherent
    Degree 6acquired by formal search
    Degree 7acquired by informal agreement/negotiation
    Degree 8 acquired by formally negotiated trade or deal
    Degree 9acquired by purchase
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rf
    TAL
    		Degree of Capacity or Talent for...
    Degree 1no capacity/talent for X(-ing)
    Degree 2almost no capacity/talent for X(-ing)
    Degree 3poor/little capacity/talent for X(-ing)
    Degree 4 capacity/talent for X(-ing)
    Degree 5 capacity/talent for X(-ing)
    Degree 6 above average/good capacity/talent for X(-ing)
    Degree 7 very good capacity/talent for X(-ing)
    Degree 8 excellent capacity/talent for X(-ing)
    Degree 9 outstanding capacity/talent for X(-ing)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rtļ
    RNC
    		Renunciation
    Degree 1give up X-ing / give up on X
    Degree 2lose faith/belief in X(-ing)
    Degree 3stop trying to X
    Degree 4undermine (efforts to) X
    Degree 5refuse to X
    Degree 6lose sense of resolve/commitment to X
    Degree 7no longer have passion for X / lose passion for X
    Degree 8 lose ability to do/be/make X
    Degree 9lack means/ability to X
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -mx
    DPT
    		Depiction/Representation/Record
    Degree 1symbol/emblem/logo representing/standing for X
    Degree 2allegorical reference to X
    Degree 3stand-in/substitute for X
    Degree 4symptom/consequence of X
    Degree 5representation/depiction/illustration of X
    Degree 6trace/clue/vestige of X
    Degree 7record of X
    Degree 8 pointer to/indicator of X
    Degree 9map/blueprint/schematic diagram of X
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lč
    ENG
    		Degree of Engagement/Involvement
    Degree 1avoiding X(-ing) at all costs; run away from X(-ing)
    Degree 2averse to X(-ing); fear X(-ing)
    Degree 3shirk involvement in X(-ing); not be/get involved in
    Degree 4to X for appearance' sake only; to X solely for show
    Degree 5lackluster interest/involvement in X(-ing)
    Degree 6marginal interest/involvement in X(-ing)
    Degree 7limited/partial involvement in X(-ing)
    Degree 8 fully involved/engrossed in X(-ing)
    Degree 9irreversibly involved/engrossed in X(-ing)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lg
    OPF
    		Degree of Operational Functionality
    Degree 1disintegrated, in pieces, shattered
    Degree 2irreparably damaged, ruined
    Degree 3badly damaged, non-operational, non-functional (with possibilty of being repaired)
    Degree 4damaged -- only partially functional (i.e., some parts/aspects are functional while others are not)
    Degree 5something wrong with X, not functioning properly, something not right with X
    Degree 6impaired -- functional but not performing to full extent of output or efficiency
    Degree 7in fair working order/condition
    Degree 8 in good working order/condition
    Degree 9in optimum working order / in excellent condition
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rç
    MLR
    		Meta-level representation/coordination/analysis
    Degree 1formal theory explaining/coordinating X
    Degree 2plan explaining/coordinating X
    Degree 3idea explaining/coordinating X
    Degree 4folk theory or accepted societal convention explaining/coordinating X
    Degree 5illustration/picture/graphic representation explaining/coordinating X
    Degree 6physical model explaining/coordinating X
    Degree 7mathematical model explaining/coordinating X
    Degree 8 logical model explaining/coordinating X
    Degree 9metaphorical representation of X
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rp
    HG1
    		Linguistic Hedges (1st group)
    Degree 1

    more or less

    Degree 2

    for all practical purposes / to all intents and purposes / practically / virtually/all but technically

    Degree 3

    sort of / kind of

    Degree 4

    strictly speaking

    Degree 5

    essentially /  in essence / basically

    Degree 6

    might as well be

    Degree 7

    in one sense

    Degree 8

    in some sense

    Degree 9

    par excellence

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -lp
    HG2
    		Linguistic Hedges (2nd group)
    Degree 1

    in a sense  /  in a way

    Degree 2

    in a manner of speaking

    Degree 3

    more of a ___ than anything else

    Degree 4

    (what can be looked at (as) / (what) can be viewed as / (what) one thinks of (as) / one might say that

    Degree 5

    loosely speaking

    Degree 6

    so-called

    Degree 7

    in name only

    Degree 8

    so to say

    Degree 9

    for all I know / for all one knows

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rn
    PHS
    		Alternative suffix forms for Phase categories (see Sec. 5.5)
    Degree 1Contextual
    Degree 2Punctual
    Degree 3Iterative
    Degree 4Repetitive
    Degree 5Intermittent
    Degree 6Recurrent
    Degree 7Frequentative
    Degree 8 Fragmentative
    Degree 9

    Fluctuative

    +

     

    +

     

    +


    + 7.4.14 Locational Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rš / -šr
    LCT
    		Locational Octant Markers for Object Being Located (see Section 10.3.3)
    Degree 1+X / +Y + / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Octant 1
    Degree 2+X / +Y + / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Octant 2
    Degree 3+X / -Y + / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Octant 3
    Degree 4+X / -Y + / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Octant 4
    Degree 5object + at rest relative to other object
    Degree 6-X / +Y + / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Octant 5
    Degree 7-X / +Y + / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Octant 6
    Degree 8 -X / -Y + / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Octant 7
    Degree 9-X / -Y + / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Octant 8
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -bz
    PXM
    		Degree of Proximity
    Degree 1too close
    Degree 2 as close + as possible without contact
    Degree 3 very close + to
    Degree 4close to
    Degree 5somewhat + close to
    Degree 6not very + close to / somewhat far from
    Degree 7far from + / distant from
    Degree 8 far away + / very far from
    Degree 9too far + away
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -gz
    CTC
    		Degree of Contact
    Degree 1melded + with / blended with / fused
    Degree 2inseparable(ly) + / locked together / bonded
    Degree 3linked + / attached / connected / joined
    Degree 4touching + intimately / touching all over / flush with / in close contact with
    Degree 5deliberately + touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
    Degree 6deliberately + touching at one spot or place
    Degree 7casually + or incidentally touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
    Degree 8 casually + or incidentally touching at one spot or place
    Degree 9barely + touching / hardly touching at all / touching at one small spot
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rb
    VWP
    		From Viewpoint/Perspective of
    Degree 1from viewpoint/perspective of speaker
    Degree 2from viewpoint/perspective of 3rd party visible/near to speaker
    Degree 3from viewpoint/perspective of the last-mentioned argument/referent
    Degree 4from viewpoint/perspective of a party other than one under discussion
    Degree 5from viewpoint/perspective of 3rd party under discussion
    Degree 6from viewpoint/perspective of an as-yet-undetermined 3rd party
    Degree 7from viewpoint/perspective of the first-mentioned argument/referent
    Degree 8 from viewpoint/perspective of 3rd party visible/near to listener
    Degree 9from viewpoint/perspective of listener
    +

     

    +

    7.4.15   Format Expansion Suffixes

    +

    These VxC suffixes were first mentioned in Section 6.4.3 and are used in conjunction with the Vf Format/Context suffix in Slot XII to accomplish the following:

    +
      +
    • Specify the Configuration and Perspective of an incorporated stem (see Sec. 6.4)
      +
      • +
    • Expand the category of Format (see Sec. 6.4.1) so that it is associated with the 72 primary noun cases (see Chapter 4), i.e., so that the semantically conflated relationship of the incorporated stem to the main stem of the formative can be specifically defined by a noun case.  For example, the Format of an incorporated stem ‘cat’ can be marked as INDUCIVE case (see Sec. 4.3.2) in conjunction with the main stem ‘vocalize’ to give a word meaning ‘meow.’
      • +
    +

     

    +

    Twelve consonant forms are used for these Slot XI suffixes, which combine with the three suffix-types to give the 36 forms necessary to specify the nine possible configurations and four possible perspectives of the incorporated stem.  In turn, the nine suffix-degrees times eight vocalic Vf suffixes in Slot XII combine to identify which of the 72 primary noun cases constitutes the Format of the incorporated stem.  All these forms are shown in the matrices below.

    +

    Perspective & Configuration of Incorporated Stem – Shown by VxC value

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    + PER-SPECTIVE

    CONFIGURATION

    1 UNI

    2 DPX

    3 DCT

    4 AGG

    5 SEG

    6 CPN

    7 COH

    8 CST

    9 MLT

    M

    -V1tt

    -V2tt

    -V3tt

    -V1st’

    -V2st’

    -V3st’

    -V1št’

    -V2št’

    -V3št’

    U

    -V1pk

    -V2pk

    -V3pk

    -V1sp’

    -V2sp’

    -V3sp’

    -V1šp’

    -V2šp’

    -V3šp’

    N

    -V1qq

    -V2qq

    -V3qq

    -V1sq’

    -V2sq’

    -V3sq’

    -V1šq’

    -V2šq’

    -V3šq’

    A

    -V1tk

    -V2tk

    -V3tk

    -V1sk’

    -V2sk’

    -V3sk’

    -V1šk’

    -V2šk’

    -V3šk’

    +

     

    +

    Expanded Format Corresponding to Case – Shown by VXC suffix degree x Vf suffix value

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    degree

     

     

    degree

     

     

    degree

     

     

    degree

     

    1 OBL

    1

     

    +

    *

    19 PAR

    1

     

    +

    ISR

    37 CMM

    1

     

    +

    RSL

    55 DFF

    1

     

    +

    CCM

    2 IND

    2

    20 CRS

    2

    38 COM

    2

    56 PER

    2

    3 ABS

    3

    21 CPS

    3

    39 CNJ

    3

    57 PRO

    3

    4 ERG

    4

    22 PRD

    4

    40 UTL

    4

    58 PCV

    4

    5 EFF

    5

    23 MED

    5

    41 ABE

    5

    59 PCR

    5

    6 AFF

    6

    24 APL

    6

    42 CVS

    6

    60 ELP

    6

    7 DAT

    7

    25 PUR

    7

    43 COR

    7

    61 ALP

    7

    8 INS

    8

    26 CSD

    8

    44 DEP

    8

    62 INP

    8

    9 ACT

    9

    27 ESS

    9

    45 PVS

    9

    63 EPS

    9

    10 DER

    1

     

    +

    SCH

    28 ASI

    1

     

    +

    ATH

    46 PTL

    1

     

    +

    SBQ

    64 PLM

    1

     

    +

    OBJ

    11 SIT

    2

    29 FUN

    2

    47 CON

    2

    65 LIM

    2

    12 POS

    3

    30 TFM

    3

    48 EXC

    3

    66 LOC

    3

    13 PRP

    4

    31 REF

    4

    49 AVR

    4

    67 ORI

    4

    14 GEN

    5

    32 CLA

    5

    50 CMP

    5

    68 PSV

    5

    15 ATT

    6

    33 CNV

    6

    51 SML

    6

    69 ALL

    6

    16 PDC

    7

    34 IDP

    7

    52 ASS

    7

    70 ABL

    7

    17 ITP

    8

    35 BEN

    8

    53 CNR

    8

    71 NAV

    8

    18 OGN

    9

    36 TSP

    9

    54 ACS

    9

    72 VOC

    9

    +

     * the default Vf suffix form is used (i.e., -a, -i, -e, or -u, depending on the formative’s Context)

    +

     

    +

    Proceed to Chapter 8: Adjuncts >>

    +

     

    +

     

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    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
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    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
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    Chapter 8: index.htmlh2> + + + + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + +
    8.1 Personal Reference Adjuncts https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/8.3 Affixual Adjuncts
    8.2 Aspectual Adjuncts 8.4 Bias Adjuncts
      
    +

    The notion of adjuncts was introduced in Section + 2.4.2. We hhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ave already discussed details of some kinds of adjuncts — verbal adjuncts https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/were introduced in Chapter + 6. In this https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/chapter, several +additional types of adjuncts are introduchttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ed.

    +

     

    +

    +
    + + + + +
    8.1 PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS
    +
    +

    The first type of adjunct we will analyze https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/are those relating + to personal reference. By “personal reference” is meant the grammatical + description of nouns by abbreviated forms of reference. In most languages, this + is accomplished by means of personal pronouns (e.g., English he, she, it, I, + you, him, her, mine, ours, etc.). Generally, personal pronouns are distinguished + by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) and case (e.g., compare English + we, us, and ours). Ithkuil accomplishes the equivalent function by means of + personal reference adjuncts, of which there are two types: single-referent and + dual-referent.

    +

    Like other adjuncts in Ithkuil, personal reference adjuncts are + highly synthetic in their structure, comprised of at least two morphemes and + usually more. Before we examine the componential structure of personal reference + adjuncts themselves, we must first introduce the personal reference categories + they refer to.

    +


    + 8.1.1 Personal Reference Categories

    +

    The morpho-semantic delineations of Ithkuil personal reference + categorization are based on inclusion or exclusion in relation to an utterance. + These delineations begin with identifying whether or not the party speaking + is included or excluded in relation to the utterance. The next delineation made + is whether the party being addressed (i.e., the audience/listener) is included + or excluded, then finally whether any third party (i.e., a party other than + the speaker and the addressee) is included or excluded.

    +

    There are 44 personal reference categories in Ithkuil, each + of which is represented by a single consonant affix plus a corresponding falling + or high tone as shown in Table 26 below. The various terms and abbreviations + used in the table are explained following the table.
    +

    +


    + Table 26(a) + and (b): Personal Reference Categories

    +
    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    PRONOUNCED WITH FALLING TONE
     LabelSpeaker Included Addressee Included 3rd Party Included
    t
    		1mYES——
    s
    		1+2mYESmonadic—
    š
    		1+2uYESunbounded—
    k
    		2m—monadic—
    p
    		2u—unbounded—
    q
    		ma——monadic animate
    xh
    		ua——unbounded animate
    ç
    		Col——Collective
    l
    		Ea——universal animate
    v
    		IDa——indefinite animate
    r
    		Mx——mixed m/u/a/i
    ř
    		IPa——impersonal animate
    ţ
    		1+maYES—monadic animate
    n
    		1+uaYES—unbounded animate
    x
    		2m+ma—monadicmonadic animate
    ň
    		2m+ua—monadicunbounded animate
    f
    		2u+ma—unboundedmonadic animate
    m
    		2u+ua—unboundedunbounded animate
    h
    		1+2m+maYESmonadicmonadic animate
    z
    		1+2m+uaYESmonadicunbounded animate
    ļ
    		1+2u+maYESunboundedmonadic animate
    ž
    		1+2u+uaYESunboundedunbounded animate
    		 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    PRONOUNCED WITH HIGH TONE
     LabelSpeaker Included Addressee Included 3rd Party Included
    t
    		1m+MxYES—mixed m/u/a/i
    s
    		1+2m+MxYESmonadicmixed m/u/a/i
    š
    		1+2u+MxYESunboundedmixed m/u/a/i
    k
    		2m+Mx—monadicmixed m/u/a/i
    p
    		2u+Mx—unboundedmixed m/u/a/i
    q
    		mi——monadic inanimate
    xh
    		ui——unbounded inanimate
    ç
    		Abt——Abstract
    l
    		Ei——universal inanimate
    v
    		IDi——indefinite inanimate
    r
    		Obv——Obviative
    ř
    		IPi——impersonal inanimate
    ţ
    		1+miYES—monadic inanimate
    n
    		1+uiYES—unbounded inanimate
    x
    		2m+mi—monadicmonadic inanimate
    ň
    		2m+ui—monadicunbounded inanimate
    f
    		2u+mi—unboundedmonadic inanimate
    m
    		2u+ui—unboundedunbounded inanimate
    h
    		1+2m+miYESmonadicmonadic inanimate
    z
    		1+2m+uiYESmonadicunbounded inanimate
    ļ
    		1+2u+miYESunboundedmonadic inanimate
    ž
    		1+2u+uiYESunboundedunbounded inanimate
    +
    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    + E = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + Mx = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)
    +

    +
    +

    The following sections explain the terminology in the above + table.

    +

    8.1.1.1 Monadic vs. Unbounded. These terms were discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.3 on Perspective. For simplicity’s sake, the difference between + a MONADIC third party versus an UNBOUNDED third party can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ + and ‘they.’

    +

    8.1.1.2 Speaker and Addressee. These terms refer respectively to the party + speaking (in Western grammar the first person), the party being spokenhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ to (the + second person), and a third party being considered or mentioned (the third person). + Unlike the standard six-person matrix common in Western grammar (the three persons + divided into singular and plural), Ithkuil divides personal reference along + logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance.

    +

    From the viewpoint of Ithkuil grammar, only a single individual + can speak. Even if there are two or more persons speaking the same utterance + simultaneously it is but a collection of single individuals, each of which is + one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ithkuil, the speaker, + can be only MONADIC, never UNBOUNDED. + Thus, in Ithkuil, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” + since inherent in the various categories which translate “we” is + the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From this + we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s + utterance that determines the various personal reference categories.

    +

    The “second person” in Ithkuil is the addressee, + the person(s) being addressed or spoken to. There can be one addressee, or more + than one addressee, i.e., MONADIC or UNBOUNDED.

    +

    The “third person” in Ithkuil is where things get + very complicated, in that a party being referenced who is not the speaker or + the addressee can have many distinctions, including the presence or absence + of animacy, being MONADIC versus UNBOUNDED, + being referred to as a collective entity, being an intangible abstraction, being + indefinite, being an impersonal generic reference, or being a combination of + two or more of these categories. These distinctions are explained below.

    +

    8.1.1.3 Animate vs. Inanimate. This is as it sounds. As we saw in earlier chapters, + particularly Sec. 4.1, several + important morphological categories in Ithkuil are dependent on whether the party + to the act, condition, or event is a living entity or inanimate. Note that the + distinction between gender (he vs. she) found in most Western languages does + not exist in the Ithkuil personal reference system.

    +

    8.1.1.4 “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible fhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/or the third + party being referenced to be two or more entities of different natures. For + example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” where + “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic + animate entity), three boxes (i.e., a polyadic inanimate entity), and an intangible + concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract entity). In such + cases, Ithkuil personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” + parties to be included in a particular personal referent.

    +

    8.1.1.5 Collective Reference. This corresponds to the NOMIC perspective in which a noun can be spoken of as a generic collective. For example, + the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast refers to all dogs in a collective sense, not any dog in particular. This COLLECTIVE category has its own set of personal reference affixes in Ithkuil, depending + on what other entities are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.6 Abstract Reference. This corresponds to the ABSTRACT perspective, equivalent to derivational abstract forms such as English nouns + ending with -hood, -ness, etc. In Ithkuil, all nouns can be + spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the + sense of being or functioning as a book), and the personal reference system + provides affixes for this category whose form again depends on what other entities + are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.7 Obviative (4th Person) Reference. This category has no equivalent in + Western languages, although it is found in various Native American languages. + It refers to a third party referent other than one previously mentioned, which + would otherwise be identically marked. In Native American grammatical treatises, + this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. + For example, the English sentence He saw his book is ambiguous because + we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer to the + same person or to two different persons (i.e., one who did the seeing and another + who owns the book). In Ithkuil, no such ambiguity occurs because the latter + third person referent, if a distinct person from the initial third person referent, + would be marked using the OBVIATIVE, not the third person. + This disambiguation of third person referents is the purpose of the OBVIATIVE. + Its translation into English is therefore dependent on a preceding personal + referent. (See Sec. 8.1.4 below for more information + about the OBVIATIVE).

    +

    8.1.1.8 Indefinite Reference. This category indicates that the third party + refers to any third party within the specified parameters. For example, the + falling-toned referent v indicates an indefinite animate party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or + ‘anybody,’ whhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ile the high-toned referent ¯v indicates an indefinite inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’

    +

    8.1.1.9 Universal Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers + to every third party within the specified parameters. For example, the falling-toned referent l indicates a universal animate party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or + ‘everybody,’ while the high-toned referent ¯l indicates a universal inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’

    +

    8.1.1.10 Impersonal Reference. This category corresponds to the German pronoun man or French pronoun on, as well as the various circumlocutions + used in English to describe impersonal reference (e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ + ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). + Such impersonal reference is illustrated in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    · One should + never speak to clowns alone.
    + · To dance the tango you need a partner.
    + · They say it never rains in August.
    + · That town is said to be haunted.
    + · She just wants to talk to someone without being criticized.

    +
    +

    8.1.1.11 Inclusivity vs. Exclusivity. Since + Ithkuil personal reference adjuncts are designed to specify who among the speaker, + addressee(s), and any third party is included or excluded in the context of + the utterance, there are many possible personal reference distinctions possible + in Ithkuil for which English has no equivalent pronouns. Such exacting distinctions + would have to be made periphrastically in English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ + the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and + he but not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English + word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings equivalent to ‘you + (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ + ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and those things,’ etc.

    +


    + 8.1.2 Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    Adjuncts with one personal referent are termed single-referent + adjuncts and have four forms: (1) a short form, (2) a long form, (3) a + conjunct form, and (4) a collapsed form, as shown in Table 27 below.
    +

    +


    + Table 27: + Morphological Structure of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Form 1 (Short Form): C1 + Vc Example: p + oi → poi
    Form 2 (Long Form) : C1 + Vc + Cz + Vz (+ ’Cb)Example:
    + t (w/ high tone) + i + w + u → –tiwu
    +

    Form 3 (Conjunct Form):

    +
    +

    Cs+Vs (+ Cs+Vs...) + C1 + V1 + Cz + Vz (+ ’Cb)

    +
    		Example:
    +f + o + t     + eu + y + e + ’çç → foteuye’çç

    Form 4 (Collapsed Form): Vc2 + C1 + Vc

    		Example: e + p + oi → epoi
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Where: 
    C1 =
    		consonant identifying + Referent 1 [from Table 26 above]
    Vc =
    		vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table + 28 below]
    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Cz =
    		consonantal infix showing the affiliation of Referent 1 (see Table 29 below)
    Vz =
    		vocalic suffix + showing the Configuration and Essence of Referent + 1 in conjunction with syllabic stress (see Table 30 below)
    Cs =
    		consonantal suffix + for Referent 1 from standard suffix tables
    Vs=
    		vocalic infix showing the suffix degree and suffix type for + Cs [see Table 24 in Sec. 7.1.2]
    Cb =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 15 in Sec. + 5.11.1)
    Syllabic Stress = indicates essence of Referent 1: penultimate (or monosyllabic) = NRM; ultimate stress = RPV
    Vc2 =
    		vocalic infix indicating the case of a second instance of Referent 1. The values are the same as for Vc[see Table 28 below]
    +

    +


    + 8.1.2.1 Short Form    : Form 1, the short form of the adjunct, consists of a single consonant + (labeled C1 in the diagram) plus falling or high tone, + corresponding to one of the 44 particular referents (as described in Sec. + 8.1.1 above). https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/This is followed by a single vocalic suffix Vc indicating the case of the personal referent (see Chapter 4 on Case). The 96 +possible values for this suffix are shown in Table 28 below in the column labeled Vc. Note that for Case Nos. 49 through 96, Vc is the same https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/as for the first 48 cases, plus a shift in the tone of the adjunct. Those personal referents which take falling tone shift to low tone, while personal referents that take high tone shift to rhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ising tone.

    +

    The short form + of a single-referent personal reference adjunct is used when it is clear from + the surrounding context of the utterance which previously identified noun participant + is being referred to, so that it is unnecessary to indicate the Configuration, + Affiliation, or Essence of the referent. The short form + of the adjunct merely indicates the party itself and its case.

    +

     

    +

    8.1.2.2 Long Form: Form 2 of the adjunct, the long form, contains an additional consonantal infix Cz followed by a vocalic suffix Vz. Cz indicates the referent’s affiliation, while Vz indicates its configuration and essence. (See Chapter 3 for an explanation of the Affiliation, Configuration, and Essence categories.) The default form of Cz is shown in Table 28 below in the Column labeled Vc+Cz.Note that for some noun cases (Nos. 18, 43-48, 56-59, and 61), the value of Vc changes when used with Cz in Form 2 of the adjunct, as shown in the table.
    +

    +

    The long form + of the adjunct is used when necessary to indicate the Configuration, + Affiliation, and Essence of the referent when the surrounding sentences +do not provide or make clear this information.

    +


    +
    + Table 28: Short- and Long-Form     V    c (+ Cz) Suffixes/Infixes + for Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts (Default Forms)
    +(Note that due to its vocalic patterning paralleling the patterning of the CMP8C case, +the VOCATIVE case is shown out of order in Position No. 48 in this table.)

    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    CASE
    Vc
    Vc + Cz
    OBL
    Oblique
    a
    -aw-
    IND
    Inducive
    u
    -uw-
    ABS
    Absolutive
    e
    -ew-
    ERG
    Ergative
    o
    -ow-
    EFF
    Effectuative
    ö
    -öw-
    AFF
    Affective
    i
    -iw-
    DAT
    Dative
    ü
    -üw-
    INS
    Instrumental
    ai
    -aiw-
    ACT
    Activative
    ei
    -eiw-
    DER
    Derivative
    ui
    -uiw-
    SIT
    Situative
    oi
    -oiw-
    POS
    Possessive
    â
    -âw-
    PRP
    Proprietive
    î
    -îw-
    GEN
    Genitive
    ê
    -êw-
    ATT
    Attributive
    ô
    -ôw-
    PDC
    Productive
    ëi
    -ëiw-
    ITP
    Interpretative
    öi
    -öiw-
    OGN
    Originative
    û
    -aew-
    PAR
    Partitive
    ia
    iaw-
    CRS
    Contrastive
    ie
    iew-
    CPS
    Compositive
    io
    iow-
    PRD
    Predicative
    iö
    iöw-
    MED
    Mediative
    ua
    uaw-
    APL
    Applicative
    ue
    uew-
    PUR
    Purposive
    uo
    uow-
    CSD
    Considerative
    uö
    uöw-
    ESS
    Essive
    ea
    eaw-
    ASI
    Assimilative
    eo
    eow-
    FUN
    Functive
    eö
    eöw-
    TFM
    Transformative
    oa
    oaw-
    REF
    Referential
    oe
    oew-
    CLA
    Classificative
    öa
    öaw-
    CNV
    Conductive
    öe
    öew-
    IDP
    Interdependent
    üa
    üaw-
    BEN
    Benefactive
    üe
    üew-
    TSP
    Transpositive
    üo
    üow-
    CMM
    Commutative
    aì
    aìw-
    COM
    Comitative
    eì
    eìw-
    CNJ
    Conjunctive
    oì
    oìw-
    UTL
    Utilitative
    uì
    uìw-
    ABE
    Abessive
    öì
    öìw-
    CVS
    Conversive
    ëì
    ëìw-
    COR
    		Correlative
    au
    aùw-
    DEP
    		Dependent
    eu
    eùw-
    PVS
    Provisional
    ou
    oùw-
    PTL
    Postulative
    iu
    iùw-
    CON
    Concessive
    öu
    öùw-
    VOC
    Vocative
    ëu
    ëùw-
    		 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    CASE
    Vc *
    Vc + Cz
    EXC
    Exceptive
    a
    -ay-
    AVR
    Aversive
    u
    -uy-
    CMP
    Comparative
    e
    -ey-
    SML
    Simultaneitive
    o
    -oy-
    ASS
    Assessive
    ö
    -öy-
    CNR
    Concursive
    i
    -iy-
    ACS
    Accessive
    ü
    -üy-
    DFF
    Diffusive
    ai
    -auy-
    PER
    Periodic
    ei
    -euy-
    PRO
    Prolapsive
    ui
    -iuy-
    PCV
    Precursive
    oi
    -ouy-
    PCR
    Postcursive
    â
    -ây-
    ELP
    Elapsive
    î
    -aey-
    ALP
    Allapsive
    ê
    -êy-
    INP
    Interpolative
    ô
    -ôy-
    EPS
    Episodic
    ëi
    -ëuy-
    PRL
    Prolimitive
    öi
    -öuy-
    LIM
    Limitative
    û
    -ûy-
    LOC
    Locative
    ia
    iay-
    ORI
    Orientative
    ie
    iey-
    PSV
    Procursive
    io
    ioy-
    ALL
    Allative
    iö
    iöy-
    ABL
    Ablative
    ua
    uay-
    NAV
    Navigative
    ue
    uey-
    CMP1A
    Comparative1A
    uo
    uoy-
    CMP2A
    Comparative2A
    uö
    uöy-
    CMP3A
    Comparative3A
    ea
    eay-
    CMP4A
    Comparative4A
    eo
    eoy-
    CMP5A
    Comparative5A
    eö
    eöy-
    CMP6A
    Comparative6A
    oa
    oay-
    CMP7A
    Comparative7A
    oe
    oey-
    CMP8A
    Comparative8A
    öa
    öay-
    CMP1B
    Comparative1B
    öe
    öey-
    CMP2B
    Comparative2B
    üa
    üay-
    CMP3B
    Comparative3B
    üe
    üey-
    CMP4B
    Comparative4B
    üo
    üoy-
    CMP5B
    Comparative5B
    aì
    aìy-
    CMP6B
    Comparative6B
    eì
    eìy-
    CMP7B
    Comparative7B
    oì
    oìy-
    CMP8B
    Comparative8B
    uì
    uìy-
    CMP1C
    Comparative1C
    öì
    öìy-
    CMP2C
    Comparative2C
    ëì
    ëìy-
    CMP3C
    Comparative3C
    au
    aùy-
    CMP4C
    Comparative4C
    eu
    eùy-
    CMP5C
    Comparative5C
    ou
    oùy-
    CMP6C
    Comparative6C
    iu
    iùy-
    CMP7C
    Comparative7C
    öu
    öùy-
    CMP8C
    Comparative8C
    ëu
    ëùy-
    +

    * For the 48 cases in the right-hand column above: in Form 1 of a single-referent adjunct, those personal referents with falling tone shift to low tone, those with high tone shift to rising tone.

    +


    + The table above shows Cz in its default (CSL) form. The full values for Cz are shown in Table 29 below.

    +


    +Table 29: Values for Cz: Affiliation of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    Affiliation

     

    CSL

    ASO

    VAR

    COA

    Case Nos. 1 - 48:

    -w-

    -’w

    -h

    -hw

    Case Nos. 49 - 96:
    -y-
    -’y
    -’
    -’h
    +

     

    +

    The referent’s Configuration are shown by the Vz suffix. The values of Vz are shown in Table 30 below.

    +


    + Table 30: Values for Vz: Configuration of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    UNI

    DPX

    DCT

    AGG

    SEG

    CPN

    COH

    CST

    MLT

    NRM Essence

    (-a)

    -u/-i

    -e

    -o

    -ö

    -ü *

    -ai / -au *

    -ei /-eu *

    -oi / -iu *

    +

    * For the last four configurations above, these can alternately be shown using the suffixes -a, -u/-i, -e, and -o (same as the first four configurations) plus a tone shift in the adjunct, as follows: falling tone shifts to falling-rising tone, and high tone shifts to rising-falling tone. This alternate means of indicating configuration is valid only for single-referent adjuncts. For dual-referent adjuncts (see Sec. 8.1.3 below), it is inapplicable and the vocalic values shown in the above table must be used.

    +

     

    +

    8.1.2.3 The Conjunct Form: Form 3 of the adjunct, the conjunct form, is the same as the long form, Form 2, with the addition of one or more consonant + vowel prefixes Cs + Vs which correspond to the VxC derivational suffixes from Slot XI of a formative, as described in Chapter 7. When used in Form 3 of a single-referent personal referent adjunct, the order of the vocalic and consonantal portions of the affix are reversed.
    +

    +

     

    +

    8.1.2.4 The Collapsed Form: Form 4 of the adjunct, the collapsed form, is the same as the short form, Form 1, with the addition of a vocalic prefixes Vc2 which represents the case of a second instance of the same personal referent already indicated by the adjunct. In other words, the collapsed form is a short-cut means of representing two separate adjuncts, both of which refer to the same party, but in two different cases. Examples of such an adjunct were seen in Section 4.3.12 with the word êto, a short-cut for tê + to, i.e, 1m/GEN plus 1m/ERG.

    +

     

    +

    8.1.2.5 Examples of Single-Referent Personal Reference +Adjuncts in Use

    +
    +


    + Azbal      šoi  ekšíl.
    + STA-‘anger’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   1+2u-SIT   STA-‘clown’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Our being here angers the clown.

    +

     

    +


    + Ičatosk      êti  prâ’ol  aktáil.
    + DYN-'physical.contact'-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FRC1/7   GEN-1m-AFF   STA-‘leg’-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNIhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/-IFL    STA-‘rock’-INS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
    +     I got hit on the leg with a rock.

    +

     

    +


    + ultánļ  këi
    + STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML    2m-PDC
    + ‘your book’ [i.e., the one you authored]

    +

     

    +


    + žô  chei’as
    + 1m+2u+ua-ATT     STA-‘grief’-PCR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + ‘after our period of grief’

    +

     

    +


    + ˇ    xhoehwe
    + ua-REF-COA-CST
    + ‘according to those variously interdependent but differing networks of people’

    +
    +

     

    +

    +

    8.1.3 Dual-Referent Personal Referenhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ce Adjuncts

    +

    Ithkuil allows a personal reference adjunct to show the personal + reference category and associated case for two separate parties all in one adjunct. + This is called a dual-referent adjunct and serves to combine two unrelated personal + referents into one adjunct, no matter what their associated cases may be. There + is only one form of a dual-referent adjunct, shown in Table 31 below.

    +


    + Table 31: Morphological Structure + of a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + +

    Form: _ ((Vw +) C2 +) V2 + CK+ Vc + (Cz + Vz (+ ’Cb))
    +

    Example: : u-h-ia-ks-ai-’wé-’ks

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + +
    Where: 
    Vw =
    		vocalic prefix indicating the configuration of Referent 2 (see Table + 32 below)
    C2 =
    		consonant form + indicating the affiliation of Referent 2 (see Table 33 below)
    V2 =
    		vocalic prefix + indicating case of Referent + 2 (these values are the same as for Vc in Table 28 above)
    CK =
    		consonant form indicating + both Referent 1 and Referent 2 [from Table 34 below]
    Vc =
    		vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table 28 above]
    Cz =
    		consonantal infix showing the affiliation of Referent 1 (see Table 29 above)
    Vz =
    		vocalic suffix + showing the configuration of Referent + 1 (see Table 30 above)
    Cb =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 15 in Sec. + 5.11.1)
    Tone =
    		Combinations + of Ref. 1&2:_ falling + falling = falling, high + + high = high, falling + high = rising, high + falling = low
    Stress =
    		shows Referents 1 and 2 + Essence respectively: + __penultimate = 1:NRM / 1:NRM, __ ultimate = 1:NRM / 2:RPV, +
    + antepenultimate = 1:RPV / 2:NRM, __preantepenultmate = 1:RPV / 2:RPV
    +


    +Analyzing the above structure, it can be seen that the third term, V2, has the same values as Vc for single-referent adjuncts; and the last four terms and their values, Vc + Cz + Vz (+ ’Cb), are the same as for single-referent adjuncts. The new terms are Vw, C2, and CK, whose values are shown in the various tables below:

    +

    +

    Table 32: Values for Vw: Configuration of Referent 2 in a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    UNI

    DPX

    DCT

    AGG

    SEG

    CPN

    COH

    CST

    MLT

    —

    ö-

    -e

    a-

    ü-

    o-

    e-

    u-

    ë-

    +


    +

    +

    Table 33: Values for C2: Affiliation of Referent 2 in a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Affiliation

    CSL

    ASO

    VAR

    COA

    (-h)

    w-

    y-

    hw-

    +


    +

    +

    Table 34: Values for CK: Dual-Referent Personal Reference + Adjunct Prefixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    +
    Falling Tone
     
    +
    High Tone
    2nd referent→
    +
    +
    +
    1st referent ↓
    +

    h

    +

     

    +
    +

    ř

    +

     

    +
    +

    ç

    +

     

    +
    +

    r

    +

     

    +
    +

    l

    +

     

    +
    +

    ň

    +

     

    +
    +

    n

    +

     

    +
    +

    m

    +

     

    +
    +

    xh

    +

     

    +
    +

    x

    +

     

    +
    +

    ţ

    +

     

    +
    +

    f

    +

     

    +
    +

    ž

    +

     

    +
    +

    v

    +

     

    +
    +

    z

    +

     

    +
    +

    š

    +

     

    +
    +

    ļ

    +

     

    +
    +

    s

    +

     

    +
    +

    p

    +

     

    +
    +

    k

    +

     

    +
    +

    t

    +

     

    +
    ma
    mi
    q

    qh

    gř

    çq’

    qr

    ql

    gn

    qn

    qm

    çqh

    çq

    qţ

    qf

    šq’

    qw

    sq’

    šq

    č’

    sq

    q’

    g

    d

    1m
    1+ Mx
    t

    th

    tř

    çt’

    tr

    tl

    t’

    tn

    tm

    çth

    çt

    dh

    tf

    j

    tw

    ż

    č

    c’

    c

    ph

    kh

    2m
    2m+Mx
    k

    tx

    kř

    çk’

    kr

    kl

    k’

    kn

    km

    çkh

    çk

    kţ

    kf

    gž

    kw

    gz

    kš

    tļ

    ks

    b

    2u
    2u+Mx
    p

    px

    př

    çp’

    pr

    pl

    p’

    pn

    pm

    çph

    çp

    pţ

    pf

    bž

    pw

    bz

    pš

    pļ

    ps

    1+2m
    1+2m+Mx
    s
     

    sř

    st

    sr

    sl

    sň

    sn

    sm

    sxh

    sx

     

    sf

     

    sw

     
     
     
    1+2u+ma
    1+2u+mi
    ļ
     

    ļkh

    ļth

    ļt’

    ļļ

    ļk’

    ļt

    ļp

    ļq

    ļk

     

    ch

     

    ļw

     
     
    1+2u
    1+2u+Mx
    š

     

    šř

    çw

    šr

    šl

    šň

    šn

    šm

    šxh

    šx

    šţ

    šf

     

    šw

     
    1+2m+ua
    1+2m+ui
    z

     

    skh

    sk’

    zr

    zl

    zg

     

    zm

    ss

    sk

     

    sp

     

    zw

    IDa
    IDi
    v

    šph

    vř

    šp’

    vr

    vl

    dn

    vn

    vm

    žb

    zb

    sţ

    bm

    vv
    1+2u+ua
    1+2u+ui
    ž

     

    škh

    šk’

    žr

    žl

    žg

    žn

    žm

    šš

    šk

    št

    šp

    2u+ma
    2u+mi
    f

    sph

    fř

    sp’

    fr

    fl

    bl

    br

    bv

    pç

    ţţ

    bdh

    1+ma
    1+mi
    ţ

     

    ţř

    st’

    ţr

    ţl

    dl

    dr

    dv

    gdh

    ţk

    2m+ma
    2m+mi
    x

    xx

    sqh

    rr

    xr

    xl

    gv

    xn

    xm

    čh

    ua
    ui
    xh

    xxh

    šqh

    řř

    xhr

    xhl

    gr

    xhn

    xhm

    2u+ua
    2u+ui
    m

    hm

    mř

    çm

    mr

    ml

    ňň

    mm

    1+ua
    1+ui
    n

    hn

    nř

    çn

    nr

    nl

    nn

    +
    +

    NOTES:

    +
    +
    2m+ua
    2m+ui
    ň

    hn

    zn

    št’

    ňr

    ňl

    +
    +

    • Forms with light blue backgrounds optionally reverse form

    +
    +
    Ea
    Ei
    l

    hl

    sth

    cl

    ll

    +
    +

    in non word-initial position, e.g., kr → rk

    +
    +
    Mx
    Obv
    r

    hr

    šth

    cr

    +
    +

    • Yellow backgrounds = optional changes in non word-initial position:

    +
    +
    Col
    Abt
    ç

    çç

    zz

    +
    +

    kw → fk, pw → fp, tw → ft, qw → fq, sw → zd, ļw → vd, šw → žd, sţ → nţ,

    +
    +
    IPa
    IPi
    ř
    žž
    +
    + zw → vz, šţ → ndh, gn → ňg, qn → ňq, kn → ňk, pn → ňt, vn → mf, çw → xht
    +
    1+2m+ma
    1+2m+mi
    h
    +
    +

    • Blank boxes with grey backgrounds = grammatically impermissible or no form available

    +
    +
    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    + E = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + Mx = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)

    +
    +

    Note that when combining two referent prefixes to form the + composite prefix the tones associated with each referent must also be combined (remember + it is the distinction between falling and high tone that expands the 22 single-consonant + referents into 44). Since all single-referent adjuncts are either of falling + or high tone, their combination proceeds as follows:

    +
    +

    falling + falling → falling
    +
    + falling + high → rising

    +

    high + high → high

    +

    high + falling → low
    +

    +
    +

    The order in which the above formulas are applied is based on the logical order of the personal referents, i.e., Referent 1 then Referent 2, not the order that associated vowels corresponding to the referents are manifested phonologically. (Many dual-referent personal reference adjuncts begin with vowels which carry morphological information for Referent 2, while the second syllable carries information for referent 1. Nevertheless, the tone on the adjunct is determined in the order of Referent 1 + Referent 2 as per Table 34 above.)

    +


    + The four-way combination of Essence for Referent-1 and Referent-2 + respectively is shown by the four available stress patterns: penultimate stress indicates NORMAL + NORMAL, ultimate stress + indicates NORMAL + REPRESENTATIVE, antepenultimate + indicateshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ REPRESENTATIVE + NORMAL, + and preantepenultimate indicates REPRESENTATIVE + REPRESENTATIVE. + (See Section 3.5 on + Essence).

    +


    + 8.1.3.1 Special Ushttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e of Short Adjunct Form. The short form (Form 1) of + the single-referent adjunct discussed in Sec. 8.1.2 above (uhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/tilizing the abbreviated VC suffix from Table 28) can be usedhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ with the special dual-referent CK composite prefixes from Table 34 under the following + circumstance: to show that two different parties are governed by the same case + and participate equally with the verb, equivalent to connecting two pronouns + in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or The man looked at them and me. Examples: ksau, /xlu. + Note in the last example /xlu how the combination of a falling-toned referent and a high-toned referent combines +to give a rising-toned adjunct.

    +

     

    +

    8.1.3.2 Examples of Dual-Referent Adjuncts

    +
    +


    + Euspát  _uda  smâ’ol.
    +     DYN-‘buy’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML   Ref2:IND-Ref1:mi/Ref2:1m-Ref1:OBL    STA-‘valley’-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + I bought it in the valley.

    +

     

    +


    + Awuçkhoewi  andawútļ?         &https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nbsp;
    + Ref2:AGG-Ref2:ASO-Ref2:IND-Ref1:2m/Ref2:ua-Ref1:REF-Ref1:CSL-Ref1:DPX    DYN-‘inquiry’-IRG-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-FML
    + Are those formally recognized groups of people making inquiries about the pair of you?

    +

     

    +
    +

    +

    8.1.4 Use of the Switch Reference Suffix

    +

    In Section + 7.4.13, the SWR switch reference suffix was introduced. + This affix works with thehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ OBVIATIVE personal referent + (see Sec. 8.1.1.7) to specifically indicate which + party is being referred to. The following is a review of this https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/affix for all + nine degrees. By use of this affix, reference can be made immediately to any + party relevant to a discourse, even to a third party not previously mentioned.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rm / -mr
    SWR
    		Switch Reference & Obviative Specification
    Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
    Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
    Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
    Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
    Degree 5first referent + mentioned
    Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
    Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
    Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
    Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
    +

    This suffix rarely appears in fifth-degree, as use of the OBVIATIVE by itself defaults to the first referent mentioned. The following example illustrates the use of the switch reference suffix:

    +


    +
    + Léi’aita  eq    ţul  tê  ekšüléňţ  aigwamt  –ru  byû’âl  mrerîwa.              LISTEN 
    + FRAMED/IFL-DYN-‘speak’-PCR-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI     STA-‘brother’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     1m-GEN     STA-‘clown’-DAT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML-TPF1/3      DYN-‘run’-NRM/ICP/M/CSL/UNI-IFL       OBV/IND-[SWR/5]       STA-‘pet.dog’-ALL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL      OBV/PRP-SWR/3
    + After my brother spoke to the clown, he [my brother] began running toward his [a third party’s] pet dog.

    +

     

    +

    +

    8.1.5 Details of Personal Reference Suffixes

    +

    Sec. 7.3 described the existence of a group of specialized suffixes dhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/erived from personal reference adjunct consonantal affixes. As previously discussed in Sec. 8.1.1, there are 22 single consonants associated with 44 single-referent pershttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/onal reference categories (based on a distinction between falling and high tone). In the absence of any other VxC suffixes to the formative, these 22 consonants can be combined with Type 3 vocalic infix patterns (see Sec. 7.2) to correspond to certain Associative and Appositive noun chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ases, to create short-cut substitutes for single-referent personal reference adjuncts in these nine cases. These 22 consonants correspond to the falling-toned group of personal reference affixes; this short-cut option is not available for the 22 high-toned personal reference categories. The use of these suffixes is optional. The noun cases associated with the nine suffix degrees are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1POSSESSIVE Case
    Degreehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ 2PROPRIETIVE Case
    Degrehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e 3GENITIVE Case
    Degree 4https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ATTRIBUTIVE Case
    Degrehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e 5ORIGINATIVE Case
    Degrhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ee 6PRODUCTIVE Case
    Degreehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ 7INTERPRETATIVE Case
    Dehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/gree 8 CORRELATIVE Case
    Degrhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ee 9CONDUCTIVE Case
    +

     

    +


    +

    + + + + +
    8.2 ASPECTUAL ADJUNCTS
    +

    As we saw in Section 6.3.1 and Section 5.10,https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ Aspect can be shown as the Vs suffix thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/o a verbal adjunct, in addition to the its more usual position as a consonantal affix Cs to a formative or verbal adjunct. However, in the absence of any verbal adjunct, and as another alternative to infixing Cs within a formative, Aspect can also be conveyed by simply using the Vs affix as its own autonomous adjunct.

    +

    Examples (compare these to the examples in Sec. 5.10.33):

    +
    +


    +Ou  https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ inyat  eqţulisqa  tê.
    +CLM    DYN-‘choose’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘brother’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DCS1/1-IFL    1M-GEN
    +My indecisive brother made a choice once and for all.          LISTEN 

    +

     

    +


    + Ui  uolmát&nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/bsp; êqul.
    + RGR    DYN-‘sing.a.song’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML     STA-‘woman’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + The woman returned to singing.          

    +

     

    +

    +
    + + + + +
    8.3 AFFIXUAL ADJUNCTS
    +

    Any Type-1 or Type-2 Vx-C formative suffix described in Chapter 7 may be + removed from the formative and positioned as an adjacent adjunct for purposes + of euphony (i.e., to reduce the number of syllables in the formative). Additionally, since affix categories represent common concepts generally + applicable to many contexts, an affixual adjunct can also be infhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ormally used + as a “short cut” method of conveying a notion, essentially as an + abbreviated one-word sentence somewhat like an interjection or exclamation in + English, thus conveying the concept of the affix category. For example, the + affix -V1j/7 connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, oj, + it can be used by itself as an informal expression translatable by the English + phrase How typical!

    +

    Example:

    +
    +


    +Çtar-ryo  igraleiţrar  eglulôn.     → Ar  çtar-ryo  eirţ  igral  egluhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/lôn.
    +HOR/CTX/PPS-PCL-HAB     DYN-‘eat.food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT2/6-NA11/5-IFL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL →
    +NA11/5   HOR/CTX/PPS-PCL-HAB    EXT2/6    DYN-‘eat food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
    +If only the physician wouldn’t always eat his food in one gulp like that.              

    +
    +

     

    +

    +

    + + + + +
    8.4 BIAS ADJUNCTS
    +

    Section + 5.11 descrhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ibes how Bias is shown on on formatives, while Section 6.3.2 describes how the category is shown on verbal adjuncts. And in Sections 8.1.2 and 8.1.3, we saw how the conjunct + form of a single-referent personal reference adjunct, as well as dual-reference personal reference adjuncts, can take an optional affix, Cb, + to indicate Bias. In the absence of these + possibilities, the Bias suffix (shown in Table 15 of Sec. 5.11https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/.1), like https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/affixual adjuncts described above in Section 8.3, can stand alone as an autonomous adjunct. Such a Bias adjunct can be used to informally convey one’s attitude toward + a situation. For example, if one wishes to convey a sense of awe, one could + state the Ithkuil equivalent to the sentence, I feel a sense of awe! or one can simply hiss out a https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/long s-sound, ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ss,’ + which is the intensive form of the affix for the STUPEFACTIVE bias category, whose translation can be approximated by the Englishttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/h expressions + ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’

    +

    Other examples would be the expression ‘çç’ to signify fulfillment and contentment, the equivalent to a long sigh of satisfaction + ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression ‘kšš’ to convey contempt and disgust, similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ + or ‘What bullshit!’

    +

     

    +

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 9: Syntax >>

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065544id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

    		  
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    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    +
    + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/08_adjuncts.html.orig b/2004-en/08_adjuncts.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..de66508 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/08_adjuncts.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2384 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 8: Adjuncts + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

    		  
    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

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    +

    Chapter 8: Adjuncts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    8.1 Personal Reference Adjuncts 8.3 Affixual Adjuncts
    8.2 Aspectual Adjuncts 8.4 Bias Adjuncts
      
    +

    The notion of adjuncts was introduced in Section + 2.4.2. We have already discussed details of some kinds of adjuncts — verbal adjuncts were introduced in Chapter + 6. In this chapter, several +additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

    +

     

    +

    +
    + + + + +
    8.1 PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS
    +
    +

    The first type of adjunct we will analyze are those relating + to personal reference. By “personal reference” is meant the grammatical + description of nouns by abbreviated forms of reference. In most languages, this + is accomplished by means of personal pronouns (e.g., English he, she, it, I, + you, him, her, mine, ours, etc.). Generally, personal pronouns are distinguished + by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) and case (e.g., compare English + we, us, and ours). Ithkuil accomplishes the equivalent function by means of + personal reference adjuncts, of which there are two types: single-referent and + dual-referent.

    +

    Like other adjuncts in Ithkuil, personal reference adjuncts are + highly synthetic in their structure, comprised of at least two morphemes and + usually more. Before we examine the componential structure of personal reference + adjuncts themselves, we must first introduce the personal reference categories + they refer to.

    +


    + 8.1.1 Personal Reference Categories

    +

    The morpho-semantic delineations of Ithkuil personal reference + categorization are based on inclusion or exclusion in relation to an utterance. + These delineations begin with identifying whether or not the party speaking + is included or excluded in relation to the utterance. The next delineation made + is whether the party being addressed (i.e., the audience/listener) is included + or excluded, then finally whether any third party (i.e., a party other than + the speaker and the addressee) is included or excluded.

    +

    There are 44 personal reference categories in Ithkuil, each + of which is represented by a single consonant affix plus a corresponding falling + or high tone as shown in Table 26 below. The various terms and abbreviations + used in the table are explained following the table.
    +

    +


    + Table 26(a) + and (b): Personal Reference Categories

    +
    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    PRONOUNCED WITH FALLING TONE
     LabelSpeaker Included Addressee Included 3rd Party Included
    t
    		1mYES——
    s
    		1+2mYESmonadic—
    š
    		1+2uYESunbounded—
    k
    		2m—monadic—
    p
    		2u—unbounded—
    q
    		ma——monadic animate
    xh
    		ua——unbounded animate
    ç
    		Col——Collective
    l
    		Ea——universal animate
    v
    		IDa——indefinite animate
    r
    		Mx——mixed m/u/a/i
    ř
    		IPa——impersonal animate
    ţ
    		1+maYES—monadic animate
    n
    		1+uaYES—unbounded animate
    x
    		2m+ma—monadicmonadic animate
    ň
    		2m+ua—monadicunbounded animate
    f
    		2u+ma—unboundedmonadic animate
    m
    		2u+ua—unboundedunbounded animate
    h
    		1+2m+maYESmonadicmonadic animate
    z
    		1+2m+uaYESmonadicunbounded animate
    ļ
    		1+2u+maYESunboundedmonadic animate
    ž
    		1+2u+uaYESunboundedunbounded animate
    		 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    PRONOUNCED WITH HIGH TONE
     LabelSpeaker Included Addressee Included 3rd Party Included
    t
    		1m+MxYES—mixed m/u/a/i
    s
    		1+2m+MxYESmonadicmixed m/u/a/i
    š
    		1+2u+MxYESunboundedmixed m/u/a/i
    k
    		2m+Mx—monadicmixed m/u/a/i
    p
    		2u+Mx—unboundedmixed m/u/a/i
    q
    		mi——monadic inanimate
    xh
    		ui——unbounded inanimate
    ç
    		Abt——Abstract
    l
    		Ei——universal inanimate
    v
    		IDi——indefinite inanimate
    r
    		Obv——Obviative
    ř
    		IPi——impersonal inanimate
    ţ
    		1+miYES—monadic inanimate
    n
    		1+uiYES—unbounded inanimate
    x
    		2m+mi—monadicmonadic inanimate
    ň
    		2m+ui—monadicunbounded inanimate
    f
    		2u+mi—unboundedmonadic inanimate
    m
    		2u+ui—unboundedunbounded inanimate
    h
    		1+2m+miYESmonadicmonadic inanimate
    z
    		1+2m+uiYESmonadicunbounded inanimate
    ļ
    		1+2u+miYESunboundedmonadic inanimate
    ž
    		1+2u+uiYESunboundedunbounded inanimate
    +
    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    + E = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + Mx = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)
    +

    +
    +

    The following sections explain the terminology in the above + table.

    +

    8.1.1.1 Monadic vs. Unbounded. These terms were discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.3 on Perspective. For simplicity’s sake, the difference between + a MONADIC third party versus an UNBOUNDED third party can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ + and ‘they.’

    +

    8.1.1.2 Speaker and Addressee. These terms refer respectively to the party + speaking (in Western grammar the first person), the party being spoken to (the + second person), and a third party being considered or mentioned (the third person). + Unlike the standard six-person matrix common in Western grammar (the three persons + divided into singular and plural), Ithkuil divides personal reference along + logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance.

    +

    From the viewpoint of Ithkuil grammar, only a single individual + can speak. Even if there are two or more persons speaking the same utterance + simultaneously it is but a collection of single individuals, each of which is + one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ithkuil, the speaker, + can be only MONADIC, never UNBOUNDED. + Thus, in Ithkuil, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” + since inherent in the various categories which translate “we” is + the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From this + we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s + utterance that determines the various personal reference categories.

    +

    The “second person” in Ithkuil is the addressee, + the person(s) being addressed or spoken to. There can be one addressee, or more + than one addressee, i.e., MONADIC or UNBOUNDED.

    +

    The “third person” in Ithkuil is where things get + very complicated, in that a party being referenced who is not the speaker or + the addressee can have many distinctions, including the presence or absence + of animacy, being MONADIC versus UNBOUNDED, + being referred to as a collective entity, being an intangible abstraction, being + indefinite, being an impersonal generic reference, or being a combination of + two or more of these categories. These distinctions are explained below.

    +

    8.1.1.3 Animate vs. Inanimate. This is as it sounds. As we saw in earlier chapters, + particularly Sec. 4.1, several + important morphological categories in Ithkuil are dependent on whether the party + to the act, condition, or event is a living entity or inanimate. Note that the + distinction between gender (he vs. she) found in most Western languages does + not exist in the Ithkuil personal reference system.

    +

    8.1.1.4 “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible for the third + party being referenced to be two or more entities of different natures. For + example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” where + “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic + animate entity), three boxes (i.e., a polyadic inanimate entity), and an intangible + concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract entity). In such + cases, Ithkuil personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” + parties to be included in a particular personal referent.

    +

    8.1.1.5 Collective Reference. This corresponds to the NOMIC perspective in which a noun can be spoken of as a generic collective. For example, + the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast refers to all dogs in a collective sense, not any dog in particular. This COLLECTIVE category has its own set of personal reference affixes in Ithkuil, depending + on what other entities are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.6 Abstract Reference. This corresponds to the ABSTRACT perspective, equivalent to derivational abstract forms such as English nouns + ending with -hood, -ness, etc. In Ithkuil, all nouns can be + spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the + sense of being or functioning as a book), and the personal reference system + provides affixes for this category whose form again depends on what other entities + are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.7 Obviative (4th Person) Reference. This category has no equivalent in + Western languages, although it is found in various Native American languages. + It refers to a third party referent other than one previously mentioned, which + would otherwise be identically marked. In Native American grammatical treatises, + this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. + For example, the English sentence He saw his book is ambiguous because + we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer to the + same person or to two different persons (i.e., one who did the seeing and another + who owns the book). In Ithkuil, no such ambiguity occurs because the latter + third person referent, if a distinct person from the initial third person referent, + would be marked using the OBVIATIVE, not the third person. + This disambiguation of third person referents is the purpose of the OBVIATIVE. + Its translation into English is therefore dependent on a preceding personal + referent. (See Sec. 8.1.4 below for more information + about the OBVIATIVE).

    +

    8.1.1.8 Indefinite Reference. This category indicates that the third party + refers to any third party within the specified parameters. For example, the + falling-toned referent v indicates an indefinite animate party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or + ‘anybody,’ while the high-toned referent ¯v indicates an indefinite inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’

    +

    8.1.1.9 Universal Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers + to every third party within the specified parameters. For example, the falling-toned referent l indicates a universal animate party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or + ‘everybody,’ while the high-toned referent ¯l indicates a universal inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’

    +

    8.1.1.10 Impersonal Reference. This category corresponds to the German pronoun man or French pronoun on, as well as the various circumlocutions + used in English to describe impersonal reference (e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ + ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). + Such impersonal reference is illustrated in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    · One should + never speak to clowns alone.
    + · To dance the tango you need a partner.
    + · They say it never rains in August.
    + · That town is said to be haunted.
    + · She just wants to talk to someone without being criticized.

    +
    +

    8.1.1.11 Inclusivity vs. Exclusivity. Since + Ithkuil personal reference adjuncts are designed to specify who among the speaker, + addressee(s), and any third party is included or excluded in the context of + the utterance, there are many possible personal reference distinctions possible + in Ithkuil for which English has no equivalent pronouns. Such exacting distinctions + would have to be made periphrastically in English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ + the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and + he but not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English + word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings equivalent to ‘you + (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ + ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and those things,’ etc.

    +


    + 8.1.2 Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    Adjuncts with one personal referent are termed single-referent + adjuncts and have four forms: (1) a short form, (2) a long form, (3) a + conjunct form, and (4) a collapsed form, as shown in Table 27 below.
    +

    +


    + Table 27: + Morphological Structure of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Form 1 (Short Form): C1 + Vc Example: p + oi → poi
    Form 2 (Long Form) : C1 + Vc + Cz + Vz (+ ’Cb)Example:
    + t (w/ high tone) + i + w + u → –tiwu
    +

    Form 3 (Conjunct Form):

    +
    +

    Cs+Vs (+ Cs+Vs...) + C1 + V1 + Cz + Vz (+ ’Cb)

    +
    		Example:
    +f + o + t     + eu + y + e + ’çç → foteuye’çç

    Form 4 (Collapsed Form): Vc2 + C1 + Vc

    		Example: e + p + oi → epoi
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Where: 
    C1 =
    		consonant identifying + Referent 1 [from Table 26 above]
    Vc =
    		vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table + 28 below]
    Cz =
    		consonantal infix showing the affiliation of Referent 1 (see Table 29 below)
    Vz =
    		vocalic suffix + showing the Configuration and Essence of Referent + 1 in conjunction with syllabic stress (see Table 30 below)
    Cs =
    		consonantal suffix + for Referent 1 from standard suffix tables
    Vs =
    		vocalic infix showing the suffix degree and suffix type for + Cs [see Table 24 in Sec. 7.1.2]
    Cb =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 15 in Sec. + 5.11.1)
    Syllabic Stress =
    		indicates essence of Referent 1: penultimate (or monosyllabic) = NRM; ultimate stress = RPV
    Vc2 =
    		vocalic infix indicating the case of a second instance of Referent 1. The values are the same as for Vc[see Table 28 below]
    +

    +


    + 8.1.2.1 Short Form    : Form 1, the short form of the adjunct, consists of a single consonant + (labeled C1 in the diagram) plus falling or high tone, + corresponding to one of the 44 particular referents (as described in Sec. + 8.1.1 above). This is followed by a single vocalic suffix Vc indicating the case of the personal referent (see Chapter 4 on Case). The 96 +possible values for this suffix are shown in Table 28 below in the column labeled Vc. Note that for Case Nos. 49 through 96, Vc is the same as for the first 48 cases, plus a shift in the tone of the adjunct. Those personal referents which take falling tone shift to low tone, while personal referents that take high tone shift to rising tone.

    +

    The short form + of a single-referent personal reference adjunct is used when it is clear from + the surrounding context of the utterance which previously identified noun participant + is being referred to, so that it is unnecessary to indicate the Configuration, + Affiliation, or Essence of the referent. The short form + of the adjunct merely indicates the party itself and its case.

    +

     

    +

    8.1.2.2 Long Form: Form 2 of the adjunct, the long form, contains an additional consonantal infix Cz followed by a vocalic suffix Vz. Cz indicates the referent’s affiliation, while Vz indicates its configuration and essence. (See Chapter 3 for an explanation of the Affiliation, Configuration, and Essence categories.) The default form of Cz is shown in Table 28 below in the Column labeled Vc+Cz.Note that for some noun cases (Nos. 18, 43-48, 56-59, and 61), the value of Vc changes when used with Cz in Form 2 of the adjunct, as shown in the table.
    +

    +

    The long form + of the adjunct is used when necessary to indicate the Configuration, + Affiliation, and Essence of the referent when the surrounding sentences +do not provide or make clear this information.

    +


    +
    + Table 28: Short- and Long-Form     V    c (+ Cz) Suffixes/Infixes + for Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts (Default Forms)
    +(Note that due to its vocalic patterning paralleling the patterning of the CMP8C case, +the VOCATIVE case is shown out of order in Position No. 48 in this table.)

    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    CASE
    Vc
    Vc + Cz
    OBL
    Oblique
    a
    -aw-
    IND
    Inducive
    u
    -uw-
    ABS
    Absolutive
    e
    -ew-
    ERG
    Ergative
    o
    -ow-
    EFF
    Effectuative
    ö
    -öw-
    AFF
    Affective
    i
    -iw-
    DAT
    Dative
    ü
    -üw-
    INS
    Instrumental
    ai
    -aiw-
    ACT
    Activative
    ei
    -eiw-
    DER
    Derivative
    ui
    -uiw-
    SIT
    Situative
    oi
    -oiw-
    POS
    Possessive
    â
    -âw-
    PRP
    Proprietive
    î
    -îw-
    GEN
    Genitive
    ê
    -êw-
    ATT
    Attributive
    ô
    -ôw-
    PDC
    Productive
    ëi
    -ëiw-
    ITP
    Interpretative
    öi
    -öiw-
    OGN
    Originative
    û
    -aew-
    PAR
    Partitive
    ia
    iaw-
    CRS
    Contrastive
    ie
    iew-
    CPS
    Compositive
    io
    iow-
    PRD
    Predicative
    iö
    iöw-
    MED
    Mediative
    ua
    uaw-
    APL
    Applicative
    ue
    uew-
    PUR
    Purposive
    uo
    uow-
    CSD
    Considerative
    uö
    uöw-
    ESS
    Essive
    ea
    eaw-
    ASI
    Assimilative
    eo
    eow-
    FUN
    Functive
    eö
    eöw-
    TFM
    Transformative
    oa
    oaw-
    REF
    Referential
    oe
    oew-
    CLA
    Classificative
    öa
    öaw-
    CNV
    Conductive
    öe
    öew-
    IDP
    Interdependent
    üa
    üaw-
    BEN
    Benefactive
    üe
    üew-
    TSP
    Transpositive
    üo
    üow-
    CMM
    Commutative
    aì
    aìw-
    COM
    Comitative
    eì
    eìw-
    CNJ
    Conjunctive
    oì
    oìw-
    UTL
    Utilitative
    uì
    uìw-
    ABE
    Abessive
    öì
    öìw-
    CVS
    Conversive
    ëì
    ëìw-
    COR
    		Correlative
    au
    aùw-
    DEP
    		Dependent
    eu
    eùw-
    PVS
    Provisional
    ou
    oùw-
    PTL
    Postulative
    iu
    iùw-
    CON
    Concessive
    öu
    öùw-
    VOC
    Vocative
    ëu
    ëùw-
    		 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    CASE
    Vc *
    Vc + Cz
    EXC
    Exceptive
    a
    -ay-
    AVR
    Aversive
    u
    -uy-
    CMP
    Comparative
    e
    -ey-
    SML
    Simultaneitive
    o
    -oy-
    ASS
    Assessive
    ö
    -öy-
    CNR
    Concursive
    i
    -iy-
    ACS
    Accessive
    ü
    -üy-
    DFF
    Diffusive
    ai
    -auy-
    PER
    Periodic
    ei
    -euy-
    PRO
    Prolapsive
    ui
    -iuy-
    PCV
    Precursive
    oi
    -ouy-
    PCR
    Postcursive
    â
    -ây-
    ELP
    Elapsive
    î
    -aey-
    ALP
    Allapsive
    ê
    -êy-
    INP
    Interpolative
    ô
    -ôy-
    EPS
    Episodic
    ëi
    -ëuy-
    PRL
    Prolimitive
    öi
    -öuy-
    LIM
    Limitative
    û
    -ûy-
    LOC
    Locative
    ia
    iay-
    ORI
    Orientative
    ie
    iey-
    PSV
    Procursive
    io
    ioy-
    ALL
    Allative
    iö
    iöy-
    ABL
    Ablative
    ua
    uay-
    NAV
    Navigative
    ue
    uey-
    CMP1A
    Comparative1A
    uo
    uoy-
    CMP2A
    Comparative2A
    uö
    uöy-
    CMP3A
    Comparative3A
    ea
    eay-
    CMP4A
    Comparative4A
    eo
    eoy-
    CMP5A
    Comparative5A
    eö
    eöy-
    CMP6A
    Comparative6A
    oa
    oay-
    CMP7A
    Comparative7A
    oe
    oey-
    CMP8A
    Comparative8A
    öa
    öay-
    CMP1B
    Comparative1B
    öe
    öey-
    CMP2B
    Comparative2B
    üa
    üay-
    CMP3B
    Comparative3B
    üe
    üey-
    CMP4B
    Comparative4B
    üo
    üoy-
    CMP5B
    Comparative5B
    aì
    aìy-
    CMP6B
    Comparative6B
    eì
    eìy-
    CMP7B
    Comparative7B
    oì
    oìy-
    CMP8B
    Comparative8B
    uì
    uìy-
    CMP1C
    Comparative1C
    öì
    öìy-
    CMP2C
    Comparative2C
    ëì
    ëìy-
    CMP3C
    Comparative3C
    au
    aùy-
    CMP4C
    Comparative4C
    eu
    eùy-
    CMP5C
    Comparative5C
    ou
    oùy-
    CMP6C
    Comparative6C
    iu
    iùy-
    CMP7C
    Comparative7C
    öu
    öùy-
    CMP8C
    Comparative8C
    ëu
    ëùy-
    +

    * For the 48 cases in the right-hand column above: in Form 1 of a single-referent adjunct, those personal referents with falling tone shift to low tone, those with high tone shift to rising tone.

    +


    + The table above shows Cz in its default (CSL) form. The full values for Cz are shown in Table 29 below.

    +


    +Table 29: Values for Cz: Affiliation of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    Affiliation

     

    CSL

    ASO

    VAR

    COA

    Case Nos. 1 - 48:

    -w-

    -’w

    -h

    -hw

    Case Nos. 49 - 96:
    -y-
    -’y
    -’
    -’h
    +

     

    +

    The referent’s Configuration are shown by the Vz suffix. The values of Vz are shown in Table 30 below.

    +


    + Table 30: Values for Vz: Configuration of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    UNI

    DPX

    DCT

    AGG

    SEG

    CPN

    COH

    CST

    MLT

    NRM Essence

    (-a)

    -u/-i

    -e

    -o

    -ö

    -ü *

    -ai / -au *

    -ei /-eu *

    -oi / -iu *

    +

    * For the last four configurations above, these can alternately be shown using the suffixes -a, -u/-i, -e, and -o (same as the first four configurations) plus a tone shift in the adjunct, as follows: falling tone shifts to falling-rising tone, and high tone shifts to rising-falling tone. This alternate means of indicating configuration is valid only for single-referent adjuncts. For dual-referent adjuncts (see Sec. 8.1.3 below), it is inapplicable and the vocalic values shown in the above table must be used.

    +

     

    +

    8.1.2.3 The Conjunct Form: Form 3 of the adjunct, the conjunct form, is the same as the long form, Form 2, with the addition of one or more consonant + vowel prefixes Cs + Vs which correspond to the VxC derivational suffixes from Slot XI of a formative, as described in Chapter 7. When used in Form 3 of a single-referent personal referent adjunct, the order of the vocalic and consonantal portions of the affix are reversed.
    +

    +

     

    +

    8.1.2.4 The Collapsed Form: Form 4 of the adjunct, the collapsed form, is the same as the short form, Form 1, with the addition of a vocalic prefixes Vc2 which represents the case of a second instance of the same personal referent already indicated by the adjunct. In other words, the collapsed form is a short-cut means of representing two separate adjuncts, both of which refer to the same party, but in two different cases. Examples of such an adjunct were seen in Section 4.3.12 with the word êto, a short-cut for tê + to, i.e, 1m/GEN plus 1m/ERG.

    +

     

    +

    8.1.2.5 Examples of Single-Referent Personal Reference +Adjuncts in Use

    +
    +


    + Azbal      šoi  ekšíl.
    + STA-‘anger’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   1+2u-SIT   STA-‘clown’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
    + Our being here angers the clown.

    +

     

    +


    + Ičatosk      êti  prâ’ol  aktáil.
    + DYN-'physical.contact'-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FRC1/7   GEN-1m-AFF   STA-‘leg’-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘rock’-INS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML
    +     I got hit on the leg with a rock.

    +

     

    +


    + ultánļ  këi
    + STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML    2m-PDC
    + ‘your book’ [i.e., the one you authored]

    +

     

    +


    + žô  chei’as
    + 1m+2u+ua-ATT     STA-‘grief’-PCR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + ‘after our period of grief’

    +

     

    +


    + ˇ    xhoehwe
    + ua-REF-COA-CST
    + ‘according to those variously interdependent but differing networks of people’

    +
    +

     

    +

    +

    8.1.3 Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    Ithkuil allows a personal reference adjunct to show the personal + reference category and associated case for two separate parties all in one adjunct. + This is called a dual-referent adjunct and serves to combine two unrelated personal + referents into one adjunct, no matter what their associated cases may be. There + is only one form of a dual-referent adjunct, shown in Table 31 below.

    +


    + Table 31: Morphological Structure + of a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + +

    Form: _ ((Vw +) C2 +) V2 + CK+ Vc + (Cz + Vz (+ ’Cb))
    +

    Example: : u-h-ia-ks-ai-’wé-’ks

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Where: 
    Vw =
    		vocalic prefix indicating the configuration of Referent 2 (see Table + 32 below)
    C2 =
    		consonant form + indicating the affiliation of Referent 2 (see Table 33 below)
    V2 =
    		vocalic prefix + indicating case of Referent + 2 (these values are the same as for Vc in Table 28 above)
    CK =
    		consonant form indicating + both Referent 1 and Referent 2 [from Table 34 below]
    Vc =
    		vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table 28 above]
    Cz =
    		consonantal infix showing the affiliation of Referent 1 (see Table 29 above)
    Vz =
    		vocalic suffix + showing the configuration of Referent + 1 (see Table 30 above)
    Cb =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 15 in Sec. + 5.11.1)
    Tone =
    		Combinations + of Ref. 1&2:_ falling + falling = falling, high + + high = high, falling + high = rising, high + falling = low
    Stress =
    		shows Referents 1 and 2 + Essence respectively: + __penultimate = 1:NRM / 1:NRM, __ ultimate = 1:NRM / 2:RPV, +
    + antepenultimate = 1:RPV / 2:NRM, __preantepenultmate = 1:RPV / 2:RPV
    +


    +Analyzing the above structure, it can be seen that the third term, V2, has the same values as Vc for single-referent adjuncts; and the last four terms and their values, Vc + Cz + Vz (+ ’Cb), are the same as for single-referent adjuncts. The new terms are Vw, C2, and CK, whose values are shown in the various tables below:

    +

    +

    Table 32: Values for Vw: Configuration of Referent 2 in a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    UNI

    DPX

    DCT

    AGG

    SEG

    CPN

    COH

    CST

    MLT

    —

    ö-

    -e

    a-

    ü-

    o-

    e-

    u-

    ë-

    +


    +

    +

    Table 33: Values for C2: Affiliation of Referent 2 in a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Affiliation

    CSL

    ASO

    VAR

    COA

    (-h)

    w-

    y-

    hw-

    +


    +

    +

    Table 34: Values for CK: Dual-Referent Personal Reference + Adjunct Prefixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    +
    Falling Tone
     
    +
    High Tone
    2nd referent→
    +
    +
    +
    1st referent ↓
    +

    h

    +

     

    +
    +

    ř

    +

     

    +
    +

    ç

    +

     

    +
    +

    r

    +

     

    +
    +

    l

    +

     

    +
    +

    ň

    +

     

    +
    +

    n

    +

     

    +
    +

    m

    +

     

    +
    +

    xh

    +

     

    +
    +

    x

    +

     

    +
    +

    ţ

    +

     

    +
    +

    f

    +

     

    +
    +

    ž

    +

     

    +
    +

    v

    +

     

    +
    +

    z

    +

     

    +
    +

    š

    +

     

    +
    +

    ļ

    +

     

    +
    +

    s

    +

     

    +
    +

    p

    +

     

    +
    +

    k

    +

     

    +
    +

    t

    +

     

    +
    ma
    mi
    q

    qh

    gř

    çq’

    qr

    ql

    gn

    qn

    qm

    çqh

    çq

    qţ

    qf

    šq’

    qw

    sq’

    šq

    č’

    sq

    q’

    g

    d

    1m
    1+ Mx
    t

    th

    tř

    çt’

    tr

    tl

    t’

    tn

    tm

    çth

    çt

    dh

    tf

    j

    tw

    ż

    č

    c’

    c

    ph

    kh

    2m
    2m+Mx
    k

    tx

    kř

    çk’

    kr

    kl

    k’

    kn

    km

    çkh

    çk

    kţ

    kf

    gž

    kw

    gz

    kš

    tļ

    ks

    b

    2u
    2u+Mx
    p

    px

    př

    çp’

    pr

    pl

    p’

    pn

    pm

    çph

    çp

    pţ

    pf

    bž

    pw

    bz

    pš

    pļ

    ps

    1+2m
    1+2m+Mx
    s
     

    sř

    st

    sr

    sl

    sň

    sn

    sm

    sxh

    sx

     

    sf

     

    sw

     
     
     
    1+2u+ma
    1+2u+mi
    ļ
     

    ļkh

    ļth

    ļt’

    ļļ

    ļk’

    ļt

    ļp

    ļq

    ļk

     

    ch

     

    ļw

     
     
    1+2u
    1+2u+Mx
    š

     

    šř

    çw

    šr

    šl

    šň

    šn

    šm

    šxh

    šx

    šţ

    šf

     

    šw

     
    1+2m+ua
    1+2m+ui
    z

     

    skh

    sk’

    zr

    zl

    zg

     

    zm

    ss

    sk

     

    sp

     

    zw

    IDa
    IDi
    v

    šph

    vř

    šp’

    vr

    vl

    dn

    vn

    vm

    žb

    zb

    sţ

    bm

    vv
    1+2u+ua
    1+2u+ui
    ž

     

    škh

    šk’

    žr

    žl

    žg

    žn

    žm

    šš

    šk

    št

    šp

    2u+ma
    2u+mi
    f

    sph

    fř

    sp’

    fr

    fl

    bl

    br

    bv

    pç

    ţţ

    bdh

    1+ma
    1+mi
    ţ

     

    ţř

    st’

    ţr

    ţl

    dl

    dr

    dv

    gdh

    ţk

    2m+ma
    2m+mi
    x

    xx

    sqh

    rr

    xr

    xl

    gv

    xn

    xm

    čh

    ua
    ui
    xh

    xxh

    šqh

    řř

    xhr

    xhl

    gr

    xhn

    xhm

    2u+ua
    2u+ui
    m

    hm

    mř

    çm

    mr

    ml

    ňň

    mm

    1+ua
    1+ui
    n

    hn

    nř

    çn

    nr

    nl

    nn

    +
    +

    NOTES:

    +
    +
    2m+ua
    2m+ui
    ň

    hn

    zn

    št’

    ňr

    ňl

    +
    +

    • Forms with light blue backgrounds optionally reverse form

    +
    +
    Ea
    Ei
    l

    hl

    sth

    cl

    ll

    +
    +

    in non word-initial position, e.g., kr → rk

    +
    +
    Mx
    Obv
    r

    hr

    šth

    cr

    +
    +

    • Yellow backgrounds = optional changes in non word-initial position:

    +
    +
    Col
    Abt
    ç

    çç

    zz

    +
    +

    kw → fk, pw → fp, tw → ft, qw → fq, sw → zd, ļw → vd, šw → žd, sţ → nţ,

    +
    +
    IPa
    IPi
    ř
    žž
    +
    + zw → vz, šţ → ndh, gn → ňg, qn → ňq, kn → ňk, pn → ňt, vn → mf, çw → xht
    +
    1+2m+ma
    1+2m+mi
    h
    +
    +

    • Blank boxes with grey backgrounds = grammatically impermissible or no form available

    +
    +
    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    + E = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + Mx = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)

    +
    +

    Note that when combining two referent prefixes to form the + composite prefix the tones associated with each referent must also be combined (remember + it is the distinction between falling and high tone that expands the 22 single-consonant + referents into 44). Since all single-referent adjuncts are either of falling + or high tone, their combination proceeds as follows:

    +
    +

    falling + falling → falling
    +
    + falling + high → rising

    +

    high + high → high

    +

    high + falling → low
    +

    +
    +

    The order in which the above formulas are applied is based on the logical order of the personal referents, i.e., Referent 1 then Referent 2, not the order that associated vowels corresponding to the referents are manifested phonologically. (Many dual-referent personal reference adjuncts begin with vowels which carry morphological information for Referent 2, while the second syllable carries information for referent 1. Nevertheless, the tone on the adjunct is determined in the order of Referent 1 + Referent 2 as per Table 34 above.)

    +


    + The four-way combination of Essence for Referent-1 and Referent-2 + respectively is shown by the four available stress patterns: penultimate stress indicates NORMAL + NORMAL, ultimate stress + indicates NORMAL + REPRESENTATIVE, antepenultimate + indicates REPRESENTATIVE + NORMAL, + and preantepenultimate indicates REPRESENTATIVE + REPRESENTATIVE. + (See Section 3.5 on + Essence).

    +


    + 8.1.3.1 Special Use of Short Adjunct Form. The short form (Form 1) of + the single-referent adjunct discussed in Sec. 8.1.2 above (utilizing the abbreviated VC suffix from Table 28) can be used with the special dual-referent CK composite prefixes from Table 34 under the following + circumstance: to show that two different parties are governed by the same case + and participate equally with the verb, equivalent to connecting two pronouns + in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or The man looked at them and me. Examples: ksau, /xlu. + Note in the last example /xlu how the combination of a falling-toned referent and a high-toned referent combines +to give a rising-toned adjunct.

    +

     

    +

    8.1.3.2 Examples of Dual-Referent Adjuncts

    +
    +


    + Euspát  _uda  smâ’ol.
    +     DYN-‘buy’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML   Ref2:IND-Ref1:mi/Ref2:1m-Ref1:OBL    STA-‘valley’-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + I bought it in the valley.

    +

     

    +


    + Awuçkhoewi  andawútļ?              
    + Ref2:AGG-Ref2:ASO-Ref2:IND-Ref1:2m/Ref2:ua-Ref1:REF-Ref1:CSL-Ref1:DPX    DYN-‘inquiry’-IRG-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-FML
    + Are those formally recognized groups of people making inquiries about the pair of you?

    +

     

    +
    +

    +

    8.1.4 Use of the Switch Reference Suffix

    +

    In Section + 7.4.13, the SWR switch reference suffix was introduced. + This affix works with the OBVIATIVE personal referent + (see Sec. 8.1.1.7) to specifically indicate which + party is being referred to. The following is a review of this affix for all + nine degrees. By use of this affix, reference can be made immediately to any + party relevant to a discourse, even to a third party not previously mentioned.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -rm / -mr
    SWR
    		Switch Reference & Obviative Specification
    Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
    Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
    Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
    Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
    Degree 5first referent + mentioned
    Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
    Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
    Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
    Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
    +

    This suffix rarely appears in fifth-degree, as use of the OBVIATIVE by itself defaults to the first referent mentioned. The following example illustrates the use of the switch reference suffix:

    +


    +
    + Léi’aita  eq    ţul  tê  ekšüléňţ  aigwamt  –ru  byû’âl  mrerîwa.              LISTEN 
    + FRAMED/IFL-DYN-‘speak’-PCR-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI     STA-‘brother’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     1m-GEN     STA-‘clown’-DAT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML-TPF1/3      DYN-‘run’-NRM/ICP/M/CSL/UNI-IFL       OBV/IND-[SWR/5]       STA-‘pet.dog’-ALL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL      OBV/PRP-SWR/3
    + After my brother spoke to the clown, he [my brother] began running toward his [a third party’s] pet dog.

    +

     

    +

    +

    8.1.5 Details of Personal Reference Suffixes

    +

    Sec. 7.3 described the existence of a group of specialized suffixes derived from personal reference adjunct consonantal affixes. As previously discussed in Sec. 8.1.1, there are 22 single consonants associated with 44 single-referent personal reference categories (based on a distinction between falling and high tone). In the absence of any other VxC suffixes to the formative, these 22 consonants can be combined with Type 3 vocalic infix patterns (see Sec. 7.2) to correspond to certain Associative and Appositive noun cases, to create short-cut substitutes for single-referent personal reference adjuncts in these nine cases. These 22 consonants correspond to the falling-toned group of personal reference affixes; this short-cut option is not available for the 22 high-toned personal reference categories. The use of these suffixes is optional. The noun cases associated with the nine suffix degrees are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1POSSESSIVE Case
    Degree 2PROPRIETIVE Case
    Degree 3GENITIVE Case
    Degree 4ATTRIBUTIVE Case
    Degree 5ORIGINATIVE Case
    Degree 6PRODUCTIVE Case
    Degree 7INTERPRETATIVE Case
    Degree 8 CORRELATIVE Case
    Degree 9CONDUCTIVE Case
    +

     

    +


    +

    + + + + +
    8.2 ASPECTUAL ADJUNCTS
    +

    As we saw in Section 6.3.1 and Section 5.10, Aspect can be shown as the Vs suffix to a verbal adjunct, in addition to the its more usual position as a consonantal affix Cs to a formative or verbal adjunct. However, in the absence of any verbal adjunct, and as another alternative to infixing Cs within a formative, Aspect can also be conveyed by simply using the Vs affix as its own autonomous adjunct.

    +

    Examples (compare these to the examples in Sec. 5.10.33):

    +
    +


    +Ou  inyat  eqţulisqa  tê.
    +CLM    DYN-‘choose’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL    STA-‘brother’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DCS1/1-IFL    1M-GEN
    +My indecisive brother made a choice once and for all.          LISTEN 

    +

     

    +


    + Ui  uolmát  êqul.
    + RGR    DYN-‘sing.a.song’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML     STA-‘woman’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + The woman returned to singing.          

    +

     

    +

    +
    + + + + +
    8.3 AFFIXUAL ADJUNCTS
    +

    Any Type-1 or Type-2 Vx-C formative suffix described in Chapter 7 may be + removed from the formative and positioned as an adjacent adjunct for purposes + of euphony (i.e., to reduce the number of syllables in the formative). Additionally, since affix categories represent common concepts generally + applicable to many contexts, an affixual adjunct can also be informally used + as a “short cut” method of conveying a notion, essentially as an + abbreviated one-word sentence somewhat like an interjection or exclamation in + English, thus conveying the concept of the affix category. For example, the + affix -V1j/7 connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, oj, + it can be used by itself as an informal expression translatable by the English + phrase How typical!

    +

    Example:

    +
    +


    +Çtar-ryo  igraleiţrar  eglulôn.     → Ar  çtar-ryo  eirţ  igral  eglulôn.
    +HOR/CTX/PPS-PCL-HAB     DYN-‘eat.food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT2/6-NA11/5-IFL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL →
    +NA11/5   HOR/CTX/PPS-PCL-HAB    EXT2/6    DYN-‘eat food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
    +If only the physician wouldn’t always eat his food in one gulp like that.              

    +
    +

     

    +

    +

    + + + + +
    8.4 BIAS ADJUNCTS
    +

    Section + 5.11 describes how Bias is shown on on formatives, while Section 6.3.2 describes how the category is shown on verbal adjuncts. And in Sections 8.1.2 and 8.1.3, we saw how the conjunct + form of a single-referent personal reference adjunct, as well as dual-reference personal reference adjuncts, can take an optional affix, Cb, + to indicate Bias. In the absence of these + possibilities, the Bias suffix (shown in Table 15 of Sec. 5.11.1), like affixual adjuncts described above in Section 8.3, can stand alone as an autonomous adjunct. Such a Bias adjunct can be used to informally convey one’s attitude toward + a situation. For example, if one wishes to convey a sense of awe, one could + state the Ithkuil equivalent to the sentence, I feel a sense of awe! or one can simply hiss out a long s-sound, ‘ss,’ + which is the intensive form of the affix for the STUPEFACTIVE bias category, whose translation can be approximated by the English expressions + ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’

    +

    Other examples would be the expression ‘çç’ to signify fulfillment and contentment, the equivalent to a long sigh of satisfaction + ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression ‘kšš’ to convey contempt and disgust, similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ + or ‘What bullshit!’

    +

     

    +

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 9: Syntax >>

    +

     

    +

     

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    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Chapter 9: Syntax

    + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/   + 9.1 Topic, Focus and Pragmatic Relations + + +   + 9.2 Morpho-Semantic Considerations + + +   + 9.3 The “Carrier” Root + + +


    + Syntax refers to the rules for sequencing the order of words + within a phrase or sehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ntence, including rules permitting more than one possible + sequential ordering of words. To understand thhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e following discussion of Ithkuil + syntax it is necessary to have a cursory understanding of the notions of semantic + role, pragmatic role, and grammatical (or syntactical) relations:

    +
    +
      +
    • Semantic role: This refers to the underlying semantic + function of a particular word, irrespective of overt morphological category. + We have already seen how Ithkuil marks its noun cases to reflect semantic + roles, not grammatical relations. Such roles include Agent, Patient, Experiencer, + Recipient, Instrument, etc., as previously explained in Section + 4.1 et seq.
      +
      +
      • +
    • Pragmatic role: This refers to the function of a word + or phrase in relation to its predicate or the rest of the sentence in terms + of whether and how it represents “given” vershttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/us “new” + information, i.e., whether or not the word or phrase represents background + information already known to the addressee, or whether it represents new + information previously unknown to the addressee. Three such roles or relations + are generally delineated: topic, comment, + and focus. The topic of a sentence is the word + or phrase about which the speaker has been asked or is expected by the addressee + to talk about. The comment is the information (usually a predicate) + given by the speaker about the particular topic. The term focus refers to whatever information in a sentence is new to the addressee, (i.e., + not previously known). To illustrate these concepts, consider the sentence I can see + why Mary’s angry, but what about Bill? (i.e., What happened + to make Bill angry, too?). In the hypothetical answer Bill (or + He) is angry because he lost his keys, ‘Bill’ (or ‘he’) + is the topic, ‘is angry because he lost his keys’ is the comment, + and ‘he lost his keys’ is the focus.
      +
      +
      • +
    • Grammatical (or syntactical) relations: the arbitrary word-ordering rules of a language, irrespective + of semantic or pragmatic roles, e.g., the subject of the sentence in English + normally precedes the main verb and the direct object normally follows the + main verb.
      • +
    +
    +

    In general, the syntax of a language either (1) establishes + the permissible grammatical relations of the language, (2) reflects and/or reinforces + semantic roles, (3) reflects and/or reinforces pragmatic roles, or (4) any combination + of these. As one might surmise from the above, English syntax is weighted heavily + toward establishing grammatical relations at the near-total expense of identifying + semantic roles. As for pragmatic roles, English rarely reflects these in its + syntax (one exception is the strong tendency for placing wh- question + words in sentence-initial position in specialized questions, even if they represent + a direct object, e.g., What have you done? or Who[m] are they talking + about?), however, such roles do tend to be marked “supra-segmentally” + by inflection of vocal pitch and tone of voice.

    +

    We have already seen the extreme to which Ithkuil uses noun cases to mark semantic + roles morphologically as opposed to syntactically. And since grammatial relations + in and of themselves are relatively arbitrary within language, Ithkuil uses + word order primarily to accomplish pragmatic relations, i.e., to indicate the topic and/or focus of a sentence. Additionally, Ithkuil does have a few word order constraints necessary to ensure avoidance + of ambiguity in determining which + nouns lie in apposition to their head, and which words of a compound sentence + lie within a case-frame as opposed to outside the case-frame. The specifics of Ithkuil word order are explained in Section 9.1 below.

    +

     

    +


    +

    + + + + +
    9.1 TOPIC, FOCUS, AND PRAGMATIC RELATIONS
    +

    The concept of semantic focus refers to what + information in an utterance is to be considered new information, while the semantic topic is the + background context already known or implied. The specifics are explained below and are best understood +through various English illustrations.

    +

    In any given discourse (i.e., a contextual series of utterances + such as a conversation, a story, an account of an event, etc.), any single sentence + of that discourse will likely make reference to previously mentioned material + as background, as well as present new material to further the purpose of the + discourse. Semantic focus refers to those elements of a sentence which constitute + new material within an actual or implied discourse. For example, the sentence My dog jumps through hoops could function as an answer to several different + questions such as 1) What tricks can your dog do?, or 2) Does your + dog do anything with hoops? or 3) Do you know of anyone’s pet + that jumps through hoops? or even 4) What’s up with you? In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’ + would have semantic focus while the dog is background material, i.e. the topic. In answering + the second question, the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have + focus while both the dog and the hoops would be the topic. In answering + the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus + while jumping through hoops would be the topic. Lastly, in answering the + fourth sentence, no element in the sentence has focus over any other, as all + elements present previously unknown material within the context of the discourse. + In general, English conveys focus by a shift in vocal inflection (tone and pitch + contours) to provide emphasis.

    +

    Focus does not necessarily require a full discourse to have + semantic relevance; it can occur within a single autonomous sentence, in which + case the background discourse is implied. For example, a person might spontaneously + begin a conversation with the same sentence: My dog jumps through hoops. In + English, the speaker might use vocal inflection to emphasize what elements convey + semantic focus versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.” + Or, the speaker might say the sentence in a neutral tone of voice, essentially + inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in + responding, e.g., Oh, you have a dog? or Oh, does he do any other + tricks? or Oh, do you use metal or plastic hoops? or an equally + neutral response such as Oh, you don’t say?

    +

    Ithkuil uses word-order to accomplish the same options + that such vocal inflections accomplish in English. In Ithkuil, the element with focus is placed immediately before the verb. As for the topic of the sentence, this is shown by placing it as the first element in a sentence. If there is no overt topic or focus, the verb will appear as the first word in the sentence. Examples:

    +
    +


    +
    + Euspoigrataì  ekšúl  břatļ.
    + DYN-[inc.stem: ‘buy’]-consume/ingest’-Nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/RM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL-PRT    STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML   
    + STA-    ‘clam’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-IFL
    + The clown bought some clams and consumed them. (No topic or focus)          LISTEN 

    +

     

    +


    + Ekšúl  euspoigrataì  https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/břatļ.
    + STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML     DYN-[inc.stem: ‘buy’]-consume/ingest’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL-PRT  
    +STA-    ‘clam’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-IFL
    +     It was the clown who bought some clams and consumed them. (The clown is the focus)

    +

     

    +


    + Břatļ  ekšúl  euspoigrataì.
    + STA-‘clam’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-IFL     STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML     
    + DYN-[inc.stem: ‘buy’]-consume/ingest’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL-PRT
    +     As for the clams, it was the clown who bought and consumed them. (The clams are the topic; the clown is the focus)

    +
    +

     

    +

    +

    9.1.1 Abbreviated Sentences Using Focus and Topicalization

    +

    Focus and topicalization allow Ithkuil, as with other languages, + to provide abbreviated sentences in direct answer to commands, questions, + or to comment on a topic already under discussion. Because the topic is already + known within the contextual discourse, only the portion of the new sentence + carrying semantic focus need be spoken. Similarly, the topicalization + suffix in conjunction with the INTERROGATIVE illocution, allows for abbreviated inquiries within a known contextual + discourse, similar to such abbreviated sentences in English, e.g., ‘and + Bill?’ in lieu of the fulhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/l sentence ‘Comment on how this applies + to Bill.’

    +

     

    +

    9.1.2 Word-order within Case-Frames

    +

    Within a case-frame (see Section + 5.4), the verb always appears in initial position to identify the clause + as a case frame (using FRAMED Relation in the verb). Because of this, it becomes necessary to utilize the focusing and sequencing affixes from Sec. 7.4.13 to identify ehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/lements which carry focus or are topicalized within the case-frame. Additionally, the last noun within the case-frame + will usually take the -Vt’ in degree 2, 6, 7, or 9 (see Sec. 7.4.13) + to signify the end of the case-frame, unless this is clear without the suffix + (e.g., because the case-frame is in sentence-final position).

    +

     

    +

    9.1.3 Additional Constraints in Word Order +

    The following additional word-order constraints exist + in order to avoid potential ambiguity or semantic incoherence.

    +
      +
    • +
      Nouns in Possessive and Associative cases (see Secs. + 4.4 and 4.5) + which are dependent on, or in apposition to a “head” noun, must + immediately precede or follow that head noun, unless the relationship between the two nouns is otherwise clear from context or other morphological https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/elements.
      +
      +
      +
      • + +
      A case-frame cannot be broken apart into segments within a main sentence, + i.e., the case-frame must constitute a single cohesive clause and not contain + elements of the main clause within it. It is possible to “nest” + a second case-frame within a case-frame, similar to the way in which subordinate + or relative clauses can be nested in English and other Western languages, + e.g., [Despite owning a Picasso [that comes from his Blue period] [of + which I, [a mere student,] am fond,]] Joe is actually a very humble person.
      + +
    +

     

    +

    9.1.4 Phonotactically-Induced Syntactic Modifications

    +

    As mentioned above, word-order can shift in an Ithkuil sentence + to accommodate phonotactic or phonaesthetic ends, i.e., for purposes of euphony. + This is because suffixes on a formative, as well as morphemes associated with + categories of Aspect and Bias can be moved to verbal adjuncts or transformed into autonomous adjuncts (see Sections 6.3, 8.2, 8.3, and 8.4). As + words + of six syllables or more are generally undesirable, any formativhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e + with numerous affixes is potentially https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/subject to having several of its morphemes https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + redistributed to adjuncts.

    +

    Example:

    +
    +


    +Ar-ryigrawileiţrar  eglulôn.     → Çtar-rya  eirţ &nbshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/p;igralar  eglulôn.
    +MNO-PCL-DYN-‘eat.food’-HOR/FAC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT2/6-NA11/5-IFL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL →
    +HOR/PPS/CTX-PCL    EXT2/6    DYN-‘eat food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-IFL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
    +If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +
    +

    When ordering such phonaesthetically-induced adjuncts, it is + important that they can be easily associated with the formative to which they + apply. Generally, this means that they will be adjacent to the formative, or + occur on either side of other adjuncts associated with the formative.

    +


    + 9.1.5 Iconicity

    +

    English and other languages generally display phrase-structure + patterns and word-order patterns which reinforce, or even reflect, a cognitive + understanding of what is being described, i.e., the order of the words themselves + reflects information about how we are to understand the utterance. Such a phenomenon + is known as iconicity. In English and other Western languages, + the most common way in which iconicity is manifested is what is termed “sequential + order iconicity,” the idea that the actual sequential order of words in + a phrase or sentence reflects the sequential order of the events they describe. + For example, the phrases ‘eye it, try it, buy it,’ ‘I came, + I saw, I conquered,’ or ‘dine and dash’ describe sequential + events where the sequence of the words reflect the sequence of the events. What + is most important is that re-ordering of the words either changes the meaning + of the phrase or leads to semantic nonsense, e.g., ‘buy it, eye it, try + it’ implies that a different sequence of events actually takes place than + ‘eye it, try it, buy it.’ This can be more dramatically illustrated + with the following pair of sentences.

    +
    +

    1) Jane got married and had a baby.
    + 2) Jane had a baby and got married.

    +
    +

    In English, the ambiguous word ‘and’ is interpreted + as connecting a sequence of events, i.e., ‘and’ is interpreted to + mean sequential ‘then’ (= ‘and following that,’ ‘then + next’ or ‘then later’). As a result, the meanings of the two + sentences imply very different social interpretations about Jane.

    +

    Besides the reflection of sequential order, other types of + word-order iconicity are possible. For example, compare the subtle difference + in meaning between the following two sentences:

    +
    +

    3) Sam painted the fence white.
    + 4) Sam painted the white fence.

    +
    +

    In the first sentence, we do not know what color the fence + was prior to being painted, or even if it was a new fence that had never been + painted before. In the second sentence, not only do we know what color the fence + had been, but also that it was not previously unpainted, however, we do not + necessarily know what its new color is. This sort of iconicity is used to convey + a resultative state of affairs, i.e., by placing the adjective ‘white’ + after the word ‘fence’ (seemingly in violation of the usual adjective-before-noun + word order used in English), we describe a resulting state of affairs.

    +

    Yet another type of word-order iconicity is displayed in comparing + the following two sentences.

    +
    +

    5) Loretta gave Sue a wedding gift.
    + 6) Loretta gave a wedding gift to Sue.

    +
    +

    Most grammar textbooks would state that these two sentences + are semantically equivalent, the first employing a “ditransitive” + pattern (i.e., juxtaposing an indirect object ‘Sue’ with a direct + object ‘wedding gift’), while the second uses a “complement” + pattern in which the indirect object follows the direct object and is changed + to a prepositional phrase using ‘to.’ However, there is a subtle + semantic distinction between the two sentences. The first strongly implies that + the wedding gift is for Sue, i.e., Sue is the bride and intended recipient. + The second sentence, however, invites the possibility that Sue is only a temporary + or circumstantial goal for the act of giving, but not the bride and intended + recipient. For example, if Sue is merely a guest at the wedding and Loretta + needed Sue’s help carrying an armload of wedding gifts, she might give + a wedding gift to Sue, but that does not mean she would give Sue a wedding gift. This type of iconicity distinguishing a recipient from a directional + goal is an example of what is termed “distance iconicity,” because + the two linked words are made more “distant” from each other in + the sentence as a reflection of their more circumstantial association.

    +

    Ithkuil does not display iconicity. While the order of words + in an Ithkuil phrase or sentence may coincidentally reflect a temporal or causative + sequence of events, this is not by syntactic design. Because of the myriad means + available in Ithkuil to morphologically distinguish sequence, cause-and-effect, + resulting states, and the distinction of recipients from directional goals, + no iconicity patterns are required.

    +

    For example, we saw in sentences (1) and (2) above how English + ‘and’ can be used to convey not just mere coordination, but also + a sequencing function. In Sections + 7.4.3 and 7.4.4, we saw + that Ithkuil has no less than thirty-six suffixes (four suffix categories, each + with nine different degrees) which convey various coordhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/inative and sequencing + patterns with great specificity. Thus,https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ Ithkuil has no morpheme directly equivalent + to the ambiguous English word ‘and.’ There is an affix corresponding + to ‘and’ in its use as a mere additive listing device (e.g., ‘pears + and apples and bananas’), another corresponding to its use as an indicator + of simultaneity (e.g., I clenched my fists and scowled), another + corresponding to its use as an indicator of additional information (e.g., The + clown likes children and loves to eat), another to its use as an indicator + of parallel description or activity (e.g., We went dancing and so did + they), and yet another as a temporal sequencing indicator (e.g., I +went to the window and looked out).

    +

     

    +


    +

    +

    + + + + +
    9.2 MORPHO-SEMANTIC CONSIDERATIONS
    +

    It should be noted that when structuring an Ithkuil sentence, + particularly when translating from other languages such as English, care must + be given to avoid capturing irrelevant semantic information reflected by the + morphology of the source language and trying to find an equivalent or parallel + way to reflect those irrelevancies in the Ithkuil sentence. This can have a + profound effect on the morpho-syntactical structure of the resulting Ithkuil + sentence.

    +

     

    +

    9.2.1 Arbitrary Delineations of Perspective or Point of View

    +

    One area where word-choice in English and other Western languages + arbitrarily affects sentence structure is in the unintentional schematicization + of a particular perspective or point of view. For example, consider the following + pair of sentences in English.

    +
    +

    1) The path climbs steeply out of the canyon.
    + 2) The path descends steeply into the canyon.

    +
    +

    Both of these sentences are describing the same property of + the path — its steepness. The distinction in the sentences comes from + the point of view being reflected by the speaker. In sentence (1) the implied + point of view is from the bottom of the canyon upward, while in sentence (2) + the viewpoint is from the top of the canyon downward. What is important is that, + semantically, the point of view is of no relevance to the steepness of the path per se. So if the cognitive intent of the utterance is simply to describe + the vertical gradient of the path within the canyon, there would be only one + Ithkuil translation for both of these sentences, eschewing the point of view + entirely and restating the sentence to read:

    +
    +


    + Ûb  eikkradwa  smou’olâxh.
    + EXN1/6     Dhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/YN-‘move.along.obliquely.vertical.path.between.two.points’-RPV/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL      STA-‘valley’-NAV-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5-IFL
    + The path through the canyon is steep.          LISTEN 

    +
    +

     

    +

    9.2.2 Masking of Shttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/emantic or Participatory Roles

    +

    Similarly, care must be made, when comparing Ithkuil sentence + structure with other languages, to note that Ithkuil grammar allows for a more + overt reflection of the underlying semantic roles inherent in a given sentence. + As a result, sentence structures in Western languages which “mask” + potentially anomalous semantic structures are avoided in Ithkuil. For example, + compare the following pairs of sentences.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + +
     3a) He supplied a report to the analyst.4a) She applied a solvent to the stain.
     3b) He supplied the analyst a report.4b) *She applied the stain a solvent.
    +
    +

    The syntactical patterns of these two pairs of sentences are + identical, yet the word-order in sentence (4b) is ungrammatical (as indicated + by the asterisk), while the same word-order in sentence (3b) presents no problem. + The underlying reason for the difference is one of semantic role. While ‘analysts’ + can function in the role of Recipients, ‘stains’ cannot (they are + merely directional Goals, i.e., where the solvent gets applied). Cognitively, + stains cannot “possess” a solvent the way analysts can “possess” + a report. In Ithkuil, the semantic roles would be clearly defined by the case-markings + of the participants. Therefore, syntactically inconsistent pairs such as (3b) + and (4b) do not occur.

    +

    Sometimes, rather than semantic role, it is a participant’s + relationship to an underlying clause that presents the problem. For example, He’s a tall president means ‘He’s a president who + is tall.’ So why doesn’t He’s a likely president mean ‘*He’s a president who is likely’? The reason is that, + while ‘tall’ describes its adjacent referent ‘president,’ + ‘likely’ does not describe its adjacent referent. Rather, ‘likely’ + describes an underlying process in which that referent is or will be engaged, + i.e., ‘running for president.’ Therefore, while these two sentences + are morpho-syntactically identical in English, their Ithkuil translations are + quite different from one another morpho-syntactically:
    +

    +
    +

     

    +


    + Qi  alkaţeins  eádrai’seumi.
    + ma-AFF     STA-‘height’-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-PTT2/6-IFL&https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nbsp;    MNF-FRAMED/FML-‘preside/govern’-COR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-ROL2/4-FNC
    + He’s a tall president.
    + [literally: There is much height to him who formally presides.]          LISTEN 

    +

     

    +


    + Qa    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/eadramtôçqeumí.
    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + ma-OBL        MNF-‘preside/govern’-NRM/ICP/M/Chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/SL/UNI-PRB2/7-ROL2/4-FNC-FML
    + He’s a likely president.
    + [literally: He is one who probably will begin to formally preside.]          LISTEN 

    +

     

    +
    +

    9.2.3 Negation

    +

    Negationhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ is another morpho-semantic area where translationhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + from English or other Western languages can be tricky. Consider the English + sentence Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Note this + sentence does not mean what a literal word-for-word analysis implies, i.e., + ‘That they like her cooking is not something that Shelly is thinking.’ + Rather, the correct meaning is ‘Shelly thinks that they don’t like + her cooking.’ Ithkuil is very precise in specifying exactly what components + of a sentence are to be negated. Use of the four affirmation/negation affixes + from Section 7.4.9 in conjunction with a formative carries very specific information as to what + morphological components of a sentence are being affirmed or negated and to + what degree. Using these four affixes alone, https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Ithkuil can distinguish between + the following four sentences without any syntactic rearrangement of the words:

    +
    +

    I don’t want to begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to not want to sing.

    +

    I want to not begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to want to not sing.

    +
    +

    Thus when translating negative sentences into Ithkuil, care + must be taken to not syntactically “rearrange” a sentence as with Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Additionally, Ithkuil + makes a morpho-semantic distinction not found in Western languages: the difference + between absolute negation and relative negation. + Absolute negation implies that the non-existence or non-occurrence of an entity, + state, or event is due to contextual inapplicability, while relative negation + indicates that the non-existence or non-occurrence is circumstantial. This distinction + is illustrated in the two sentences below:

    +
    +


    +
    + Ilmaţár  êqeil.
    + DYN-‘sing’-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-FML      STA-‘girl’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + The woman doesn’t sing [even though she can, i.e., she chooses + not to].

    +

     

    +


    + Ilmàţîr  êqeil.
    + DYN-‘sing’-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-NA11/4-FML      STA-‘girl’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + The woman doesn’t sing [because she can’t, i.e., she is + mute].

    +
    +

     

    +


    +

    + + + + +
    9.3 THE “CARRIER” + ROOT
    +

    Since the Ithkuil declensional and conjugational system is + based on multiple patterns of vowel mutation, affixation, and shifts in tone and stress, proper + nouns such as personal and place names, as well as non-Ithkuil words from other + languages are by nature morpho-phonologically incompatible with such as system. + Nevertheless, such words can be declined or conjugated like any other Ithkuil + formative by means of the “carrier” root -p-. + In addition to this use, the carrier root is employed in certain other contexts + as well, as described below.

    +


    + 9.3.1 Words that Cannot Take Affixes or Be Mutated

    +

    The three primary stems of the carrier root, (a)p-, ep-, up-, are respectively associated with animate + beings (the two complementary derivatives op- and âp- being humans versus non-humans or + figuratively/metaphorically animate entities); inanimate entities (the two complementary + derivatives öp- and êp- being objectively concrete entities versus subjective entities such + as thoughts, emotions, sensations, etc.); and finally intangible abstract referents + (the two complementary derivatives îp-/ûp- and ôp- being place names and abstractions). The + carrier stem is placed immediately before the proper noun or foreign word or + phrase, then declined or conjugated normally for any desired morphological categories, + even verbal categories. The proper noun or foreign word or phrase itself is +left unchanged. The non-Ithkuil word or phrase is pronounced with either high or rising tone on its last syllable, in order to clue the listener that the following syllable/word returns to being Ithkuil. For those rare instances where the non-Ithkuil word or phrase natively carries grammatical tone (e.g., properly pronounced Cantonese), the end of the phrase can be indicated by either a pause in speech or repetition of the carrier-stem following the phrase. (Note: this repeated carrier-stem would not be indicated in writing - see Sec. 11.4.)

    +


    +

    +


    +9.3.2 Emphasizing or Highlighting a Particular Category

    +

    Another use of the carrier root is to emphasize or topicalize + a particular affix or grammatical element associated with a word. For example, + in English we can say ‘a big house’ with extra intonation + on the word ‘big’ to emphasize that word. To accomplish such emphasis + in Ithkuil, the carrier root is used with the augmentative suffix in conjunction + with the noun ‘house’ as opposed to simply using the augmentative + suffix on the stem for ‘house.’ No change in vocal pitch or intonation + is required, as the grammatically unnecessary use of the carrier root serves + to accomplish the required emphasis. Any morphological category manifested by + a carrier root rather than an adjunct or mutation serves to emphasize that category. + (It should be noted that the use of optional combination and euphonic adjuncts + do not accomplish such emphasis. Their use versus non-use imparts no difference + in emphasis for the particular morphological categories contained in the adjunct.)
    +

    +


    +9.3.3 Titles of Address

    +

    It should be noted that the use of thhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e carrier root in front + of the names of persons serves to function as a title of address corresponding + to English Mister, Ms. or Miss. There is no distinction of + gender or marital status conveyed by the term.

    +

     

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics >>

    +

     

    +  

    + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065549id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

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    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
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    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

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    +
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    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    +
    + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/09_syntax.html.orig b/2004-en/09_syntax.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..acae686 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/09_syntax.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,653 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 9: Syntax + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

    		  
    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Chapter 9: Syntax

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     9.1 Topic, Focus and Pragmatic Relations
     9.2 Morpho-Semantic Considerations
     9.3 The “Carrier” Root
    +


    + Syntax refers to the rules for sequencing the order of words + within a phrase or sentence, including rules permitting more than one possible + sequential ordering of words. To understand the following discussion of Ithkuil + syntax it is necessary to have a cursory understanding of the notions of semantic + role, pragmatic role, and grammatical (or syntactical) relations:

    +
    +
      +
    • Semantic role: This refers to the underlying semantic + function of a particular word, irrespective of overt morphological category. + We have already seen how Ithkuil marks its noun cases to reflect semantic + roles, not grammatical relations. Such roles include Agent, Patient, Experiencer, + Recipient, Instrument, etc., as previously explained in Section + 4.1 et seq.
      +
      +
      • +
    • Pragmatic role: This refers to the function of a word + or phrase in relation to its predicate or the rest of the sentence in terms + of whether and how it represents “given” versus “new” + information, i.e., whether or not the word or phrase represents background + information already known to the addressee, or whether it represents new + information previously unknown to the addressee. Three such roles or relations + are generally delineated: topic, comment, + and focus. The topic of a sentence is the word + or phrase about which the speaker has been asked or is expected by the addressee + to talk about. The comment is the information (usually a predicate) + given by the speaker about the particular topic. The term focus refers to whatever information in a sentence is new to the addressee, (i.e., + not previously known). To illustrate these concepts, consider the sentence I can see + why Mary’s angry, but what about Bill? (i.e., What happened + to make Bill angry, too?). In the hypothetical answer Bill (or + He) is angry because he lost his keys, ‘Bill’ (or ‘he’) + is the topic, ‘is angry because he lost his keys’ is the comment, + and ‘he lost his keys’ is the focus.
      +
      +
      • +
    • Grammatical (or syntactical) relations: the arbitrary word-ordering rules of a language, irrespective + of semantic or pragmatic roles, e.g., the subject of the sentence in English + normally precedes the main verb and the direct object normally follows the + main verb.
      • +
    +
    +

    In general, the syntax of a language either (1) establishes + the permissible grammatical relations of the language, (2) reflects and/or reinforces + semantic roles, (3) reflects and/or reinforces pragmatic roles, or (4) any combination + of these. As one might surmise from the above, English syntax is weighted heavily + toward establishing grammatical relations at the near-total expense of identifying + semantic roles. As for pragmatic roles, English rarely reflects these in its + syntax (one exception is the strong tendency for placing wh- question + words in sentence-initial position in specialized questions, even if they represent + a direct object, e.g., What have you done? or Who[m] are they talking + about?), however, such roles do tend to be marked “supra-segmentally” + by inflection of vocal pitch and tone of voice.

    +

    We have already seen the extreme to which Ithkuil uses noun cases to mark semantic + roles morphologically as opposed to syntactically. And since grammatial relations + in and of themselves are relatively arbitrary within language, Ithkuil uses + word order primarily to accomplish pragmatic relations, i.e., to indicate the topic and/or focus of a sentence. Additionally, Ithkuil does have a few word order constraints necessary to ensure avoidance + of ambiguity in determining which + nouns lie in apposition to their head, and which words of a compound sentence + lie within a case-frame as opposed to outside the case-frame. The specifics of Ithkuil word order are explained in Section 9.1 below.

    +

     

    +


    +

    + + + + +
    9.1 TOPIC, FOCUS, AND PRAGMATIC RELATIONS
    +

    The concept of semantic focus refers to what + information in an utterance is to be considered new information, while the semantic topic is the + background context already known or implied. The specifics are explained below and are best understood +through various English illustrations.

    +

    In any given discourse (i.e., a contextual series of utterances + such as a conversation, a story, an account of an event, etc.), any single sentence + of that discourse will likely make reference to previously mentioned material + as background, as well as present new material to further the purpose of the + discourse. Semantic focus refers to those elements of a sentence which constitute + new material within an actual or implied discourse. For example, the sentence My dog jumps through hoops could function as an answer to several different + questions such as 1) What tricks can your dog do?, or 2) Does your + dog do anything with hoops? or 3) Do you know of anyone’s pet + that jumps through hoops? or even 4) What’s up with you? In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’ + would have semantic focus while the dog is background material, i.e. the topic. In answering + the second question, the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have + focus while both the dog and the hoops would be the topic. In answering + the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus + while jumping through hoops would be the topic. Lastly, in answering the + fourth sentence, no element in the sentence has focus over any other, as all + elements present previously unknown material within the context of the discourse. + In general, English conveys focus by a shift in vocal inflection (tone and pitch + contours) to provide emphasis.

    +

    Focus does not necessarily require a full discourse to have + semantic relevance; it can occur within a single autonomous sentence, in which + case the background discourse is implied. For example, a person might spontaneously + begin a conversation with the same sentence: My dog jumps through hoops. In + English, the speaker might use vocal inflection to emphasize what elements convey + semantic focus versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.” + Or, the speaker might say the sentence in a neutral tone of voice, essentially + inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in + responding, e.g., Oh, you have a dog? or Oh, does he do any other + tricks? or Oh, do you use metal or plastic hoops? or an equally + neutral response such as Oh, you don’t say?

    +

    Ithkuil uses word-order to accomplish the same options + that such vocal inflections accomplish in English. In Ithkuil, the element with focus is placed immediately before the verb. As for the topic of the sentence, this is shown by placing it as the first element in a sentence. If there is no overt topic or focus, the verb will appear as the first word in the sentence. Examples:

    +
    +


    +
    + Euspoigrataì  ekšúl  břatļ.
    + DYN-[inc.stem: ‘buy’]-consume/ingest’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL-PRT    STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML   
    + STA-    ‘clam’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-IFL
    + The clown bought some clams and consumed them. (No topic or focus)          LISTEN 

    +

     

    +


    + Ekšúl  euspoigrataì  břatļ.
    + STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML     DYN-[inc.stem: ‘buy’]-consume/ingest’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL-PRT  
    +STA-    ‘clam’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-IFL
    +     It was the clown who bought some clams and consumed them. (The clown is the focus)

    +

     

    +


    + Břatļ  ekšúl  euspoigrataì.
    + STA-‘clam’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-IFL     STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML     
    + DYN-[inc.stem: ‘buy’]-consume/ingest’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL-PRT
    +     As for the clams, it was the clown who bought and consumed them. (The clams are the topic; the clown is the focus)

    +
    +

     

    +

    +

    9.1.1 Abbreviated Sentences Using Focus and Topicalization

    +

    Focus and topicalization allow Ithkuil, as with other languages, + to provide abbreviated sentences in direct answer to commands, questions, + or to comment on a topic already under discussion. Because the topic is already + known within the contextual discourse, only the portion of the new sentence + carrying semantic focus need be spoken. Similarly, the topicalization + suffix in conjunction with the INTERROGATIVE illocution, allows for abbreviated inquiries within a known contextual + discourse, similar to such abbreviated sentences in English, e.g., ‘and + Bill?’ in lieu of the full sentence ‘Comment on how this applies + to Bill.’

    +

     

    +

    9.1.2 Word-order within Case-Frames

    +

    Within a case-frame (see Section + 5.4), the verb always appears in initial position to identify the clause + as a case frame (using FRAMED Relation in the verb). Because of this, it becomes necessary to utilize the focusing and sequencing affixes from Sec. 7.4.13 to identify elements which carry focus or are topicalized within the case-frame. Additionally, the last noun within the case-frame + will usually take the -Vt’ in degree 2, 6, 7, or 9 (see Sec. 7.4.13) + to signify the end of the case-frame, unless this is clear without the suffix + (e.g., because the case-frame is in sentence-final position).

    +

     

    +

    9.1.3 Additional Constraints in Word Order

    +

    The following additional word-order constraints exist + in order to avoid potential ambiguity or semantic incoherence.

    +
      +
    • +
      Nouns in Possessive and Associative cases (see Secs. + 4.4 and 4.5) + which are dependent on, or in apposition to a “head” noun, must + immediately precede or follow that head noun, unless the relationship between the two nouns is otherwise clear from context or other morphological elements.
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      A case-frame cannot be broken apart into segments within a main sentence, + i.e., the case-frame must constitute a single cohesive clause and not contain + elements of the main clause within it. It is possible to “nest” + a second case-frame within a case-frame, similar to the way in which subordinate + or relative clauses can be nested in English and other Western languages, + e.g., [Despite owning a Picasso [that comes from his Blue period] [of + which I, [a mere student,] am fond,]] Joe is actually a very humble person.
      +
      • +
    +

     

    +

    9.1.4 Phonotactically-Induced Syntactic Modifications

    +

    As mentioned above, word-order can shift in an Ithkuil sentence + to accommodate phonotactic or phonaesthetic ends, i.e., for purposes of euphony. + This is because suffixes on a formative, as well as morphemes associated with + categories of Aspect and Bias can be moved to verbal adjuncts or transformed into autonomous adjuncts (see Sections 6.3, 8.2, 8.3, and 8.4). As + words + of six syllables or more are generally undesirable, any formative + with numerous affixes is potentially subject to having several of its morphemes + redistributed to adjuncts.

    +

    Example:

    +
    +


    +Ar-ryigrawileiţrar  eglulôn.     → Çtar-rya  eirţ  igralar  eglulôn.
    +MNO-PCL-DYN-‘eat.food’-HOR/FAC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT2/6-NA11/5-IFL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL →
    +HOR/PPS/CTX-PCL    EXT2/6    DYN-‘eat food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-IFL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
    +If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +
    +

    When ordering such phonaesthetically-induced adjuncts, it is + important that they can be easily associated with the formative to which they + apply. Generally, this means that they will be adjacent to the formative, or + occur on either side of other adjuncts associated with the formative.

    +


    + 9.1.5 Iconicity

    +

    English and other languages generally display phrase-structure + patterns and word-order patterns which reinforce, or even reflect, a cognitive + understanding of what is being described, i.e., the order of the words themselves + reflects information about how we are to understand the utterance. Such a phenomenon + is known as iconicity. In English and other Western languages, + the most common way in which iconicity is manifested is what is termed “sequential + order iconicity,” the idea that the actual sequential order of words in + a phrase or sentence reflects the sequential order of the events they describe. + For example, the phrases ‘eye it, try it, buy it,’ ‘I came, + I saw, I conquered,’ or ‘dine and dash’ describe sequential + events where the sequence of the words reflect the sequence of the events. What + is most important is that re-ordering of the words either changes the meaning + of the phrase or leads to semantic nonsense, e.g., ‘buy it, eye it, try + it’ implies that a different sequence of events actually takes place than + ‘eye it, try it, buy it.’ This can be more dramatically illustrated + with the following pair of sentences.

    +
    +

    1) Jane got married and had a baby.
    + 2) Jane had a baby and got married.

    +
    +

    In English, the ambiguous word ‘and’ is interpreted + as connecting a sequence of events, i.e., ‘and’ is interpreted to + mean sequential ‘then’ (= ‘and following that,’ ‘then + next’ or ‘then later’). As a result, the meanings of the two + sentences imply very different social interpretations about Jane.

    +

    Besides the reflection of sequential order, other types of + word-order iconicity are possible. For example, compare the subtle difference + in meaning between the following two sentences:

    +
    +

    3) Sam painted the fence white.
    + 4) Sam painted the white fence.

    +
    +

    In the first sentence, we do not know what color the fence + was prior to being painted, or even if it was a new fence that had never been + painted before. In the second sentence, not only do we know what color the fence + had been, but also that it was not previously unpainted, however, we do not + necessarily know what its new color is. This sort of iconicity is used to convey + a resultative state of affairs, i.e., by placing the adjective ‘white’ + after the word ‘fence’ (seemingly in violation of the usual adjective-before-noun + word order used in English), we describe a resulting state of affairs.

    +

    Yet another type of word-order iconicity is displayed in comparing + the following two sentences.

    +
    +

    5) Loretta gave Sue a wedding gift.
    + 6) Loretta gave a wedding gift to Sue.

    +
    +

    Most grammar textbooks would state that these two sentences + are semantically equivalent, the first employing a “ditransitive” + pattern (i.e., juxtaposing an indirect object ‘Sue’ with a direct + object ‘wedding gift’), while the second uses a “complement” + pattern in which the indirect object follows the direct object and is changed + to a prepositional phrase using ‘to.’ However, there is a subtle + semantic distinction between the two sentences. The first strongly implies that + the wedding gift is for Sue, i.e., Sue is the bride and intended recipient. + The second sentence, however, invites the possibility that Sue is only a temporary + or circumstantial goal for the act of giving, but not the bride and intended + recipient. For example, if Sue is merely a guest at the wedding and Loretta + needed Sue’s help carrying an armload of wedding gifts, she might give + a wedding gift to Sue, but that does not mean she would give Sue a wedding gift. This type of iconicity distinguishing a recipient from a directional + goal is an example of what is termed “distance iconicity,” because + the two linked words are made more “distant” from each other in + the sentence as a reflection of their more circumstantial association.

    +

    Ithkuil does not display iconicity. While the order of words + in an Ithkuil phrase or sentence may coincidentally reflect a temporal or causative + sequence of events, this is not by syntactic design. Because of the myriad means + available in Ithkuil to morphologically distinguish sequence, cause-and-effect, + resulting states, and the distinction of recipients from directional goals, + no iconicity patterns are required.

    +

    For example, we saw in sentences (1) and (2) above how English + ‘and’ can be used to convey not just mere coordination, but also + a sequencing function. In Sections + 7.4.3 and 7.4.4, we saw + that Ithkuil has no less than thirty-six suffixes (four suffix categories, each + with nine different degrees) which convey various coordinative and sequencing + patterns with great specificity. Thus, Ithkuil has no morpheme directly equivalent + to the ambiguous English word ‘and.’ There is an affix corresponding + to ‘and’ in its use as a mere additive listing device (e.g., ‘pears + and apples and bananas’), another corresponding to its use as an indicator + of simultaneity (e.g., I clenched my fists and scowled), another + corresponding to its use as an indicator of additional information (e.g., The + clown likes children and loves to eat), another to its use as an indicator + of parallel description or activity (e.g., We went dancing and so did + they), and yet another as a temporal sequencing indicator (e.g., I +went to the window and looked out).

    +

     

    +


    +

    +

    + + + + +
    9.2 MORPHO-SEMANTIC CONSIDERATIONS
    +

    It should be noted that when structuring an Ithkuil sentence, + particularly when translating from other languages such as English, care must + be given to avoid capturing irrelevant semantic information reflected by the + morphology of the source language and trying to find an equivalent or parallel + way to reflect those irrelevancies in the Ithkuil sentence. This can have a + profound effect on the morpho-syntactical structure of the resulting Ithkuil + sentence.

    +

     

    +

    9.2.1 Arbitrary Delineations of Perspective or Point of View

    +

    One area where word-choice in English and other Western languages + arbitrarily affects sentence structure is in the unintentional schematicization + of a particular perspective or point of view. For example, consider the following + pair of sentences in English.

    +
    +

    1) The path climbs steeply out of the canyon.
    + 2) The path descends steeply into the canyon.

    +
    +

    Both of these sentences are describing the same property of + the path — its steepness. The distinction in the sentences comes from + the point of view being reflected by the speaker. In sentence (1) the implied + point of view is from the bottom of the canyon upward, while in sentence (2) + the viewpoint is from the top of the canyon downward. What is important is that, + semantically, the point of view is of no relevance to the steepness of the path per se. So if the cognitive intent of the utterance is simply to describe + the vertical gradient of the path within the canyon, there would be only one + Ithkuil translation for both of these sentences, eschewing the point of view + entirely and restating the sentence to read:

    +
    +


    + Ûb  eikkradwa  smou’olâxh.
    + EXN1/6     DYN-‘move.along.obliquely.vertical.path.between.two.points’-RPV/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL      STA-‘valley’-NAV-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5-IFL
    + The path through the canyon is steep.          LISTEN 

    +
    +

     

    +

    9.2.2 Masking of Semantic or Participatory Roles

    +

    Similarly, care must be made, when comparing Ithkuil sentence + structure with other languages, to note that Ithkuil grammar allows for a more + overt reflection of the underlying semantic roles inherent in a given sentence. + As a result, sentence structures in Western languages which “mask” + potentially anomalous semantic structures are avoided in Ithkuil. For example, + compare the following pairs of sentences.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + +
     3a) He supplied a report to the analyst.4a) She applied a solvent to the stain.
     3b) He supplied the analyst a report.4b) *She applied the stain a solvent.
    +
    +

    The syntactical patterns of these two pairs of sentences are + identical, yet the word-order in sentence (4b) is ungrammatical (as indicated + by the asterisk), while the same word-order in sentence (3b) presents no problem. + The underlying reason for the difference is one of semantic role. While ‘analysts’ + can function in the role of Recipients, ‘stains’ cannot (they are + merely directional Goals, i.e., where the solvent gets applied). Cognitively, + stains cannot “possess” a solvent the way analysts can “possess” + a report. In Ithkuil, the semantic roles would be clearly defined by the case-markings + of the participants. Therefore, syntactically inconsistent pairs such as (3b) + and (4b) do not occur.

    +

    Sometimes, rather than semantic role, it is a participant’s + relationship to an underlying clause that presents the problem. For example, He’s a tall president means ‘He’s a president who + is tall.’ So why doesn’t He’s a likely president mean ‘*He’s a president who is likely’? The reason is that, + while ‘tall’ describes its adjacent referent ‘president,’ + ‘likely’ does not describe its adjacent referent. Rather, ‘likely’ + describes an underlying process in which that referent is or will be engaged, + i.e., ‘running for president.’ Therefore, while these two sentences + are morpho-syntactically identical in English, their Ithkuil translations are + quite different from one another morpho-syntactically:
    +

    +
    +

     

    +


    + Qi  alkaţeins  eádrai’seumi.
    + ma-AFF     STA-‘height’-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-PTT2/6-IFL     MNF-FRAMED/FML-‘preside/govern’-COR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-ROL2/4-FNC
    + He’s a tall president.
    + [literally: There is much height to him who formally presides.]          LISTEN 

    +

     

    +


    + Qa    eadramtôçqeumí.
    + ma-OBL        MNF-‘preside/govern’-NRM/ICP/M/CSL/UNI-PRB2/7-ROL2/4-FNC-FML
    + He’s a likely president.
    + [literally: He is one who probably will begin to formally preside.]          LISTEN 

    +

     

    +
    +

    9.2.3 Negation

    +

    Negation is another morpho-semantic area where translation + from English or other Western languages can be tricky. Consider the English + sentence Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Note this + sentence does not mean what a literal word-for-word analysis implies, i.e., + ‘That they like her cooking is not something that Shelly is thinking.’ + Rather, the correct meaning is ‘Shelly thinks that they don’t like + her cooking.’ Ithkuil is very precise in specifying exactly what components + of a sentence are to be negated. Use of the four affirmation/negation affixes + from Section 7.4.9 in conjunction with a formative carries very specific information as to what + morphological components of a sentence are being affirmed or negated and to + what degree. Using these four affixes alone, Ithkuil can distinguish between + the following four sentences without any syntactic rearrangement of the words:

    +
    +

    I don’t want to begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to not want to sing.

    +

    I want to not begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to want to not sing.

    +
    +

    Thus when translating negative sentences into Ithkuil, care + must be taken to not syntactically “rearrange” a sentence as with Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Additionally, Ithkuil + makes a morpho-semantic distinction not found in Western languages: the difference + between absolute negation and relative negation. + Absolute negation implies that the non-existence or non-occurrence of an entity, + state, or event is due to contextual inapplicability, while relative negation + indicates that the non-existence or non-occurrence is circumstantial. This distinction + is illustrated in the two sentences below:

    +
    +


    +
    + Ilmaţár  êqeil.
    + DYN-‘sing’-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-FML      STA-‘girl’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + The woman doesn’t sing [even though she can, i.e., she chooses + not to].

    +

     

    +


    + Ilmàţîr  êqeil.
    + DYN-‘sing’-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-NA11/4-FML      STA-‘girl’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + The woman doesn’t sing [because she can’t, i.e., she is + mute].

    +
    +

     

    +


    +

    + + + + +
    9.3 THE “CARRIER” + ROOT
    +

    Since the Ithkuil declensional and conjugational system is + based on multiple patterns of vowel mutation, affixation, and shifts in tone and stress, proper + nouns such as personal and place names, as well as non-Ithkuil words from other + languages are by nature morpho-phonologically incompatible with such as system. + Nevertheless, such words can be declined or conjugated like any other Ithkuil + formative by means of the “carrier” root -p-. + In addition to this use, the carrier root is employed in certain other contexts + as well, as described below.

    +


    + 9.3.1 Words that Cannot Take Affixes or Be Mutated

    +

    The three primary stems of the carrier root, (a)p-, ep-, up-, are respectively associated with animate + beings (the two complementary derivatives op- and âp- being humans versus non-humans or + figuratively/metaphorically animate entities); inanimate entities (the two complementary + derivatives öp- and êp- being objectively concrete entities versus subjective entities such + as thoughts, emotions, sensations, etc.); and finally intangible abstract referents + (the two complementary derivatives îp-/ûp- and ôp- being place names and abstractions). The + carrier stem is placed immediately before the proper noun or foreign word or + phrase, then declined or conjugated normally for any desired morphological categories, + even verbal categories. The proper noun or foreign word or phrase itself is +left unchanged. The non-Ithkuil word or phrase is pronounced with either high or rising tone on its last syllable, in order to clue the listener that the following syllable/word returns to being Ithkuil. For those rare instances where the non-Ithkuil word or phrase natively carries grammatical tone (e.g., properly pronounced Cantonese), the end of the phrase can be indicated by either a pause in speech or repetition of the carrier-stem following the phrase. (Note: this repeated carrier-stem would not be indicated in writing - see Sec. 11.4.)

    +


    +

    +


    +9.3.2 Emphasizing or Highlighting a Particular Category

    +

    Another use of the carrier root is to emphasize or topicalize + a particular affix or grammatical element associated with a word. For example, + in English we can say ‘a big house’ with extra intonation + on the word ‘big’ to emphasize that word. To accomplish such emphasis + in Ithkuil, the carrier root is used with the augmentative suffix in conjunction + with the noun ‘house’ as opposed to simply using the augmentative + suffix on the stem for ‘house.’ No change in vocal pitch or intonation + is required, as the grammatically unnecessary use of the carrier root serves + to accomplish the required emphasis. Any morphological category manifested by + a carrier root rather than an adjunct or mutation serves to emphasize that category. + (It should be noted that the use of optional combination and euphonic adjuncts + do not accomplish such emphasis. Their use versus non-use imparts no difference + in emphasis for the particular morphological categories contained in the adjunct.)
    +

    +


    +9.3.3 Titles of Address

    +

    It should be noted that the use of the carrier root in front + of the names of persons serves to function as a title of address corresponding + to English Mister, Ms. or Miss. There is no distinction of + gender or marital status conveyed by the term.

    +

     

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics >>

    +

     

    +

     

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    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
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    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

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    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    +

     

    +   +  https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/; + + + Home +   + Introduction + 4 Case Morphology + 8 Adjuncts + 12 The Number System + + + FAQs +   + 1 Phonology + 5 Verb Morphology + 9 Syntax + List of Abbreviations + + + Links of Interest +   + 2 Morpho-Phonology + 6 More Verb Morphology + 10 https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Lexico-Semantics + The Lexicohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/n + + + Updates / News +   + 3 Basic Morphology + 7 Suffixes + 11 The Writing System + Texts + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    Chapterindex.htmlntics

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    10.1 Systemic Morphological Derivationhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ 10.4 Lexical Generalization
    10.2 Dimensional and Descriptive Oppositions 10.5 Lexical Differentiation +
    10.3 Spatial Position and Orientation + 10.6 Comparison to Western Categorization +
      
    +


    + The term lexico-semantics refers to the relhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ationship + between the lexicon of a language (i.e., its root-words and wohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rd-stems) and + the various possible semantic categories created by the human mind. Every language + (and particularly every language family) divides the world up differently in + terms of what sorts of concepts are made into words and how the meanings of + those words reflect the reality around us. In other words, the lexico-semantics + of a language answers the questions what semantic concepts does this language + psycho-linguistically categorize into autonomous words and how are each of these +categories internally organized?

    +

    Lexico-semantics is extremely important in Ithkuil for two + related reasons:

    +

    1) Ithkuil morpho-phonology only allows for 3600 possible root + words, as explained in Chapter 2. This means that the concepts chosen to be + conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the widest range + of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework.

    +

    2) We have seen throughout this work how Ithkuil’s matrix-like + grammatical structure allows for an incredible amount of synergy in terms of + morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, emergent concepts from + word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent derivations. + In order to ensure the maximum amount of dynamism in deriving new concepts morphologically + from existing word-roots, it is important that those initial roots be carefully + selected in terms of meaning.

    +

    In this chapter, we will examine the many considerations that + go in to the assigning of concepts to those 3600 roots, in order to optimally + accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using the dynamics + of Ithkuil morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more + autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting + the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.”

    +

    We will start first with a review of key components in the + systemic design of Ithkuil morphology. This will be followed by sections on + those areas of Ithkuil lexico-semantics which are most profoundly distinct from + Western languages.

    +

    The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, + examining how Ithkuil lexico-semantics reinterprets certain concepts considered + “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.

    +

     

    +

    Note on Ithkuil's Implicit “Theory of Meaning”

    +

    For those readers who may be trained in linguistics, particulary cognitive linguistics, it should be noted that at this point in the author’s development of the language, a traditional Enlightenment-based theory of meaning, assuming a one-to-one correspondence between a lexeme and its external “in-the-world” referent, has been implicitly assumed for convenience and/or expediency’s sake. A more careful and rigourous construction for Ithkuil’s lexico-semantics, given the author’s stated design goals (as described in the Introduction section), would not assume such a theory of meaning, but would rather incorporate more recent findings of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to reflect embodied meaning and metaphor-based conceptualization. However, pursuing such a foundation for the lexico-semantics of the language would, in the author’s opinion, be extremely time-consuming (on the order of many additional years, perhaps decades, to construct). Rather than withdraw the language from public availability for such reasons, the author has chosen instead to adopt a traditional/formalist foundation for its lexico-semantics essentially out of convenience, in order to be able to showcase the language's morphology.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    10.1 SYSTEMATIC MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATION
    +

    Ithkuil systematically uses its myriad of morphological categories + to derive secondary concepts from more basic concepts, often eliminating the + need for separate lexicalization, i.e., eliminating the need to create separate + word-roots for new but related concepts as is so often the case in Western languages. + We will explore this system of morphological derivation more closely, particularly + in regard to its universality across the spectrum of Ithkuil word-roots.

    +


    + 10.1.1 Stem Derivation from Roots

    +

    We have already seen many applied examples of the above-described + concepts, particularly in Section + 2.3 et seq. regarding the use of the three different Vr vowel patterns to derive a trinary array of interrelated stems from a root, as well as shifting the Vr vowel of those trinary stems to in turn derive two separate arrays +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ of complementary stems from the initial holistic array of stems. Through this + system of vowel shifts, we saw how a single root generates no + less than eighteen formative stems, each functioning as a noun or verb. This + is illustrated below using the example root -k-‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    -K- ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’

    +
    INFORMAL Designation
    FORMAL Designation
    +
    1. ak- move/motion from one place to another
    +
    +
    1. aká- travel/traverse; journey
    +
    +
    2. ek- set in motion/self-directed movement from one place to another
    +
    +
    2. eká- set off for/journey to/directed travel toward
    +
    +
    3. uk- move/movement between one place and another (i.e., along line between two points)
    +
    +
    +
    +
    3. uká- travel/journey along way between two places
    +
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    1. ok- go = movement outward/away
    +
    1. âk- come = movement inward/toward
    1. oká- go traveling, be off
    1. âká- journey to(ward)
    2. ök- go away/move away = increase distance from a starting point
    2. êk- come toward/to close the distance = decrease distance toward endpoint
    2. öká- travel/journey further away from starting point
    2. êká- reach vicinity of, close in on destination
    3. îk/ûk- leave/depart = move away from one point towards another
    3. ôk- approach = approach one point from direction of another
    3. îká/ûká- depart/departure from starting point on journey toward elsewhere
    3. ôká- arrive/arrival, reach destination
    +


    + As described in Chapter 2, this hierarchical pattern of stem + derivation and division into complementary stems from a more basic or underlying + “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number + of word-roots necessary compared to Western languages,https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ as words that are semantically + interrelated in a hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically + from a basic root, as opposed to being assigned separate word-roots as in other + languages. The above root -k- demonstrates how concepts such come versus go are expressed as complementary derivations of a single underlying concept TRANSLATIVE + MOTION. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective +are similarly patterned, e.g., lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take, etc.

    +

    Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation + from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” + classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. Biological + taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, first + dividing the two Forms (Designations) of the root into the animal itself versus + the animal as a resource, the holistic stems indicating first the generic species + then male versus female. The complementary stems then make the further distinction + between wild versus domesticated for the informal stem and between food/prey + and derived or processed products for the formal stem.

    +

    Using the nine degrees of the Stem + Specific Derivative SSD suffix -k from Section 7.4.13 on such a root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific + parts, products or derived resources such as the milkhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/, oil, meat, skin or + hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The Degree + of Maturity MAT suffix -ph from Section 7.4.10 is also applied to indicate the developmental stage of the +animal, providing derived equivalents + to wohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rds such as foal, fawn, lamb or cub, from horse, +deer, goat, or lion.

    +


    +

    +

    +

    10.1.2 The Use of Derivational Suffixes

    +

    In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the approximately 200 suffix categories + can be used to generate both derivative concepts as + well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning. As an example, + here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes + from the stem el- ‘say something [i.e., + communicate a verbal message]’:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    + elalaiq’
    ‘share a secret’
    suffix = DSR2/8
    + elalêpţ
    ‘news’
    suffix = ATC2/3
    + elalâxh
    ‘quip’
    suhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ffix = SCO2/5
    + elaluiq
    ‘praise, adulation’
    suffix = NTR2/9
    + elalôpt
    ‘lie’ [= tell a lie]
    suffix = REA2/7
    + elalainţ
    ‘shout out a message’
    suffix = STR2/8
    + elalên
    ‘persuasive person, a persuader’
    suffix = AGC2/3
    + elalôn
    ‘liaison, a go-between’
    suffix = AGC2/7
    elaliuçaukç
    ‘whisper sweet nothings’
    suffixes = AFT2/1 + FRC2/2
    elaliucêps
    &index.htmlem>
    suffixes = UNQ 2/1 + MTA 2/3
    +


    + Similarly the use of the Consent CNS suffix, the Reason RSN suffix, the Expectation XPT suffix, the Deliberateness DLB suffix, the Enablement ENB suffix, the Agency/Intent AGN suffix, and the Impact IMP suffix from Section + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ 7.4.12 in conjunction w/ Transrelative cases (Sec. + 4.3), provides a means for describing extremely subtle scenarios of causation, + willingness, enahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/blement, hindrance, etc. which other languages can only capture https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + via long-winded paraphrase. Employing this array of affixes and cases, a sentence + such as https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/The singer stopped the boys from playing around can be translated + into Ithkuil in many syntactically equivalent (but morphologically distinct) + ways to indicate whether the singer used physical force or persuasion to stop + the boys, whether she stopped them via an indirect enabling means (such as turning + out the lights), or whether it was the boys themselves who stopped upon hearing + her voice or seeing her beauty, or even by her mere presence interrupting them + (such as walking in on them inadvertently), as well as the degree of willingness + or consent with which they stopped. The following example sentence further illustrates +the complex detail which these suffixes make possible:

    +
    +


    + Ôqölöňtauspûls  êļnelôzra  iaçtaxhtiamsíţ.
    + STA-‘man’-EFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-XPT1/2-DLB2/2-ENB1/6-IFL   STA-‘bird’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IMP2/7-IFL   
    + DYN    -‘room’-NRM/DEL/U/COA/CST-AGN2/9-DEV1/1-FML
    + Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally + killed it without even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting + it out of the house.__________          

    +
    +


    + The     DEV suffix from Sec. 7.4.9, + in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of English such + as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate + the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in Ithkuil this suffix is prohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ductive + for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with Modality + (Section 6.1) + and the Modality suffixes from Section 7.4.11 to extend the system of modalities, as illustrated by the following:

    +
    +

    promise to + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/DEV/1 = + foreswear, vow never to
    + can (know how to) + DEV/1 = be ignorant of
    + decide to +     DEV/1 = avoid
    + offer to +     DEV/1 = refuse to
    + agree upon/to +     DEV/1 = decline to/abstain from
    + like to +     DEV/1 = loathe
    + fear to +     DEV/1 = love to
    + need to +     DEV/1 = dispensable, unnecessary to, can dispense with

    +
    +

     

    +

    10.1.3 The Use of Configuration, Affiliation, and Context

    +

    Each of these categories has means to generate amalgamate, + holistic, or emergent concepts from a more basic underlying stem.

    +

    10.1.3.1 Configuration: In Sec. + 3.1 we saw how applying each of the nine Configuration categories to a stem + often generates forms based on amalgamation of sets which require complete relexification + when translated into English. Examples are:

    +
    +

    bone → skeleton
    + strut/girder     → frame → framework
    + component     → structure → system
    + ingredient     → compound
    + food     → dish → meal
    + tool     → toolset
    + do/perform     → coordinate
    + vehicle     → convoy
    + person     → group → crowd → masses
    + activity     → process.

    +
    +

    10.1.3.2 Affiliation: In Sec. + 3.2 we saw how the four Affiliations can generate new concepts based on + delineations of purpose, benefit, or function. Examples include:

    +
    +

    group → team,
    + grovehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/     → orchard
    + assortment     → collection → junk
    + process     → plan

    +
    +

    10.1.3.3 Context: In Sec. + 3.6.4 we encountered the AMALGAMATE context, which + serves to identify a stem specifically as a gestalt entity, composed of objective + and subjective/social elements or components which contribute to the overall + nature of the stem. Depending on the https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/stem to which it is applied, the use of + the amalgamate can cause relexification in translating to English. Examples:

    +
    +

    demeanor → personality
    + craftsmanship     → artistry
    + career     → livelihood
    + (one’s) past     → (one’s) + life
    + to look after/tend     → nurture

    +
    +

     

    +

    10.1.4 The Use of Designation and Version

    +

    In Section + 3.7 on Designation as well as Section + 5.8 on Version, we saw how both of these morphological categories create + distinctions in word-stems which usually require relexification in translation. + The following wohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rd pairs illustrate such relexification:

    +
    +    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    (the) past → historysee → observe
    writings → literatureone → single/singular
    wordplay → rhetorichear → listen
    behavior → demeanordesire → request
    wander → travelquery → research
    eat → dineponder → analyze
    containment → storagepath → route
    +


    + Again we see that application of morphological categories + to word-stems serves to generate forms which substitute for lexical distinctions +in other languages, thus helping to reduce the size of the Ithkuil lexicon.

    +

     

    +

    10.1.5 The Use of Phase and Extension

    +

    The use of the nine Phases, as explained in Sec. + 5.5, used in conjunction with the category of Extension (Sec. + 3.4) gives rise to an elaborate means by which to describe phenomena in + terms of duration, periodicity, repetition, iterativity, and cyclic phenomena. https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + When used in conjunction with the twelve Modulative suffixes from Sec. + 7.4.7, the Iteration ITN and Repetition RPN suffixes from Sec. 7.4.5 and the Intensity ITY suffix from Sec. 7.4.10, + Phase becomes an extrehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/mely powerful means to describe with great subtlety all + phenomena which display vibrahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/tory, oscillative, wavering, on-off, or variative + movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific applicahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/tion of the various + phases combined with the aforementioned suffixes and other suffix categories to + a single stem -nt- ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following + English words:

    + +
    + + + + + + + +
    acoustic
    + audible
    + auditory
    + bang
    + blast
    + boom
    + buzz
    + cacophony
    + calm
    + click
    + clickety-clack
    + clink
    + crack
    + crackle
    + crash
    + din
    + discord
    + dissonance
    + drone
    + echo
    + explosion    		faint + sound
    + fizz
    + gag
    + grate
    + hiss
    + howl
    + hullabaloo
    + hum
    + hush
    + jangle
    + kerplunk
    + knock
    + loud(ness)
    + lull
    + moan
    + muffle
    + murmur
    + mute
    + noise
    + pandemonium
    + peal
    +

    pit-a-pat
    + plink
    + pop
    + quaver
    + quiet
    + racket
    + rap
    + rat-a-tat
    + rattle
    + raucous
    + resonant
    + reverberate
    + ring
    + roar
    + rumble
    + rush of sound
    + rustle
    + screech
    + shrill
    + silence
    + snap

    		sonorous
    + sound
    + staccato
    + stifle
    + strident
    + stutter
    + swirl
    + swish
    + tap
    + thump
    + tick
    + toot
    + twang
    + uproar
    + vibration
    + whir
    + whistle
    + whiz
    + whoosh
    +
    +


    + The same principles applied to other types of stems give rise + to a plethora of complex and subtle means for describing motions, paths, trajectories, + movement in situ, light emanation, reflection, consistency, texture, variation + in shape, visual complexity, etc.

    +

     

    +

    10.1.6 Note on the Absence of Lexico-Semantic “Classes”

    +

    It should be noted that in previous versions of the language, formative roots were divided into lexico-semantic “classes” designated by the phonological patterning of the root (there were 17 such classes in the original version of Ithkuil, ten such classes in Ilaksh). In the current version of the language, these lexico-semantic classes have been eliminated, as the author has realized that the establishment of such classes does not serve any real functional purpose in “real-world” spoken/written contexts; the ability to identify the semantic class of a stem does not sufficiently aid in understanding the stem’s specific meaning. Therefore, the assignment of phoneme patterns to roots in Ithkuil is now arbitrary. While the astute reader will note that many roots pertaining to a specific semantic notion (e.g., animals, plant and substance taxonomies, spatial position, etc.) still have similar phonological patterning, such patterning is nevertheless merely incidental and is without formal significance.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    10.2 DIMENSIONAL AND DESCRIPTIVE OPPOSITIONS
    +

    Another area of the lexicon where Western languages tend to + divide up reality into binary oppositions is the realm of spatial dimensions, + where pairs such as near/far, small/large, thin/thick, narrow/wide, tall/short, + light/heavy, hot/cold, etc. are commonplace. As with the perspective-based + oppositions seen in the preceding section, again Ithkuil lexico-semantics treats + such concepts in a wholly different way. Rather than lexicalize such concepts + as pairs of binary oppositions, Ithkuil delineates these qualities as varying + points along a continuous range. In other words, in Ithkuil you do not + say X is cold and Y is hot, but rather X has less temperature and Y has greater temperature. Similarly, one does not say A is + near to me and B is far from me, but rather the distance from + me to A (or proximity of A to me) is less than the distance from me + to B (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for + the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ + becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ithkuil formative is ‘amount + of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western + descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ithkuil as + mere variance in the quantity of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, + or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    10.3 SPATIAL POSITION AND ORIENTATION
    +

    Concepts of spatial position and orientation are expressed + very differently in Ithkuil as compared to Western languages such as English. + The three major differences are explained below, each of which will be explored + in detail in the sections which follow.

    +

    1) Ithkuil does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial + relationships, position, and orientation are designated by nominal/verbal formatives.

    +

    2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference + to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic + intent, Ithkuil subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexico-semantic + level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What + this means is that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional + reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance + is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in fact, + the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful + relationship (where a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), + the Ithkuil sentence will describe this function or purpose, not the spatial + relationship. For example, in answer to the question Where’s Billy? an English speaker might give answers such as (a) He’s standing right + next to Sam, or (b) He’s in bed, or (c) He’s in + the bathtub. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only + the first is truly intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while + sentences (b) and (c) imply information that is, in fact, more relevant than + the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s + sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s + bathing.’ An Ithkuil speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) + in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question Where’s + Billy? is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position + in absolute space. If the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial + information, he/she would have asked the Ithkuil equivalent of What’s + Billy doing? or What’s happening with Billy? to which a + Ithkuil speaker would answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions + of (b) or (c), not their original versions.

    +

    3) Ithkuil utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative + spacial reference, not a relative one as found in most languages. Note the positional + ambiguity inherent in sentences such as He’s standing to the left + of the desk. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose + perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, + the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of + the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, + or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) + Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages employ a relative coordinate + system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. Ithkuil + spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective + of a participant (e.g., the speaker or addressee) or referent object (i.e., + the thing(s) whose position is being described), as opposed to the relative + coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ithkuil system allows listeners + to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) + in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal + perspective.

    +


    + 10.3.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions

    +

    Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- + and three-dimensional space in different ways than in Western languages, Ithkuil + has no prepositions. Rather, Ithkuil utilizes formatives which describe a spatial + relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, + the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a + verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western + preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.”

    +

     

    +

    10.3.2 Underlying Cognitive Purpose of an Utterance

    +

    Ithkuil grammar considers the functional relationship between + two objects to be primarily relevant, not their spatial orientation or position + relative to each other (or between an object and its background). When it comes + to describing an object against a background or the relationship between two + objects, Ithkuil grammar is more interested in answering the question How + do X and Y function relative to each other, rather than How are X and + Y positioned in space relative to each other?

    +

    For example: in uttering the English sentence The vase + is on the table, is the intention of the sentence to tell the listener + the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, + or to tell the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against + gravity) by the table? If the intention is the former, the corresponding Ithkuil + sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest + self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction + of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support + against gravity, the Ithkuil sentence would not utilize a spatial reference + at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as The table is supporting + the vase. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in + Ithkuil are used far less often than corresponding prepositions and spatial + constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the following examples + illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ + (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ithkuil + using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ENGLISH + SENTENCE
    CONCEPT + CORRESPONDING TO 'IN(SIDE or INTO)'
    NEAREST + TRANSLATION TO Ithkuil EQUIVALENT
    The man works in(side) that building.general locational + reference where idea of interiority or containment is incidentalThe man works at that building.
    The book is in that box.physical containment + only with no specific purpose That box contains the book.
    You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can.incidental, temporary, + or circumstantial constraint/holder to prevent spillage from gravityThe small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.
    I poured soup in(to) the bowl.same as aboveI enabled the bowl to hold soup
    We stayed in(side) due to the rain.shelter, containment + for purpose of protectionWe shelter ourselves from the rain.
    He placed the sword in(side or into) its sheath.containment in fitted + covering for purposes of protectionHe sheathed the sword.
    He stayed in(side) his room.containment for purpose + of privacyHe shuttered himself.
    The tiger was kept in(side) a cage.containment to prevent + escapeThe tiger remained captured.
    There are high concentrations of lead in(side) that + pottery.ingredient, composite + substance That pottery contains much lead.
    Microchips can be found in(side) any machine these + days.inherent or integral + componentThese days, any machine incorporates microchips.
    I put fuel in the gas tank.integral component + having function to hold or contain other componentI (re-)fueled the gas tank.
    We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head.intangible containmentWe’ll never know her thoughts.
    He has a tumor in(side) his pancreas.enveloped to inaccessible + depth by surrounding mediumHis pancreas “harbors” a tumor.
    He hammered a nail in(to) the wall.fastening/connectingHe fastened the nail to the wall with a hammer.
    The child tried putting the square block in(side or + into) the round hole.fitting together one + object to anotherThe child tried to fit the round hole and the square + block together.
    +


    +     This functional prioritization notwithstanding, Ithkuil is nevertheless + able, if necessary, to describe true spatial relationships and orientations + quite specifically. However, it does so in ways that are very unfamiliar in + terms of Western grammar. These are described in the following section.

    +


    + 10.3.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates

    +

    While Western languages are capable of describing the physical + position and orientation of object in absolute terms (e.g., My hometown + is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N), it is not normal + to do so in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation + is normally relative, i.e., described from the dynamic perspective of the two + objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party observer (usually, + but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of + objects in my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, + phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue + is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ + and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information + without first having to establish a common frame of reference based on where + the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard (in order to interpret + what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing + relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), + perhaps even the orientation of the shape of the yard relative to some external + absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, E, + W).

    +

    In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ + change completely if I turn my body 180 degrees. Confusion also occurs when + I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of + the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left + side of the chair from the perspective of someone sitting in the chair?

    +

    Ithkuil avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute + coordinate system of spatial reference as opposed to a relative system (similar + in nature to the absolute system used in navigation based on the four cardinal + points.). Very few languages on Earth utilize such absolute systems to the exclusion + of relative systems. (Examples include Guugu Yimidhirr, an Australian aboriginal + language; Tzeltal, a Yucatec Mayan language; and Yurok, an Algonquian Indian + language of Northern California). Ithkuil utilizes three different absolute + coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. These + coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid + superimposed upon space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular + to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), + the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the direction of gravity (which + may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which + differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three + points of reckoning depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. + The three schemes are as follows:

    +

    1) Solar-based system. This is the standard + Ithkuil system of reckoning. The line of the Y-axis runs parallel to the rising + and setting points of the sun in mid-summer, with the vector oriented in the + direction of the setting sun. Note that the alignment of this Y-axis relative + to the X-axis is variable; i.e., the line connecting the rising and setting + points of the sun merely designate the direction of the Y-axis, not + it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships + can be made using a “octant locator” system based on this grid, + where any two objects can be made to lie within different octants relative + to each other (this will be illustrated below).

    +

    Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime + and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge + and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of + the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective + understanding of the orientation of the building/structure/room relative to + the solar-based Y-axis (i.e., everyone in the room can still tell the orientation + of the outdoor Y-axis, whether by sight through windows, or by noticing that + the length-width ratios of the room are aligned with the outdoor Y-axis).

    +

    2) Length vs. width of enclosed space or room. + In indoor situations where the orientation of the outdoor solar-based Y-axis + is unknown (or cannot be readily determined on a continuous basis as new speakers + enter the room), an arbitrary Y-axis is connoted by the length of the room in + a direction away from whichever end of the room displays a visibly unique feature + (e.g., the doorway, a window, an alcove, an imposing piece of furniture, a stage + or dais, etc.), this symbolically substituting for the position of the rising + sun. This is the coordinate system which would be employed in theaters, enclosed + banquet halls without windows, and cellars without windows or ready access to + outside orientation.

    +

    3) Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, + objects, or persons. This is similar to a Western relative system in + which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An Ithkuil + speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method + of reckoning. Nevertheless, it is possible to designate a personally defined + reckoning system using words to designate the origin point and direction of + the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on + a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between + the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the NAVIGATIVE case (see Sec. 4.7.6). + The primary use for this system of reckoning is literary or narrative, such + as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in which he/she wishes + to describe spatial relationships solely within the context of the story in + order to cohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nvey a mental map or image of the goings-on to his/her audience.

    +


    + 10.3.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects. + Using such a triaxial three-dimensional grid, Ithkuil then lexically divides + up space into “octants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” + of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight octants.

    +
    +

    +X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Octant + 1 = Root: -KST-
    + +X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Octant 2 = Root: -KŠT-
    + +X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Octant 3 = Root: -PST-
    + +X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Octant 4 = Root: -PŠT-
    + -X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Octant 5 = Root: -KSP-
    + -X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Octant 6 = Root: -KŠP-
    + -X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Octant 7 = Root: -PSK-
    + -X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Octant 8 = Root: -PŠK-

    +
    +


    + There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above + where either one or two of the X/Y/Z values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent + English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight + down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight + up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc.

    +

    The SSD suffix in turn is used to specify translative movement from a starting octant specified by the stem toward an endpoint specified by the suffix, as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1moving toward Octant + 1
    Degree 2moving toward Octant + 2
    Degree 3moving toward Octant + 3
    Degree 4moving toward Octant + 4
    Degree 5moving toward a position between octants, (i.e., either X = 0, Y = 0, or Z = 0)
    Degree 6moving toward Octant + 5
    Degree 7moving toward Octant + 6
    Degree 8 moving toward Octant + 7
    Degree 9moving toward Octant + 8
    +

     

    +

    Additionally, the LCT suffix is used with these roots to identify the location of objects within a specific octant. The above octants are + indicated in the illustrations below.

    +

    Because the lateral alignment (but not directhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ion) of the solar-based + X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each can be slid laterally relative to the + other axis), any two objects whose relative positions are to be described can + be made to fall within two different octants, as illustrated in figures A, + B, C and D below (Figure A represents the background context for which Figures + B, C and D present varying positional frames of reference).
    +
    +

    +

    +
    +

    +

     

    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    +
    +

    + It is the ability to “slide” the axes of thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/his three-dimensional + grid that allows Ithkuil to easily describe the relative position of objects + in an absolute mannehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/r. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two objects + each fall into different octants, a series of octant-to-octant relationships + between the two objects can be lexified. Thus, each of the above roots has a + stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, designates a spatial relationship + between an object occupying that octant and a second object occupying any + of the seven other octants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call + each of these octant-to-octant static relationships a “positional + frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while + 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. + Used to mark the participant nouns with motion sentences described below.)

    +

    Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker + to describe exactly the spatial relationships between two objects in motion relative + to each other. This is done in Ithkuil by stating that two object are moving + from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by + “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, + not a specific location in space, it can be seen how such a simple formula easily + describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An Ithkuil speaker is describing + exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short sentence + the octant-to-octant relationship the two objects have to start with, and + the octant-to-octant relationship they will have when the motion is ended. + The root used to describe the motion indicates the nature of the motion in terms + of its smoothness, speed, etc.

    +

    To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing + where the speaker or addressee or third party is situated relative to the two + objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is added to the + sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) + which states the positional frame between that third party and the FIRST party + (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the + ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame + of the dog and ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog.

    +

    Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ithkuil can be + in describing relative position between objects in an absolute manner. This + is best illustrated by narrowly translating into English an Ithkuil sentence + which describes a three-party positional situation.
    +

    +
    +


    +

    +


    + Qi’êlafs  âmmul  âhiogwokstatükai  íxi’asa  açthu  pštâ’at.         &nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/sp;
    +     STA-‘woman’-CNR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MVT1/5-IFL    STA-‘child’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL        
    + NNR-CNF-DYN- [incorp. stem: ‘run’]-‘Octant-1’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-SSD1/8-IFL-EXS/ISR     FRAMED-DYNhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/-‘see’-CNR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML  
    + Ref2:OBL-Ref1:1m/Ref2:ua-Ref1:IND      STA-‘Octant-4’-LOC-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL
    +

    +
    +


    + There is no way to translate this Ithkuil sentence into everyday + English except via inadequate approximation, thus: The woman stood still + as the boy ran from ahead and above her, then past her, while + I watched them from behind and below. However, a more exact, narrow translation + of this sentence, capturing all of the positional/orientational specificity + of the original, would run as follows:
    +

    +
    +

    As the woman held still, the boy ran from + a position above, ahead of, and to the right of her relative to the direction + of the sunrise-to-sunset vector, a plane perpendicular to it, and the axis + of gravity, toward a position still above, but behind and to the left of her + relative to the same directional vector, perpendicular plane and gravitational + axis, as I was watching them from below, behind, and to the right of her relative + to the same vector, plane, and axis.
    +

    +
    +
    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    10.4 LEXICAL GENERALIZATION
    +

    In a word-for-word comparison to a Eurocentric vocabulary, + especially one as large as that of English, the Ithkuil lexicon appears very + overgeneralized in many respects. At first impression, it appears that shades + of meaning expressed by multiple words in English are expressed by only one + root in Ithkuil. As we have seen repeatedly throughout this work, this is primarily + due to the fact that shades of meaning for a single underlying cognitive concept + are normally differentiated at the morphological level in Ithkuil, as opposed + to the lexical. Nevertheless, there are several lexico-semantic areas where + Ithkuil truly does generalize in comparison to Western languages. This occurs + primarily where (1) Western vocabulary distinguishes separate lexemes for a + redundant concept based on different participants to, practitioners of, or manifestations + of that concept, and (2) where lexification is at an arbitrarily detailed or + particularized level. These topics are discussed in detail in the following + sections.

    +


    + 10.4.1 Consolidation of Unnecessary Distinctions

    +

    As an example of lexical generalization in Ithkuil (or over-lexicalization + in English!), compare the following words for animal vocal sounds: meow, + bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray, etc. Each of these words mean merely to + make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ithkuil utilizes only + a single stem for this concept (essentially meaning vocal sound/vocalize – from the same root which gives the stem for (human) voice), + based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or + moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate + lexically the innate vocal sound being made by an animal if the animal making + the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one might argue that English + allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in The + sergeant barked out orders to the platoon, or The baby squealed in + delight. Such constructions are perfectly captured in Ithkuil via the ESSIVE and ASSIMILATIVE cases, as in He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog, or The + baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight, or +via the manipulation of Function, Incorporation and Format (see Sections 5.1 and 6.4).

    +

    Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem + in Ithkuil would be (1) herd, flock, pride, gaggle, etc.; (2) haihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/r, + fur, fleece, coat, etc.; (3) shttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/kin, hide, pelt, pellicle, peel, rind, + lambskin, leather, integument, etc.

    +

     

    +

    10.4.2 Translative Motion, Paths and Trajectories

    +

    By translative motion is meant the idea of an object https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/moving + (or being moved) from one location to anothehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/r. English is particularly rich + in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such an object, + not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, + but also the means of initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as to + toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run, or pass a ball or + other object. In reaching its destination, the object can fly, float, wing, + pass, arc, sail, plummet, drop, fall, thread, hop, leap, bounce, roll, zig-zag, + slide, glide, slither, or jump its way there.

    +

    As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ithkuil lexifies + concepts of translative motion with a focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, + not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. + Essentially, Ithkuil is less concerned with how the object gets there and is + more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For + example, look at the following two columns of English sentences :

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    I tossed it into + the basket.

    +
    		It sailed + into the basket.
    +

    I flung it into the + basket.

    +
    		It flew into the basket.
    +

    I hurled it into + the basket.

    +
    		It arced its way into + the basket.
    +

    I pitched it into + the basket.

    +
    		It fell into the basket.
    +
    +


    +     The sentences in the lefthand column + describes how I initiate the action while those in the righthand column describe + how the object moves. In Ithkuil the lefthand column of sentences would normally + all be translated by a single sentence narrowly translatable as I made it + end up inside the basket, while the righthand column of sentences would + all be translated by the exact same sentence minus the ERGATIVE personal referent I, thus: It ended up inside the basket.

    +

    So where are the words translating the range of descriptive + nuance surrounding the means of sending it into the basket and the different + trajectories it takes there? In normal Ithkuil speech, such distinctions would + be considered irrelevant. This is because Ithkuil grammar questions all acts, + conditions and events as to their underlying cognitive purpose. For the above + sentences, Ithkuil views them as all having the same undeindex.html express that I have caused an object to pass from a state of being in my alienable + possession to a state of being within the basket, by passing through the physical + space between me and the basket. Therefore there is only one translation for + the varying sentence pairs.

    +

    Before the reader begins to think that Ithkuil is incapable + of distinguishing the shades of meaning present in the above examples, it should + be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by additional affixes + and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to + indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ithkuil can + augment the sentence I made it end up inside the basket to include + affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes + indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly + translatable as Using my hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I + caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully inside the basket.

    +

    While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances + of English “flung,” Ithkuil first makes us stop and ask ourselves, + why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force + initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English + speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or + “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in + the above sentence, would his/her speaker be considered to have been given information + any less sufficient or essential for understanding the message and its purpose? + All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ithkuil lexico-semantics: if + a complex, highly detailed morphology already conveys a high degree of semantic + and cognitive nuance, why belabor the obvious by reinforcing such nuances at + the lexical level if the context and underlying cognitive purpose of the utterance + does not require it? Thus the Ithkuil language not only captures levels of cognitive + detail beyond the scope of Western languages, but it also allows the speaker + to avoid having to provide such detail when it is inessential.

    +

     

    +

    10.4.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying + Processes

    +

    In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ithkuil perspective, + an example would be limp, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ + Ithkuil recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not + the condition per se that is relevant, but rather the manner in which + the condition causes the person to move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously + in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” + expectation of walking. Ithkuil speakers would consider English limp to represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative + movement. To a Ithkuil speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. + The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping + or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” + is an underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity + which causes the person to move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead + of He has a limp because of his war wound, a Ithkuil speaker would + say He walks asymmetrically/irregularly because of his war wound.

    +

    To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when + dancing to rock music, has a tendency to jerk his/her head to the left at the + sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it ludicrous over-lexicalization + to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s + head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical + sentence She spreggles to rock music. Yet, from the Ithkuil standpoint, + there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” + and the actual word ‘limp.’

    +

    Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both + animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ithkuil has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ + ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ + or ‘paralysis.’ In Ithkuil, one simply says He can’t see, + She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t + move, or alternately His faculty of sight (or other sense or innate + faculty) doesn’t function/no longer functions. [Note: each of + these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, + case, voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, + whether temporary or permanent, whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally + caused or inherently developed, etc.]

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    10.5 LEXICAL DIFFERENTIATION
    +

    While we have examined the many ways in which the dynamism + and logic of Ithkuil grammar eliminates whole swaths of equivalent English vocabulary, + there are, nevertheless, many concepts where Ithkuil provides autonomous lexical + roots and stems for which neither English nor other Western languages provide + similar words and must resort to paraphrase in order to translate. Such concepts + are particularly found in the realm of human emotions, social relationships, + functional interrelationships between objects, philosophy, psychology, and sensory + phenomena.

    +

    Underlying such differentiation is the idea that the Ithkuil + language is meant to reflect in linguistic terms as close a representation of + human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is possible + in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure + mathematical logic. Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded + in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented + in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language + which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require + many more words to describe that life than are commonly available in existing + human languages.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    10.6 COMPARISON TO WESTERN CATEGORIZATION
    +

    Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which + there is no exactly corresponding equivalent in Ithkuil. These include the concepts + embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ithkuil + has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” + or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership + equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ithkuil grammar + and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or + inherent existential possession as true semantic functional categories or fundamental + cognitive primitives.

    +


    + 10.6.1 Translating “To Be”

    +

    Ithkuil grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, + at any and all moments, and on all scales large and small, in a state of flux. + The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately identified as + “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ithkuil grammar + has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or + “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that + are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different + from moment to moment, if only because the mere passage of time itself renders + the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. + Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” + anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” + or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something + else. Fundamental to Ithkuil grammar are the notions of function and purpose, + not mere description; results, not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. + This explains why there is no true distinction between nouns and verbs in Ithkuil, + both being mere differences in functional roles played by any given formative + concept whose underlying meaning is not inherently nominal or verbal, but rather + a conceptual primitive waiting to be manifested as either (1) a representation + of an action, process, or event, (i.e., a verb), or (2) as a concrete or abstract + entity that is representative of, or embodies the underlying concept (i.e., + a noun).

    +

    So, an Ithkuil speaker does not say I am John, She is a + cook, The leaf is green, Stan is ill, or Murder is wrong, but + rather One calls me John, She cooks [for a living], The leaf [currently] + manifests a green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease], and Murder + controverts morality.

    +

     

    +

    10.6.2 Translating ‘To Have’

    +

    In regard to “have” or “having,” Ithkuil + views the concept of possession as breaking down into more specific functional + states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation + to each other. The neutral, default way of expressing “to have” involves placing the possessor in the DATIVE case and utilizing the MANIFESTIVE function of the verb, so that the phrase “I have a book” translates more or less as “There is a book to me.”
    +

    +

     

    +

    10.6.3 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections

    +

    As there are no interjections in Ithkuil, there are no true + equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ithkuil. Nevertheless, Ithkuil grammar also allows for the use of Bias suffixes (see Sec. 5.11) to function + as autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to + interjections in Western languages. This phenomenon has already been discussed + in Section 8.4. + Additionally, Section + 8.3 described how affixual adjuncts may be used to convey information similarly + to autonomous interjections.

    +

      

    +

    10.6.4 “WH”-Questions

    +

    Ithkuil has no equivalent to WH-question words such as whhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/at? where? when? why? how? etc.  Instead, statements are made using DIRECTIVE illocution (and hopefully SOLICITIVE bias) to provide the desired information.  Thus, instead of asking “Where is the toilet?&rhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/dquo; or “What is your name?” one says “Please stahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/te the toilet’s location” and “Please identify yourself.”

    +

     

    +

    10.6.5 Translating Metaphorically Structured Phrases

    +

    Ithkuil grammar recognizes that much of our understanding and + expression of everyday experience is structured in terms of metaphor and metonymy + (the latter being the reference to an entity by one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business). + Ithkuil allows for the overt designation of metaphorical concepts by several + means. These include the REPRESENTATIONAL context, stem incorporation, + the metonymic MET affix + -qt, + and the two part-whole + PTF and PTG suffixes -index.htmlspan> and -š.

    +

     

    +
    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ +

    Proceed to Chapter 11: The Writing Syhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/stem >>

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +
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    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
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    Updates / Nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013044233id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ews 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +
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    +
    + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/10_lexico-semantics.html.orig b/2004-en/10_lexico-semantics.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ba9df8c --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/10_lexico-semantics.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,1395 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

    		  
    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    10.1 Systemic Morphological Derivation 10.4 Lexical Generalization
    10.2 Dimensional and Descriptive Oppositions 10.5 Lexical Differentiation
    10.3 Spatial Position and Orientation 10.6 Comparison to Western Categorization
      
    +


    + The term lexico-semantics refers to the relationship + between the lexicon of a language (i.e., its root-words and word-stems) and + the various possible semantic categories created by the human mind. Every language + (and particularly every language family) divides the world up differently in + terms of what sorts of concepts are made into words and how the meanings of + those words reflect the reality around us. In other words, the lexico-semantics + of a language answers the questions what semantic concepts does this language + psycho-linguistically categorize into autonomous words and how are each of these +categories internally organized?

    +

    Lexico-semantics is extremely important in Ithkuil for two + related reasons:

    +

    1) Ithkuil morpho-phonology only allows for 3600 possible root + words, as explained in Chapter 2. This means that the concepts chosen to be + conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the widest range + of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework.

    +

    2) We have seen throughout this work how Ithkuil’s matrix-like + grammatical structure allows for an incredible amount of synergy in terms of + morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, emergent concepts from + word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent derivations. + In order to ensure the maximum amount of dynamism in deriving new concepts morphologically + from existing word-roots, it is important that those initial roots be carefully + selected in terms of meaning.

    +

    In this chapter, we will examine the many considerations that + go in to the assigning of concepts to those 3600 roots, in order to optimally + accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using the dynamics + of Ithkuil morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more + autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting + the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.”

    +

    We will start first with a review of key components in the + systemic design of Ithkuil morphology. This will be followed by sections on + those areas of Ithkuil lexico-semantics which are most profoundly distinct from + Western languages.

    +

    The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, + examining how Ithkuil lexico-semantics reinterprets certain concepts considered + “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.

    +

     

    +

    Note on Ithkuil's Implicit “Theory of Meaning”

    +

    For those readers who may be trained in linguistics, particulary cognitive linguistics, it should be noted that at this point in the author’s development of the language, a traditional Enlightenment-based theory of meaning, assuming a one-to-one correspondence between a lexeme and its external “in-the-world” referent, has been implicitly assumed for convenience and/or expediency’s sake. A more careful and rigourous construction for Ithkuil’s lexico-semantics, given the author’s stated design goals (as described in the Introduction section), would not assume such a theory of meaning, but would rather incorporate more recent findings of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to reflect embodied meaning and metaphor-based conceptualization. However, pursuing such a foundation for the lexico-semantics of the language would, in the author’s opinion, be extremely time-consuming (on the order of many additional years, perhaps decades, to construct). Rather than withdraw the language from public availability for such reasons, the author has chosen instead to adopt a traditional/formalist foundation for its lexico-semantics essentially out of convenience, in order to be able to showcase the language's morphology.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    10.1 SYSTEMATIC MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATION
    +

    Ithkuil systematically uses its myriad of morphological categories + to derive secondary concepts from more basic concepts, often eliminating the + need for separate lexicalization, i.e., eliminating the need to create separate + word-roots for new but related concepts as is so often the case in Western languages. + We will explore this system of morphological derivation more closely, particularly + in regard to its universality across the spectrum of Ithkuil word-roots.

    +


    + 10.1.1 Stem Derivation from Roots

    +

    We have already seen many applied examples of the above-described + concepts, particularly in Section + 2.3 et seq. regarding the use of the three different Vr vowel patterns to derive a trinary array of interrelated stems from a root, as well as shifting the Vr vowel of those trinary stems to in turn derive two separate arrays + of complementary stems from the initial holistic array of stems. Through this + system of vowel shifts, we saw how a single root generates no + less than eighteen formative stems, each functioning as a noun or verb. This + is illustrated below using the example root -k-‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    -K- ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’

    +
    INFORMAL Designation
    FORMAL Designation
    +
    1. ak- move/motion from one place to another
    +
    +
    1. aká- travel/traverse; journey
    +
    +
    2. ek- set in motion/self-directed movement from one place to another
    +
    +
    2. eká- set off for/journey to/directed travel toward
    +
    +
    3. uk- move/movement between one place and another (i.e., along line between two points)
    +
    +
    +
    +
    3. uká- travel/journey along way between two places
    +
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    1. ok- go = movement outward/away
    +
    1. âk- come = movement inward/toward
    1. oká- go traveling, be off
    1. âká- journey to(ward)
    2. ök- go away/move away = increase distance from a starting point
    2. êk- come toward/to close the distance = decrease distance toward endpoint
    2. öká- travel/journey further away from starting point
    2. êká- reach vicinity of, close in on destination
    3. îk/ûk- leave/depart = move away from one point towards another
    3. ôk- approach = approach one point from direction of another
    3. îká/ûká- depart/departure from starting point on journey toward elsewhere
    3. ôká- arrive/arrival, reach destination
    +


    + As described in Chapter 2, this hierarchical pattern of stem + derivation and division into complementary stems from a more basic or underlying + “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number + of word-roots necessary compared to Western languages, as words that are semantically + interrelated in a hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically + from a basic root, as opposed to being assigned separate word-roots as in other + languages. The above root -k- demonstrates how concepts such come versus go are expressed as complementary derivations of a single underlying concept TRANSLATIVE + MOTION. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective +are similarly patterned, e.g., lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take, etc.

    +

    Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation + from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” + classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. Biological + taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, first + dividing the two Forms (Designations) of the root into the animal itself versus + the animal as a resource, the holistic stems indicating first the generic species + then male versus female. The complementary stems then make the further distinction + between wild versus domesticated for the informal stem and between food/prey + and derived or processed products for the formal stem.

    +

    Using the nine degrees of the Stem + Specific Derivative SSD suffix -k from Section 7.4.13 on such a root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific + parts, products or derived resources such as the milk, oil, meat, skin or + hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The Degree + of Maturity MAT suffix -ph from Section 7.4.10 is also applied to indicate the developmental stage of the +animal, providing derived equivalents + to words such as foal, fawn, lamb or cub, from horse, +deer, goat, or lion.

    +


    +

    +

    +

    10.1.2 The Use of Derivational Suffixes

    +

    In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the approximately 200 suffix categories + can be used to generate both derivative concepts as + well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning. As an example, + here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes + from the stem el- ‘say something [i.e., + communicate a verbal message]’:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    + elalaiq’
    ‘share a secret’
    suffix = DSR2/8
    + elalêpţ
    ‘news’
    suffix = ATC2/3
    + elalâxh
    ‘quip’
    suffix = SCO2/5
    + elaluiq
    ‘praise, adulation’
    suffix = NTR2/9
    + elalôpt
    ‘lie’ [= tell a lie]
    suffix = REA2/7
    + elalainţ
    ‘shout out a message’
    suffix = STR2/8
    + elalên
    ‘persuasive person, a persuader’
    suffix = AGC2/3
    + elalôn
    ‘liaison, a go-between’
    suffix = AGC2/7
    elaliuçaukç
    ‘whisper sweet nothings’
    suffixes = AFT2/1 + FRC2/2
    elaliucêps
    ‘cuss, curse’
    suffixes = UNQ 2/1 + MTA 2/3
    +


    + Similarly the use of the Consent CNS suffix, the Reason RSN suffix, the Expectation XPT suffix, the Deliberateness DLB suffix, the Enablement ENB suffix, the Agency/Intent AGN suffix, and the Impact IMP suffix from Section + 7.4.12 in conjunction w/ Transrelative cases (Sec. + 4.3), provides a means for describing extremely subtle scenarios of causation, + willingness, enablement, hindrance, etc. which other languages can only capture + via long-winded paraphrase. Employing this array of affixes and cases, a sentence + such as The singer stopped the boys from playing around can be translated + into Ithkuil in many syntactically equivalent (but morphologically distinct) + ways to indicate whether the singer used physical force or persuasion to stop + the boys, whether she stopped them via an indirect enabling means (such as turning + out the lights), or whether it was the boys themselves who stopped upon hearing + her voice or seeing her beauty, or even by her mere presence interrupting them + (such as walking in on them inadvertently), as well as the degree of willingness + or consent with which they stopped. The following example sentence further illustrates +the complex detail which these suffixes make possible:

    +
    +


    + Ôqölöňtauspûls  êļnelôzra  iaçtaxhtiamsíţ.
    + STA-‘man’-EFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-XPT1/2-DLB2/2-ENB1/6-IFL   STA-‘bird’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IMP2/7-IFL   
    + DYN    -‘room’-NRM/DEL/U/COA/CST-AGN2/9-DEV1/1-FML
    + Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally + killed it without even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting + it out of the house.__________          

    +
    +


    + The DEV suffix from Sec. 7.4.9, + in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of English such + as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate + the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in Ithkuil this suffix is productive + for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with Modality + (Section 6.1) + and the Modality suffixes from Section 7.4.11 to extend the system of modalities, as illustrated by the following:

    +
    +

    promise to + DEV/1 = + foreswear, vow never to
    + can (know how to) +     DEV/1 = be ignorant of
    + decide to +     DEV/1 = avoid
    + offer to +     DEV/1 = refuse to
    + agree upon/to +     DEV/1 = decline to/abstain from
    + like to +     DEV/1 = loathe
    + fear to +     DEV/1 = love to
    + need to +     DEV/1 = dispensable, unnecessary to, can dispense with

    +
    +

     

    +

    10.1.3 The Use of Configuration, Affiliation, and Context

    +

    Each of these categories has means to generate amalgamate, + holistic, or emergent concepts from a more basic underlying stem.

    +

    10.1.3.1 Configuration: In Sec. + 3.1 we saw how applying each of the nine Configuration categories to a stem + often generates forms based on amalgamation of sets which require complete relexification + when translated into English. Examples are:

    +
    +

    bone → skeleton
    + strut/girder     → frame → framework
    + component     → structure → system
    + ingredient     → compound
    + food     → dish → meal
    + tool     → toolset
    + do/perform     → coordinate
    + vehicle     → convoy
    + person     → group → crowd → masses
    + activity     → process.

    +
    +

    10.1.3.2 Affiliation: In Sec. + 3.2 we saw how the four Affiliations can generate new concepts based on + delineations of purpose, benefit, or function. Examples include:

    +
    +

    group → team,
    + grove     → orchard
    + assortment     → collection → junk
    + process     → plan

    +
    +

    10.1.3.3 Context: In Sec. + 3.6.4 we encountered the AMALGAMATE context, which + serves to identify a stem specifically as a gestalt entity, composed of objective + and subjective/social elements or components which contribute to the overall + nature of the stem. Depending on the stem to which it is applied, the use of + the amalgamate can cause relexification in translating to English. Examples:

    +
    +

    demeanor → personality
    + craftsmanship     → artistry
    + career     → livelihood
    + (one’s) past     → (one’s) + life
    + to look after/tend     → nurture

    +
    +

     

    +

    10.1.4 The Use of Designation and Version

    +

    In Section + 3.7 on Designation as well as Section + 5.8 on Version, we saw how both of these morphological categories create + distinctions in word-stems which usually require relexification in translation. + The following word pairs illustrate such relexification:

    +
    +     + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    (the) past → historysee → observe
    writings → literatureone → single/singular
    wordplay → rhetorichear → listen
    behavior → demeanordesire → request
    wander → travelquery → research
    eat → dineponder → analyze
    containment → storagepath → route
    +


    + Again we see that application of morphological categories + to word-stems serves to generate forms which substitute for lexical distinctions +in other languages, thus helping to reduce the size of the Ithkuil lexicon.

    +

     

    +

    10.1.5 The Use of Phase and Extension

    +

    The use of the nine Phases, as explained in Sec. + 5.5, used in conjunction with the category of Extension (Sec. + 3.4) gives rise to an elaborate means by which to describe phenomena in + terms of duration, periodicity, repetition, iterativity, and cyclic phenomena. + When used in conjunction with the twelve Modulative suffixes from Sec. + 7.4.7, the Iteration ITN and Repetition RPN suffixes from Sec. 7.4.5 and the Intensity ITY suffix from Sec. 7.4.10, + Phase becomes an extremely powerful means to describe with great subtlety all + phenomena which display vibratory, oscillative, wavering, on-off, or variative + movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific application of the various + phases combined with the aforementioned suffixes and other suffix categories to + a single stem -nt- ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following + English words:

    + +
    + + + + + + + +
    acoustic
    + audible
    + auditory
    + bang
    + blast
    + boom
    + buzz
    + cacophony
    + calm
    + click
    + clickety-clack
    + clink
    + crack
    + crackle
    + crash
    + din
    + discord
    + dissonance
    + drone
    + echo
    + explosion    		faint + sound
    + fizz
    + gag
    + grate
    + hiss
    + howl
    + hullabaloo
    + hum
    + hush
    + jangle
    + kerplunk
    + knock
    + loud(ness)
    + lull
    + moan
    + muffle
    + murmur
    + mute
    + noise
    + pandemonium
    + peal
    +

    pit-a-pat
    + plink
    + pop
    + quaver
    + quiet
    + racket
    + rap
    + rat-a-tat
    + rattle
    + raucous
    + resonant
    + reverberate
    + ring
    + roar
    + rumble
    + rush of sound
    + rustle
    + screech
    + shrill
    + silence
    + snap

    		sonorous
    + sound
    + staccato
    + stifle
    + strident
    + stutter
    + swirl
    + swish
    + tap
    + thump
    + tick
    + toot
    + twang
    + uproar
    + vibration
    + whir
    + whistle
    + whiz
    + whoosh
    +
    +


    + The same principles applied to other types of stems give rise + to a plethora of complex and subtle means for describing motions, paths, trajectories, + movement in situ, light emanation, reflection, consistency, texture, variation + in shape, visual complexity, etc.

    +

     

    +

    10.1.6 Note on the Absence of Lexico-Semantic “Classes”

    +

    It should be noted that in previous versions of the language, formative roots were divided into lexico-semantic “classes” designated by the phonological patterning of the root (there were 17 such classes in the original version of Ithkuil, ten such classes in Ilaksh). In the current version of the language, these lexico-semantic classes have been eliminated, as the author has realized that the establishment of such classes does not serve any real functional purpose in “real-world” spoken/written contexts; the ability to identify the semantic class of a stem does not sufficiently aid in understanding the stem’s specific meaning. Therefore, the assignment of phoneme patterns to roots in Ithkuil is now arbitrary. While the astute reader will note that many roots pertaining to a specific semantic notion (e.g., animals, plant and substance taxonomies, spatial position, etc.) still have similar phonological patterning, such patterning is nevertheless merely incidental and is without formal significance.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    10.2 DIMENSIONAL AND DESCRIPTIVE OPPOSITIONS
    +

    Another area of the lexicon where Western languages tend to + divide up reality into binary oppositions is the realm of spatial dimensions, + where pairs such as near/far, small/large, thin/thick, narrow/wide, tall/short, + light/heavy, hot/cold, etc. are commonplace. As with the perspective-based + oppositions seen in the preceding section, again Ithkuil lexico-semantics treats + such concepts in a wholly different way. Rather than lexicalize such concepts + as pairs of binary oppositions, Ithkuil delineates these qualities as varying + points along a continuous range. In other words, in Ithkuil you do not + say X is cold and Y is hot, but rather X has less temperature and Y has greater temperature. Similarly, one does not say A is + near to me and B is far from me, but rather the distance from + me to A (or proximity of A to me) is less than the distance from me + to B (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for + the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ + becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ithkuil formative is ‘amount + of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western + descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ithkuil as + mere variance in the quantity of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, + or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    10.3 SPATIAL POSITION AND ORIENTATION
    +

    Concepts of spatial position and orientation are expressed + very differently in Ithkuil as compared to Western languages such as English. + The three major differences are explained below, each of which will be explored + in detail in the sections which follow.

    +

    1) Ithkuil does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial + relationships, position, and orientation are designated by nominal/verbal formatives.

    +

    2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference + to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic + intent, Ithkuil subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexico-semantic + level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What + this means is that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional + reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance + is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in fact, + the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful + relationship (where a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), + the Ithkuil sentence will describe this function or purpose, not the spatial + relationship. For example, in answer to the question Where’s Billy? an English speaker might give answers such as (a) He’s standing right + next to Sam, or (b) He’s in bed, or (c) He’s in + the bathtub. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only + the first is truly intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while + sentences (b) and (c) imply information that is, in fact, more relevant than + the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s + sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s + bathing.’ An Ithkuil speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) + in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question Where’s + Billy? is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position + in absolute space. If the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial + information, he/she would have asked the Ithkuil equivalent of What’s + Billy doing? or What’s happening with Billy? to which a + Ithkuil speaker would answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions + of (b) or (c), not their original versions.

    +

    3) Ithkuil utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative + spacial reference, not a relative one as found in most languages. Note the positional + ambiguity inherent in sentences such as He’s standing to the left + of the desk. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose + perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, + the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of + the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, + or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) + Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages employ a relative coordinate + system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. Ithkuil + spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective + of a participant (e.g., the speaker or addressee) or referent object (i.e., + the thing(s) whose position is being described), as opposed to the relative + coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ithkuil system allows listeners + to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) + in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal + perspective.

    +


    + 10.3.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions

    +

    Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- + and three-dimensional space in different ways than in Western languages, Ithkuil + has no prepositions. Rather, Ithkuil utilizes formatives which describe a spatial + relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, + the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a + verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western + preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.”

    +

     

    +

    10.3.2 Underlying Cognitive Purpose of an Utterance

    +

    Ithkuil grammar considers the functional relationship between + two objects to be primarily relevant, not their spatial orientation or position + relative to each other (or between an object and its background). When it comes + to describing an object against a background or the relationship between two + objects, Ithkuil grammar is more interested in answering the question How + do X and Y function relative to each other, rather than How are X and + Y positioned in space relative to each other?

    +

    For example: in uttering the English sentence The vase + is on the table, is the intention of the sentence to tell the listener + the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, + or to tell the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against + gravity) by the table? If the intention is the former, the corresponding Ithkuil + sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest + self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction + of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support + against gravity, the Ithkuil sentence would not utilize a spatial reference + at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as The table is supporting + the vase. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in + Ithkuil are used far less often than corresponding prepositions and spatial + constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the following examples + illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ + (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ithkuil + using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ENGLISH + SENTENCE
    CONCEPT + CORRESPONDING TO 'IN(SIDE or INTO)'
    NEAREST + TRANSLATION TO Ithkuil EQUIVALENT
    The man works in(side) that building.general locational + reference where idea of interiority or containment is incidentalThe man works at that building.
    The book is in that box.physical containment + only with no specific purpose That box contains the book.
    You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can.incidental, temporary, + or circumstantial constraint/holder to prevent spillage from gravityThe small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.
    I poured soup in(to) the bowl.same as aboveI enabled the bowl to hold soup
    We stayed in(side) due to the rain.shelter, containment + for purpose of protectionWe shelter ourselves from the rain.
    He placed the sword in(side or into) its sheath.containment in fitted + covering for purposes of protectionHe sheathed the sword.
    He stayed in(side) his room.containment for purpose + of privacyHe shuttered himself.
    The tiger was kept in(side) a cage.containment to prevent + escapeThe tiger remained captured.
    There are high concentrations of lead in(side) that + pottery.ingredient, composite + substance That pottery contains much lead.
    Microchips can be found in(side) any machine these + days.inherent or integral + componentThese days, any machine incorporates microchips.
    I put fuel in the gas tank.integral component + having function to hold or contain other componentI (re-)fueled the gas tank.
    We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head.intangible containmentWe’ll never know her thoughts.
    He has a tumor in(side) his pancreas.enveloped to inaccessible + depth by surrounding mediumHis pancreas “harbors” a tumor.
    He hammered a nail in(to) the wall.fastening/connectingHe fastened the nail to the wall with a hammer.
    The child tried putting the square block in(side or + into) the round hole.fitting together one + object to anotherThe child tried to fit the round hole and the square + block together.
    +


    +     This functional prioritization notwithstanding, Ithkuil is nevertheless + able, if necessary, to describe true spatial relationships and orientations + quite specifically. However, it does so in ways that are very unfamiliar in + terms of Western grammar. These are described in the following section.

    +


    + 10.3.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates

    +

    While Western languages are capable of describing the physical + position and orientation of object in absolute terms (e.g., My hometown + is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N), it is not normal + to do so in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation + is normally relative, i.e., described from the dynamic perspective of the two + objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party observer (usually, + but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of + objects in my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, + phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue + is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ + and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information + without first having to establish a common frame of reference based on where + the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard (in order to interpret + what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing + relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), + perhaps even the orientation of the shape of the yard relative to some external + absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, E, + W).

    +

    In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ + change completely if I turn my body 180 degrees. Confusion also occurs when + I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of + the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left + side of the chair from the perspective of someone sitting in the chair?

    +

    Ithkuil avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute + coordinate system of spatial reference as opposed to a relative system (similar + in nature to the absolute system used in navigation based on the four cardinal + points.). Very few languages on Earth utilize such absolute systems to the exclusion + of relative systems. (Examples include Guugu Yimidhirr, an Australian aboriginal + language; Tzeltal, a Yucatec Mayan language; and Yurok, an Algonquian Indian + language of Northern California). Ithkuil utilizes three different absolute + coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. These + coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid + superimposed upon space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular + to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), + the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the direction of gravity (which + may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which + differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three + points of reckoning depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. + The three schemes are as follows:

    +

    1) Solar-based system. This is the standard + Ithkuil system of reckoning. The line of the Y-axis runs parallel to the rising + and setting points of the sun in mid-summer, with the vector oriented in the + direction of the setting sun. Note that the alignment of this Y-axis relative + to the X-axis is variable; i.e., the line connecting the rising and setting + points of the sun merely designate the direction of the Y-axis, not + it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships + can be made using a “octant locator” system based on this grid, + where any two objects can be made to lie within different octants relative + to each other (this will be illustrated below).

    +

    Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime + and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge + and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of + the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective + understanding of the orientation of the building/structure/room relative to + the solar-based Y-axis (i.e., everyone in the room can still tell the orientation + of the outdoor Y-axis, whether by sight through windows, or by noticing that + the length-width ratios of the room are aligned with the outdoor Y-axis).

    +

    2) Length vs. width of enclosed space or room. + In indoor situations where the orientation of the outdoor solar-based Y-axis + is unknown (or cannot be readily determined on a continuous basis as new speakers + enter the room), an arbitrary Y-axis is connoted by the length of the room in + a direction away from whichever end of the room displays a visibly unique feature + (e.g., the doorway, a window, an alcove, an imposing piece of furniture, a stage + or dais, etc.), this symbolically substituting for the position of the rising + sun. This is the coordinate system which would be employed in theaters, enclosed + banquet halls without windows, and cellars without windows or ready access to + outside orientation.

    +

    3) Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, + objects, or persons. This is similar to a Western relative system in + which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An Ithkuil + speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method + of reckoning. Nevertheless, it is possible to designate a personally defined + reckoning system using words to designate the origin point and direction of + the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on + a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between + the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the NAVIGATIVE case (see Sec. 4.7.6). + The primary use for this system of reckoning is literary or narrative, such + as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in which he/she wishes + to describe spatial relationships solely within the context of the story in + order to convey a mental map or image of the goings-on to his/her audience.

    +


    + 10.3.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects. + Using such a triaxial three-dimensional grid, Ithkuil then lexically divides + up space into “octants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” + of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight octants.

    +
    +

    +X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Octant + 1 = Root: -KST-
    + +X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Octant 2 = Root: -KŠT-
    + +X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Octant 3 = Root: -PST-
    + +X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Octant 4 = Root: -PŠT-
    + -X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Octant 5 = Root: -KSP-
    + -X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Octant 6 = Root: -KŠP-
    + -X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Octant 7 = Root: -PSK-
    + -X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Octant 8 = Root: -PŠK-

    +
    +


    + There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above + where either one or two of the X/Y/Z values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent + English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight + down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight + up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc.

    +

    The SSD suffix in turn is used to specify translative movement from a starting octant specified by the stem toward an endpoint specified by the suffix, as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1moving toward Octant + 1
    Degree 2moving toward Octant + 2
    Degree 3moving toward Octant + 3
    Degree 4moving toward Octant + 4
    Degree 5moving toward a position between octants, (i.e., either X = 0, Y = 0, or Z = 0)
    Degree 6moving toward Octant + 5
    Degree 7moving toward Octant + 6
    Degree 8 moving toward Octant + 7
    Degree 9moving toward Octant + 8
    +

     

    +

    Additionally, the LCT suffix is used with these roots to identify the location of objects within a specific octant. The above octants are + indicated in the illustrations below.

    +

    Because the lateral alignment (but not direction) of the solar-based + X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each can be slid laterally relative to the + other axis), any two objects whose relative positions are to be described can + be made to fall within two different octants, as illustrated in figures A, + B, C and D below (Figure A represents the background context for which Figures + B, C and D present varying positional frames of reference).
    +
    +

    +

    +
    +

    +

     

    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    +
    +


    + It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional + grid that allows Ithkuil to easily describe the relative position of objects + in an absolute manner. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two objects + each fall into different octants, a series of octant-to-octant relationships + between the two objects can be lexified. Thus, each of the above roots has a + stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, designates a spatial relationship + between an object occupying that octant and a second object occupying any + of the seven other octants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call + each of these octant-to-octant static relationships a “positional + frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while + 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. + Used to mark the participant nouns with motion sentences described below.)

    +

    Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker + to describe exactly the spatial relationships between two objects in motion relative + to each other. This is done in Ithkuil by stating that two object are moving + from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by + “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, + not a specific location in space, it can be seen how such a simple formula easily + describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An Ithkuil speaker is describing + exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short sentence + the octant-to-octant relationship the two objects have to start with, and + the octant-to-octant relationship they will have when the motion is ended. + The root used to describe the motion indicates the nature of the motion in terms + of its smoothness, speed, etc.

    +

    To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing + where the speaker or addressee or third party is situated relative to the two + objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is added to the + sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) + which states the positional frame between that third party and the FIRST party + (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the + ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame + of the dog and ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog.

    +

    Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ithkuil can be + in describing relative position between objects in an absolute manner. This + is best illustrated by narrowly translating into English an Ithkuil sentence + which describes a three-party positional situation.
    +

    +
    +


    +

    +


    + Qi’êlafs  âmmul  âhiogwokstatükai  íxi’asa  açthu  pštâ’at.          
    +     STA-‘woman’-CNR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MVT1/5-IFL    STA-‘child’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL        
    + NNR-CNF-DYN- [incorp. stem: ‘run’]-‘Octant-1’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-SSD1/8-IFL-EXS/ISR     FRAMED-DYN-‘see’-CNR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML  
    + Ref2:OBL-Ref1:1m/Ref2:ua-Ref1:IND      STA-‘Octant-4’-LOC-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL
    +

    +
    +


    + There is no way to translate this Ithkuil sentence into everyday + English except via inadequate approximation, thus: The woman stood still + as the boy ran from ahead and above her, then past her, while + I watched them from behind and below. However, a more exact, narrow translation + of this sentence, capturing all of the positional/orientational specificity + of the original, would run as follows:
    +

    +
    +

    As the woman held still, the boy ran from + a position above, ahead of, and to the right of her relative to the direction + of the sunrise-to-sunset vector, a plane perpendicular to it, and the axis + of gravity, toward a position still above, but behind and to the left of her + relative to the same directional vector, perpendicular plane and gravitational + axis, as I was watching them from below, behind, and to the right of her relative + to the same vector, plane, and axis.
    +

    +
    +
    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    10.4 LEXICAL GENERALIZATION
    +

    In a word-for-word comparison to a Eurocentric vocabulary, + especially one as large as that of English, the Ithkuil lexicon appears very + overgeneralized in many respects. At first impression, it appears that shades + of meaning expressed by multiple words in English are expressed by only one + root in Ithkuil. As we have seen repeatedly throughout this work, this is primarily + due to the fact that shades of meaning for a single underlying cognitive concept + are normally differentiated at the morphological level in Ithkuil, as opposed + to the lexical. Nevertheless, there are several lexico-semantic areas where + Ithkuil truly does generalize in comparison to Western languages. This occurs + primarily where (1) Western vocabulary distinguishes separate lexemes for a + redundant concept based on different participants to, practitioners of, or manifestations + of that concept, and (2) where lexification is at an arbitrarily detailed or + particularized level. These topics are discussed in detail in the following + sections.

    +


    + 10.4.1 Consolidation of Unnecessary Distinctions

    +

    As an example of lexical generalization in Ithkuil (or over-lexicalization + in English!), compare the following words for animal vocal sounds: meow, + bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray, etc. Each of these words mean merely to + make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ithkuil utilizes only + a single stem for this concept (essentially meaning vocal sound/vocalize – from the same root which gives the stem for (human) voice), + based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or + moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate + lexically the innate vocal sound being made by an animal if the animal making + the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one might argue that English + allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in The + sergeant barked out orders to the platoon, or The baby squealed in + delight. Such constructions are perfectly captured in Ithkuil via the ESSIVE and ASSIMILATIVE cases, as in He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog, or The + baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight, or +via the manipulation of Function, Incorporation and Format (see Sections 5.1 and 6.4).

    +

    Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem + in Ithkuil would be (1) herd, flock, pride, gaggle, etc.; (2) hair, + fur, fleece, coat, etc.; (3) skin, hide, pelt, pellicle, peel, rind, + lambskin, leather, integument, etc.

    +

     

    +

    10.4.2 Translative Motion, Paths and Trajectories

    +

    By translative motion is meant the idea of an object moving + (or being moved) from one location to another. English is particularly rich + in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such an object, + not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, + but also the means of initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as to + toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run, or pass a ball or + other object. In reaching its destination, the object can fly, float, wing, + pass, arc, sail, plummet, drop, fall, thread, hop, leap, bounce, roll, zig-zag, + slide, glide, slither, or jump its way there.

    +

    As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ithkuil lexifies + concepts of translative motion with a focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, + not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. + Essentially, Ithkuil is less concerned with how the object gets there and is + more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For + example, look at the following two columns of English sentences :

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    I tossed it into + the basket.

    +
    		It sailed + into the basket.
    +

    I flung it into the + basket.

    +
    		It flew into the basket.
    +

    I hurled it into + the basket.

    +
    		It arced its way into + the basket.
    +

    I pitched it into + the basket.

    +
    		It fell into the basket.
    +
    +


    +     The sentences in the lefthand column + describes how I initiate the action while those in the righthand column describe + how the object moves. In Ithkuil the lefthand column of sentences would normally + all be translated by a single sentence narrowly translatable as I made it + end up inside the basket, while the righthand column of sentences would + all be translated by the exact same sentence minus the ERGATIVE personal referent I, thus: It ended up inside the basket.

    +

    So where are the words translating the range of descriptive + nuance surrounding the means of sending it into the basket and the different + trajectories it takes there? In normal Ithkuil speech, such distinctions would + be considered irrelevant. This is because Ithkuil grammar questions all acts, + conditions and events as to their underlying cognitive purpose. For the above + sentences, Ithkuil views them as all having the same underlying purpose: to + express that I have caused an object to pass from a state of being in my alienable + possession to a state of being within the basket, by passing through the physical + space between me and the basket. Therefore there is only one translation for + the varying sentence pairs.

    +

    Before the reader begins to think that Ithkuil is incapable + of distinguishing the shades of meaning present in the above examples, it should + be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by additional affixes + and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to + indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ithkuil can + augment the sentence I made it end up inside the basket to include + affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes + indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly + translatable as Using my hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I + caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully inside the basket.

    +

    While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances + of English “flung,” Ithkuil first makes us stop and ask ourselves, + why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force + initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English + speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or + “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in + the above sentence, would his/her speaker be considered to have been given information + any less sufficient or essential for understanding the message and its purpose? + All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ithkuil lexico-semantics: if + a complex, highly detailed morphology already conveys a high degree of semantic + and cognitive nuance, why belabor the obvious by reinforcing such nuances at + the lexical level if the context and underlying cognitive purpose of the utterance + does not require it? Thus the Ithkuil language not only captures levels of cognitive + detail beyond the scope of Western languages, but it also allows the speaker + to avoid having to provide such detail when it is inessential.

    +

     

    +

    10.4.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying + Processes

    +

    In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ithkuil perspective, + an example would be limp, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ + Ithkuil recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not + the condition per se that is relevant, but rather the manner in which + the condition causes the person to move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously + in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” + expectation of walking. Ithkuil speakers would consider English limp to represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative + movement. To a Ithkuil speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. + The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping + or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” + is an underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity + which causes the person to move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead + of He has a limp because of his war wound, a Ithkuil speaker would + say He walks asymmetrically/irregularly because of his war wound.

    +

    To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when + dancing to rock music, has a tendency to jerk his/her head to the left at the + sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it ludicrous over-lexicalization + to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s + head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical + sentence She spreggles to rock music. Yet, from the Ithkuil standpoint, + there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” + and the actual word ‘limp.’

    +

    Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both + animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ithkuil has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ + ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ + or ‘paralysis.’ In Ithkuil, one simply says He can’t see, + She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t + move, or alternately His faculty of sight (or other sense or innate + faculty) doesn’t function/no longer functions. [Note: each of + these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, + case, voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, + whether temporary or permanent, whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally + caused or inherently developed, etc.]

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    10.5 LEXICAL DIFFERENTIATION
    +

    While we have examined the many ways in which the dynamism + and logic of Ithkuil grammar eliminates whole swaths of equivalent English vocabulary, + there are, nevertheless, many concepts where Ithkuil provides autonomous lexical + roots and stems for which neither English nor other Western languages provide + similar words and must resort to paraphrase in order to translate. Such concepts + are particularly found in the realm of human emotions, social relationships, + functional interrelationships between objects, philosophy, psychology, and sensory + phenomena.

    +

    Underlying such differentiation is the idea that the Ithkuil + language is meant to reflect in linguistic terms as close a representation of + human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is possible + in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure + mathematical logic. Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded + in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented + in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language + which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require + many more words to describe that life than are commonly available in existing + human languages.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    10.6 COMPARISON TO WESTERN CATEGORIZATION
    +

    Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which + there is no exactly corresponding equivalent in Ithkuil. These include the concepts + embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ithkuil + has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” + or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership + equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ithkuil grammar + and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or + inherent existential possession as true semantic functional categories or fundamental + cognitive primitives.

    +


    + 10.6.1 Translating “To Be”

    +

    Ithkuil grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, + at any and all moments, and on all scales large and small, in a state of flux. + The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately identified as + “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ithkuil grammar + has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or + “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that + are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different + from moment to moment, if only because the mere passage of time itself renders + the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. + Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” + anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” + or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something + else. Fundamental to Ithkuil grammar are the notions of function and purpose, + not mere description; results, not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. + This explains why there is no true distinction between nouns and verbs in Ithkuil, + both being mere differences in functional roles played by any given formative + concept whose underlying meaning is not inherently nominal or verbal, but rather + a conceptual primitive waiting to be manifested as either (1) a representation + of an action, process, or event, (i.e., a verb), or (2) as a concrete or abstract + entity that is representative of, or embodies the underlying concept (i.e., + a noun).

    +

    So, an Ithkuil speaker does not say I am John, She is a + cook, The leaf is green, Stan is ill, or Murder is wrong, but + rather One calls me John, She cooks [for a living], The leaf [currently] + manifests a green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease], and Murder + controverts morality.

    +

     

    +

    10.6.2 Translating ‘To Have’

    +

    In regard to “have” or “having,” Ithkuil + views the concept of possession as breaking down into more specific functional + states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation + to each other. The neutral, default way of expressing “to have” involves placing the possessor in the DATIVE case and utilizing the MANIFESTIVE function of the verb, so that the phrase “I have a book” translates more or less as “There is a book to me.”
    +

    +

     

    +

    10.6.3 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections

    +

    As there are no interjections in Ithkuil, there are no true + equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ithkuil. Nevertheless, Ithkuil grammar also allows for the use of Bias suffixes (see Sec. 5.11) to function + as autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to + interjections in Western languages. This phenomenon has already been discussed + in Section 8.4. + Additionally, Section + 8.3 described how affixual adjuncts may be used to convey information similarly + to autonomous interjections.

    +

      

    +

    10.6.4 “WH”-Questions

    +

    Ithkuil has no equivalent to WH-question words such as what? where? when? why? how? etc.  Instead, statements are made using DIRECTIVE illocution (and hopefully SOLICITIVE bias) to provide the desired information.  Thus, instead of asking “Where is the toilet?” or “What is your name?” one says “Please state the toilet’s location” and “Please identify yourself.”

    +

     

    +

    10.6.5 Translating Metaphorically Structured Phrases

    +

    Ithkuil grammar recognizes that much of our understanding and + expression of everyday experience is structured in terms of metaphor and metonymy + (the latter being the reference to an entity by one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business). + Ithkuil allows for the overt designation of metaphorical concepts by several + means. These include the REPRESENTATIONAL context, stem incorporation, + the metonymic MET affix + -qt, + and the two part-whole + PTF and PTG suffixes -rs and -š.

    +

     

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 11: The Writing System >>

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

    		  
    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
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    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
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    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 1 Phonologyhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    		+
    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Bahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/sic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing Systemhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/Texts
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    +

    Chapter 11: The Writing System

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     

    11.1 Character Types

    		11.4 Word Boundaries, Punctuathttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ion & Alphabetic Transliteration
     11.2 Direction of Writing11.5 Handwritten Forms of the Characters
      + 11.3 Presentation & Anhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/alysis of the Character Types11.6 The Alternative Ornamental Writing System
    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ +


    +The Ithkuil script is a morpho-phonemic scrihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/pt, i.e., the individual characters do not simply convey phonetic (i.e., phonological) information, but also chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/onvey grammatical (i.e., morhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/phological) information.  Many of the characters are purely morphological in funhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ction and without any set phonological value, their specific phonological interpretation being up to the reader based on the flexiblility and options inherent in Ithkuil morpho-phonology. 

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    + + + + +
    11.1 CHARACTER TYPES
    +

    There are four types of characters used in the Ithkuil Script: Primary Case/Aspect characters, Secondary Case/Aspect characters, Tertiary characters, and Consonantal characters. Additionally, there are symbols used for numbers (to be discussed in Chapter 12), separate rules for transliterating non-Ithkuil words alphabetically, and a few punctuation symbols.

    +

    +

    11.1.1 Primary Case/Aspect Markers

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    If present, the Case-Marker character is the first written character in a word.  It is normally used to convey the case or case-frame of a formative, however, when the case or case-frame of the formative is the OBLIQUE, it can instead be used to convey one of the following: Aspect, Modality, Validation, or Valence.  In addition to these categories, the character also shows the following categories:  Configuration, Essence, Affiliation, Extension, Mood, and Version.

    +

    Primary Case/Aspect characters are recognizable by the absence of a top or bottom horizontal bar (as is found on all consonantal characters below), as well as a diagonal section of the character either below or above the horizontal mid-line.  This diagonal section of the character will always change direction at the horizontal midline of the character.  Examples:

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    11.1.2  Secondary Case/Aspect Markers

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    As stated above, Primary Case markers can be used to convey only one of the following categories at a timeindex.htmlnce.  However, it is often necessary to be able to show more than one of these categories on a formative (i.e., the formative has non-default values for more than one of these categories).  In such cases, secondary Case/Aspect Markers can be used.  These characters are capable of showing Case, Aspect, and Modality simultaneously.  Additionally, they can be used to show non-default values for the categories of Phase, Sanction, Designation, and Perspective.

    +

    Secondary Case/Aspect markers can be recognized by the presence of a diagonal bar extending the entire length of the character from the top-line (or even above the top-line) all the way to the bottom-line (or even below the bottom-line).  This diagonal bar may be broken or modified in the middle by either a horizontal or vertical zig-zag, but will always continue in the same direction as before coming out of the break or zig-zag (unlike Primary Case/Aspect characters which have a change in direction beginning at the horizontal mid-line).  Examples:

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    11.1.3 Tertiary Characters

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    These characters are used, when necessary, to convey the combination of two different aspects, aspect plus modality, aspecthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ plus valence, aspect plus validation, validation plus modality, valence plus modality, or valence plus validation.  They are recognizable by having a horizontal bar at the mid-line of the character which is not connected to any vertical or diagonal bars above or below the horizontal bar.  The ends of the horizontal bar may be modified by points facing upward or downward. Examples:

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    11.1.4 Consonantal Characters

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    These characters are used to convey the consonantal root Cr, the incorporated root Cx (if present),https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ and any Vx-C consonantal suffixes the formative may have.  They are placed following any characters of Types 1, 2, or 3, in the order (Cx)-Cr-(VxC)-(VxC... etc.)  If an incorporated root Cx is present, it is indicated by vertically inverting the Consonantal character in order to distinguish it from the following Cr character.  The Cr character is also used to convey the categories of Function, Format, Context, Illocution, and Relation, while the VxC character conveys affix type and degree, as well as Bias.

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    Consonantal characters are recognizable  by the presence of a horizontal bar either along the top-line or the bottom-line, the ends of which may be modified. Examples:

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    11.1.5 Example of the Script in Operation

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    To illustrate further how a morpho-phonemic script operates, we can analyze the function of each character in the following Ithkuil sentence:

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    +


    +

    +

    Igrawileiţrar  oi  eglulôn.
    + DYN-‘eat food’-FAC-HOR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6-IFL    PCL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
    +     If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    The shape of this character indicates it is a primary character showing GENITIVE case or, alternately, PRECLUSIVE aspect.  The bar below it indicates default PROCESSUAL version and also serves to indicate the character carries its alternhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ate value, i.e., PRECLUSIVE aspect.  The lack of a superposed diacritic over the character indicates FACTUAL mood as well as the fact that the word is a formative and not a personal reference adjunct.  The lack of a diacritic alongside the character indicates MONADIC perspective and INFORMAL designation. The lack of modifications to the top half of the character indicates NORMAL essence and UNIPLEX configuration. The lack of modifications to the bottom half of the character indicates DELIMITIVE extension and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation.

    The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /g/; the bottom-half modification adds an /r/ giving the form /gr/.  Its position following a primary case/aspect character shows it is a Cr root, -GR-. https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/; The lack of modication to the top-bar indicates Pattern 1, Stem 1, ‘food and drink; eat and drink one’s food’ as well as indicating UNFRAMED relation.  The superposed dot diacritic indicates DYNAMIC function and default EXISTENTIAL context.  The fact the character is not vertically inverted shows the word carries no incorporated stem or format.  The absence of an underposed  diacritic shows the stem is not triconsonantal or tetraconsonantal.  The angular diacritic alongside the character indicates both HORTATIVE illocution and negative polarity (i.e., equivalent to carrying the NA11/5 suffix).

    The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /ţ/.  Its position following a Cr root and the fact it is vertically inverted indicates it is a V2C derivational suffix.  The modihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/fication of the bottom-half (actually the top- half due to the vertical inversion of the character) prefixes a consonantal /r/ giving the phonological form /rţ/ which is the EXT suffix.  The angular diacritic over the character indicates the suffix is Degree 6.  The lack of modifications to the top-half (actually bottom-half due to vertical inversion) indicates the formative carries no Bias.

    The shape of this character, its position following a consonantal suffix, the lack of top-half or bottom-half modifications, and the absence of any diacrtics all serve to indicate the start of a new word which is a formative (as opposed to a personhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/al reference adjunct) and that it is a primary character showing INDUCIVE case, PROCESSUAL version, NORMAL essence, UNIPLEX configuration, DELIMITIVE extension, CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation, INFORMAL designation, and MONADIC perspective.

    The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /g/; the bottom-half modification adds an /l/ giving the form /gl/.  Its position following a primary case/aspect character shows it is a Cr root, -Ghttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/L-.  The modication to the top-bar indicates Pattern 1, Stem 2, ‘illness/sickness’ as well as indicating UNFRAMED relation. The absence of a superposed diacritic indicates STATIVE function and default EXISTENTIAL context.  The fact the character is not vertically inverted shows the word carries no incorporated stem or format.  The absence of an underposed  diacritic shows the stem is not triconsonantal or tetraconsonantal.  The absence of a diacritic alongside indicates default ASSERTIVE illocution.

    The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /n/.  Its position following a Cr root, the fact it is vertically inverted, and the absence of any bottom-half  (actually top-half due to vertical inversion)  inhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/dicates it is a V2C derivational suffix, AGC.  The grave accent-like diacritic over the character indicates the suffix is Degree 7. The lack of modifications to the top-half (actually bottom-half due to vertical inversion) indicates the formative carries no Bias.

     

    +

     

    The absence of any secondary case/aspect character or placeholder characters within these formatives indicate default CONTEXTUAL phase and PROPOSITIONAL sanction on both formatives.

    +

    As can be seen from the above analysis, the only purely phonological information conveyed by the written form of this sentence consists of the consonantal groupings /gr/ /rţ/ /gl/ and /n/.  The remainder conveys solely morphological/grammatical information by which the reader “re-constructs” the pronunciation based on his/her knowledge of Ithkuil morpho-syntax and the various optional ways in which it maps to the language’s morpho-phonology.  The non-alphabetic nature of the script, along with the flexibility of Ithkuil morpho-phonology, allows the written form of this sentence to be read in many equivalent ways, such as:

    +
    +


    +

    +

    Igrawileiţrar  oi  eglulôn.
    +

    +

    Oi  eirţ  igrawilar  ôn  eglul.

    +

    Çtar-ryigraleiţrar  eglulôn. +

    If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +
    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    11.2 DIRECTION OF WRITING
    +

    The Ithkuil script is written in a horizontal boustrophedon (i.e., zig-zag) manner, in which the first and every subsequent odd-numbered line of writing is written left-to-right, while the second and every subsequent even-numbered line of writing is written right-to-left.  The characters within even-numbered lines written right-to-left retain their normal lateral orientation and are not laterally reversed (i.e., they are not written in a mirror-image manner).  A small left-pointed mark like an arrow or left-pointing triangle is placed at the beginning of even-numbered lines (i.e., those written right-to-left) to remind the reader of the line’s orientation.  The following paragraph shows by analogy how the script is written.

    +

    THE ITHKUIL SCRIPT IS WRITTEN IN A HORIZONTAL BOUSTROPHEDON
    + TNEUQESBUS YREVE DNA TSRIF EHT HCIHW NI ,RENNAM (GAZ-GIZ ,.E.I)
    +ODD-NUMBERED LINE OF WRITING IS WRITTEN LEFT-TO-RIGHT, WHILE
    +-TIRW FO ENIL DEREBMUN-NEVE TNEUQESBUS YREVE DNA DNOCES EHT
    +ING IS WRITTEN RIGHT-TO-LEFT.     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    11.3 PRESENTATION & ANALYSIS OF THE CHARACTER TYPES
    +

    The sub-sections below provide the details of the various characters and character-permutations associated with each character type.

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1 Primary Case/Aspect Characters

    +

    The neutral default shape for a Primary Case/Aspect character is as follows:  

    +

    This shape can then be mutated into a variety of derivative shapes by means of changing the direction of the bars of the character at the mid-line point, extending the mid-line point horizontally, and changing the corner-like vertices to “offset&rdquohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/; connections, as illustrated by the examples in Section 11.1.1 above:

    +

    The common recognizable elements in any Primary Case/Aspect character, and what distinguishes such characters from the other three character-types, are (1) the absence of a horizontal bar along the top-line and the bottom-line, (2) a diagnonal bar running from the mid-line to either the top-linhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e or to the bottom-line or both, and (3) a change in the diagonal bar’s  (or bars’) direction at the mid-line.

    +

    A Primary Case/Aspect character usually conveys the case of the formative (see Chapter 4), however, in the absence of case (e.g., as with a verb), or when the case is OBLIQUE, the character can convey one of the following other categories:  Aspect, Modality, Valence, or Validation.

    +

    The various ways the character conveys these categories is described below.

    +

    (NOTE:  If a formative is the first word in a sentence and carries no Aspect or Modality, and the other five categories are in their neutral/default modes (i.e., MNO valence, CNF validation, PRC version, CTX phase, and PPS sanction), then the Primary Aspect/Modality character will be missing, i.e., is not written.)

    +

    11.3.1.1 Case:  The 96 cases are shown by the main body of the character – there are 24 basic forms corresponding to the first 24 cases.  The next group of 24 cases utilizes the same 24 forms laterally reversed.  The latter 48 cases utilize these same forms, vertically reversed.  These forms are shown below (note that the vertical symmetricality of Forms 1 and 25, as well as Forms 3 and 27, require that Forms 49, 51, 73, and 75 have special forms):

    +
    +


    + Table 35: Primary Case characters     (Note that for the purposes of this table, the VOCATIVE case is shown in Position No. 48.)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 OBL

    25 PUR

    49 EXChttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    73 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P1A

    2 IND

    		26 CSD

    50 AVRhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    74 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P1B

    3 ABS

    		27 ESS

    51 CMPhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    75 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P1C

    4 ERG

    		28 ASI

    52 SMLhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    76 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P1D

    5 EFF

    		29 FUN

    53 ASShttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    77 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P1E

    6 AFF

    		30 TFM

    54 CNRhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    78 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P1F

    7 DAT

    		31 REF

    55 ACShttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    79 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P1G

    8 INS

    		32 CLA

    56 DFFhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    80 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P1H

    9 ACT

    		33 CNV

    57 PERhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    81 Chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/MP2A

    10 DER

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    34 IDP

    58 PROhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    82 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P2B

    11 SIT

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    35 BEN

    59 PCVhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    83 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P2C

    12 POS

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    36 TSP

    60 PCRhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    84 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P2D

    13 PRP

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    37 CMM

    61 ELPhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    85 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P2E

    14 GEN

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    38 COM

    62 ALPhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    86 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P2F

    15 ATT

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    39 CNJ

    63 INPhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    87 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P2G

    16 PDC

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    40 UTL

    64 EPShttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    88 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P2H

    17 ITP

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    41 ABE

    65 PRLhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    89 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P3A

    18 OGN

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    42 CVS

    66 LIMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    90 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P3B

    19 PAR

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    43 COR

    67 LOChttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    91 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P3C

    20 CRS

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    44 DEP

    68 ORIhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    92 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P3D

    21 CPS

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    45 PVS

    69 PSVhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    93 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P3E

    22 PRD

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    46 PTL

    70 ALLhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    94 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P3F

    23 MED

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    47 CON

    71 ABLhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    95 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P3G

    24 APL

    		https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    48 VOC

    72 NAVhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    96 CMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P3H

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1.2 Configuration and Essence:  These two categories (see Sections 3.1 and 3.5) are shown via modifications to https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/the top “end” of the Primary Case/Aspect character, as shown below:

    +
    +


    + Table 36: Modifications to Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Configuration & Essenhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ce

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    NRM essence

    RPV essence

    1 UNI

     

    2 DPX

     

    3 DCT

     

    4 AGG

     

    5 SEG

     

    6 CPN

     

    7 COH

     

    8 CST

     

    9 MLT

     

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1.3 Extension and Affiliation:  These two chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ategories (see Sections 3.4 and 3.2) are shown via the bottom https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/“end” of the Primary Case/Aspect character, as shown below:
    +

    +
    +


    + Table 37: Modifications to Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Extensiohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/n & Affiliation

    +
    + + +

     

    +

    AFFILIATION

    + + +

     

    +

    CSL

    +

    ASO

    +

    VAR

    +

    COA

    + + +

    1 DEL

    +

    +

    +

    +

    + + +

    2 PRX

    +

    +

    +

    +

    + + +

    3 ICP

    +

    +

    +

    +

    + + +

    4 TRM

    +

    +

    +

    +

    + + +

    5 DPL

    +

    +

    +

    +

    + + +

    6 GRA

    +

    +

    +

    +

    + + +

     

    +

    11.3.1.4 Persphttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ective and Designation:  These two categories (see Sections 3.3https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ and 3.7) are shown via a diacritic mark written alongside the mid-line of the Primary Case/Aspect character following the character in the direction the line is being written.  These diacritics are shown below:

    +
    +


    + index.htmln Primary Case/Aspect Chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/haracters Indicating Perspective & Designation

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + +

     

    PERSPECTIVE

     

    MONADIC

    UNBOUNDED

    NOMIC

    ABSTRACT

    INFORMAL

     

    FORMAL

    + 

    +

    11.3.1.5 Mood:  This category (see Section 5.2) is shown via a superposed diacritic above the Primary Case/Aspect character, as follows:

    + +


    + Table 39: Diacritics on Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Mood

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 FAC

    2 SUB

    3 ASM

    4 SPC

    5 COU

    6 HYP

    7 IPL

    8 ASC

     

    +

     

    +

    Note:  If instead of one of the above, the Primary Case/Aspect character carries a superposed horizontal bhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ar diacritic, this indicates that the word is a Personal Reference adjunct rathhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/er than a formative. In addition, high-toned personal reference adjuncts carry an underposed dot diacritic on the same Primary Case/Aspect character. (The presence of the superposed horizontal bar diacritic on the character prevents this underposed dot frhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/om being confused with Version marking explained in the section immediately below.)

    +

    11.3.1.6 Version:   This category (see Section 5.8) is shown via an underposed diacritic below the Primary Case/Aspect character.  These diacritics come in two varieties, standard and alternate.  Use of the alternate form of the diacritic indicates that the main body of the character conveys a category other than Case (explained below in Section 11.3.1.7).

    + +


    + Table 40: Diacritics on Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Version

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    alternate

    +     + + + + + + +

     

    1 PRC

    2 CPT

    3 INE

    4 INC

    5 PST

    6 EFC

    standard

     

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1.7 Aspect, Modality, Valence and Validation:  If the uhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nderposed version diacritic shown on a Primary Case/Aspect character is in an alternate form (as shown in Table 40 above), then the main body ohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/f the character no longer conveys the category of Case, but rather one of the following four categories:  Aspect, Modality, Valence, or Validation, depending on which character is displayed (see Sections 5.10, 6.1, 5.7, and 5.9 respectively, for explanations of these categories).  The characters normally reserved for Case Nos. 1 through 32 instead indicate the 32 aspects. The characters normally reserved for Case Nos. 33 throughhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ 62 instead indicate the 30 modalities. https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/; The characters normally reserved for Cahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/se Nos. 63 through 76 instead indicate the fohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/urteen valences, and the characters normally reserved for Case Nos. 77 through 90 instead indicate the fourteen validations.  These values are shown in the following tables:

    +
    +


    + Table 41: Primary Aspect Characters
    + (when accompanied by alternate form of underposed Version diacritic)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 RTR

    9 RSM

    17 PMP

    25 DSChttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    2 PRS

    		10 CSS

    18 CLMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    26 CCLhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    3 HAB

    		11 RCS

    19 PTChttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    27 CULhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    4 PRG

    		12 PAU

    20 TMPhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    28 IMDhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    5 IMM

    		13 RGR

    21 MTVhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    29 TRDhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    6 PCS

    		14 PCL

    22 CSQhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    30 TNShttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    7 REG

    		15 CNT

    23 SQNhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    31 ITChttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    8 EXP

    		16 ICS

    24 EPDhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    32 CSMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    +

     

    +
    +


    + Table 42: Primary Modality Characters
    + (when accompanied by alternate form of underposed Version diacritic)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    1 DES

    +

    7 OPR

    13 IMS

    19 NEChttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    25 CMLhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    2 ASP

    8 CPC

    14 ADV

    20 DEChttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    26 DVRhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    3 EXV

    9 PRM

    15 ITV

    21 PTVhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    27 DVThttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    4 CRD

    16 ANThttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    22 VOLhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    28 PFThttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    5 REQ

    17 DSPhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    23 ACChttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    29 IPShttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    6 EXH

    18 PREhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    24 INChttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    30 PMShttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    +

     

    +
    +


    + Table 43: Primary Valence Characters
    + (when accompanied by alternate form of underposed Version diacritic)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1 MNO

    4 RCP

    7 DUP

    10 IMT

     

    13 IDC

    2 PRL

    		5 CPL

    8 DEM

    11 CNG

    14 MUThttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    3 CRO

    		6 NNR

    9 RES

    12 PTI

     

     

    +

     

    +
    +


    + Table 44: Primary Validatiohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/n Characters
    + (when accompanied by alternate form of underposed Version diacritic)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    1 CNF

    4 INF

    7 PSM2

    10 CJThttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    13 PUThttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    2 AFM

    		5 ITU

    8 PPT

    11 DUB

    14 IPBhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    3 RPT

    		6 PSM

    9 PPT2

    12 TENhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

     

     

    +

     

    +

    11.3.2  Secondary Case/Aspect Chahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/racters

    +

    The neutral, default shape for a secondary case/aspect character is as follows: 

    +

    The common recognizable element in all secondary case/aspect characters, and what distinguish them from other character types is a diagonal bar extending from the top-line of the character (or even beyond the top-line) all the way to the bottom-line of thehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ character (or even below the bottom-line of the character).  This diagonal line can be interrupted at the mid-line by a horizonatally offset juncture or be broken into two separate diagonal lines, but the continuation of the diagonal past the mid-line will always be in the same direction as on the other side of the mid-line.  Examples were shown in Section 11.1.2 above.

    +

    A secondary case/aspect character normally conveys all of the following categories of information:  Case, Aspect, Modality, Phase and Sanction.  It can also indicate the categories of Designation and Perspective using the same laterally-placed diacritic as described in Section 11.3.1.4 above.  The diagonal bar portion of the character which indicates case normally runs from the upper-right corner of the character to the lower-left corner.  The upper-left portion of the character “above” the diagonal bar indicates Aspect, while the lower-right portion “below” the diagonal bar indicates Modalithttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/y.  Phase is indicated by a superposed diacritic above the character, while Sanction is indicated by an underposed diacritic below the character.

    +

    +

    If the diagonal bar indicating case has its orientation reversed (i.e., made to run from upper-left to lower-right) then the section “below” the diagonal normally reserved for indicating Modality, will instead indicate a second aspect.

    +

    +

     

    +

    11.3.2.1 Case:  The secondary case/aspect character indicates case via the diagonal bar portion of the character, as per the following table. The dotted horizontal lines represent the top-line, mid-line, https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/and bottom-line of the line of writing, in order to illustrate which characters extend above the top-line or dip below the bottom-line.

    +
    +


    + Table 45: Secondary Case Characters     (Note that for the purposes of this table, the VOCATIVE case is shown in Position No. 48.)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 OBL

    25 PUR

    49https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ EXC

    7https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/3 CMP1A

    2 IND

    26 CSD

    50https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ AVR

    7https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/4 CMP1B

    3 ABS

    27 ESS

    51https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ CMP

    7https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/5 CMP1C

    4 ERG

    28 ASI

    52https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ SML

    7https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/6 CMP1D

    5 EFF

    29 FUN

    53https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ ASS

    7https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/7 CMP1E

    6 AFF

    30 TFM

    54https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ CNR

    7https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/8 CMP1F

    7 DAT

    31 REF

    55https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ ACS

    7https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/9 CMP1G

    8 INS

    32 CLA

    56https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ DFF

    8https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/0 CMP1H

    9 ACT

    33 CNV

    57https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ PER

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/81 CMP2A

    10 DER

    34 IDP

    58https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ PRO

    8https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/2 CMP2B

    11 SIT

    35 BEN

    59https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ PCV

    8https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/3 CMP2C

    12 POS

    36 TSP

    60https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ PCR

    8https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/4 CMP2D

    13 PRP

    37 CMM

    61https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ ELP

    8https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/5 CMP2E

    14 GEN

    38 COM

    62https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ ALP

    8https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/6 CMP2F

    15 ATT

    39 CNJ

    63https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ INP

    8https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/7 CMP2G

    16 PDC

    40 UTL

    64https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ EPS

    8https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/8 CMP2H

    17 ITP

    41 ABE

    65https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ PRL

    8https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/9 CMP3A

    18 OGN

    42 CVS

    66https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ LIM

    9https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/0 CMP3B

    19 PAR

    43 COR

    67https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ LOC

    9https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/1 CMP3C

    20 CRS

    44 DEP

    68https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ ORI

    9https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/2 CMP3D

    21 CPS

    45 PVS

    69https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ PSV

    9https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/3 CMP3E

    22 PRD

    46 PTL

    70https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ ALL

    9https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/4 CMP3F

    23 MED

    47 CON

    71https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ ABL

    9https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/5 CMP3G

    24 APL

    48 VOC

    72https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ NAV

    9https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/6 CMP3H

    +

     

    +

    +

    11.3.2.2 Aspect:  Aspect in a secondary case/aspect character is shown via the portion of the character “above” the diagonal bar.&nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/sp; The forms below are the default forms when used in the upper-left portion of the character.  For laterally reversed characters, these should be, in turn, laterally reversed, and placed in the upper-right portion of the character.  When used to show a second aspect in laterally reversed characters, the form should be vertically inverted and placed in the lower-left portion of the character.

    +
    +


    + Table 46: Secondary Aspect Characters     - shown with OBLIQUE case marking

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1 RTR

    9 RSM

    17 PMhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/P

    25 Dhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/SC

    2 PRS

    10 CSS

    18 Chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/LM

    26 Chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/CL

    3 HAB

    11 RCS

    19 Phttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/TC

    27 Chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/UL

    4 PRG

    12 PAU

    20 Thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/MP

    28 Ihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/MD

    5 IMM

    13 RGR

    21 Mhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/TV

    29 Thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/RD

    6 PCS

    14 PCL

    22 Chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/SQ

    30 Thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/NS

    7 REG

    15 CNT

    23 Shttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/QN

    31 Ihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/TC

    8 EXP

    16 ICS

    24 Ehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/PD

    32 Chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/SM

    +

     

    +

    +

    11.3.2.3 Modality:  The thirty modalities are indicated in the portion of a secondary case/aspect character “below” the diagonal bar.  The partihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/cular forms are the same as the first thirty aspect forms, only vertically inverted and laterally reversed, as shown in the following table.

    +
    +


    + Table 47: Secondary Modality Characters     - shown with OBLIQUE case marking

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1 DES

    7 OPR

    1https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/3 IMS

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/19 NEC

     

    		25 CML

    2 ASP

    8 CPC

    1https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/4 ADV

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/20 DEC

     

    		26 DVR

    3 EXV

    9 PRM

    1https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/5 ITV

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/21 PTV

     

    		27 DVT

    4 CRD

    10 PTN

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/16 ANT

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/22 VOL

     

    		28 PFT

    5 REQ

    11 CLS

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/17 DSP

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/23 ACC

     

    		29 IPS

    6 EXH

    12 OBG

    18 PRE

    24 INC

     

    		30 PMS

    +

     

    +

    +

    11.3.2.4 Phase:  The nine phases (see Section 5.5) are shown via a diacritic mark placed over the secondary case/aspect chhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/aracter, as per the following:

    +
    +


    + Table 48: Phase Diacritics Placed Over Secondary Case/Aspect Characters

    +
    +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 CTX

    2 PCT

    3 ITR

    4 REP

    5 ITM

    6 RCT

    7 FRE

    8 FRG

    9 FLC

     

    +

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ 

    +

    +

    11.3.2.5 SanctionSection 5.6) are shown via a diacritic mark placed below the secondary cahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/se/aspect character, as per the following:

    +
    +


    + Table 49: Sanction Diacritics Placed Under Secondary Case/Aspect Characters

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 PPS

    2 EPI

    3 ALG

    4 IPU

    5 RFU

    6 REB

    7 THR

    8 EXV

    9 AXM

     

    +

     

    +

    11.3.2.6 Placeholder Character for Phase/Sanction: If there is no secondary Case/Ahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/spect character (or Tertiary character as described below) available by which to display the Phase and/or Sanction diacritics, then a special plahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ceholder character is used, consisting of a single vertical bar extending from the top-line to the bottom-line.

    +


    +

    +

    11.3.3  Tertiary Characters

    +

    The third type of character is the tertiary character. The common recognizable element in all tertiary characters, and what distinguishes them from other character types is a horizontal bar extending across the mid-line of the character, not connected to those portions of the character above or below the mid-line.  The two ends of this horizontal bar may be modified. Examples were shown in Section 11.1.3 above.

    +

    A tertiary character normally conveys one of the following sets of grammtical information:  Aspect 1 + Aspect 2, Aspect + Modality, Valence + Aspect, Validation + Aspect, Validation + Modality, Valence + Modality, or Valence + Validation.  The particular set of information being conhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/veyed is indicated by the “ends” of the horizontal mid-line bar of the character, as follows:

    +


    +

    +


    + The forms utilized above and/or below the horizontal bar for showing aspect and modality are the same as those used for for secondary case/aspect characters (shown in Sections 11.3.2.2 and 11.3.2.3 ahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/bove), vertically inverted and laterally reversed when used below the horizontal mid-line bar.  Likewise, valence and validation are each shown by the first fourteen forms used for showing Aspect from Section Section 11.3.2.2 above, again vertically inverted and laterally https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/reversed when used below the horizontal https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/mid-line bar. 

    +

    As with secondary case/aspect characters, the categories of Phase and Sanction can be displayed on a tertiary character via superposed and underposed diacritics respectively as per Tables 48 and 49 ahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/bove.  The categories of Designation and Perspective can likewise be shown on a tertiary character utilizing the same mid-line diacritics described previously in Section 11.3.1.4.

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4  Consonantal Characters

    +

    Consonantal characters, the fourth type of character, are discernible by a horizontal bar along the top-line of the character, or when vertically inverted, along the bottom-lhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ine of the character.  This horizontal bar will always be connected to the remaining portion of the character.  The “ends” of the top-bar as well as the ends of the other bars making up the character are subject to numerous modifications and extensions.  Examples of consonantal characters were shown in Section 11.1.4 above.

    +

    Consonantal characters will always be the last group of characters in a word, following any and all Type 1, 2, or 3 characters.  They convey the following information:  main root plus its Pattern, Stem and Relation; incorporated root (if present) plus its Pattern, Stem and Designationhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/; Function; Format; Context; Illocution; Suffixes; and Bias.  The manner in which these pieces of morphology are conveyed is described in the sub-sections below.

    +

    11.3.4.1 Main Root:  If there is no incorporated root in the formative, then the first consonantal character in the word will be the main root consonant form, represented by a single consonant character.  This character conveys the actual root Cr form (see Section 2.1), whether the root is one up to five consonants in length.  The consonant forms are shown in the table below.

    +
    +


    + Table 50: Basic Consonantal Characters

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +     + + + +

     

    +

    Various extensions added to the above forms allow for the prefixing of various consonants, e.g., + t --> lt.  These extensions which prefix consonants to existing consonant forms are shown below:

    +
    +


    + Table 51: Consonantal Character Extensions Indicating Consonant Prefixes

    +
    +

    p

    t

    khttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    qhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    č

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    b

    dhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    g

    &rhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/squo;

    ż

    j

    +

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/p’

    t’

    k’

    q’

    c’

    č’

    ph

    th

    kh

    qh

    ch

    čh

    f

    ţ

    x

    xh

    s

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/š

    v

    dh

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/h

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ř

    ž

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    w

    l

    y

    ļ

    r

    ç

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/m

    n

    ň

    tļ

    +
    		  
    + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    l+C

    m+C

    r+C

    ļ+C

    +

    n+C

    +
    s+C
    + (z+C)
    		š+C
    + (ž+C)
    		ň+C
    		z+C
    		ř+C

    ç+C

    c+C
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/(ż+C)

    č+C /
    +j+C

    ž+C

    k+C /
    +(g+C)

    p+C +(b+C)

    q+C

    t+C
    +(d+C)

    x+C

    ţ+C /
    +(dh+C)

    f+C
    +(v+C)

    xh+C

    gemination

    +
    		 
    +

     

    +

    Additional extensions allow for the suffixing of various consonants, e.g., t —> tl, as shown below: +

    +


    + Table 52: Consonantal Character Extensions Indicating Consonant Suffixes

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    C+w
    		C+y
    		C+l
    		C+r
    		C+ř
    C+m +
    		C+n
    		C+v
    		C+ň
    		 
    +

     

    +

    Various diacritics are also available for placement underneath the Cr chahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/racter, used in conjunction with the above sets of extensions in order to indicate tri-consonantal stems and tetra-consonantal stems.

    +
    +


    + Table 53: Underposed Diacritics to Consonant Characters Indicating Consonant Affixes

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    C+w

    +

    C+y

    +

    C+l

    +

    C+r

    +

    C+ř

    +

    C+m

    +

    C+n

    +

    s+C

    +

    z+C

    + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    š+C

    +

    ž+C

    +

    f/v+C

    +

    ţ/dh+C

    +

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

     

    +

     

    +

    If a tri-consonantal or tetra-consonantal stem cannot be unambiguously indicated using the above extensions and diacritics on a consonantal character, then the Cr root can be written using two characters, the second one being a placeholder character consisting of a vertical bar without a horizontal top-bar, running from the top-line to the bottom-line, to which the various extensions shown in Tables 51 and 52 are added.

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.2 Pattern, Stem and Relation:  These categories (see Sections 2.2 and 5.4) are shown via extensions or modifications made to the horizontal top-bar (or bottom-bar if the character is inverted) of the Cr consonantal character, as follows:

    +
    +


    + Tables 54a and 54b:
    + Consohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nantal Character Extensions Indicating     Pattern, Stem, and Relation

    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

    UNFRAMED Relation

    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    P1 S1

    P1 S2

    P1 S3

    P2 S1

    P2 S2

    P2 S3

    P3 S1

    P3 S2

    P3 S3

    +
    + +
    +
    +
    +


    + FRAMED Relation

    + +
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    P1 S1

    P1 S2

    P1 S3

    P2 S1

    P2 S2

    P2 S3

    P3 S1

    P3 S2

    P3 S3

    +

     https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    +

    11.3.4.3 Function:  The category of Function (see Section 5.1) is shown by a superposed diacritic above the Cr consonantal character:

    +
    +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/


    + Table 55: Superposed Diacritics to Cr Character Indicating Function

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    STA

    DYN

    MNF

    DSC

     

    +

     

    + 

    +

    11.3.4.4 Incorporated Root plus Pattern, Stem, and Designation:https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/  Incorporated roots are shown using the same consonantal characters as for the Cr main root in Secthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ion 11.3.4.1 above.  The character representing the incorporated root is place immediately preceding the Cr main root character (i.e., so that it becomes the first Type 4 character in the word), and it is vertically inverted.  Its pattern and stem are shown using the same extensions/modifications to its horizontal bar https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/(now on the bottom-line rather than the top due to vertical inversion of the character), as shown above for the Cr character.  Formal designation of the incorporated root is shown by using the FRAMED alternatives of the Pattern+Stem extensions/modifications.

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.5 Format:  Any formative containing an incorporated root must show the category of Format (see Section 6.4).  This is shown by a combination of diacritics above both the incorporated root character and the Cr main root character, as well as vertical inversion of the Cr character.  Since the Cr main root character may already carry diacritics indicating the formative’https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/s function, such diacritics will be subject to modification. The values in the table below show an inverted ‘t’ consonantal character representing the incorporated root, followed by a standard ‘t’ consonantal character representing the main root. The pattern of diacritics is shown on these two characters:

    +
    +


    + Table 56: Pattern of Diacritics and Inversion of Cr Character to Indicate Format

    +
    +

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.6 Context:  The default EXS Context (see Section 3.6) is unmarked.  The three other contexts are shown via a superposed diacritic over the Cr character (or underphttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/osed below the character if it is inverted).  If the Cr character already has a diacritic showing Function or Function+Format, it is modified as per the table below:

    + +


    + Table 57: Modification of Function(+Format) Diacritics on Cr Character to Indicate Context
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    + + + +
    +
    + + + + +

    +

    +     + +

    EXS

    FNC

    RPS

    AMG

    +

    +

    +

    +

    11.3.4.7 Illocution:  This category (see Section 5.3) is shown via a diacritic mark alongside the Cr character at the mid-line following the charahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/cter in the direction the particular line of writing is written (unless the diacritic can be written “inside” a character whose shape has an obvious interior space, e.g., the l and x consonantal characters).

    +
    +


    + Table 58: Illocution Diacritics on Cr Character

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ASR

    IRG

    DIR

    ADM

     HOR

    DEC

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.8 Negative Polarity:  The Ithkuil script allows for a “shortcut” representation of the NA11/5 negation suffix, the most common method of negating a verb in Ithkuil. This shortcut is accomplished via a diacritic mark alongside the Cr character at the mid-line following the character in the direction of writing. The character is shown below in the first box of Table 59. Since this diacritic position is the same utilized for showing Illocution (see Table 58 above), the Illocution diacritics are modified to indicate this negation, as follows:

    +

     

    +
    +

    Table 59: Illocution Diacritics on Cr Character Modified to Show Negative Polarity

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ASR

    IRG

    DIR

    ADM

     HOR

    DEC

    +

    +

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ 

    +

    11.3.4.9 Suffixes:  Derivational (Slot XI) Suffixes (see Chapter 7) are shown by additional Type 4 consonantal characters, placed following thehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ Cr consonantal character.  Each such character represents one VxC suffix, its formation of prefixed and suffixed consonants identical to the character formation principles previously described for the Cr consonantal character, utilizing the same extensions and modifications shown in Tables 51 and 52 above.

    +

    Suffix-Type: Thttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/he default consonantal character is used to represent Type-1 suffixes. Types 2 and 3 are shown in the following ways: Type-2 suffixes are shown by vertically inverting the consonantal character. Type-3 suffixes are shown by an underposed dot diacritic beneath the consonantal character.

    +

    Suffix Degree: The nine suffix degrees are shown via superposed diacritics above the consonantal character (even if the character is vertically inverted to represent a Type-2 suffix). The diacritics are shown in the following table.

    +
    +


    + Table 60: Diacritics Representing Suffix Degree

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1
    Degree 2
    Degree 3
    Degree 4
    Degree 5
    Degree 6
    Degree 7
    Degree 8

    Degree 9

    (none)

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.10 Bias: The category of Bias (see Section 5.11) is shown by modification of the top-bar of a consonantal suffix chhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/aracter. If the formative does not carry a VxC suffix, then the modification is made to a special placeholder character consisting of a top-bar alone with no stem.

    +

    The modifications are mostly the same modifications made to Cr characters for showing Pattern, Stem, and Relation, as shown previously in Tables 54a and 54b, supplemented by additional underposed diacritics placed beneath the bottom-https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/line of the character (shown next to the character in the following table). Note that for the last 16 biases whose representation utilizes a vertical-bar diacritic, if the placeholder top-bar character is used to represent these biases, then the character is laterally reversed rather than utilizing the vertical-bar diacritic.

    +
    +


    + Table 61: Modifications to Consonantal Suffix Characters to Show Bias

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    ASU
    HPB
    COI
    ACP
    RAC
    STU
    CTV

    DPV

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Intensive Forms
    ASU+
    HPB+
    COI+
    ACP+
    RAC+
    STU+
    CTV+

    DPV+

    +
    +
    + + +   +
    RVL
    +
    GRT
    +
    SOL
    +
    SEL
    +
    IRO
    +
    EXA
    +
    LTL
    +

    CRR

    + + +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Intensive Forms
    RVL+
    GRA+
    SOL+
    SEL+
    IRO+
    EXA+
    LTL+

    CRR+

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    EUP
    SKP
    CYN
    CTP
    DSM
    IDG
    SGS

    PPV

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Intensive Forms
    EUP+
    SKP+
    CYN+
    CTP+
    DSM+
    IDG+
    SGS+

    PPV+

     
     
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    11.4 WORD BOUNDARIES, PUNCTUATION, AND ALPHABETIC TRANSLITERATION
    +

    Because all written words begin with characters other than Type 4 (consonantal characters), while all words end with Type 4 characters, it is always possible to determine where new words begin in a line of Ithkuil writing, obviating the need for a blank space or other boundary between words. In turn, a blank space functions to indicate a sentence boundary. And because Ithkuil morphology already indicates within words themselves various attitudes, moods, and other information which are normally indicated supra-segmentally in Western languages (e.g., by tone or inflection of the voice, hyper-enunciation, etc.), symbols corresponding to exclamation points and question marks are likewise unnecessary. The Ithkuil equivalents to subordinate and relative clauses are likewise indicated morphologically, as are coordinative/serial lists of words, therefore there is no need for any equivalent to the comma.

    +

    The only “punctuation” symbols used are to show quotations of direct speech and phonetic transliteration (as when spelling non-Ithkuil words and names). These two sets of symbols are shown below. Note that the quotation marks are used only to indicate direct speech; they are not used as in English to offset a word for emphasis or special usage. The phonetic rendering marks indicate the word or phrase between the marks is to be pronounced phonetically (i.e., alphabetically).

    +
    +

    insert quohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/te here

    +

    insert trahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/nsliteration here

    +
    +

     

    +

    11.4.1 Alphabetic Transliteration

    +

    Proper names and other non-Ithkuil words, when transliterated into Ithkuil, are written alphabetically between the phonetic transliteration marks shown above. Consonants are written using the Type 4 consonant characters, utilizing the extensions from Tables 51 and 52 above (but not the diacritics from Table 53) to represent various consonant clhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/usters or gemination. Transliteration is based on either a phonemic or phonetic representation of the non-Ithkuil word, without concern for any spelling conventions contained in the original/native script of the foreign word or name. Vowels are represented in the following ways:

    +

    Vowels: For vowels preceding or following a consonant (or consonant conjunct) the top-bar modifications normally used for representing Pattern, Stem, and Relation are used – the vowel thereby being represented as part of the consonant character. If there is no consonant in the syllable to carry the vowel, a placeholder symbol consisting of a top-bar alone is used. These top-bar modifications are shown in the following tables (note that the vowel-sounds are indicated using the International Phonetic Alphabet):

    +
    +


    + Table 62: Modifications to Consonant Characters to Transliterate Accompanying Vowel

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    modification:
    IPA value:
    (none)
    a
    æ
    ɑ
    		o
    ε
    e
    I
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    modification:
    IPA value:
    i
    ə
    u
    y
    /Y
    +
    œ
    ø
    /
    +


    +By default, the vowel is to be pronounced following the consonantal form. If instead the vowel is to be pronounced preceding the consonant, the character carries a superposed dot diacritic. If there are two vowels in a row and there is no consonant character to carry the vowel, a placeholder consonant character is used consisting of a lone top-bar. Syllabic stress is shown by a superposed horizontal bar diacritic; if a dot diacritic is already present above the character, it changes to a vertical bar diacritic for stressed syllables. Diphthongs and long vowels are indicated by diacritics placed alongside the character in the direction of writing (unless the diacritic can be written “inside” a character whose shape has an obvious interior space, e.g., the l and x consonantal characters). Diphthongs ending in an -i/-y semivowel are indicated with a dot, those ending in -u/-w by a small vertical bar, and long vowels by a small horizontal bar.

    +

    Tone: If necessary to transliterate a word carrying tone, the following underposed diacritics may be used under the consonant+vowel character corresponding to the syllable containing the toneme.

    +


    + Table 63: Diacritics to Consonant Characters for Transliteration of     Syllabic Tone

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + +

    low

    +

    high

    +

    mid

    +

    rising

    +

    falling

    +

    fall-rise

    +

    rise-fall

    +

    +
    +
    +

     

    +

    Note on Placenames and Ethnonymns: In general, the Ithkuil names of real-world placenames and ethnonymns are the same as the native form to the extent that Ithkuil phonology allows and to the extent that such native terms can be distinguished. Otherwise, alternate names in common usage can be utilized. So, for example, the most technically correct Ithkuil name for China would be îpal –Čuňˇkwo, based on Ithkuil’s closest available phonologhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ical equivalent to the Mandarin Zhōngguó (IPA []), although the name îpal Čin, based on the historically derived root (from both Persian and Sanskrit) would be acceptable as well.

    +

    For placenames with multiple native names from equally official languages (e.g., the four names of Switzerland in each of its four official languages), the Ithkuil phonological equivalent to any official name is acceptable. For names whose native ethnonymn is not common knowledge or not readily discoverable (e.g., the Andi people of Dagestan whose native ethnonymn is variously given as Qwannal, Qwannab, Khivannal), a name in common use can be used even if it is derived from a non-native source (e.g., the Russian-derived name “Andi”).

    +

    The author intends at some future point to add a section to the Lexicon on the official Ithkuil names of major non-Ithkuil placenames and ethnonymns.

    +

    Language Names: The Ithkuil name of a non-Ithkuil language is given by the native ethnonymn of the people or their nation/placename with the addition of the SSD1/5 suffix -(a)k added to the carrier root preceding the alphabetic name.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    11.5 HANDWRITTEN FORMS OF THE CHARACTERS
    +

    The various charts below display the handwritten equivalents to the various character types, the extensions to top bars and bottom bars, diacritics, etc.

    +

    Primary Characters

    +

    +

    +

    +

    +

     

    +

    +

     

    +

    Secondary Aspect Characters

    +

    +

     

    +

    Tertiary Characters

    +

    +

     

    +

    Consonantal Characters

    +

    +

     

    +

    Consonantal Extensions (Shown on https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/-t-, -k-, and -g- characters)

    +

    +

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    11.6 THE ALTERNATIVE ORNAMENTAL SCRIPT
    +

    The now defunct previous revision of Ithkuil known as Ilaksh utilized an experimental two-dimensional, non-linear writing system of colorful “cartouche”-like containers and hexagonal glyphs used to fashion an abstract morphological “map” of an Ilaksh sentence. Now that the Ilaksh language has been withdrawn, it is the author’s intention to eventually adapt this writing system to Ithkuil, for use as an alternative, “ornamental” writing system for artistic purposes. When this adaptation is ready it will be placed in this section of the grammar. The graphic below illustrates a draft sample of what this whttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/riting system will look like.

    +

    +

     

    +

    Proceed to Chapter 12: The Number System>>

    +

     

    +
    +
    +

     

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexiconhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/
    Updates / Newshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/3 Basic Morphologyhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065903id_/http:/ithkuil.net/7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +
    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/11_script.htm.orig b/2004-en/11_script.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1f498e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/11_script.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2335 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 11: The Writing System + + + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Chapter 11: The Writing System

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     

    11.1 Character Types

    		11.4 Word Boundaries, Punctuation & Alphabetic Transliteration
     11.2 Direction of Writing11.5 Handwritten Forms of the Characters
     11.3 Presentation & Analysis of the Character Types11.6 The Alternative Ornamental Writing System
    +


    +The Ithkuil script is a morpho-phonemic script, i.e., the individual characters do not simply convey phonetic (i.e., phonological) information, but also convey grammatical (i.e., morphological) information.  Many of the characters are purely morphological in function and without any set phonological value, their specific phonological interpretation being up to the reader based on the flexiblility and options inherent in Ithkuil morpho-phonology. 

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    11.1 CHARACTER TYPES
    +

    There are four types of characters used in the Ithkuil Script: Primary Case/Aspect characters, Secondary Case/Aspect characters, Tertiary characters, and Consonantal characters. Additionally, there are symbols used for numbers (to be discussed in Chapter 12), separate rules for transliterating non-Ithkuil words alphabetically, and a few punctuation symbols.

    +

    +

    11.1.1 Primary Case/Aspect Markers

    +

    If present, the Case-Marker character is the first written character in a word.  It is normally used to convey the case or case-frame of a formative, however, when the case or case-frame of the formative is the OBLIQUE, it can instead be used to convey one of the following: Aspect, Modality, Validation, or Valence.  In addition to these categories, the character also shows the following categories:  Configuration, Essence, Affiliation, Extension, Mood, and Version.

    +

    Primary Case/Aspect characters are recognizable by the absence of a top or bottom horizontal bar (as is found on all consonantal characters below), as well as a diagonal section of the character either below or above the horizontal mid-line.  This diagonal section of the character will always change direction at the horizontal midline of the character.  Examples:

    +

    +

    +

    11.1.2  Secondary Case/Aspect Markers

    +

    As stated above, Primary Case markers can be used to convey only one of the following categories at a time:  Case, Aspect, Modality, Validation, or Valence.  However, it is often necessary to be able to show more than one of these categories on a formative (i.e., the formative has non-default values for more than one of these categories).  In such cases, secondary Case/Aspect Markers can be used.  These characters are capable of showing Case, Aspect, and Modality simultaneously.  Additionally, they can be used to show non-default values for the categories of Phase, Sanction, Designation, and Perspective.

    +

    Secondary Case/Aspect markers can be recognized by the presence of a diagonal bar extending the entire length of the character from the top-line (or even above the top-line) all the way to the bottom-line (or even below the bottom-line).  This diagonal bar may be broken or modified in the middle by either a horizontal or vertical zig-zag, but will always continue in the same direction as before coming out of the break or zig-zag (unlike Primary Case/Aspect characters which have a change in direction beginning at the horizontal mid-line).  Examples:

    +

    +

    +

    11.1.3 Tertiary Characters

    +

    These characters are used, when necessary, to convey the combination of two different aspects, aspect plus modality, aspect plus valence, aspect plus validation, validation plus modality, valence plus modality, or valence plus validation.  They are recognizable by having a horizontal bar at the mid-line of the character which is not connected to any vertical or diagonal bars above or below the horizontal bar.  The ends of the horizontal bar may be modified by points facing upward or downward. Examples:

    +

    +

    +

    11.1.4 Consonantal Characters

    +

    These characters are used to convey the consonantal root Cr, the incorporated root Cx (if present), and any Vx-C consonantal suffixes the formative may have.  They are placed following any characters of Types 1, 2, or 3, in the order (Cx)-Cr-(VxC)-(VxC... etc.)  If an incorporated root Cx is present, it is indicated by vertically inverting the Consonantal character in order to distinguish it from the following Cr character.  The Cr character is also used to convey the categories of Function, Format, Context, Illocution, and Relation, while the VxC character conveys affix type and degree, as well as Bias.

    +

    Consonantal characters are recognizable  by the presence of a horizontal bar either along the top-line or the bottom-line, the ends of which may be modified. Examples:

    +

    +

     

    +

    11.1.5 Example of the Script in Operation

    +

    To illustrate further how a morpho-phonemic script operates, we can analyze the function of each character in the following Ithkuil sentence:

    +
    +


    +

    +

    Igrawileiţrar  oi  eglulôn.
    + DYN-‘eat food’-FAC-HOR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6-IFL    PCL     STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL
    +     If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    The shape of this character indicates it is a primary character showing GENITIVE case or, alternately, PRECLUSIVE aspect.  The bar below it indicates default PROCESSUAL version and also serves to indicate the character carries its alternate value, i.e., PRECLUSIVE aspect.  The lack of a superposed diacritic over the character indicates FACTUAL mood as well as the fact that the word is a formative and not a personal reference adjunct.  The lack of a diacritic alongside the character indicates MONADIC perspective and INFORMAL designation. The lack of modifications to the top half of the character indicates NORMAL essence and UNIPLEX configuration. The lack of modifications to the bottom half of the character indicates DELIMITIVE extension and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation.

    The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /g/; the bottom-half modification adds an /r/ giving the form /gr/.  Its position following a primary case/aspect character shows it is a Cr root, -GR-.  The lack of modication to the top-bar indicates Pattern 1, Stem 1, ‘food and drink; eat and drink one’s food’ as well as indicating UNFRAMED relation.  The superposed dot diacritic indicates DYNAMIC function and default EXISTENTIAL context.  The fact the character is not vertically inverted shows the word carries no incorporated stem or format.  The absence of an underposed  diacritic shows the stem is not triconsonantal or tetraconsonantal.  The angular diacritic alongside the character indicates both HORTATIVE illocution and negative polarity (i.e., equivalent to carrying the NA11/5 suffix).

    The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /ţ/.  Its position following a Cr root and the fact it is vertically inverted indicates it is a V2C derivational suffix.  The modification of the bottom-half (actually the top- half due to the vertical inversion of the character) prefixes a consonantal /r/ giving the phonological form /rţ/ which is the EXT suffix.  The angular diacritic over the character indicates the suffix is Degree 6.  The lack of modifications to the top-half (actually bottom-half due to vertical inversion) indicates the formative carries no Bias.

    The shape of this character, its position following a consonantal suffix, the lack of top-half or bottom-half modifications, and the absence of any diacrtics all serve to indicate the start of a new word which is a formative (as opposed to a personal reference adjunct) and that it is a primary character showing INDUCIVE case, PROCESSUAL version, NORMAL essence, UNIPLEX configuration, DELIMITIVE extension, CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation, INFORMAL designation, and MONADIC perspective.

    The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /g/; the bottom-half modification adds an /l/ giving the form /gl/.  Its position following a primary case/aspect character shows it is a Cr root, -GL-.  The modication to the top-bar indicates Pattern 1, Stem 2, ‘illness/sickness’ as well as indicating UNFRAMED relation. The absence of a superposed diacritic indicates STATIVE function and default EXISTENTIAL context.  The fact the character is not vertically inverted shows the word carries no incorporated stem or format.  The absence of an underposed  diacritic shows the stem is not triconsonantal or tetraconsonantal.  The absence of a diacritic alongside indicates default ASSERTIVE illocution.

    The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /n/.  Its position following a Cr root, the fact it is vertically inverted, and the absence of any bottom-half  (actually top-half due to vertical inversion)  indicates it is a V2C derivational suffix, AGC.  The grave accent-like diacritic over the character indicates the suffix is Degree 7. The lack of modifications to the top-half (actually bottom-half due to vertical inversion) indicates the formative carries no Bias.

     

    +

     

    The absence of any secondary case/aspect character or placeholder characters within these formatives indicate default CONTEXTUAL phase and PROPOSITIONAL sanction on both formatives.

    +

    As can be seen from the above analysis, the only purely phonological information conveyed by the written form of this sentence consists of the consonantal groupings /gr/ /rţ/ /gl/ and /n/.  The remainder conveys solely morphological/grammatical information by which the reader “re-constructs” the pronunciation based on his/her knowledge of Ithkuil morpho-syntax and the various optional ways in which it maps to the language’s morpho-phonology.  The non-alphabetic nature of the script, along with the flexibility of Ithkuil morpho-phonology, allows the written form of this sentence to be read in many equivalent ways, such as:

    +
    +


    +

    +

    Igrawileiţrar  oi  eglulôn.
    +

    +

    Oi  eirţ  igrawilar  ôn  eglul.

    +

    Çtar-ryigraleiţrar  eglulôn.

    +

    If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +
    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    11.2 DIRECTION OF WRITING
    +

    The Ithkuil script is written in a horizontal boustrophedon (i.e., zig-zag) manner, in which the first and every subsequent odd-numbered line of writing is written left-to-right, while the second and every subsequent even-numbered line of writing is written right-to-left.  The characters within even-numbered lines written right-to-left retain their normal lateral orientation and are not laterally reversed (i.e., they are not written in a mirror-image manner).  A small left-pointed mark like an arrow or left-pointing triangle is placed at the beginning of even-numbered lines (i.e., those written right-to-left) to remind the reader of the line’s orientation.  The following paragraph shows by analogy how the script is written.

    +

    THE ITHKUIL SCRIPT IS WRITTEN IN A HORIZONTAL BOUSTROPHEDON
    + TNEUQESBUS YREVE DNA TSRIF EHT HCIHW NI ,RENNAM (GAZ-GIZ ,.E.I)
    +ODD-NUMBERED LINE OF WRITING IS WRITTEN LEFT-TO-RIGHT, WHILE
    +-TIRW FO ENIL DEREBMUN-NEVE TNEUQESBUS YREVE DNA DNOCES EHT
    +ING IS WRITTEN RIGHT-TO-LEFT.     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    11.3 PRESENTATION & ANALYSIS OF THE CHARACTER TYPES
    +

    The sub-sections below provide the details of the various characters and character-permutations associated with each character type.

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1 Primary Case/Aspect Characters

    +

    The neutral default shape for a Primary Case/Aspect character is as follows:  

    +

    This shape can then be mutated into a variety of derivative shapes by means of changing the direction of the bars of the character at the mid-line point, extending the mid-line point horizontally, and changing the corner-like vertices to “offset” connections, as illustrated by the examples in Section 11.1.1 above:

    +

    The common recognizable elements in any Primary Case/Aspect character, and what distinguishes such characters from the other three character-types, are (1) the absence of a horizontal bar along the top-line and the bottom-line, (2) a diagnonal bar running from the mid-line to either the top-line or to the bottom-line or both, and (3) a change in the diagonal bar’s  (or bars’) direction at the mid-line.

    +

    A Primary Case/Aspect character usually conveys the case of the formative (see Chapter 4), however, in the absence of case (e.g., as with a verb), or when the case is OBLIQUE, the character can convey one of the following other categories:  Aspect, Modality, Valence, or Validation.

    +

    The various ways the character conveys these categories is described below.

    +

    (NOTE:  If a formative is the first word in a sentence and carries no Aspect or Modality, and the other five categories are in their neutral/default modes (i.e., MNO valence, CNF validation, PRC version, CTX phase, and PPS sanction), then the Primary Aspect/Modality character will be missing, i.e., is not written.)

    +

    11.3.1.1 Case:  The 96 cases are shown by the main body of the character – there are 24 basic forms corresponding to the first 24 cases.  The next group of 24 cases utilizes the same 24 forms laterally reversed.  The latter 48 cases utilize these same forms, vertically reversed.  These forms are shown below (note that the vertical symmetricality of Forms 1 and 25, as well as Forms 3 and 27, require that Forms 49, 51, 73, and 75 have special forms):

    +
    +


    + Table 35: Primary Case characters     (Note that for the purposes of this table, the VOCATIVE case is shown in Position No. 48.)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 OBL

    25 PUR

    49 EXC

    73 CMP1A

    2 IND

    26 CSD

    50 AVR

    74 CMP1B

    3 ABS

    27 ESS

    51 CMP

    75 CMP1C

    4 ERG

    28 ASI

    52 SML

    76 CMP1D

    5 EFF

    29 FUN

    53 ASS

    77 CMP1E

    6 AFF

    30 TFM

    54 CNR

    78 CMP1F

    7 DAT

    31 REF

    55 ACS

    79 CMP1G

    8 INS

    32 CLA

    56 DFF

    80 CMP1H

    9 ACT

    33 CNV

    57 PER

    81 CMP2A

    10 DER

    34 IDP

    58 PRO

    82 CMP2B

    11 SIT

    35 BEN

    59 PCV

    83 CMP2C

    12 POS

    36 TSP

    60 PCR

    84 CMP2D

    13 PRP

    37 CMM

    61 ELP

    85 CMP2E

    14 GEN

    38 COM

    62 ALP

    86 CMP2F

    15 ATT

    39 CNJ

    63 INP

    87 CMP2G

    16 PDC

    40 UTL

    64 EPS

    88 CMP2H

    17 ITP

    41 ABE

    65 PRL

    89 CMP3A

    18 OGN

    42 CVS

    66 LIM

    90 CMP3B

    19 PAR

    43 COR

    67 LOC

    91 CMP3C

    20 CRS

    44 DEP

    68 ORI

    92 CMP3D

    21 CPS

    45 PVS

    69 PSV

    93 CMP3E

    22 PRD

    46 PTL

    70 ALL

    94 CMP3F

    23 MED

    47 CON

    71 ABL

    95 CMP3G

    24 APL

    48 VOC

    72 NAV

    96 CMP3H

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1.2 Configuration and Essence:  These two categories (see Sections 3.1 and 3.5) are shown via modifications to the top “end” of the Primary Case/Aspect character, as shown below:

    +
    +


    + Table 36: Modifications to Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Configuration & Essence

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    NRM essence

    RPV essence

    1 UNI

     

    2 DPX

     

    3 DCT

     

    4 AGG

     

    5 SEG

     

    6 CPN

     

    7 COH

     

    8 CST

     

    9 MLT

     

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1.3 Extension and Affiliation:  These two categories (see Sections 3.4 and 3.2) are shown via the bottom “end” of the Primary Case/Aspect character, as shown below:
    +

    +
    +


    + Table 37: Modifications to Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Extension & Affiliation

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    AFFILIATION

     

    CSL

    ASO

    VAR

    COA

    1 DEL

    2 PRX

    3 ICP

    4 TRM

    5 DPL

    6 GRA

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1.4 Perspective and Designation:  These two categories (see Sections 3.3 and 3.7) are shown via a diacritic mark written alongside the mid-line of the Primary Case/Aspect character following the character in the direction the line is being written.  These diacritics are shown below:

    +
    +


    + Table 38: Diacritics on Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Perspective & Designation

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    PERSPECTIVE

     

    MONADIC

    UNBOUNDED

    NOMIC

    ABSTRACT

    INFORMAL

     

    FORMAL

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1.5 Mood:  This category (see Section 5.2) is shown via a superposed diacritic above the Primary Case/Aspect character, as follows:

    +
    +


    + Table 39: Diacritics on Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Mood

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 FAC

    2 SUB

    3 ASM

    4 SPC

    5 COU

    6 HYP

    7 IPL

    8 ASC

     

    +

     

    +

    Note:  If instead of one of the above, the Primary Case/Aspect character carries a superposed horizontal bar diacritic, this indicates that the word is a Personal Reference adjunct rather than a formative. In addition, high-toned personal reference adjuncts carry an underposed dot diacritic on the same Primary Case/Aspect character. (The presence of the superposed horizontal bar diacritic on the character prevents this underposed dot from being confused with Version marking explained in the section immediately below.)

    +

    11.3.1.6 Version:   This category (see Section 5.8) is shown via an underposed diacritic below the Primary Case/Aspect character.  These diacritics come in two varieties, standard and alternate.  Use of the alternate form of the diacritic indicates that the main body of the character conveys a category other than Case (explained below in Section 11.3.1.7).

    +
    +


    + Table 40: Diacritics on Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Version

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    1 PRC

    2 CPT

    3 INE

    4 INC

    5 PST

    6 EFC

    standard

     

    alternate

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1.7 Aspect, Modality, Valence and Validation:  If the underposed version diacritic shown on a Primary Case/Aspect character is in an alternate form (as shown in Table 40 above), then the main body of the character no longer conveys the category of Case, but rather one of the following four categories:  Aspect, Modality, Valence, or Validation, depending on which character is displayed (see Sections 5.10, 6.1, 5.7, and 5.9 respectively, for explanations of these categories).  The characters normally reserved for Case Nos. 1 through 32 instead indicate the 32 aspects. The characters normally reserved for Case Nos. 33 through 62 instead indicate the 30 modalities.  The characters normally reserved for Case Nos. 63 through 76 instead indicate the fourteen valences, and the characters normally reserved for Case Nos. 77 through 90 instead indicate the fourteen validations.  These values are shown in the following tables:

    +
    +


    + Table 41: Primary Aspect Characters
    + (when accompanied by alternate form of underposed Version diacritic)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 RTR

    9 RSM

    17 PMP

    25 DSC

    2 PRS

    10 CSS

    18 CLM

    26 CCL

    3 HAB

    11 RCS

    19 PTC

    27 CUL

    4 PRG

    12 PAU

    20 TMP

    28 IMD

    5 IMM

    13 RGR

    21 MTV

    29 TRD

    6 PCS

    14 PCL

    22 CSQ

    30 TNS

    7 REG

    15 CNT

    23 SQN

    31 ITC

    8 EXP

    16 ICS

    24 EPD

    32 CSM

    +

     

    +
    +


    + Table 42: Primary Modality Characters
    + (when accompanied by alternate form of underposed Version diacritic)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    1 DES

    +

    7 OPR

    13 IMS

    19 NEC

    25 CML

    2 ASP

    8 CPC

    14 ADV

    20 DEC

    26 DVR

    3 EXV

    9 PRM

    15 ITV

    21 PTV

    27 DVT

    4 CRD

    10 PTN

    16 ANT

    22 VOL

    28 PFT

    5 REQ

    11 CLS

    17 DSP

    23 ACC

    29 IPS

    6 EXH

    12 OBG

    18 PRE

    24 INC

    30 PMS

    +

     

    +
    +


    + Table 43: Primary Valence Characters
    + (when accompanied by alternate form of underposed Version diacritic)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1 MNO

    4 RCP

    7 DUP

    10 IMT

     

    13 IDC

    2 PRL

    5 CPL

    8 DEM

    11 CNG

    14 MUT

    3 CRO

    6 NNR

    9 RES

    12 PTI

     

     

    +

     

    +
    +


    + Table 44: Primary Validation Characters
    + (when accompanied by alternate form of underposed Version diacritic)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    1 CNF

    4 INF

    7 PSM2

    10 CJT

    13 PUT

    2 AFM

    5 ITU

    8 PPT

    11 DUB

    14 IPB

    3 RPT

    6 PSM

    9 PPT2

    12 TEN

     

     

    +

     

    +

    11.3.2  Secondary Case/Aspect Characters

    +

    The neutral, default shape for a secondary case/aspect character is as follows: 

    +

    The common recognizable element in all secondary case/aspect characters, and what distinguish them from other character types is a diagonal bar extending from the top-line of the character (or even beyond the top-line) all the way to the bottom-line of the character (or even below the bottom-line of the character).  This diagonal line can be interrupted at the mid-line by a horizonatally offset juncture or be broken into two separate diagonal lines, but the continuation of the diagonal past the mid-line will always be in the same direction as on the other side of the mid-line.  Examples were shown in Section 11.1.2 above.

    +

    A secondary case/aspect character normally conveys all of the following categories of information:  Case, Aspect, Modality, Phase and Sanction.  It can also indicate the categories of Designation and Perspective using the same laterally-placed diacritic as described in Section 11.3.1.4 above.  The diagonal bar portion of the character which indicates case normally runs from the upper-right corner of the character to the lower-left corner.  The upper-left portion of the character “above” the diagonal bar indicates Aspect, while the lower-right portion “below” the diagonal bar indicates Modality.  Phase is indicated by a superposed diacritic above the character, while Sanction is indicated by an underposed diacritic below the character.

    +

    +

    If the diagonal bar indicating case has its orientation reversed (i.e., made to run from upper-left to lower-right) then the section “below” the diagonal normally reserved for indicating Modality, will instead indicate a second aspect.

    +

    +

     

    +

    11.3.2.1 Case:  The secondary case/aspect character indicates case via the diagonal bar portion of the character, as per the following table. The dotted horizontal lines represent the top-line, mid-line, and bottom-line of the line of writing, in order to illustrate which characters extend above the top-line or dip below the bottom-line.

    +
    +


    + Table 45: Secondary Case Characters     (Note that for the purposes of this table, the VOCATIVE case is shown in Position No. 48.)

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 OBL

    25 PUR

    49 EXC

    73 CMP1A

    2 IND

    26 CSD

    50 AVR

    74 CMP1B

    3 ABS

    27 ESS

    51 CMP

    75 CMP1C

    4 ERG

    28 ASI

    52 SML

    76 CMP1D

    5 EFF

    29 FUN

    53 ASS

    77 CMP1E

    6 AFF

    30 TFM

    54 CNR

    78 CMP1F

    7 DAT

    31 REF

    55 ACS

    79 CMP1G

    8 INS

    32 CLA

    56 DFF

    80 CMP1H

    9 ACT

    33 CNV

    57 PER

    81 CMP2A

    10 DER

    34 IDP

    58 PRO

    82 CMP2B

    11 SIT

    35 BEN

    59 PCV

    83 CMP2C

    12 POS

    36 TSP

    60 PCR

    84 CMP2D

    13 PRP

    37 CMM

    61 ELP

    85 CMP2E

    14 GEN

    38 COM

    62 ALP

    86 CMP2F

    15 ATT

    39 CNJ

    63 INP

    87 CMP2G

    16 PDC

    40 UTL

    64 EPS

    88 CMP2H

    17 ITP

    41 ABE

    65 PRL

    89 CMP3A

    18 OGN

    42 CVS

    66 LIM

    90 CMP3B

    19 PAR

    43 COR

    67 LOC

    91 CMP3C

    20 CRS

    44 DEP

    68 ORI

    92 CMP3D

    21 CPS

    45 PVS

    69 PSV

    93 CMP3E

    22 PRD

    46 PTL

    70 ALL

    94 CMP3F

    23 MED

    47 CON

    71 ABL

    95 CMP3G

    24 APL

    48 VOC

    72 NAV

    96 CMP3H

    +

     

    +

    +

    11.3.2.2 Aspect:  Aspect in a secondary case/aspect character is shown via the portion of the character “above” the diagonal bar.  The forms below are the default forms when used in the upper-left portion of the character.  For laterally reversed characters, these should be, in turn, laterally reversed, and placed in the upper-right portion of the character.  When used to show a second aspect in laterally reversed characters, the form should be vertically inverted and placed in the lower-left portion of the character.

    +
    +


    + Table 46: Secondary Aspect Characters     - shown with OBLIQUE case marking

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1 RTR

    9 RSM

    17 PMP

    25 DSC

    2 PRS

    10 CSS

    18 CLM

    26 CCL

    3 HAB

    11 RCS

    19 PTC

    27 CUL

    4 PRG

    12 PAU

    20 TMP

    28 IMD

    5 IMM

    13 RGR

    21 MTV

    29 TRD

    6 PCS

    14 PCL

    22 CSQ

    30 TNS

    7 REG

    15 CNT

    23 SQN

    31 ITC

    8 EXP

    16 ICS

    24 EPD

    32 CSM

    +

     

    +

    +

    11.3.2.3 Modality:  The thirty modalities are indicated in the portion of a secondary case/aspect character “below” the diagonal bar.  The particular forms are the same as the first thirty aspect forms, only vertically inverted and laterally reversed, as shown in the following table.

    +
    +


    + Table 47: Secondary Modality Characters     - shown with OBLIQUE case marking

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1 DES

    7 OPR

    13 IMS

    19 NEC

     

    25 CML

    2 ASP

    8 CPC

    14 ADV

    20 DEC

     

    26 DVR

    3 EXV

    9 PRM

    15 ITV

    21 PTV

     

    27 DVT

    4 CRD

    10 PTN

    16 ANT

    22 VOL

     

    28 PFT

    5 REQ

    11 CLS

    17 DSP

    23 ACC

     

    29 IPS

    6 EXH

    12 OBG

    18 PRE

    24 INC

     

    30 PMS

    +

     

    +

    +

    11.3.2.4 Phase:  The nine phases (see Section 5.5) are shown via a diacritic mark placed over the secondary case/aspect character, as per the following:

    +
    +


    + Table 48: Phase Diacritics Placed Over Secondary Case/Aspect Characters

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 CTX

    2 PCT

    3 ITR

    4 REP

    5 ITM

    6 RCT

    7 FRE

    8 FRG

    9 FLC

     

    +

     

    +

    +

    11.3.2.5 Sanction:  The nine sanctions (see Section 5.6) are shown via a diacritic mark placed below the secondary case/aspect character, as per the following:

    +
    +


    + Table 49: Sanction Diacritics Placed Under Secondary Case/Aspect Characters

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1 PPS

    2 EPI

    3 ALG

    4 IPU

    5 RFU

    6 REB

    7 THR

    8 EXV

    9 AXM

     

    +

     

    +

    11.3.2.6 Placeholder Character for Phase/Sanction: If there is no secondary Case/Aspect character (or Tertiary character as described below) available by which to display the Phase and/or Sanction diacritics, then a special placeholder character is used, consisting of a single vertical bar extending from the top-line to the bottom-line.

    +


    +

    +

    11.3.3  Tertiary Characters

    +

    The third type of character is the tertiary character. The common recognizable element in all tertiary characters, and what distinguishes them from other character types is a horizontal bar extending across the mid-line of the character, not connected to those portions of the character above or below the mid-line.  The two ends of this horizontal bar may be modified. Examples were shown in Section 11.1.3 above.

    +

    A tertiary character normally conveys one of the following sets of grammtical information:  Aspect 1 + Aspect 2, Aspect + Modality, Valence + Aspect, Validation + Aspect, Validation + Modality, Valence + Modality, or Valence + Validation.  The particular set of information being conveyed is indicated by the “ends” of the horizontal mid-line bar of the character, as follows:

    +


    +

    +


    + The forms utilized above and/or below the horizontal bar for showing aspect and modality are the same as those used for for secondary case/aspect characters (shown in Sections 11.3.2.2 and 11.3.2.3 above), vertically inverted and laterally reversed when used below the horizontal mid-line bar.  Likewise, valence and validation are each shown by the first fourteen forms used for showing Aspect from Section Section 11.3.2.2 above, again vertically inverted and laterally reversed when used below the horizontal mid-line bar. 

    +

    As with secondary case/aspect characters, the categories of Phase and Sanction can be displayed on a tertiary character via superposed and underposed diacritics respectively as per Tables 48 and 49 above.  The categories of Designation and Perspective can likewise be shown on a tertiary character utilizing the same mid-line diacritics described previously in Section 11.3.1.4.

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4  Consonantal Characters

    +

    Consonantal characters, the fourth type of character, are discernible by a horizontal bar along the top-line of the character, or when vertically inverted, along the bottom-line of the character.  This horizontal bar will always be connected to the remaining portion of the character.  The “ends” of the top-bar as well as the ends of the other bars making up the character are subject to numerous modifications and extensions.  Examples of consonantal characters were shown in Section 11.1.4 above.

    +

    Consonantal characters will always be the last group of characters in a word, following any and all Type 1, 2, or 3 characters.  They convey the following information:  main root plus its Pattern, Stem and Relation; incorporated root (if present) plus its Pattern, Stem and Designation; Function; Format; Context; Illocution; Suffixes; and Bias.  The manner in which these pieces of morphology are conveyed is described in the sub-sections below.

    +

    11.3.4.1 Main Root:  If there is no incorporated root in the formative, then the first consonantal character in the word will be the main root consonant form, represented by a single consonant character.  This character conveys the actual root Cr form (see Section 2.1), whether the root is one up to five consonants in length.  The consonant forms are shown in the table below.

    +
    +


    + Table 50: Basic Consonantal Characters

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    p

    t

    k

    q

    c

    č

    b

    d

    g

    ’

    ż

    j

    p’

    t’

    k’

    q’

    c’

    č’

    ph

    th

    kh

    qh

    ch

    čh

    f

    ţ

    x

    xh

    s

    š

    v

    dh

    h

    ř

    z

    ž

    w

    l

    y

    ļ

    r

    ç

    m

    n

    ň

    tļ

    		 
    		 
    +

     

    +

    Various extensions added to the above forms allow for the prefixing of various consonants, e.g., + t --> lt.  These extensions which prefix consonants to existing consonant forms are shown below:

    +
    +


    + Table 51: Consonantal Character Extensions Indicating Consonant Prefixes

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    l+C

    m+C

    r+C

    ļ+C

    n+C

    s+C
    + (z+C)
    		š+C
    + (ž+C)
    		ň+C
    		z+C
    		ř+C

    ç+C

    c+C
    + (ż+C)

    č+C /
    +j+C

    ž+C

    k+C /
    +(g+C)

    p+C
    +(b+C)

    q+C

    t+C
    +(d+C)

    x+C

    ţ+C /
    +(dh+C)

    f+C
    +(v+C)

    xh+C

    gemination

    		 
    +

     

    +

    Additional extensions allow for the suffixing of various consonants, e.g., t —> tl, as shown below:

    +
    +


    + Table 52: Consonantal Character Extensions Indicating Consonant Suffixes

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    C+w
    		C+y
    		C+l
    		C+r
    		C+ř
    C+m
    		C+n
    		C+v
    		C+ň
    		 
    +

     

    +

    Various diacritics are also available for placement underneath the Cr character, used in conjunction with the above sets of extensions in order to indicate tri-consonantal stems and tetra-consonantal stems.

    +
    +


    + Table 53: Underposed Diacritics to Consonant Characters Indicating Consonant Affixes

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    C+w

    +

    C+y

    +

    C+l

    +

    C+r

    +

    C+ř

    +

    C+m

    +

    C+n

    +

    s+C

    +

    z+C

    +

    š+C

    +

    ž+C

    +

    f/v+C

    +

    ţ/dh+C

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    If a tri-consonantal or tetra-consonantal stem cannot be unambiguously indicated using the above extensions and diacritics on a consonantal character, then the Cr root can be written using two characters, the second one being a placeholder character consisting of a vertical bar without a horizontal top-bar, running from the top-line to the bottom-line, to which the various extensions shown in Tables 51 and 52 are added.

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.2 Pattern, Stem and Relation:  These categories (see Sections 2.2 and 5.4) are shown via extensions or modifications made to the horizontal top-bar (or bottom-bar if the character is inverted) of the Cr consonantal character, as follows:

    +
    +


    + Tables 54a and 54b:
    + Consonantal Character Extensions Indicating     Pattern, Stem, and Relation

    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

    UNFRAMED Relation

    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    P1 S1

    P1 S2

    P1 S3

    P2 S1

    P2 S2

    P2 S3

    P3 S1

    P3 S2

    P3 S3

    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +


    + FRAMED Relation

    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    P1 S1

    P1 S2

    P1 S3

    P2 S1

    P2 S2

    P2 S3

    P3 S1

    P3 S2

    P3 S3

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.3 Function:  The category of Function (see Section 5.1) is shown by a superposed diacritic above the Cr consonantal character:

    +
    +


    + Table 55: Superposed Diacritics to Cr Character Indicating Function

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    STA

    DYN

    MNF

    DSC

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.4 Incorporated Root plus Pattern, Stem, and Designation:  Incorporated roots are shown using the same consonantal characters as for the Cr main root in Section 11.3.4.1 above.  The character representing the incorporated root is place immediately preceding the Cr main root character (i.e., so that it becomes the first Type 4 character in the word), and it is vertically inverted.  Its pattern and stem are shown using the same extensions/modifications to its horizontal bar (now on the bottom-line rather than the top due to vertical inversion of the character), as shown above for the Cr character.  Formal designation of the incorporated root is shown by using the FRAMED alternatives of the Pattern+Stem extensions/modifications.

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.5 Format:  Any formative containing an incorporated root must show the category of Format (see Section 6.4).  This is shown by a combination of diacritics above both the incorporated root character and the Cr main root character, as well as vertical inversion of the Cr character.  Since the Cr main root character may already carry diacritics indicating the formative’s function, such diacritics will be subject to modification. The values in the table below show an inverted ‘t’ consonantal character representing the incorporated root, followed by a standard ‘t’ consonantal character representing the main root. The pattern of diacritics is shown on these two characters:

    +
    +


    + Table 56: Pattern of Diacritics and Inversion of Cr Character to Indicate Format

    +
    +

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.6 Context:  The default EXS Context (see Section 3.6) is unmarked.  The three other contexts are shown via a superposed diacritic over the Cr character (or underposed below the character if it is inverted).  If the Cr character already has a diacritic showing Function or Function+Format, it is modified as per the table below:

    +
    +


    + Table 57: Modification of Function(+Format) Diacritics on Cr Character to Indicate Context
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    EXS

    FNC

    RPS

    AMG

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.7 Illocution:  This category (see Section 5.3) is shown via a diacritic mark alongside the Cr character at the mid-line following the character in the direction the particular line of writing is written (unless the diacritic can be written “inside” a character whose shape has an obvious interior space, e.g., the l and x consonantal characters).

    +
    +


    + Table 58: Illocution Diacritics on Cr Character

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ASR

    IRG

    DIR

    ADM

     HOR

    DEC

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.8 Negative Polarity:  The Ithkuil script allows for a “shortcut” representation of the NA11/5 negation suffix, the most common method of negating a verb in Ithkuil. This shortcut is accomplished via a diacritic mark alongside the Cr character at the mid-line following the character in the direction of writing. The character is shown below in the first box of Table 59. Since this diacritic position is the same utilized for showing Illocution (see Table 58 above), the Illocution diacritics are modified to indicate this negation, as follows:

    +

     

    +
    +

    Table 59: Illocution Diacritics on Cr Character Modified to Show Negative Polarity

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ASR

    IRG

    DIR

    ADM

     HOR

    DEC

    +

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.9 Suffixes:  Derivational (Slot XI) Suffixes (see Chapter 7) are shown by additional Type 4 consonantal characters, placed following the Cr consonantal character.  Each such character represents one VxC suffix, its formation of prefixed and suffixed consonants identical to the character formation principles previously described for the Cr consonantal character, utilizing the same extensions and modifications shown in Tables 51 and 52 above.

    +

    Suffix-Type: The default consonantal character is used to represent Type-1 suffixes. Types 2 and 3 are shown in the following ways: Type-2 suffixes are shown by vertically inverting the consonantal character. Type-3 suffixes are shown by an underposed dot diacritic beneath the consonantal character.

    +

    Suffix Degree: The nine suffix degrees are shown via superposed diacritics above the consonantal character (even if the character is vertically inverted to represent a Type-2 suffix). The diacritics are shown in the following table.

    +
    +


    + Table 60: Diacritics Representing Suffix Degree

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1
    Degree 2
    Degree 3
    Degree 4
    Degree 5
    Degree 6
    Degree 7
    Degree 8

    Degree 9

    (none)

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4.10 Bias: The category of Bias (see Section 5.11) is shown by modification of the top-bar of a consonantal suffix character. If the formative does not carry a VxC suffix, then the modification is made to a special placeholder character consisting of a top-bar alone with no stem.

    +

    The modifications are mostly the same modifications made to Cr characters for showing Pattern, Stem, and Relation, as shown previously in Tables 54a and 54b, supplemented by additional underposed diacritics placed beneath the bottom-line of the character (shown next to the character in the following table). Note that for the last 16 biases whose representation utilizes a vertical-bar diacritic, if the placeholder top-bar character is used to represent these biases, then the character is laterally reversed rather than utilizing the vertical-bar diacritic.

    +
    +


    + Table 61: Modifications to Consonantal Suffix Characters to Show Bias

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    ASU
    HPB
    COI
    ACP
    RAC
    STU
    CTV

    DPV

    +
    + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Intensive Forms
    ASU+
    HPB+
    COI+
    ACP+
    RAC+
    STU+
    CTV+

    DPV+

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    RVL
    GRT
    SOL
    SEL
    IRO
    EXA
    LTL

    CRR

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Intensive Forms
    RVL+
    GRA+
    SOL+
    SEL+
    IRO+
    EXA+
    LTL+

    CRR+

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    EUP
    SKP
    CYN
    CTP
    DSM
    IDG
    SGS

    PPV

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Intensive Forms
    EUP+
    SKP+
    CYN+
    CTP+
    DSM+
    IDG+
    SGS+

    PPV+

     
     
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    11.4 WORD BOUNDARIES, PUNCTUATION, AND ALPHABETIC TRANSLITERATION
    +

    Because all written words begin with characters other than Type 4 (consonantal characters), while all words end with Type 4 characters, it is always possible to determine where new words begin in a line of Ithkuil writing, obviating the need for a blank space or other boundary between words. In turn, a blank space functions to indicate a sentence boundary. And because Ithkuil morphology already indicates within words themselves various attitudes, moods, and other information which are normally indicated supra-segmentally in Western languages (e.g., by tone or inflection of the voice, hyper-enunciation, etc.), symbols corresponding to exclamation points and question marks are likewise unnecessary. The Ithkuil equivalents to subordinate and relative clauses are likewise indicated morphologically, as are coordinative/serial lists of words, therefore there is no need for any equivalent to the comma.

    +

    The only “punctuation” symbols used are to show quotations of direct speech and phonetic transliteration (as when spelling non-Ithkuil words and names). These two sets of symbols are shown below. Note that the quotation marks are used only to indicate direct speech; they are not used as in English to offset a word for emphasis or special usage. The phonetic rendering marks indicate the word or phrase between the marks is to be pronounced phonetically (i.e., alphabetically).

    +
    +

    insert quote here

    +

    insert transliteration here

    +
    +

     

    +

    11.4.1 Alphabetic Transliteration

    +

    Proper names and other non-Ithkuil words, when transliterated into Ithkuil, are written alphabetically between the phonetic transliteration marks shown above. Consonants are written using the Type 4 consonant characters, utilizing the extensions from Tables 51 and 52 above (but not the diacritics from Table 53) to represent various consonant clusters or gemination. Transliteration is based on either a phonemic or phonetic representation of the non-Ithkuil word, without concern for any spelling conventions contained in the original/native script of the foreign word or name. Vowels are represented in the following ways:

    +

    Vowels: For vowels preceding or following a consonant (or consonant conjunct) the top-bar modifications normally used for representing Pattern, Stem, and Relation are used – the vowel thereby being represented as part of the consonant character. If there is no consonant in the syllable to carry the vowel, a placeholder symbol consisting of a top-bar alone is used. These top-bar modifications are shown in the following tables (note that the vowel-sounds are indicated using the International Phonetic Alphabet):

    +
    +


    + Table 62: Modifications to Consonant Characters to Transliterate Accompanying Vowel

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    modification:
    IPA value:
    (none)
    a
    æ
    ɑ
    o
    ε
    e
    I
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    modification:
    IPA value:
    i
    ə
    u
    y
    /Y
    œ
    ø
    /
    +


    +By default, the vowel is to be pronounced following the consonantal form. If instead the vowel is to be pronounced preceding the consonant, the character carries a superposed dot diacritic. If there are two vowels in a row and there is no consonant character to carry the vowel, a placeholder consonant character is used consisting of a lone top-bar. Syllabic stress is shown by a superposed horizontal bar diacritic; if a dot diacritic is already present above the character, it changes to a vertical bar diacritic for stressed syllables. Diphthongs and long vowels are indicated by diacritics placed alongside the character in the direction of writing (unless the diacritic can be written “inside” a character whose shape has an obvious interior space, e.g., the l and x consonantal characters). Diphthongs ending in an -i/-y semivowel are indicated with a dot, those ending in -u/-w by a small vertical bar, and long vowels by a small horizontal bar.

    +

    Tone: If necessary to transliterate a word carrying tone, the following underposed diacritics may be used under the consonant+vowel character corresponding to the syllable containing the toneme.

    +


    + Table 63: Diacritics to Consonant Characters for Transliteration of     Syllabic Tone

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + +

    low

    +

    high

    +

    mid

    +

    rising

    +

    falling

    +

    fall-rise

    +

    rise-fall

    +

    +
    +
    +

     

    +

    Note on Placenames and Ethnonymns: In general, the Ithkuil names of real-world placenames and ethnonymns are the same as the native form to the extent that Ithkuil phonology allows and to the extent that such native terms can be distinguished. Otherwise, alternate names in common usage can be utilized. So, for example, the most technically correct Ithkuil name for China would be îpal –Čuňˇkwo, based on Ithkuil’s closest available phonological equivalent to the Mandarin Zhōngguó (IPA []), although the name îpal Čin, based on the historically derived root (from both Persian and Sanskrit) would be acceptable as well.

    +

    For placenames with multiple native names from equally official languages (e.g., the four names of Switzerland in each of its four official languages), the Ithkuil phonological equivalent to any official name is acceptable. For names whose native ethnonymn is not common knowledge or not readily discoverable (e.g., the Andi people of Dagestan whose native ethnonymn is variously given as Qwannal, Qwannab, Khivannal), a name in common use can be used even if it is derived from a non-native source (e.g., the Russian-derived name “Andi”).

    +

    The author intends at some future point to add a section to the Lexicon on the official Ithkuil names of major non-Ithkuil placenames and ethnonymns.

    +

    Language Names: The Ithkuil name of a non-Ithkuil language is given by the native ethnonymn of the people or their nation/placename with the addition of the SSD1/5 suffix -(a)k added to the carrier root preceding the alphabetic name.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    11.5 HANDWRITTEN FORMS OF THE CHARACTERS
    +

    The various charts below display the handwritten equivalents to the various character types, the extensions to top bars and bottom bars, diacritics, etc.

    +

    Primary Characters

    +

    +

    +

    +

    +

     

    +

    +

     

    +

    Secondary Aspect Characters

    +

    +

     

    +

    Tertiary Characters

    +

    +

     

    +

    Consonantal Characters

    +

    +

     

    +

    Consonantal Extensions (Shown on -t-, -k-, and -g- characters)

    +

    +

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    11.6 THE ALTERNATIVE ORNAMENTAL SCRIPT
    +

    The now defunct previous revision of Ithkuil known as Ilaksh utilized an experimental two-dimensional, non-linear writing system of colorful “cartouche”-like containers and hexagonal glyphs used to fashion an abstract morphological “map” of an Ilaksh sentence. Now that the Ilaksh language has been withdrawn, it is the author’s intention to eventually adapt this writing system to Ithkuil, for use as an alternative, “ornamental” writing system for artistic purposes. When this adaptation is ready it will be placed in this section of the grammar. The graphic below illustrates a draft sample of what this writing system will look like.

    +

    +

     

    +

    Proceed to Chapter 12: The Number System>>

    +

     

    +
    +
    +

     

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
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    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

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    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    Ithkuil: A Philosophihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/cal Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    Chapter 12:https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ The Number System

    +
    +
    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics + The Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Basic Morphhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + +
    12.1 Features of a Centesimal Number System
    12.2 Semantic Designations for Numerical Stems
    12.3 Expressing “Zero”
    12.4 Writing Numeralshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/
    12.5 Using Numbers in Speech
    + +


    +The Ithkuil system of numbers and chttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ounting is distinct from Western languages in two fundamental ways: it is centesimal (base one hhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/undred) as opposed to decimal (base ten), and the numbers themselves are full formahttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/tives (i.e., nouns and verbs), not adjectives. This has already been discussed briefly in Section 4.5.1 regarding the PARTITIVE case. This section will examine the numerical system in greater detail.

    +

     

    +

    +
    + + + + + + +

    12.1 FEATURES OF A CENTESIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

    +
    +

    Being a centesimal system of enumeration, the numbers from zero to 100 are considered autonomous units represented by single stems and written using single autonomous symbols. Beginning with the number 101, numbers are referred to by the number of hundreds plus the number of units, just as a decimal system, beginning with the number 11, refers to the number of tens plus the number of units. However, where a decimal system then shifts to a unit referring to 100 once “10 tens” is reached, a centesimal system proceeds to the number 10,000 before establishing a new unit reference (i.e., “100 hundreds”). Thus the number 3254, which in a decimal system is 3 thousands — 2 hundreds — 5 tens — 4 ones, in a centesimal system becomes 32 hundreds—54 ones, and would be only two digits when written (the single character representing 32, and the single character representing 54). The details of writing Ithkuil numerals are given below in Section 12.5.

    +

    After 100, separate unit numbers and symbols are assigned to the square of 100 (i.e. ten thousand, that being “100 hundreds”), then the square of that number, 1004 (100 million, i.e., 10,000 ten-thousands). The final unit is 1008, that is, 10 quadrillion or 100 million hundred-millions, the last number for which Ithkuil assigns a separate root and symbol. After ten quadrillion, numbers are referred to as multiples of lower sets, similar to saying in English “one trillion quadrillion” instead of the equivalent “one octillion.”

    +

    While the above may seem unwieldy or even arbitrary, it actually parallels Western base-ten numerals in terms of its systematization. For example, in a Western number like 456,321,777,123, each set of three numbers between the commas tells how many hundreds there are of a certain power of 1000 (i.e., there are 123 of 10000, 777 of 10001, 321 of 10002, and 456 of 10003, or in more common terms 123 ones, 777 thousands, 321 millions, 456 billions).

    +

    The same exact system holds for Ithkuil, except that the sets of numbers “between the commas” so to speak, is the number of ten-thousands, not thousands. Thus, if we were to rewrite the Western number 456,321,777,123 in such a system, it would be 4563,2177,7123 (i.e., 7123 of 100000, 2177 of 100001, and 4563 of 100002, that being 7123 ones, 2177 ten-thousands, and 4563 hundred-millions).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + +

    12.2 SEMANTIC DESIGNATIONS FOR NUMERICAL STEMS

    +
    +

    The semantic roots for numbers in Ithkuil from 1 to 99 are based on roots for 1 through 10, to which the nine degrees of the Slot XI derivational affix -Vk are added. Each of the nine degrees of this suffix, when applied to one of the ten number-roots, corresponds to an additional multiple of ten. This is illustrated in Table 64 below.
    +

    +

    Table 64: The SSD Affix with Numerals

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    DegreeSuffixMeaning DegreeSuffixMeaning DegreeSuffixMeaning
    1-ikstem + 104-îk / -uëkstem + 407-okstem + 70
    2-ökstem + 205-akstem + 508-ük / -aekstem + 80
    3-ekstem + 306-ûk / -iëkstem + 609-ukstem + 90
    +

     

    +

    The addition of a particular degree of this affix to one of the ten indicates that the root number is added to that multiple of ten. For example, the stem ksal ‘two,’ plus the seventh degree affix -Vk/7, gives ksalok ‘seventy-two.’ Because there is no root corresponding to ‘zero’ (see Sec. 12.3 below), each multiple of ten is constructed using stem mřal ‘ten’ plus one of the above suffixes. Thus, the numbers 20, 30 and 40 are respectively mřalik, mřalök and mřalek, but the numbers 22, 32 anhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/d 42 are ksalök, ksalek, and ksalîk. This pattern only operates up to the nineties, as there is a separate autonomous root for 100, -ň-.

    +

    Since numbers are formatives in Ithkuil, not adjectives as in most Western languages, holistic stem No. 1 is a formative signifying a set containing a number of members corresponding to that particular root. Thus, the formative ksal, translatable as ‘two,’ actually means ‘a set of two; a duo / to be a duo.’ In turn, the two complementary derivatives of each stem denote its multiple and its fraction respectively. This is illustrated below for both Form I and II using the roots -ks-, TWO, and -ns-, meaning SEVEN:

    +

    For -ks-, TWO:

    +

    1. ksal / aksál ‘a set of two, a duo; to be two in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + oksal / oksál: ‘twice the number of something; to double, to multiply by two’
    + âksal / âksál: ‘a half; to halve, to be or make half, to divide by or in two’

    +
    +

    2. eksal / eksál ‘to be or make dual; having two uses or aspects; bi-; twofold’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + öksal / öksál: ‘two times (i.e., iterations), twice; to be/do/make twice’
    + êksal / êksál: ‘to be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)’

    +
    +

    3. uksal / uksál ‘the second one in a sequence; to be or make second (in a sequence)’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + ûksal / ûksál: ‘to the second power, squared; to square, raise to the 2nd power’
    + ôksal / ôksál: ‘to the negative second power, the inverse square; to divide by the square of’

    +
    +

    For -ns-, SEVEN:

    +

    1. nsal / ansál ‘a set/group of seven, a septet; to be seven in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + onsal / onsál: ‘7 times the number of something; to multiply by 7; septuple’
    + ânsal / ânsál: ‘a seventh; to be or make a 7th part of something, to divide by 7 or into 7 parts’

    +
    +

    2. ensal / ensál ‘to be or make seven-faceted; having 7 uses or aspects; septi-; sevenfold’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + önsal / önsál: ‘7 times (i.e., iterations); to be/do/make 7 times’
    + ênsal / ênsál: ‘to be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts’

    +
    +

    3. unsal / unsál ‘the seventh one in a sequence; to be or make 7th (in a sequence)’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + ûnsal / ûnsál: ‘to the 7th power; to raise to the 7th power’
    + ônsal / ônsál: ‘to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of’

    +
    +

    In addition to the above-described roots, there is the root -ll-, ONE/UNITY. As this root has no multiples, its semantic designations follow a unique pattern. NOTE: The INFORMAL versus FORMAL distinction in this root (i.e., Form I versus Form II of each stem) distinguishes between a focus on non-duplication/singularity for the INFORMAL, and indivisibility/unity for the FORMAL:

    +

    1. llal / allál ‘a single entity; to be one in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + ollal / ollál: ‘to be indivisible, whole, a single unit; unitary; to unify’
    + âllal / âllál: ‘to be (an) individual, a distinct entity in itself; to individualize’

    +
    +

    2. ellal / ellál ‘a lone entity, something alone; an entity in solitude, something/someone isolated; be alone; to isolate; be in solitude’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + öllal / öllál: ‘something/someone lonely; be or make lonely’
    + êllal / êllál: ‘something/someone independent, self-sufficient, singular (i.e., without need of, connection to, or dependency on others); be or make independent, self-sufficient, singular’

    +
    +

    3. ullal / ullál ‘something/someone unique, the only one; to be or make unique’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + ûllal / ûllál: ‘a sole entity, the only one available or able (in terms of sufficiency or applicability to the context)’
    + ôllal / ôllál: ‘something/someone one-of-a-kind, unparalleled, without equal or peer (in terms of uniqueness of characteristics)’

    +
    +


    + The Ithkuil numerical roots as described in the section above are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ll-
    -ks-
    -ţk-
    -px-
    -sţ-
    -cq-
    -ns-
    -fy-
    -xm-
    -mř-
    one
    two
    three
    four
    five
    six
    seven
    eight
    nine
    ten
    +
    +     + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ň-
    -zm-
    -pstw-
    -čkh-
    one hundred
    ten thousand
    one hundred million
    ten quadrillion
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    12.3 EXPRESSING “ZERO”

    +

    Ithkuil has no word for “zero” nor is it conceptualized as a numerical category. Instead any appropriate formative may take the PTW suffix in first-degree -iss ‘no amount of’ or the EXN suffix in first-degree -ib ‘no…at all’ in terms of degree or extent to create negative expressions that convey the idea of an absence of a numerical entity or quantity. In many cases, simply the negative of whatever formative is under discussion may be used.

    +

    As for handling the concept of zero as a null placeholder when writing Ithkuil numbers, this is addressed in Section 12.4 below.

    +

     

    + + + + + + +

    12.4 WRITING NUMERALS

    +

    Writing Ithkuil numerals is somewhat similar to writing numbers in Western languages (i.e., “Arabic” numerals), in that the interpretation of a number as a different power of 100 (analogous to interpreting single Arabic numerals as either ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.) is based on its sequence within the entire number. However, there are two aspects of writing Ithkuil numbers that are quite different from Arabic numbers.:

    +
      +
    1. +
      Ithkuil does not employ a symbol for zero. Instead, Ithkuil employs separate autonomous symbols for each power of 100 (100, 10,000, 100 million, etc.) each of which operates as the appropriate placeholder instead of zero. To illustrate what this means by analogy, pretend that “@” is an autonomous symbol for 27 (since Ithkuil numbers from 1 to 99 each have a separate symbol), “&” is a symbol for 100, “#” is a symbol for 10,000 and there is no symbol 0 (zero). The numbers 2700, 2705, 327, 22700 and 4,270,027 would then be written @&, @5, 3@, 2@&, and 4@#@ respectively. (NOTE: In actual practice, numbers which contain the “hundred” symbol, here represented as “&,” normally place a dot above or below the adjacent numeral and dispense with the &, indicating that the number so marked is to be multiplied by 100.
      +
      +
      +
    2. +
      Since Ithkuil is a base-100 system, numbers do not become two digits in length until the hundreds, do not become three digits in length until the ten thousands, do not become four digits in length until the millions, etc.
      +
      3. +
    +

     

    +

    One must also remember that in terms of left-to-right orientation, numbers follow the boustrophedon mode the same as the Ithkuil script (see Sec. 11.3.2). Similarly to Western languages, small non-compound numbers can be written using either their numerical symbols or written out in script (as in English “12” versus “twelve”).

    +

    The following table gives the Ithkuil numerical symbolshttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ along with their morphological stems. The symbols for 11 through 99 consist of the symbols for 1 through 9 plus various extensions added to their lower left “trailing” line indicating the particular 10-group to be added.
    +
    + Table 65: ITHKUIL NUMERICAL STEMS AND WRITTEN SYMBOLS
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    llal
    ksalhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/
    ţkal
    pxal
    sţal
    cqal
    nsal
    fyal
    xmal
    mřal
    1
    2
    3
    4
    5
    6
    7
    8
    9
    10
    +
    +
    +

    extensions:
    +

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +10
    +20
    +30
    +40
    +50
    +60
    +70
    +80
    +90
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ňal
    zmal
    pstwalhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/
    čkhal
    100
    10 000
    100 000 000
    10 000 000 000 000 000
    +


    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + +

    12.5 USING NUMBERS IN SPEECH

    +

    Spoken numbers are formed from the above stems using both the PARTITIVE and COMITATIVE cases, as well as using the coordinative affix -Vň/1 (= -iň). The number of largest base units is shown by placing the base-unit term in the PARTITIVE. If this is then followed by another collection of smaller base units, that number of smaller base units is connected using the COMITATIVE case while the smaller base-unit term is again in the PARTITIVE. Single units (from 1 to 99) are connected by the coordinative affix when they are part of the number of hundreds or higher base-units.

    +

    It should be noted that when pronouncing numbers greater than 199, it is normal in Ithkuil to omit the word ňial (= the PARTITIVE of ňal ‘one hundred’) referring to the number of hundreds. This is equivalent to the custom in colloquial English of saying ‘three twelve’ for ‘three hundred (and) twelve.’ The difference is that in Ithkuil, this omission of the word for ‘hundred’ is the preferred option, the word ňial being used only in larger numbers for clarity’s sake.

    +

    These principles are illustrated by the following examples:

    +
    +


    + ksalîk  (ňial)  xmalök
    + literally: “42 (of hundreds) 29”
    + 4229

    +


    +

    +


    + cqal&ohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/uml;k  zmial  nseuluk  (ňial)  cqalûk
    + literally: “26 of ten-thousands with 97 (of hundreds) 66” = 26,9766
    + 269,766

    +


    +

    +


    + llalök  ňial  zmual
    + literally: “21 of hundred of ten-thousands”
    + 21,000,000
    + [NOTE: ňial is required in this examplehttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/]

    +


    +
    + ksalok  ňial  xmalokiň  apstwial  ţkeul  ňial  ţkalakiň  zmual  pxeulek  mřalûk
    + literally:
    + “72 of hundreds and 79 of hundred-millions with 3 of hundreds and 53 of ten-thouhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/sands with 34 60”
    + 727,903,533,460

    +
    +


    + We have already seen that when numbers are used to indicate how many of a certain noun there are, the noun must appear in the PARTITIVE case, since the number itself is functioning as the “head” of the numerical expression (e.g., English “12 boxes” being constructed in Ithkuil as a “12-set of a box” or perhaps more appropriately a “box-dozen”). Another syntactical consequences of numbers being full formatives is when a number functions as a label or overt identifier, as in the English sentence You’ll find him in Room 216. Such usage of numbers is not primarily sequential (which would involve the equivalent of “ordinal” numbers such as ‘fourth,’ ‘twenty-sixth’, etc. equivalent to stem No. 3 of each number root) but rather organizational (e.g., as in the three-dimensional array of room numbers in a hotel). Ithkuil handles such organizational labeling using either the COMPARATIVE case (see Sec. 4.5.32) or the ESSIVE case (see Sec. 4.5.9) depending respectively on whether the enumeration of the noun in question is to distinguish it from other enumerated nouns versus merely identifying the noun by a numerical name. Examples:

    +


    +
    + açt&aacuthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e;l  ksou’lik
    + ‘room’-OBL    ‘twelve’-CMP
    +‘the room marked “12”’ OR ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Rhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/oom No. 12’ [i.e., as opposed to being some other room]

    +

     

    +


    + açtál  ksealik
    + ‘room’-OBL    ‘twelve’-ESS
    + ‘the room marked “12”’ OR ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room Nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/o. 12’ [identifying reference only]

    +


    + Lastly, when numbers comprising multiple number-stems are declined for case, configuration, extension, etc., rather than writing out the entire number “long-hand,” the number symbol is used, preceded by the carrier stem ep- (see Sec. 9.3) which carries the appropriate declensions. This use of the carrier stem applies even to single-stemmed numbers when writing, in order to allow use of the number symbol instead of writing it out. In such cases involving single-stemmed numbers, the carrier stem is not pronounced (rather, the numerical stem https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/bears the pronounced declensions); it is there only as a written indicator of the morphological declensions/derivations to be applied to the number stem.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
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    +
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    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065604id_/http:/ithkuil.net/uil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/12_numbers.htm.orig b/2004-en/12_numbers.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..866c9c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/12_numbers.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,568 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 12: The Number System + + + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
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    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Chapter 12: The Number System

    + +


    +The Ithkuil system of numbers and counting is distinct from Western languages in two fundamental ways: it is centesimal (base one hundred) as opposed to decimal (base ten), and the numbers themselves are full formatives (i.e., nouns and verbs), not adjectives. This has already been discussed briefly in Section 4.5.1 regarding the PARTITIVE case. This section will examine the numerical system in greater detail.

    +

     

    +

    +
    + + + + + + +

    12.1 FEATURES OF A CENTESIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

    +
    +

    Being a centesimal system of enumeration, the numbers from zero to 100 are considered autonomous units represented by single stems and written using single autonomous symbols. Beginning with the number 101, numbers are referred to by the number of hundreds plus the number of units, just as a decimal system, beginning with the number 11, refers to the number of tens plus the number of units. However, where a decimal system then shifts to a unit referring to 100 once “10 tens” is reached, a centesimal system proceeds to the number 10,000 before establishing a new unit reference (i.e., “100 hundreds”). Thus the number 3254, which in a decimal system is 3 thousands — 2 hundreds — 5 tens — 4 ones, in a centesimal system becomes 32 hundreds—54 ones, and would be only two digits when written (the single character representing 32, and the single character representing 54). The details of writing Ithkuil numerals are given below in Section 12.5.

    +

    After 100, separate unit numbers and symbols are assigned to the square of 100 (i.e. ten thousand, that being “100 hundreds”), then the square of that number, 1004 (100 million, i.e., 10,000 ten-thousands). The final unit is 1008, that is, 10 quadrillion or 100 million hundred-millions, the last number for which Ithkuil assigns a separate root and symbol. After ten quadrillion, numbers are referred to as multiples of lower sets, similar to saying in English “one trillion quadrillion” instead of the equivalent “one octillion.”

    +

    While the above may seem unwieldy or even arbitrary, it actually parallels Western base-ten numerals in terms of its systematization. For example, in a Western number like 456,321,777,123, each set of three numbers between the commas tells how many hundreds there are of a certain power of 1000 (i.e., there are 123 of 10000, 777 of 10001, 321 of 10002, and 456 of 10003, or in more common terms 123 ones, 777 thousands, 321 millions, 456 billions).

    +

    The same exact system holds for Ithkuil, except that the sets of numbers “between the commas” so to speak, is the number of ten-thousands, not thousands. Thus, if we were to rewrite the Western number 456,321,777,123 in such a system, it would be 4563,2177,7123 (i.e., 7123 of 100000, 2177 of 100001, and 4563 of 100002, that being 7123 ones, 2177 ten-thousands, and 4563 hundred-millions).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + +

    12.2 SEMANTIC DESIGNATIONS FOR NUMERICAL STEMS

    +
    +

    The semantic roots for numbers in Ithkuil from 1 to 99 are based on roots for 1 through 10, to which the nine degrees of the Slot XI derivational affix -Vk are added. Each of the nine degrees of this suffix, when applied to one of the ten number-roots, corresponds to an additional multiple of ten. This is illustrated in Table 64 below.
    +

    +

    Table 64: The SSD Affix with Numerals

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    DegreeSuffixMeaning DegreeSuffixMeaning DegreeSuffixMeaning
    1-ikstem + 104-îk / -uëkstem + 407-okstem + 70
    2-ökstem + 205-akstem + 508-ük / -aekstem + 80
    3-ekstem + 306-ûk / -iëkstem + 609-ukstem + 90
    +

     

    +

    The addition of a particular degree of this affix to one of the ten indicates that the root number is added to that multiple of ten. For example, the stem ksal ‘two,’ plus the seventh degree affix -Vk/7, gives ksalok ‘seventy-two.’ Because there is no root corresponding to ‘zero’ (see Sec. 12.3 below), each multiple of ten is constructed using stem mřal ‘ten’ plus one of the above suffixes. Thus, the numbers 20, 30 and 40 are respectively mřalik, mřalök and mřalek, but the numbers 22, 32 and 42 are ksalök, ksalek, and ksalîk. This pattern only operates up to the nineties, as there is a separate autonomous root for 100, -ň-.

    +

    Since numbers are formatives in Ithkuil, not adjectives as in most Western languages, holistic stem No. 1 is a formative signifying a set containing a number of members corresponding to that particular root. Thus, the formative ksal, translatable as ‘two,’ actually means ‘a set of two; a duo / to be a duo.’ In turn, the two complementary derivatives of each stem denote its multiple and its fraction respectively. This is illustrated below for both Form I and II using the roots -ks-, TWO, and -ns-, meaning SEVEN:

    +

    For -ks-, TWO:

    +

    1. ksal / aksál ‘a set of two, a duo; to be two in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + oksal / oksál: ‘twice the number of something; to double, to multiply by two’
    + âksal / âksál: ‘a half; to halve, to be or make half, to divide by or in two’

    +
    +

    2. eksal / eksál ‘to be or make dual; having two uses or aspects; bi-; twofold’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + öksal / öksál: ‘two times (i.e., iterations), twice; to be/do/make twice’
    + êksal / êksál: ‘to be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)’

    +
    +

    3. uksal / uksál ‘the second one in a sequence; to be or make second (in a sequence)’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + ûksal / ûksál: ‘to the second power, squared; to square, raise to the 2nd power’
    + ôksal / ôksál: ‘to the negative second power, the inverse square; to divide by the square of’

    +
    +

    For -ns-, SEVEN:

    +

    1. nsal / ansál ‘a set/group of seven, a septet; to be seven in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + onsal / onsál: ‘7 times the number of something; to multiply by 7; septuple’
    + ânsal / ânsál: ‘a seventh; to be or make a 7th part of something, to divide by 7 or into 7 parts’

    +
    +

    2. ensal / ensál ‘to be or make seven-faceted; having 7 uses or aspects; septi-; sevenfold’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + önsal / önsál: ‘7 times (i.e., iterations); to be/do/make 7 times’
    + ênsal / ênsál: ‘to be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts’

    +
    +

    3. unsal / unsál ‘the seventh one in a sequence; to be or make 7th (in a sequence)’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + ûnsal / ûnsál: ‘to the 7th power; to raise to the 7th power’
    + ônsal / ônsál: ‘to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of’

    +
    +

    In addition to the above-described roots, there is the root -ll-, ONE/UNITY. As this root has no multiples, its semantic designations follow a unique pattern. NOTE: The INFORMAL versus FORMAL distinction in this root (i.e., Form I versus Form II of each stem) distinguishes between a focus on non-duplication/singularity for the INFORMAL, and indivisibility/unity for the FORMAL:

    +

    1. llal / allál ‘a single entity; to be one in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + ollal / ollál: ‘to be indivisible, whole, a single unit; unitary; to unify’
    + âllal / âllál: ‘to be (an) individual, a distinct entity in itself; to individualize’

    +
    +

    2. ellal / ellál ‘a lone entity, something alone; an entity in solitude, something/someone isolated; be alone; to isolate; be in solitude’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + öllal / öllál: ‘something/someone lonely; be or make lonely’
    + êllal / êllál: ‘something/someone independent, self-sufficient, singular (i.e., without need of, connection to, or dependency on others); be or make independent, self-sufficient, singular’

    +
    +

    3. ullal / ullál ‘something/someone unique, the only one; to be or make unique’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + ûllal / ûllál: ‘a sole entity, the only one available or able (in terms of sufficiency or applicability to the context)’
    + ôllal / ôllál: ‘something/someone one-of-a-kind, unparalleled, without equal or peer (in terms of uniqueness of characteristics)’

    +
    +


    + The Ithkuil numerical roots as described in the section above are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ll-
    -ks-
    -ţk-
    -px-
    -sţ-
    -cq-
    -ns-
    -fy-
    -xm-
    -mř-
    one
    two
    three
    four
    five
    six
    seven
    eight
    nine
    ten
    +
    +     + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -ň-
    -zm-
    -pstw-
    -čkh-
    one hundred
    ten thousand
    one hundred million
    ten quadrillion
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    12.3 EXPRESSING “ZERO”

    +

    Ithkuil has no word for “zero” nor is it conceptualized as a numerical category. Instead any appropriate formative may take the PTW suffix in first-degree -iss ‘no amount of’ or the EXN suffix in first-degree -ib ‘no…at all’ in terms of degree or extent to create negative expressions that convey the idea of an absence of a numerical entity or quantity. In many cases, simply the negative of whatever formative is under discussion may be used.

    +

    As for handling the concept of zero as a null placeholder when writing Ithkuil numbers, this is addressed in Section 12.4 below.

    +

     

    + + + + + + +

    12.4 WRITING NUMERALS

    +

    Writing Ithkuil numerals is somewhat similar to writing numbers in Western languages (i.e., “Arabic” numerals), in that the interpretation of a number as a different power of 100 (analogous to interpreting single Arabic numerals as either ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.) is based on its sequence within the entire number. However, there are two aspects of writing Ithkuil numbers that are quite different from Arabic numbers.:

    +
      +
    1. +
      Ithkuil does not employ a symbol for zero. Instead, Ithkuil employs separate autonomous symbols for each power of 100 (100, 10,000, 100 million, etc.) each of which operates as the appropriate placeholder instead of zero. To illustrate what this means by analogy, pretend that “@” is an autonomous symbol for 27 (since Ithkuil numbers from 1 to 99 each have a separate symbol), “&” is a symbol for 100, “#” is a symbol for 10,000 and there is no symbol 0 (zero). The numbers 2700, 2705, 327, 22700 and 4,270,027 would then be written @&, @5, 3@, 2@&, and 4@#@ respectively. (NOTE: In actual practice, numbers which contain the “hundred” symbol, here represented as “&,” normally place a dot above or below the adjacent numeral and dispense with the &, indicating that the number so marked is to be multiplied by 100.
      +
      +
      +
    2. +
      Since Ithkuil is a base-100 system, numbers do not become two digits in length until the hundreds, do not become three digits in length until the ten thousands, do not become four digits in length until the millions, etc.
      +
      3. +
    +

     

    +

    One must also remember that in terms of left-to-right orientation, numbers follow the boustrophedon mode the same as the Ithkuil script (see Sec. 11.3.2). Similarly to Western languages, small non-compound numbers can be written using either their numerical symbols or written out in script (as in English “12” versus “twelve”).

    +

    The following table gives the Ithkuil numerical symbols along with their morphological stems. The symbols for 11 through 99 consist of the symbols for 1 through 9 plus various extensions added to their lower left “trailing” line indicating the particular 10-group to be added.
    +
    + Table 65: ITHKUIL NUMERICAL STEMS AND WRITTEN SYMBOLS
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    llal
    ksal
    ţkal
    pxal
    sţal
    cqal
    nsal
    fyal
    xmal
    mřal
    1
    2
    3
    4
    5
    6
    7
    8
    9
    10
    +
    +
    +

    extensions:
    +

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +10
    +20
    +30
    +40
    +50
    +60
    +70
    +80
    +90
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ňal
    zmal
    pstwal
    čkhal
    100
    10 000
    100 000 000
    10 000 000 000 000 000
    +


    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + +

    12.5 USING NUMBERS IN SPEECH

    +

    Spoken numbers are formed from the above stems using both the PARTITIVE and COMITATIVE cases, as well as using the coordinative affix -Vň/1 (= -iň). The number of largest base units is shown by placing the base-unit term in the PARTITIVE. If this is then followed by another collection of smaller base units, that number of smaller base units is connected using the COMITATIVE case while the smaller base-unit term is again in the PARTITIVE. Single units (from 1 to 99) are connected by the coordinative affix when they are part of the number of hundreds or higher base-units.

    +

    It should be noted that when pronouncing numbers greater than 199, it is normal in Ithkuil to omit the word ňial (= the PARTITIVE of ňal ‘one hundred’) referring to the number of hundreds. This is equivalent to the custom in colloquial English of saying ‘three twelve’ for ‘three hundred (and) twelve.’ The difference is that in Ithkuil, this omission of the word for ‘hundred’ is the preferred option, the word ňial being used only in larger numbers for clarity’s sake.

    +

    These principles are illustrated by the following examples:

    +
    +


    + ksalîk  (ňial)  xmalök
    + literally: “42 (of hundreds) 29”
    + 4229

    +


    +

    +


    + cqalök  zmial  nseuluk  (ňial)  cqalûk
    + literally: “26 of ten-thousands with 97 (of hundreds) 66” = 26,9766
    + 269,766

    +


    +

    +


    + llalök  ňial  zmual
    + literally: “21 of hundred of ten-thousands”
    + 21,000,000
    + [NOTE: ňial is required in this example]

    +


    +
    + ksalok  ňial  xmalokiň  apstwial  ţkeul  ňial  ţkalakiň  zmual  pxeulek  mřalûk
    + literally:
    + “72 of hundreds and 79 of hundred-millions with 3 of hundreds and 53 of ten-thousands with 34 60”
    + 727,903,533,460

    +
    +


    + We have already seen that when numbers are used to indicate how many of a certain noun there are, the noun must appear in the PARTITIVE case, since the number itself is functioning as the “head” of the numerical expression (e.g., English “12 boxes” being constructed in Ithkuil as a “12-set of a box” or perhaps more appropriately a “box-dozen”). Another syntactical consequences of numbers being full formatives is when a number functions as a label or overt identifier, as in the English sentence You’ll find him in Room 216. Such usage of numbers is not primarily sequential (which would involve the equivalent of “ordinal” numbers such as ‘fourth,’ ‘twenty-sixth’, etc. equivalent to stem No. 3 of each number root) but rather organizational (e.g., as in the three-dimensional array of room numbers in a hotel). Ithkuil handles such organizational labeling using either the COMPARATIVE case (see Sec. 4.5.32) or the ESSIVE case (see Sec. 4.5.9) depending respectively on whether the enumeration of the noun in question is to distinguish it from other enumerated nouns versus merely identifying the noun by a numerical name. Examples:

    +


    +
    + açtál  ksou’lik
    + ‘room’-OBL    ‘twelve’-CMP
    +‘the room marked “12”’ OR ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room No. 12’ [i.e., as opposed to being some other room]

    +

     

    +


    + açtál  ksealik
    + ‘room’-OBL    ‘twelve’-ESS
    + ‘the room marked “12”’ OR ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room No. 12’ [identifying reference only]

    +


    + Lastly, when numbers comprising multiple number-stems are declined for case, configuration, extension, etc., rather than writing out the entire number “long-hand,” the number symbol is used, preceded by the carrier stem ep- (see Sec. 9.3) which carries the appropriate declensions. This use of the carrier stem applies even to single-stemmed numbers when writing, in order to allow use of the number symbol instead of writing it out. In such cases involving single-stemmed numbers, the carrier stem is not pronounced (rather, the numerical stem bears the pronounced declensions); it is there only as a written indicator of the morphological declensions/derivations to be applied to the number stem.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
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    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +
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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

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    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
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    +

    Chapter 1: Phonology

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    The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system of Ilaksh is detailed in the sections below.

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    1.1 NOTE ON ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION
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    The native script used to represent Ilaksh is both alien and complex. It is explained in Chapter 11. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic structure of Ilaksh words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in transliterating some of the phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ilaksh, various diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system. Additionally, the hyphen is used in Ilaksh to separate dissyllabic vowel combinations which might otherwise be interpreted as diphthongs, e.g., a-i versus ai.

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    1.2 PHONEMIC INVENTORY
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    Ilaksh has 30 consonants and ten vowels, far fewer than Ithkuil's 65 consonants and 17 vowels. These phonemes are illustrated by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized orthography.
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    +

    Tables 1(a) and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory

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    Table 1(a): Consonantal Inventory + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Plosives
    Affricates
    Fricatives
    Nasals
    Taps/
    + Trills
    Liquids
    Approximants
    un-
    + voiced
    +voice
    un-
    + voiced
    +voice
    un-
    + voiced
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    BILABIAL
    p
    b
    _
    _
    _
    _
    m
    _
    _
    _
    LABIO-VELAR
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    w
    LABIO-DENTAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    +
    f
    v
    _
    _
    _
    _
    DENTAL
    t
    d
    _
    _
    ŧ
    đ
    n
    _
    l
    _
    ALVEOLAR
    _
    _
    c
    ż
    s
    z
    _
    _
    _
    _
    ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    r
    _
    _
    POST-ALVEOLAR
    _
    _
    č
    j
    š
    ž
    _
    _
    _
    _
    PALATAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    ç
    _
    _
    _
    _
    y
    VELAR
    k
    g
    _
    _
    x
    _
    ň
    _
    _
    _
    UVULAR
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    ř
    GLOTTAL
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    h
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    +


    + Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory

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    FRONT
    CENTRAL
    BACK
    unrounded
    rounded
    unrounded
    rounded
    unrounded
    rounded
    High
    i
    _
    ï
    ü
    _
    u
    Mid
    e
    ö
    ë
    _
    o
    Low
    ä
    _
    a
    _
    _
    _
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    1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants

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    The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal sounds of Ilaksh. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these phonetic representation systems. Sound files of actual Ilaksh words have been provided for those consonants which are uncommon or difficult to pronounce for English speakers, as well as in other cases to compare and distinguish two similar but distinct phonemes.

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    b
    As in English. A voiced bilabial unaspirated plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [b].
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    +
    c
    +

    As in English bits. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [ts]. X-SAMPA [ t_s ].
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    +
    č
    As in English chin but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA []. X-SAMPA [ t_S ].
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    +
    ç
    Like the initial sound in English human, huge, hue, or the sound in German ich. A voiceless dorso-palatal non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [ç]. X-SAMPA [C].
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    +
    d
    Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An unaspirated voiced apico-dental plosive; IPA [d-dental]. X-SAMPA [d_d].
    +
    +
    đ
    As in English this, bathe, weather. A voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [ð]. X-SAMPA [D].
    +
    +
    f
    As in English. A voiceless labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [f].
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    +
    g
    Always as in English gag; never as in ginger. A voiced dorso-velar unaspirated plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [g].
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    +
    h
    As in English hall. Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable in Ilaksh. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [h].
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    +
    j
    As in English judge but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. An unaspirated non-labialized voiced lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA []. X-SAMPA [d_Z].
    +
    +
    k
    Similar to English k but without aspiration. Like the k-sound of the Romance languages, e.g., Spanish or Italian casa. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [k].
    +
    l
    The “light” l-sound of the Romance languages, or as in British English leader; not the “dark” (velarized) l-sound of American English lull. A voiced apico-dental dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [l].
    +
    +
    m
    As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [m].
    +
    +
    n
    Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages, not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant obstruent; IPA []. X-SAMPA [n_d].
    +
    +
    ň
    The English ng-sound as in song or ringer; NEVER as in finger. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant obstruent;. IPA [ŋ]. X-SAMPA [N].
    +
    +
    p
    Similar to English, but without aspiration. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [p].
    +
    +
    r
    This sound is a single flap of the tongue tip as in Spanish caro or pero. When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish carro or perro. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex flap/trill; IPA [], [r]. X-SAMPA [4], [r].
    +
    +
    ř
    No English equivalent. Like the throaty or “gargled” r-sound found in colloquial French and German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA []. X-SAMPA [R].
    +
    +
    s
    As in English sister. A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [s].
    +
    +
    š
    As in English shoeshine but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. X-SAMPA [S].
    +
    +
    t
    Similar to English but without aspiration and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless apico-dental unaspirated plosive; IPA []. X-SAMPA [t_d].
    +
    +
    ŧ
    As in English thin, bath. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; IPA [θ]. X-SAMPA [T].
    +
    +
    v
    As in English. A voiced labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [v].
    +
    +
    w
    +

    As in English well, worry. A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); IPA and X-SAMPA [w].
    +

    +
    x
    No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled x in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish j. Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce a k-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing an h-sound instead. IPA and X-SAMPA [x].
    +
    +
    y
    As in English yet, yam. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); IPA and X-SAMPA [ j ].
    +
    +
    z
    As in English zoo, wizard. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [z].
    +
    ż
    Like an English d+z sound, as in roads, adze. A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [dz]. X-SAMPA [d_z].
    +
    ž
    		The voiced counterpart of š above. Similar to the sound in English pleasure or leisure, but without lip-rounding. A voiced lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. X-SAMPA [Z].
    ’
    This sound is the glottal stop heard between the two vowels in English oh-oh or as the sound heard in the word fattening as pronounced by most American English speakers. This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA [].
    +
    +
    +

    1.2.1.1 Syllabic consonants. The consonants, l, m, n, and ň can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants n and l as in the second syllable of words like button and little. Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words nda ‘no’, and ndíghílii ‘sunflower.’ In Ilaksh, these four syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant as in ntal. However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate syllable. These special dyssyllabic geminates are indicated by writing a hyphen between the two syllabic “halves,” e.g., hom-m, il-lûi, thiň-ňàx.
    +.

    + +

    1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels

    +

    There are ten vowel phonemes, all of which are pure sounds, not glided into diphthongs as in English.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    a
    A low unrounded central vowel as in Spanish or Italian. IPA or X-SAMPA [a].
    +
    e
    		The mid unrounded front vowel of Spanish este or Italian cadere or French déjà; IPA or X-SAMPA [e]
    i

    This vowel is pronounced either as the high tense rounded vowel of Spanish or Italian libro, and German siegen, IPA or X-SAMPA [i], or as the high lax unrounded front vowel as in English sit, or German sitzen. IPA [I] or X-SAMPA [I]. The rules for determining which pronunciation is used is discussed in Section 1.2.5.2 below on allophonic rules.

    o
    		The mid rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian cosa. IPA or X-SAMPA [o]
    u
    		This vowel is pronounced either as the high tense rounded back vowel of Spanish or Italian puta or crudo, IPA X-SAMPA [u], or as the high lax rounded back vowel as in English put or look. IPA [U] or X-SAMPA [U]. The rules for determining which pronunciation is used is discussed in Section 1.2.5.2 below on allophonic rules.
    ä
    		The low unrounded front vowel in American English sat, IPA [æ] or X-SAMPA [{ ]. Alternately, this vowel may be pronounced as the mid-low unrounded front vowel of English bet, Italian letto, or French après IPA [] or X-SAMPA [E], if this is easier for the speaker and to better distinguish it from the sound of Ilaksh e above.
    ë
    		The mid unrounded central vowel in American English cut or nut, IPA [ə] or X-SAMPA [@].
    ï
    		This vowel may be pronounced in either of two ways, whichever is easier for the speaker. The first is as the high central unrounded vowel of Russian быть, IPA [i-bar] or X-SAMPA [1]. The second way is to pronounce it as the high back unrounded vowel found in Turkish (spelled with an undotted i), also found in Japanese as the pronunciation of the short vowel u, IPA unrounded-u or X-SAMPA [M].
    ö
    		The mid rounded front vowel of French feu or German schön. IPA [ø] or X-SAMPA [2].
    ü
    		A high central rounded vowel, as found in Norwegian hus or the Highland Scottish pronunciation of English book or good; IPA [barred-u] or X-SAMPA [ }]. Alternately, this vowel may be pronounced as the high rounded front vowel of French du or German über, IPA or X-SAMPA [y], if this is easier for the speaker.
    +

     

    +

    1.2.3 Diphthongs

    +

    An Ilaksh syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ilaksh diphthongs are “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 14 diphthongs in Ilaksh, described as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ai
    Pronounced as in Spanish or Italian; like English i in white or ice.
    äi
    No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel ä plus an English y-sound.
    ei
    As in Spanish or Italian; like English ai in rain or ei in rein.
    ëi
    No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English y-sound. Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the i in ice.
    oi
    As in Spanish or Italian; as in English boy or voice.
    öi
    No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel ö plus an English y-sound. Somewhat like the French word oeil.
    ui
    A combination of the Ilaksh vowel u /U/ + an English y-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the u-sound is reduced to a w- (the result sounding like English wee). This diphthong may also be pronounced as the high rounded back vowel /u/ + an English y-sound, as in Spanish or Italian.
    au
    As in Spanish or Italian; like English ou in loud or ow in cow.
    äu
    No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel ä plus an English w-sound.
    eu
    As in Spanish or Italian; no English equivalent. A combination of the vowel /e/ + an English w-sound.
    ëu
    No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English w-sound. Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word oh!.
    iu
    No English equivalent; a combination of the Ilaksh vowel i /I/ + an English w-sound. May also be pronounced as the high front unrounded vowel /i/ + an English w-sound, as in Portuguese partiu.
    ou
    Like the o + w-glide of English road or mode. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese roupa.
    öu
    No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel ö plus an English w-sound. Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the word oh!.
    +

    All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing the many two-vowel combinations beginning with u- and i- into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a w-sound or y-sound. This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives the syllabic stress.

    +

     

    +

    1.2.4 Orthographic Representation of Dissyllabic Vowel Conjuncts

    +

    Dissyllabic vowel conjuncts, wherever they might be confused with a diphthong, are written with a hyphen between the two vowels to indicate they are separate syllables. Examples: du-int, a-uroth. Naturally dissyllabic conjuncts which cannot be mistaken for a diphthong appear without a hyphen, e.g., steox, dapua.

    +

     

    +

    + 1.2.5 Allophonic Distinctions

    +

    Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that phoneme occurs. These variances, known as allophones, while audible to a trained linguist, are often indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional role in the language. As an example, compare the two t-sounds in the English words top and stop. The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, the difference in the two t-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other Indic languages).

    +

    Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without aspirating the initial t-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration in Romance languages.)

    +

    1.2.5.1 Consonantal Allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ilaksh consonants are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    dy
    This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled gy and d´ respectively. Sort of like a g+y sound as in English big year pronounced rapidly, with the g-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate as opposed to the soft palate. A . IPA []. X-SAMPA [J\].
    +
    +
    hh
    The geminated version of Ilaksh h is pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English thin) as well as the English f-sound, however there is absolutely no contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound. No IPA equivalent.
    +
    +
    ly
    This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal lateral liquid continuant found in Castillian Spanish calle, Portuguese olhar, or Italian egli. For English speakers, this can best be approximated by placing the tongue in the position to say the y in yes, and while keeping the tongue in that position flat against the hard palate, pronouncing an l-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge behind the front teeth. IPA [λ]. X-SAMPA [L].
    ny
    This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal nasal found in Spanish año, Italian agnello, Portuguese caminho, or French champagne. For English speakers, this can best be approximated by placing the tongue in the position to say the y in yes, and while keeping the tongue in that position flat against the hard palate, pronouncing an n-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge behind the front teeth. IPA [ n-palatal]. X-SAMPA [J].
    ř
    In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar to the throaty r-sound found in colloquial French and German, IPA []. However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [].
    +
    +
    řx
    The combination of ř before x causes the x to be pronounced as a voicelss uvular fricative, as in German Bach or the Castilian pronunciation of Spanish j.
    ty
    This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as a voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive, the unvoiced counterpart to dy above. Like a k-sound but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, not the soft palate as with English k. The result should sound somewhat like a k+y as in backyard when spoken rapidly. IPA []. X-SAMPA [c].
    + bm, dn, km, kn, pm, tn
    When in word-initial position, the first consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead.
    +
    hl, hm, hn, hn, hr, hw
    +
    Each of these consonant conjuncts, when word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct. To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce an Ilaksh l, m, n, n, r, or w, and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear h-sound instead.
    +


    +1.2.5.2 Vocalic Allophones. As previously stated in Section 1.2.2, the Ilaksh vowels i and u have two different pronunciations. Specifically, they are pronounced as the vowels in American English sit and put respectively if they appear by themselves, not adjacent to another vowel or not as part of a diphthong. However, when part of a dissyllabic vowel conjunct, their pronunciation is as follows:

    +

    For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel i- (e.g., ia, ie, io, i-u, iai, iau, etc.), the initial i- is pronounced as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i].

    +

    For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is i, (e.g., a-i, u-i, ö-i, etc.), the i may be pronounced either as the lax vowel in English sit and German sitzen (IPA [I] or X-SAMPA [I], or as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i].

    +

    For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel u- (e.g., ua, ue, uo, u-i, uai, uau, etc.), the initial u- is pronounced as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA X-SAMPA [u].

    +

    For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is u, (e.g., a-u, i-u, ö-u, etc.), the u may be pronounced either as the lax vowel in English put and German putsch (IPA [U] or X-SAMPA [U], or as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA X-SAMPA [u].

    +

    In word-final position the vowel i, when not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i]. Similarly, the vowel u in word-final position and not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA X-SAMPA [u].

    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    1.3 PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND RULES
    + +

    Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ilaksh productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends.
    +

    +

    1.3.1 Gemination

    +

    Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, Finnish).

    +

    In Ilaksh, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination:

    +

    1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination. All consonants are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except for y and w.

    +

    1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination. The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: c, ç, č, j, l, m, n, ň, r, ř, s, š, z, ż and ž.

    + +

    1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants. Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite duration), specifically ç, đ, f, l, m, n, r, ř, s, š, ŧ, v, x, z, and ž, are simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated r is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like rr in Spanish or Italian.

    +

    The non-aspirated plosive consonants b, d, g, k, p, and t, when geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two d-sounds in the English phrase bad dog when spoken rapidly.

    +

    The pronunciation of affricates (c, č, j, and ż) when geminated depends on whether or not they are intervocalic (between two vowels) versus word-initial or word-final position. If intervocalic, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative or sibilant portion, e.g., čč is pronounced as IPA [ttš]. When in word-initial or word-final position, geminated pronunciation is achieved by simply lengthening the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of each affricate). Thus, čč in word-initial or word-final position is pronounced as IPA [tšš].

    +

    1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates. Consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g., bb, dd, nn, šš.

    +


    + 1.3.2 Tone

    +

    Ilaksh is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages and some American Indian languages. This means that tone of voice is used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other attitudes. Ilaksh marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories).

    +

    There are seven tones used in Ilaksh, one of which, mid tone, is considered to be morpho-phonologically neutral. The other six tones are low, high, falling, rising, falling-rising and rising-falling, and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries one functionally significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid tone. Therefore, the function of mid tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid. Like natural tone languages, the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    mid tonelow tonehigh tonefalling tonerising tonefalling-rising tonerising-falling tone
    (mid)
    low
    high
    falling
    rising
    falling-rising
    rising-falling
    + +

    1.3.2.1 Indicating Tone in the Romanized Transliteration. The six significant tones are indicated in the Romanized transliteration by diacritics on the stressed vowel of the word, as follows:

    +
      +
    • Low tone is indicated by an underposed dot (e.g., ạ), unless the word is stressed on the penultimate syllable, in which case it is unmarked. Note that if particular keyboards and/or text-editing programs or Unicode restrictions do not readily allow for making underposed dots as diacritics, low tone may be alternately indicated using an underline (e.g., a).
      • +
    • High tone is indicated by a macron (e.g., ā).
      • +
    • Falling tone is indicated by a grave accent (e.g., à).
      • +
    • Rising tone is indicated by an acute accent (e.g., á).
      • +
    • Falling-rising tone is indicated by either a hacek or a breve (e.g., ă). For those keyboards and/or text-editing programs which do not readily allow for these diacritics over vowels, falling-rising tone may be alternately indicated using a tilde (e.g., ã).
      • +
    • Rising-falling tone is indicated by a circumflex (e.g., â).
      • +
    +

    To show superposed tone diacritics on letters which already carry the diaeresis diacritic (i.e., ä, ë, ö, or ü), the following rules apply:

    +
      +
    • ä, ë, ö and ü become written as äa, ëe, öo and üu and the tone diacritic is placed on the second of the two vowels, e.g., äá, ëê, öō, üù, etc. The second vowel of these pairs is not pronounced, but is merely there to indicate the tone. Examples: emiräàs, trëěwai, öólantuin, küûm.
      +
      • +
    +


    + 1.3.3 Syllabic Stress

    +

    Stress normally falls on the penultimate (next-to-last) syllable but can shift to either the ultimate (last) syllable of a word or the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations.

    +

    As described above in Section 1.3.2.1, the stressed syllable is indicated by carrying the word's tone diacritic, unless the word carries low tone and is stressed antepenultimately, in which case, stress is unmarked. Likewise, monosyllabic words with low tone are unmarked.

    +

    NOTE: Monosyllabic words in Ilaksh are to be interpreted grammatically as having the equivalent of penultimate stress. When necessary to gramatically indicate the equivalent ultimate or antepenultimate stress on a monosyllabic word, extra “anaptyptic” syllables (the vowel -a-) are added to the word in order to allow the necessary ultimate or antepenultimate syllable to be stressed, e.g., kûist → kuistâ, kûist → âkuista.

    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + +
    1.4 PHONOTAXIS
    + +

    In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or word. This concept is called phonotaxis and such rules are known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain why sprelch could be a hypothetical word in English, while znatk could not be, even though znatk is as easily pronounced by a linguist as sprelch. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis

    +

    Equally important are the optional rules each language employs to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ilaksh are described in the sections below.

    +


    + 1.4.1 Syllable Structure

    +

    The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable, or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents a mandatory vowel or diphthong.

    +


    + Table 2: Syllabic Structure

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Syllable Type
    Structure
    Examples
    Consonantal Word
    C(C)(C) where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless fricative continuant
    		s, h, ll, mm, pçç
    Monosyllabic
    (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
    		a, ui, öt, isk, du, tuil, kleb, tlips, pskarn, xxoršt
    Word-initial
    (C)(C)(C)V(C)- or l, m, n, ň
    		uran, tahin, ui’wá, prinu, klâtma, xmoiskra, kstòllap, ltuirbis, mpéiltumi
    Word-medial
    -(C)(C)V(C)(C)- or l, m, n, ň
    		kialùn, ruentik, isteixläm, ïkspûtkai, hen-nôu
    Word-final
    -(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)- or l, m, n, ň
    		lua, āntoi, tial, eifkés, poxšurn, ön-n
    + +

    The following rules apply:

    + +
    +
      +
        +
      • A single non-syllabic intervocalic consonant is syllabically part of the vowel following, not preceding.
        +
        • +
      • An intervocalic bi-consonantal conjunct is considered dissyllabic (i.e., each consonant is part of a different syllable), even if the conjunct is a geminate consonant.
        +
        • +
      • If a triple-consonant conjunct occurs in the middle of a word, the first consonant of the three must be in a separate syllable from the last consonant of the three. The middle consonant will be in the same syllable as whichever of the two surrounding consonants it forms a permissible word-initial or word-final cluster. If it can form permissible clusters with either surrounding consonant, it will be considered part of the syllable with which it is morphemically associated.
        +
        • +
      +
    +
    + +


    + 1.4.2 Constraints on Vowels

    +

    All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts previously mentioned can occur in any syllable, however, the maximum number of dissyllabic vowels which can occur immediately next to each other is two. If one of the two syllables is a diphthong, the diphthong must be the second syllable. Any syllable immediately following a diphthong must begin with at least one consonant. Trisyllabic vowel conjuncts (or more) are not permitted. Thus, words such as dea or aitua or ruai are permissible, but words such as oia, tuoa, auem, and la-uio are not.

    +

     

    +

    1.4.3 Constraints on Consonants

    + +
      +
    • +
      The consonants w and y cannot appear in syllable-final position and must always be followed by a vowel. Additionally, w cannot immediately follow a diphthong ending in -u, while y cannot follow a diphthong ending in -i.
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      The glottal stop (’) does not occur word-initially except as a juncture feature (i.e., where two separate words come together). Specifically, when a word ends in a vowel and the next word begins with a vowel, Ilasksh phonetically separates the words by inserting a glottal stop at the beginning of the second word so that the word-final vowel of the first word does not combine with the word-initial vowel of the second. This serves to keep the two words separate and distinct. This glottal stop is unmarked in the Romanized transliteration. Elsewhere, the glottal stop may appear intervocalically, or may appear in syllable-final position if preceded by a vowel, or may appear in syllable-initial position immediately following a consonant as long as it is followed by a vowel.
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      No more than four consonants can occur in conjunction. Such four-consonant conjuncts may occur intervocalically or in word-initial position. When intervocalic, the first two and last two consonants must each form permissible syllable-final and syllable initial pairs respectively, or alternately, the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-final conjunct or the last three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-initial conjunct. For word-initial conjuncts, the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-final conjunct on their own. Examples: kstruihântu, jalzmwei.
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      For intervocalic three-consonant conjuncts either the first consonant or the last consonant of the conjunct must be in a separate syllable than the other two consonants. If the first consonant is dissyllabic from the other two, then those other two consonants must be a permissible syllable-initial conjunct. If the third consonant is dissyllabic from the first two, then the first two must be a permissible syllable-final conjunct.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      For word-initial and word-final triple consonant conjuncts, these are generally permissible if the both the first two consonants are permissible as a conjunct by themselves and the last two consonants of the conjunct are permissible as a conjunct by themselves.
      +
      • +
    + +

    Proceed to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >>

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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
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    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
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    ©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_1.html.orig b/2004-en/Chapter_1.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bf6b22c --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_1.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,901 @@ + + + + +Chapter 1 + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 1: Phonology

    +

    The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system of Ilaksh is detailed in the sections below.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    1.1 NOTE ON ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION
    +

    The native script used to represent Ilaksh is both alien and complex. It is explained in Chapter 11. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic structure of Ilaksh words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in transliterating some of the phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ilaksh, various diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system. Additionally, the hyphen is used in Ilaksh to separate dissyllabic vowel combinations which might otherwise be interpreted as diphthongs, e.g., a-i versus ai.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    1.2 PHONEMIC INVENTORY
    +

    Ilaksh has 30 consonants and ten vowels, far fewer than Ithkuil's 65 consonants and 17 vowels. These phonemes are illustrated by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized orthography.
    +

    +

    Tables 1(a) and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory

    +

    Table 1(a): Consonantal Inventory + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Plosives
    Affricates
    Fricatives
    Nasals
    Taps/
    + Trills
    Liquids
    Approximants
    un-
    + voiced
    +voice
    un-
    + voiced
    +voice
    un-
    + voiced
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    BILABIAL
    p
    b
    _
    _
    _
    _
    m
    _
    _
    _
    LABIO-VELAR
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    w
    LABIO-DENTAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    +
    f
    v
    _
    _
    _
    _
    DENTAL
    t
    d
    _
    _
    ŧ
    đ
    n
    _
    l
    _
    ALVEOLAR
    _
    _
    c
    ż
    s
    z
    _
    _
    _
    _
    ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    r
    _
    _
    POST-ALVEOLAR
    _
    _
    č
    j
    š
    ž
    _
    _
    _
    _
    PALATAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    ç
    _
    _
    _
    _
    y
    VELAR
    k
    g
    _
    _
    x
    _
    ň
    _
    _
    _
    UVULAR
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    ř
    GLOTTAL
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    h
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    +


    + Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    FRONT
    CENTRAL
    BACK
    unrounded
    rounded
    unrounded
    rounded
    unrounded
    rounded
    High
    i
    _
    ï
    ü
    _
    u
    Mid
    e
    ö
    ë
    _
    o
    Low
    ä
    _
    a
    _
    _
    _
    +

     

    +

    1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants

    +

    The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal sounds of Ilaksh. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these phonetic representation systems. Sound files of actual Ilaksh words have been provided for those consonants which are uncommon or difficult to pronounce for English speakers, as well as in other cases to compare and distinguish two similar but distinct phonemes.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    b
    As in English. A voiced bilabial unaspirated plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [b].
    +
    +
    c
    +

    As in English bits. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [ts]. X-SAMPA [ t_s ].
    +

    +
    č
    As in English chin but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA []. X-SAMPA [ t_S ].
    +
    +
    ç
    Like the initial sound in English human, huge, hue, or the sound in German ich. A voiceless dorso-palatal non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [ç]. X-SAMPA [C].
    +
    +
    d
    Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An unaspirated voiced apico-dental plosive; IPA [d-dental]. X-SAMPA [d_d].
    +
    +
    đ
    As in English this, bathe, weather. A voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [ð]. X-SAMPA [D].
    +
    +
    f
    As in English. A voiceless labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [f].
    +
    +
    g
    Always as in English gag; never as in ginger. A voiced dorso-velar unaspirated plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [g].
    +
    +
    h
    As in English hall. Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable in Ilaksh. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [h].
    +
    +
    j
    As in English judge but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. An unaspirated non-labialized voiced lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA []. X-SAMPA [d_Z].
    +
    +
    k
    Similar to English k but without aspiration. Like the k-sound of the Romance languages, e.g., Spanish or Italian casa. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [k].
    +
    l
    The “light” l-sound of the Romance languages, or as in British English leader; not the “dark” (velarized) l-sound of American English lull. A voiced apico-dental dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [l].
    +
    +
    m
    As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [m].
    +
    +
    n
    Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages, not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant obstruent; IPA []. X-SAMPA [n_d].
    +
    +
    ň
    The English ng-sound as in song or ringer; NEVER as in finger. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant obstruent;. IPA [ŋ]. X-SAMPA [N].
    +
    +
    p
    Similar to English, but without aspiration. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [p].
    +
    +
    r
    This sound is a single flap of the tongue tip as in Spanish caro or pero. When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish carro or perro. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex flap/trill; IPA [], [r]. X-SAMPA [4], [r].
    +
    +
    ř
    No English equivalent. Like the throaty or “gargled” r-sound found in colloquial French and German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA []. X-SAMPA [R].
    +
    +
    s
    As in English sister. A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [s].
    +
    +
    š
    As in English shoeshine but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. X-SAMPA [S].
    +
    +
    t
    Similar to English but without aspiration and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless apico-dental unaspirated plosive; IPA []. X-SAMPA [t_d].
    +
    +
    ŧ
    As in English thin, bath. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; IPA [θ]. X-SAMPA [T].
    +
    +
    v
    As in English. A voiced labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [v].
    +
    +
    w
    +

    As in English well, worry. A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); IPA and X-SAMPA [w].
    +

    +
    x
    No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled x in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish j. Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce a k-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing an h-sound instead. IPA and X-SAMPA [x].
    +
    +
    y
    As in English yet, yam. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); IPA and X-SAMPA [ j ].
    +
    +
    z
    As in English zoo, wizard. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [z].
    +
    ż
    Like an English d+z sound, as in roads, adze. A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [dz]. X-SAMPA [d_z].
    +
    ž
    		The voiced counterpart of š above. Similar to the sound in English pleasure or leisure, but without lip-rounding. A voiced lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. X-SAMPA [Z].
    ’
    This sound is the glottal stop heard between the two vowels in English oh-oh or as the sound heard in the word fattening as pronounced by most American English speakers. This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA [].
    +
    +
    +

    1.2.1.1 Syllabic consonants. The consonants, l, m, n, and ň can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants n and l as in the second syllable of words like button and little. Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words nda ‘no’, and ndíghílii ‘sunflower.’ In Ilaksh, these four syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant as in ntal. However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate syllable. These special dyssyllabic geminates are indicated by writing a hyphen between the two syllabic “halves,” e.g., hom-m, il-lûi, thiň-ňàx.
    +.

    + +

    1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels

    +

    There are ten vowel phonemes, all of which are pure sounds, not glided into diphthongs as in English.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    a
    A low unrounded central vowel as in Spanish or Italian. IPA or X-SAMPA [a].
    +
    e
    		The mid unrounded front vowel of Spanish este or Italian cadere or French déjà; IPA or X-SAMPA [e]
    i

    This vowel is pronounced either as the high tense rounded vowel of Spanish or Italian libro, and German siegen, IPA or X-SAMPA [i], or as the high lax unrounded front vowel as in English sit, or German sitzen. IPA [I] or X-SAMPA [I]. The rules for determining which pronunciation is used is discussed in Section 1.2.5.2 below on allophonic rules.

    o
    		The mid rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian cosa. IPA or X-SAMPA [o]
    u
    		This vowel is pronounced either as the high tense rounded back vowel of Spanish or Italian puta or crudo, IPA X-SAMPA [u], or as the high lax rounded back vowel as in English put or look. IPA [U] or X-SAMPA [U]. The rules for determining which pronunciation is used is discussed in Section 1.2.5.2 below on allophonic rules.
    ä
    		The low unrounded front vowel in American English sat, IPA [æ] or X-SAMPA [{ ]. Alternately, this vowel may be pronounced as the mid-low unrounded front vowel of English bet, Italian letto, or French après IPA [] or X-SAMPA [E], if this is easier for the speaker and to better distinguish it from the sound of Ilaksh e above.
    ë
    		The mid unrounded central vowel in American English cut or nut, IPA [ə] or X-SAMPA [@].
    ï
    		This vowel may be pronounced in either of two ways, whichever is easier for the speaker. The first is as the high central unrounded vowel of Russian быть, IPA [i-bar] or X-SAMPA [1]. The second way is to pronounce it as the high back unrounded vowel found in Turkish (spelled with an undotted i), also found in Japanese as the pronunciation of the short vowel u, IPA unrounded-u or X-SAMPA [M].
    ö
    		The mid rounded front vowel of French feu or German schön. IPA [ø] or X-SAMPA [2].
    ü
    		A high central rounded vowel, as found in Norwegian hus or the Highland Scottish pronunciation of English book or good; IPA [barred-u] or X-SAMPA [ }]. Alternately, this vowel may be pronounced as the high rounded front vowel of French du or German über, IPA or X-SAMPA [y], if this is easier for the speaker.
    +

     

    +

    1.2.3 Diphthongs

    +

    An Ilaksh syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ilaksh diphthongs are “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 14 diphthongs in Ilaksh, described as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ai
    Pronounced as in Spanish or Italian; like English i in white or ice.
    äi
    No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel ä plus an English y-sound.
    ei
    As in Spanish or Italian; like English ai in rain or ei in rein.
    ëi
    No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English y-sound. Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the i in ice.
    oi
    As in Spanish or Italian; as in English boy or voice.
    öi
    No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel ö plus an English y-sound. Somewhat like the French word oeil.
    ui
    A combination of the Ilaksh vowel u /U/ + an English y-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the u-sound is reduced to a w- (the result sounding like English wee). This diphthong may also be pronounced as the high rounded back vowel /u/ + an English y-sound, as in Spanish or Italian.
    au
    As in Spanish or Italian; like English ou in loud or ow in cow.
    äu
    No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel ä plus an English w-sound.
    eu
    As in Spanish or Italian; no English equivalent. A combination of the vowel /e/ + an English w-sound.
    ëu
    No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English w-sound. Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word oh!.
    iu
    No English equivalent; a combination of the Ilaksh vowel i /I/ + an English w-sound. May also be pronounced as the high front unrounded vowel /i/ + an English w-sound, as in Portuguese partiu.
    ou
    Like the o + w-glide of English road or mode. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese roupa.
    öu
    No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel ö plus an English w-sound. Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the word oh!.
    +

    All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing the many two-vowel combinations beginning with u- and i- into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a w-sound or y-sound. This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives the syllabic stress.

    +

     

    +

    1.2.4 Orthographic Representation of Dissyllabic Vowel Conjuncts

    +

    Dissyllabic vowel conjuncts, wherever they might be confused with a diphthong, are written with a hyphen between the two vowels to indicate they are separate syllables. Examples: du-int, a-uroth. Naturally dissyllabic conjuncts which cannot be mistaken for a diphthong appear without a hyphen, e.g., steox, dapua.

    +

     

    +

    + 1.2.5 Allophonic Distinctions

    +

    Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that phoneme occurs. These variances, known as allophones, while audible to a trained linguist, are often indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional role in the language. As an example, compare the two t-sounds in the English words top and stop. The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, the difference in the two t-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other Indic languages).

    +

    Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without aspirating the initial t-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration in Romance languages.)

    +

    1.2.5.1 Consonantal Allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ilaksh consonants are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    dy
    This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled gy and d´ respectively. Sort of like a g+y sound as in English big year pronounced rapidly, with the g-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate as opposed to the soft palate. A . IPA []. X-SAMPA [J\].
    +
    +
    hh
    The geminated version of Ilaksh h is pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English thin) as well as the English f-sound, however there is absolutely no contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound. No IPA equivalent.
    +
    +
    ly
    This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal lateral liquid continuant found in Castillian Spanish calle, Portuguese olhar, or Italian egli. For English speakers, this can best be approximated by placing the tongue in the position to say the y in yes, and while keeping the tongue in that position flat against the hard palate, pronouncing an l-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge behind the front teeth. IPA [λ]. X-SAMPA [L].
    ny
    This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal nasal found in Spanish año, Italian agnello, Portuguese caminho, or French champagne. For English speakers, this can best be approximated by placing the tongue in the position to say the y in yes, and while keeping the tongue in that position flat against the hard palate, pronouncing an n-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge behind the front teeth. IPA [ n-palatal]. X-SAMPA [J].
    ř
    In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar to the throaty r-sound found in colloquial French and German, IPA []. However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [].
    +
    +
    řx
    The combination of ř before x causes the x to be pronounced as a voicelss uvular fricative, as in German Bach or the Castilian pronunciation of Spanish j.
    ty
    This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as a voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive, the unvoiced counterpart to dy above. Like a k-sound but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, not the soft palate as with English k. The result should sound somewhat like a k+y as in backyard when spoken rapidly. IPA []. X-SAMPA [c].
    + bm, dn, km, kn, pm, tn
    When in word-initial position, the first consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead.
    +
    hl, hm, hn, hn, hr, hw
    +
    Each of these consonant conjuncts, when word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct. To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce an Ilaksh l, m, n, n, r, or w, and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear h-sound instead.
    +


    +1.2.5.2 Vocalic Allophones. As previously stated in Section 1.2.2, the Ilaksh vowels i and u have two different pronunciations. Specifically, they are pronounced as the vowels in American English sit and put respectively if they appear by themselves, not adjacent to another vowel or not as part of a diphthong. However, when part of a dissyllabic vowel conjunct, their pronunciation is as follows:

    +

    For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel i- (e.g., ia, ie, io, i-u, iai, iau, etc.), the initial i- is pronounced as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i].

    +

    For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is i, (e.g., a-i, u-i, ö-i, etc.), the i may be pronounced either as the lax vowel in English sit and German sitzen (IPA [I] or X-SAMPA [I], or as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i].

    +

    For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel u- (e.g., ua, ue, uo, u-i, uai, uau, etc.), the initial u- is pronounced as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA X-SAMPA [u].

    +

    For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is u, (e.g., a-u, i-u, ö-u, etc.), the u may be pronounced either as the lax vowel in English put and German putsch (IPA [U] or X-SAMPA [U], or as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA X-SAMPA [u].

    +

    In word-final position the vowel i, when not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i]. Similarly, the vowel u in word-final position and not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA X-SAMPA [u].

    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    1.3 PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND RULES
    + +

    Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ilaksh productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends.
    +

    +

    1.3.1 Gemination

    +

    Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, Finnish).

    +

    In Ilaksh, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination:

    +

    1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination. All consonants are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except for y and w.

    +

    1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination. The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: c, ç, č, j, l, m, n, ň, r, ř, s, š, z, ż and ž.

    + +

    1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants. Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite duration), specifically ç, đ, f, l, m, n, r, ř, s, š, ŧ, v, x, z, and ž, are simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated r is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like rr in Spanish or Italian.

    +

    The non-aspirated plosive consonants b, d, g, k, p, and t, when geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two d-sounds in the English phrase bad dog when spoken rapidly.

    +

    The pronunciation of affricates (c, č, j, and ż) when geminated depends on whether or not they are intervocalic (between two vowels) versus word-initial or word-final position. If intervocalic, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative or sibilant portion, e.g., čč is pronounced as IPA [ttš]. When in word-initial or word-final position, geminated pronunciation is achieved by simply lengthening the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of each affricate). Thus, čč in word-initial or word-final position is pronounced as IPA [tšš].

    +

    1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates. Consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g., bb, dd, nn, šš.

    +


    + 1.3.2 Tone

    +

    Ilaksh is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages and some American Indian languages. This means that tone of voice is used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other attitudes. Ilaksh marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories).

    +

    There are seven tones used in Ilaksh, one of which, mid tone, is considered to be morpho-phonologically neutral. The other six tones are low, high, falling, rising, falling-rising and rising-falling, and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries one functionally significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid tone. Therefore, the function of mid tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid. Like natural tone languages, the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    mid tonelow tonehigh tonefalling tonerising tonefalling-rising tonerising-falling tone
    (mid)
    low
    high
    falling
    rising
    falling-rising
    rising-falling
    + +

    1.3.2.1 Indicating Tone in the Romanized Transliteration. The six significant tones are indicated in the Romanized transliteration by diacritics on the stressed vowel of the word, as follows:

    +
      +
    • Low tone is indicated by an underposed dot (e.g., ạ), unless the word is stressed on the penultimate syllable, in which case it is unmarked. Note that if particular keyboards and/or text-editing programs or Unicode restrictions do not readily allow for making underposed dots as diacritics, low tone may be alternately indicated using an underline (e.g., a).
      • +
    • High tone is indicated by a macron (e.g., ā).
      • +
    • Falling tone is indicated by a grave accent (e.g., à).
      • +
    • Rising tone is indicated by an acute accent (e.g., á).
      • +
    • Falling-rising tone is indicated by either a hacek or a breve (e.g., ă). For those keyboards and/or text-editing programs which do not readily allow for these diacritics over vowels, falling-rising tone may be alternately indicated using a tilde (e.g., ã).
      • +
    • Rising-falling tone is indicated by a circumflex (e.g., â).
      • +
    +

    To show superposed tone diacritics on letters which already carry the diaeresis diacritic (i.e., ä, ë, ö, or ü), the following rules apply:

    +
      +
    • ä, ë, ö and ü become written as äa, ëe, öo and üu and the tone diacritic is placed on the second of the two vowels, e.g., äá, ëê, öō, üù, etc. The second vowel of these pairs is not pronounced, but is merely there to indicate the tone. Examples: emiräàs, trëěwai, öólantuin, küûm.
      +
      • +
    +


    + 1.3.3 Syllabic Stress

    +

    Stress normally falls on the penultimate (next-to-last) syllable but can shift to either the ultimate (last) syllable of a word or the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations.

    +

    As described above in Section 1.3.2.1, the stressed syllable is indicated by carrying the word's tone diacritic, unless the word carries low tone and is stressed antepenultimately, in which case, stress is unmarked. Likewise, monosyllabic words with low tone are unmarked.

    +

    NOTE: Monosyllabic words in Ilaksh are to be interpreted grammatically as having the equivalent of penultimate stress. When necessary to gramatically indicate the equivalent ultimate or antepenultimate stress on a monosyllabic word, extra “anaptyptic” syllables (the vowel -a-) are added to the word in order to allow the necessary ultimate or antepenultimate syllable to be stressed, e.g., kûist → kuistâ, kûist → âkuista.

    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + +
    1.4 PHONOTAXIS
    + +

    In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or word. This concept is called phonotaxis and such rules are known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain why sprelch could be a hypothetical word in English, while znatk could not be, even though znatk is as easily pronounced by a linguist as sprelch. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis

    +

    Equally important are the optional rules each language employs to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ilaksh are described in the sections below.

    +


    + 1.4.1 Syllable Structure

    +

    The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable, or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents a mandatory vowel or diphthong.

    +


    + Table 2: Syllabic Structure

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Syllable Type
    Structure
    Examples
    Consonantal Word
    C(C)(C) where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless fricative continuant
    		s, h, ll, mm, pçç
    Monosyllabic
    (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
    		a, ui, öt, isk, du, tuil, kleb, tlips, pskarn, xxoršt
    Word-initial
    (C)(C)(C)V(C)- or l, m, n, ň
    		uran, tahin, ui’wá, prinu, klâtma, xmoiskra, kstòllap, ltuirbis, mpéiltumi
    Word-medial
    -(C)(C)V(C)(C)- or l, m, n, ň
    		kialùn, ruentik, isteixläm, ïkspûtkai, hen-nôu
    Word-final
    -(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)- or l, m, n, ň
    		lua, āntoi, tial, eifkés, poxšurn, ön-n
    + +

    The following rules apply:

    + +
    +
      +
        +
      • A single non-syllabic intervocalic consonant is syllabically part of the vowel following, not preceding.
        +
        • +
      • An intervocalic bi-consonantal conjunct is considered dissyllabic (i.e., each consonant is part of a different syllable), even if the conjunct is a geminate consonant.
        +
        • +
      • If a triple-consonant conjunct occurs in the middle of a word, the first consonant of the three must be in a separate syllable from the last consonant of the three. The middle consonant will be in the same syllable as whichever of the two surrounding consonants it forms a permissible word-initial or word-final cluster. If it can form permissible clusters with either surrounding consonant, it will be considered part of the syllable with which it is morphemically associated.
        +
        • +
      +
    +
    + +


    + 1.4.2 Constraints on Vowels

    +

    All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts previously mentioned can occur in any syllable, however, the maximum number of dissyllabic vowels which can occur immediately next to each other is two. If one of the two syllables is a diphthong, the diphthong must be the second syllable. Any syllable immediately following a diphthong must begin with at least one consonant. Trisyllabic vowel conjuncts (or more) are not permitted. Thus, words such as dea or aitua or ruai are permissible, but words such as oia, tuoa, auem, and la-uio are not.

    +

     

    +

    1.4.3 Constraints on Consonants

    + +
      +
    • +
      The consonants w and y cannot appear in syllable-final position and must always be followed by a vowel. Additionally, w cannot immediately follow a diphthong ending in -u, while y cannot follow a diphthong ending in -i.
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      The glottal stop (’) does not occur word-initially except as a juncture feature (i.e., where two separate words come together). Specifically, when a word ends in a vowel and the next word begins with a vowel, Ilasksh phonetically separates the words by inserting a glottal stop at the beginning of the second word so that the word-final vowel of the first word does not combine with the word-initial vowel of the second. This serves to keep the two words separate and distinct. This glottal stop is unmarked in the Romanized transliteration. Elsewhere, the glottal stop may appear intervocalically, or may appear in syllable-final position if preceded by a vowel, or may appear in syllable-initial position immediately following a consonant as long as it is followed by a vowel.
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      No more than four consonants can occur in conjunction. Such four-consonant conjuncts may occur intervocalically or in word-initial position. When intervocalic, the first two and last two consonants must each form permissible syllable-final and syllable initial pairs respectively, or alternately, the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-final conjunct or the last three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-initial conjunct. For word-initial conjuncts, the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-final conjunct on their own. Examples: kstruihântu, jalzmwei.
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      For intervocalic three-consonant conjuncts either the first consonant or the last consonant of the conjunct must be in a separate syllable than the other two consonants. If the first consonant is dissyllabic from the other two, then those other two consonants must be a permissible syllable-initial conjunct. If the third consonant is dissyllabic from the first two, then the first two must be a permissible syllable-final conjunct.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      For word-initial and word-final triple consonant conjuncts, these are generally permissible if the both the first two consonants are permissible as a conjunct by themselves and the last two consonants of the conjunct are permissible as a conjunct by themselves.
      +
      • +
    + +

    Proceed to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >>

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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
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    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
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    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_10.html b/2004-en/Chapter_10.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac48a1f --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_10.html @@ -0,0 +1,1478 @@ + + + + +Untitled Document + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      10.1 Systemic Morphological Derivation  10.5 Lexical Generalization  
      10.2 Phonological Classification of Roots  10.6 Lexical Differentiation  
      10.3 Dimensional and Descriptive Oppositions  10.7 Comparison to Western Categorization  
      10.4 Spatial Position and Orientation    
    +

    The term lexico-semantics refers to the relationship + between the lexicon of a language (i.e., its root-words and word-stems) and + the various possible semantic categories created by the human mind. Every language + (and particularly every language family) divides the world up differently in + terms of what sorts of concepts are made into words and how the meanings of + those words reflect the reality around us. In other words, the lexico-semantics + of a language answers the questions what semantic concepts does this language + psycho-linguistically categorize into autonomous words and how are each of these +categories internally organized?

    +

    Lexico-semantics is extremely important in Ilaksh for two + related reasons:

    +

    1) Ilaksh morpho-phonology only allows for 3600 possible root + words, as explained in Chapter 2. This means that the concepts chosen to be + conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the widest range + of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework.

    +

    2) We have seen throughout this work how Ilaksh’s matrix-like + grammatical structure allows for an incredible amount of synergy in terms of + morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, emergent concepts from + word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent derivations. + In order to ensure the maximum amount of dynamism in deriving new concepts morphologically + from existing word-roots, it is important that those initial roots be carefully + selected in terms of meaning.

    +

    In this chapter, we will examine the many considerations that + go in to the assigning of concepts to those 3600 roots, in order to optimally + accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using the dynamics + of Ilaksh morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more + autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting + the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.”

    +

    We will start first with a review of key components in the + systemic design of Ilaksh morphology. This will be followed by sections on + those areas of Ilaksh lexico-semantics which are most profoundly distinct from + Western languages.

    +

    The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, + examining how Ilaksh lexico-semantics reinterprets certain concepts considered + “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.1 SYSTEMIC MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATION
    +

    Ilaksh systematically uses its myriad of morphological categories + to derive secondary concepts from more basic concepts, often eliminating the + need for separate lexicalization, i.e., eliminating the need to create separate + word-roots for new but related concepts as is so often the case in Western languages. + We will explore this system of morphological derivation more closely, particularly + in regard to its universality across the spectrum of Ilaksh word-roots.

    +


    + 10.1.1 Stem Derivation from Roots

    +

    We have already seen many applied examples of the above-described + concepts, particularly in Section + 2.4 et seq. regarding the use of the three different syllabic stress patterns to derive a trinary array of interrelated stems from a root, as well as mutating the root-consonant of those trinary stems to in turn derive two separate arrays + of complementary stems from the initial holistic array of stems. Through this + system of stress patterns and consonant mutation, we saw how a single root generates no + less than eighteen formative stems, each functioning as a noun or verb. This + is illustrated below using the example root dù-‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    DÙ- ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’
    INFORMAL Designation
    FORMAL Designation
    +
    1. dù- move/motion from one place to another
    +
    +
    1. ùdu- travel/traverse; journey
    +
    +
    2. adù- set in motion/self-directed movement from one place to another
    +
    +
    2. udù- set off for/journey to/directed travel toward
    +
    +
    3. àdu(la)- move/movement between one place and another (i.e., along line between two points)
    +
    +
    +
    +
    3. ùdu(la)- travel/journey along way between two places
    +
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    1. tpù- go = movement outward/away
    +
    1. -ddù- come = movement inward/toward
    1. ùtpu- go traveling, be off
    1. ùddu- journey to(ward)
    2. atpù- go away/move away = increase distance from a starting point
    2. addù- come toward/to close the distance = decrease distance toward endpoint
    2. utpù- travel/journey further away from starting point
    2. uddù- reach vicinity of, close in on destination
    3. àtpu(la)- leave/depart = move away from one point towards another
    3. àddu(la)- approach = approach one point from direction of another
    3. ùtpu(la)- depart/departure from starting point on journey toward elsewhere
    3. ùddu(la)- arrive/arrival, reach destination
    +


    + As described in Chapter 2, this hierarchical pattern of stem + derivation and division into complementary stems from a more basic or underlying + “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number + of word-roots necessary compared to Western languages, as words that are semantically + interrelated in a hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically + from a basic root, as opposed to being assigned separate word-roots as in other + languages. The above root dù- demonstrates how concepts such come versus go are expressed as complementary derivations of a single underlying concept TRANSLATIVE + MOTION. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective +are similarly patterned, e.g., lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take, etc.

    +

    Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation + from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” + classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. Biological + taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, as illustrated + below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    BẸ- ‘MAMMAL’
    INFORMAL Designation
    FORMAL Designation
    +
    1. bẹ- marsupial
    +
    +
    1. ụbe- tamed/domesticated/pet marsupial
    +
    +
    2. abẹ- ovoviviparous (egg-laying) mammal
    +
    +
    2. ubẹ-tamed/domesticated/pet ovoviviparous (egg-laying) mammal
    +
    +
    3. ạbe(la)- placental mammal
    +
    +
    +
    +
    3. ụbe(la)-tamed/domesticated/pet placental mammal
    +
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    1. pkẹ- bat
    +
    1. -bbẹ- primate
    1. ụpke-
    +     tamed/domesticated/pet bat
    1. ụbbe- tamed/domesticated/pet primate
    2. apkẹ- rodent
    2. abbẹ- small common mammal (e.g., cat, dog, weasel, ferret, etc.)
    2. upkẹ- tamed/domesticated/pet rodent
    2. ubbẹ- tamed/domesticated/pet small common mammal
    3. ạpke(la)- large non-primate mammal (e.g., rhino, hippopotamus, etc.)
    3. ạbbe(la)- large common mammal (e.g., horse, cow, pig, sheep, goat, etc.)
    3. ụpke(la)-
    + tamed/domesticated/pet large non-primate mammal
    3. ụbbe(la)- tamed/domesticated/pet large common mamal
    +

    Using the nine degrees of the Stem + Specific Derivative SSD affix -V1k from Section 7.4.13 on such a root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific + parts, products or derived resources such as a the milk, oil, meat, skin or + hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The Degree + of Maturity MAT affix -V0ç from Section 7.4.10 is also applied to indicate the developmental stage of the +animal.

    +

    A different pattern applies to individual animal species, first + dividing the two Forms (Designations) of the root into the animal itself versus + the animal as a resource, the holistic stems indicating first the generic species + then male versus female. The complementary stems then make the further distinction + between wild versus domesticated for the informal stem and between food/prey + and derived or processed products for the formal stem. The SSD affix is again used to specify parts or products of the animal, while the MAT affix distinguishes the developmental stages, providing derived equivalents + to words such as foal, fawn, lamb or cub, from horse, + deer, goat, or lion.

    +


    + 10.1.2 The Use of Affixes

    +

    In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the 150-odd affix categories + can be used to generate both derivative concepts (e.g., xäl ‘hill’ + V1x/7 + ‘very large’ → xälïx ‘very large hill’) as + well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning (e.g., xäl ‘hill’ + V2x/7 + ‘very large’ → xälëx ‘mountain’). As an example, + here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes + from the stem allá- ‘say something [i.e., + communicate a verbal message]’:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    lalloákt
    +
    ‘share a secret’
    suffix = DSR2/8
    +
    lalliépt
    +
    ‘news’
    suffix = ATC2/3
    +
    lalliávz
    +
    ‘quip’
    suffix = SCO2/5
    +
    lalluikyá
    +
    ‘praise’
    suffix = NTR2/9
    +
    lalliëépt
    +
    ‘lie’ [= tell a lie]
    suffix = REA2/7
    +
    lalloált
    +
    ‘shout out a message’
    suffix = STR2/8
    +
    lallién
    +
    ‘persuasive person, a persuader’
    suffix = AGC2/3
    +
    lalliëén
    +
    ‘liaison, a go-between’
    suffix = AGC2/7
    +
    lallëhiókç
    +
    ‘whisper sweet nothings’
    suffixes = AFT2/1 + FRC2/2
    + + + + + + +
    +
    lallëciéps
    +
    ‘cuss, curse ’
    suffixes = UNQ 2/1 + MTA 2/3
    +

     

    +

    Similarly the use of the Consent CNS suffix, the Reason RSN suffix, the Expectation XPT suffix, the Deliberateness DLB suffix, the Enablement ENB suffix, the Agency/Intent AGN suffix, and the Impact IMP suffix from Section + 7.4.12 in conjunction w/ Transrelative cases (Sec. + 4.3), provides a means for describing extremely subtle scenarios of causation, + willingness, enablement, hindrance, etc. which other languages can only capture + via long-winded paraphrase. Employing this array of affixes and cases, a sentence + such as The singer stopped the boys from playing around can be translated + into Ilaksh in many syntactically equivalent (but morphologically distinct) + ways to indicate whether the singer used physical force or persuasion to stop + the boys, whether she stopped them via an indirect enabling means (such as turning + out the lights), or whether it was the boys themselves who stopped upon hearing + her voice or seeing her beauty, or even by her mere presence interrupting them + (such as walking in on them inadvertently), as well as the degree of willingness + or consent with which they stopped. The following example sentence further illustrates + the complex detail which these suffixes make possible:

    +
    +

    Eňt  aktäiliornüùls  tlẹiliërz  ustançirbūams.
    + XPT1/2   IFL-‘man’-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DLB2/2-ENB1/6   IFL-‘bird’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IMP2/7   FML-OPR-‘room’-DEL/U/COA/CST-DEV1/1-AGN2/9
    + Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally + killed it without even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting + it out of the house.__________

    +
    +


    + The DEV suffix from Sec. 7.4.9, + in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of English such + as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate + the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in Ilaksh this suffix is productive + for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with Modality + (Section 6.1) + and the Modality suffixes from Section 7.4.11 to extend the system of modalities, as illustrated by the following:

    +
    +
    promise to + DEV/1 = + foreswear, vow never to
    + can (know how to) +     DEV/1 = be ignorant of
    + decide to +     DEV/1 = avoid
    + offer to +     DEV/1 = refuse to
    + agree upon/to +     DEV/1 = decline to/abstain from
    + like to +     DEV/1 = loathe
    + fear to +     DEV/1 = love to
    + need to +     DEV/1 = dispensable, unnecessary to, can dispense with
    +
    +

     

    +

    10.1.3 The Use of Configuration, Affiliation, and Context

    +

    Each of these categories has means to generate amalgamate, + holistic, or emergent concepts from a more basic underlying stem.

    +

    10.1.3.1 Configuration: In Sec. + 3.1 we saw how applying each of the nine Configuration categories to a stem + often generates forms based on amalgamation of sets which require complete relexification + when translated into English. Examples are:

    +
    +

    bone → skeleton
    + strut/girder     → frame → framework
    + component     → structure → system
    + ingredient     → compound
    + food     → dish → meal
    + tool     → toolset
    + do/perform     → coordinate
    + vehicle     → convoy
    + person     → group → crowd → masses
    + activity     → process.

    +
    +

    10.1.3.2 Affiliation: In Sec. + 3.2 we saw how the four Affiliations can generate new concepts based on + delineations of purpose, benefit, or function. Examples include:

    +
    +

    group → team,
    + grove     → orchard
    + assortment     → collection → junk
    + process     → plan

    +
    +

    10.1.3.3 Context: In Sec. + 3.5.4 we encountered the AMALGAMATE context, which + serves to identify a stem specifically as a gestalt entity, composed of objective + and subjective/social elements or components which contribute to the overall + nature of the stem. Depending on the stem to which it is applied, the use of + the amalgamate can cause relexification in translating to English. Examples:

    +
    +

    demeanor → personality
    + craftsmanship     → artistry
    + career     → livelihood
    + (one’s) past     → (one’s) + life
    + to look after/tend     → nurture

    +
    +

    +

    10.1.4 The Use of Designation and Version

    +

    In Section + 3.6 on Designation as well as Sec. + 5.5 on Version, we saw how both of these morphological categories create + distinctions in word-stems which usually require relexification in translation. + The following word pairs illustrate such relexification:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    (the) past → historysee → observe
    writings → literatureone → single/singular
    wordplay → rhetorichear → listen
    behavior → demeanordesire → request
    wander → travelquery → research
    eat → dineponder → analyze
    containment → storagepath → route
    +
    +

    Again we see that application of morphological categories + to word-stems serves to generate forms which substitute for lexical distinctions + in other languages, thus helping to reduce the size of the Ilaksh lexicon.

    +
    +
     
    +
    +

    10.1.5 The Use of Phase and Extension

    +

    The use of the nine Phases, as explained in Sec. + 5.3, used in conjunction with the category of Extension (Sec. + 3.4) gives rise to an elaborate means by which to describe phenomena in + terms of duration, periodicity, repetition, iterativity, and cyclic phenomena. + When used in conjunction with the twelve Modulative affixes from Sec. + 7.4.7, the Iteration ITN and Repetition RPN affixes from Sec. 7.4.5 and the Intensity ITY affix from Sec. 7.4.10, + Phase becomes an extremely powerful means to describe with great subtlety all + phenomena which display vibratory, oscillative, wavering, on-off, or variative + movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific application of the various + phases combined with the aforementioned affixes and other affix categories to + a single stem ččà- ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following + English words:

    + +
    + + + + + + + +
    acoustic
    + audible
    + auditory
    + bang
    + blast
    + boom
    + buzz
    + cacophony
    + calm
    + click
    + clickety-clack
    + clink
    + crack
    + crackle
    + crash
    + din
    + discord
    + dissonance
    + drone
    + echo
    + explosion    		faint + sound
    + fizz
    + gag
    + grate
    + hiss
    + howl
    + hullabaloo
    + hum
    + hush
    + jangle
    + kerplunk
    + knock
    + loud(ness)
    + lull
    + moan
    + muffle
    + murmur
    + mute
    + noise
    + pandemonium
    + peal
    +

    pit-a-pat
    + plink
    + pop
    + quaver
    + quiet
    + racket
    + rap
    + rat-a-tat
    + rattle
    + raucous
    + resonant
    + reverberate
    + ring
    + roar
    + rumble
    + rush of sound
    + rustle
    + screech
    + shrill
    + silence
    + snap

    		sonorous
    + sound
    + staccato
    + stifle
    + strident
    + stutter
    + swirl
    + swish
    + tap
    + thump
    + tick
    + toot
    + twang
    + uproar
    + vibration
    + whir
    + whistle
    + whiz
    + whoosh
    +
    +

    The same principles applied to other types of stems give rise + to a plethora of complex and subtle means for describing motions, paths, trajectories, + movement in situ, light emanation, reflection, consistency, texture, variation + in shape, visual complexity, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.2 PHONOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROOTS
    +

    Many languages have class systems for both nouns and verbs, + in which a specific pattern of morpho-phonological markers are assigned to a + specified set of roots. Often, class membership is quite arbitrary as in the + three conjugational classes of Spanish, Italian, or French verbs. In other cases, + class membership roughly corresponds to an underlying semantic category, as + seen in the masculine versus feminine versus neuter class system of many languages. + Non-Western languages often delineate a greater number of classes determined + by categories of shape, purpose, socio-cultural factors, and other objective + or subjective semantic factors.

    +

    Ilaksh displays a pattern of ten morpho-semantic classes for + its 3600 roots. In Ilaksh, class is delineated by a combination of the Vr vocalic component of the stem (see Section + 2.2) plus the stem’s tone, i.e., the Vr plus tone indicates + to which of the ten classes a root belongs. In this manner, the consonant pattern + of an Ilaksh root always provides a clue as to general meaning of the root. + The ten Ilaksh classes with their corresponding Vr plus tone combinations are shown + in the table below.

    +


    + Table 34: Ilaksh Morpho-Semantic Classes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CLASS
    Vr+tone MARKERS
    SIGNIFICATION
    1
    à, è, ù
    		concepts relating to the physical attributes of organic matter, taxonomies of organic life
    2
    ạ, ẹ, ụ
    		taxonomies of organic life
    3
    ì, ò, ĭ
    		concepts relating to the physical attributes of inorganic matter, taxonomies of physical substances
    4
    ị, ọ, ŏ
    		taxonomies of physical substances
    5
    ā, ē, ū
    		spatio-dimensional concepts, form and motion
    6
    í, ó, î
    		concepts relating to change and causation; relational concepts, identity, associations; concepts relating to existence, state, occurrence, subjectiveness
    7
    ī, ō, ô
    		numerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics, temporal concepts, concepts relating to order, arrangement, configuration
    8
    á, é, ú
    		intellectual concepts, thought, ideas, propositions; concepts relating to communication, learning and language
    9
    â, ê, û
    		personal affect, emotion, feelings, preferences; concepts relating to individual volition and choice
    10
    ă, ĕ, ŭ
    		socially or externally-induced affectations; concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations
    +


    +

    + + + + +
    10.3 DIMENSIONAL AND DESCRIPTIVE OPPOSITIONS
    +

    Another area of the lexicon where Western languages tend to + divide up reality into binary oppositions is the realm of spatial dimensions, + where pairs such as near/far, small/large, thin/thick, narrow/wide, tall/short, + light/heavy, hot/cold, etc. are commonplace. As with the perspective-based + oppositions seen in the preceding section, again Ilaksh lexico-semantics treats + such concepts in a wholly different way. Rather than lexicalize such concepts + as pairs of binary oppositions, Ilaksh delineates these qualities as varying + points along a continuous range. In other words, in Ilaksh you do not + say X is cold and Y is hot, but rather X has less temperature and Y has greater temperature. Similarly, one does not say A is + near to me and B is far from me, but rather the distance from + me to A (or proximity of A to me) is less than the distance from me + to B (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for + the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ + becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ilaksh formative is ‘amount + of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western + descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ilaksh as + mere variance in the quantity of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, + or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.4 SPATIAL POSITION AND ORIENTATION
    +

    Concepts of spatial position and orientation are expressed + very differently in Ilaksh as compared to Western languages such as English. + The three major differences are explained below, each of which will be explored + in detail in the sections which follow.

    +

    1) Ilaksh does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial + relationships, position, and orientation are designated by nominal/verbal formatives.

    +

    2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference + to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic + intent, Ilaksh subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexico-semantic + level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What + this means is that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional + reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance + is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in fact, + the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful + relationship (where a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), + the Ilaksh sentence will describe this function or purpose, not the spatial + relationship. For example, in answer to the question Where’s Billy? an English speaker might give answers such as (a) He’s standing right + next to Sam, or (b) He’s in bed, or (c) He’s in + the bathtub. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only + the first is truly intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while + sentences (b) and (c) imply information that is, in fact, more relevant than + the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s + sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s + bathing.’ An Ilaksh speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) + in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question Where’s + Billy? is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position + in absolute space. If the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial + information, he/she would have asked the Ilaksh equivalent of What’s + Billy doing? or What’s happening with Billy? to which a + Ilaksh speaker would answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions + of (b) or (c), not their original versions.

    +

    3) Ilaksh utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative + spacial reference, not a relative one as found in most languages. Note the positional + ambiguity inherent in sentences such as He’s standing to the left + of the desk. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose + perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, + the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of + the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, + or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) + Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages employ a relative coordinate + system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. Ilaksh + spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective + of a participant (e.g., the speaker or addressee) or referent object (i.e., + the thing(s) whose position is being described), as opposed to the relative + coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ilaksh system allows listeners + to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) + in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal + perspective.

    +


    + 10.4.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions

    +

    Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- + and three-dimensional space in different ways than in Western languages, Ilaksh + has no prepositions. Rather, Ilaksh utilizes formatives which describe a spatial + relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, + the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a + verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western + preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.”

    +

     

    +

    10.4.2 Underlying Cognitive Purpose of an Utterance

    +

    Ilaksh grammar considers the functional relationship between + two objects to be primarily relevant, not their spatial orientation or position + relative to each other (or between an object and its background). When it comes + to describing an object against a background or the relationship between two + objects, Ilaksh grammar is more interested in answering the question How + do X and Y function relative to each other, rather than How are X and + Y positioned in space relative to each other?

    +

    For example: in uttering the English sentence The vase + is on the table, is the intention of the sentence to tell the listener + the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, + or to tell the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against + gravity) by the table? If the intention is the former, the corresponding Ilaksh + sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest + self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction + of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support + against gravity, the Ilaksh sentence would not utilize a spatial reference + at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as The table is supporting + the vase. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in + Ilaksh are used far less often than corresponding prepositions and spatial + constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the following examples + illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ + (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ilaksh + using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ENGLISH + SENTENCE
    CONCEPT + CORRESPONDING TO 'IN(SIDE or INTO)'
    NEAREST + TRANSLATION TO Ilaksh EQUIVALENT
    The man works in(side) that building.general locational + reference where idea of interiority or containment is incidentalThe man works at that building.
    The book is in that box.physical containment + only with no specific purpose That box contains the book.
    You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can.incidental, temporary, + or circumstantial constraint/holder to prevent spillage from gravityThe small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.
    I poured soup in(to) the bowl.same as aboveI enabled the bowl to hold soup
    We stayed in(side) due to the rain.shelter, containment + for purpose of protectionWe shelter ourselves from the rain.
    He placed the sword in(side or into) its sheath.containment in fitted + covering for purposes of protectionHe sheathed the sword.
    He stayed in(side) his room.containment for purpose + of privacyHe shuttered himself.
    The tiger was kept in(side) a cage.containment to prevent + escapeThe tiger remained captured.
    There are high concentrations of lead in(side) that + pottery.ingredient, composite + substance That pottery contains much lead.
    Microchips can be found in(side) any machine these + days.inherent or integral + componentThese days, any machine incorporates microchips.
    I put fuel in the gas tank.integral component + having function to hold or contain other componentI (re-)fueled the gas tank.
    We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head.intangible containmentWe’ll never know her thoughts.
    He has a tumor in(side) his pancreas.enveloped to inaccessible + depth by surrounding mediumHis pancreas “harbors” a tumor.
    He hammered a nail in(to) the wall.fastening/connectingHe fastened the nail to the wall with a hammer.
    The child tried putting the square block in(side or + into) the round hole.fitting together one + object to anotherThe child tried to fit the round hole and the square + block together.
    +


    +     This functional prioritization notwithstanding, Ilaksh is nevertheless + able, if necessary, to describe true spatial relationships and orientations + quite specifically. However, it does so in ways that are very unfamiliar in + terms of Western grammar. These are described in the following section.

    +


    + 10.4.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates

    +

    While Western languages are capable of describing the physical + position and orientation of object in absolute terms (e.g., My hometown + is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N), it is not normal + to do so in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation + is normally relative, i.e., described from the dynamic perspective of the two + objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party observer (usually, + but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of + objects in my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, + phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue + is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ + and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information + without first having to establish a common frame of reference based on where + the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard (in order to interpret + what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing + relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), + perhaps even the orientation of the shape of the yard relative to some external + absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, E, + W).

    +

    In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ + change completely if I turn my body 180 degrees. Confusion also occurs when + I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of + the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left + side of the chair from the perspective of someone sitting in the chair?

    +

    Ilaksh avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute + coordinate system of spatial reference as opposed to a relative system (similar + in nature to the absolute system used in navigation based on the four cardinal + points.). Very few languages on Earth utilize such absolute systems to the exclusion + of relative systems. (Examples include Guugu Yimidhirr, an Australian aboriginal + language; Tzeltal, a Yucatec Mayan language; and Yurok, an Algonquian Indian + language of Northern California). Ilaksh utilizes three different absolute + coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. These + coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid + superimposed upon space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular + to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), + the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the direction of gravity (which + may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which + differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three + points of reckoning depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. + The three schemes are as follows:

    +

    1) Solar-based system. This is the standard + Ilaksh system of reckoning. The line of the Y-axis runs parallel to the rising + and setting points of the sun in mid-summer, with the vector oriented in the + direction of the setting sun. Note that the alignment of this Y-axis relative + to the X-axis is variable; i.e., the line connecting the rising and setting + points of the sun merely designate the direction of the Y-axis, not + it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships + can be made using a “quadrant locator” system based on this grid, + where any two objects can be made to lie within different quadrants relative + to each other (this will be illustrated below).

    +

    Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime + and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge + and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of + the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective + understanding of the orientation of the building/structure/room relative to + the solar-based Y-axis (i.e., everyone in the room can still tell the orientation + of the outdoor Y-axis, whether by sight through windows, or by noticing that + the length-width ratios of the room are aligned with the outdoor Y-axis).

    +

    2) Length vs. width of enclosed space or room. + In indoor situations where the orientation of the outdoor solar-based Y-axis + is unknown (or cannot be readily determined on a continuous basis as new speakers + enter the room), an arbitrary Y-axis is connoted by the length of the room in + a direction away from whichever end of the room displays a visibly unique feature + (e.g., the doorway, a window, an alcove, an imposing piece of furniture, a stage + or dais, etc.), this symbolically substituting for the position of the rising + sun. This is the coordinate system which would be employed in theaters, enclosed + banquet halls without windows, and cellars without windows or ready access to + outside orientation.

    +

    3) Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, + objects, or persons. This is similar to a Western relative system in + which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An Ilaksh + speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method + of reckoning. Nevertheless, it is possible to designate a personally defined + reckoning system using words to designate the origin point and direction of + the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on + a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between + the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the NAVIGATIVE case (see Sec. 4.7.6). + The primary use for this system of reckoning is literary or narrative, such + as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in which he/she wishes + to describe spatial relationships solely within the context of the story in + order to convey a mental map or image of the goings-on to his/her audience.

    +


    + 10.4.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects. + Using such a triaxial three-dimensional grid, Ilaksh then lexically divides + up space into “quadrants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” + of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight quadrants.

    +
    +

    +X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant + 1 = Root: plā-
    + +X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2 = Root: ňā-
    + +X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3 = Root: rā-
    + +X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4 = Root: řā-
    + -X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5 = Root: tlā-
    + -X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6 = Root: psā-
    + -X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7 = Root: ksā-
    + -X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8 = Root: pŧā-

    +
    +

    There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above + where either one or two of the X/Y/Z values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent + English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight + down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight + up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc. The above quadrants are + indicated in the illustrations below.

    +

    Because the lateral alignment (but not direction) of the solar-based + X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each can be slid laterally relative to the + other axis), any two objects whose relative positions are to be described can + be made to fall within two different quadrants, as illustrated in figures A, + B, C and D below (Figure A represents the background context for which Figures + B, C and D present varying positional frames of reference).
    +
    +

    +
    +

    +

     

    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    +
    +


    + It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional + grid that allows Ilaksh to easily describe the relative position of objects + in an absolute manner. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two objects + each fall into different quadrants, a series of quadrant-to-quadrant relationships + between the two objects can be lexified. Thus, each of the above roots has a + stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, designates a spatial relationship + between an object occupying that quadrant and a second object occupying any + of the seven other quadrants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call + each of these quadrant-to-quadrant static relationships a “positional + frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while + 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. + Used to mark the participant nouns with motion sentences described below.)

    +

    Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker + to describe exactly the spatial relationships between two objects in motion relative + to each other. This is done in Ilaksh by stating that two object are moving + from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by + “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, + not a specific location in space, it can be seen how such a simple formula easily + describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An Ilaksh speaker is describing + exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short sentence + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship the two objects have to start with, and + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship they will have when the motion is ended. + The root used to describe the motion indicates the nature of the motion in terms + of its smoothness, speed, etc.

    +

    To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing + where the speaker or addressee or third party is situated relative to the two + objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is added to the + sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) + which states the positional frame between that third party and the FIRST party + (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the + ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame + of the dog and ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog.

    +

    Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ilaksh can be + in describing relative position between objects in an absolute manner. This + is best illustrated by narrowly translating into English an Ilaksh sentence + which describes a three-party positional situation.
    +

    +
    +

    Akkà’uilafs  àgmël  äxän-nā  emplatōk  uxöò’ausk  zza’yal  ŧäāwäl.
    + IFL-‘woman’-COR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MVT1/5   IFL-‘child’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘run’-NNR    SCH-TNV-‘motion-from-Quadrant-1’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI-SSD1/8     FML-OPR-‘see’-CNR-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    1m/IND-ua/OBL     IFL-‘Position: +X / Y=0 / -Z’-LOC-DEL/U/CSL/UNI
    +

    +
    +

    There is no way to translate this Ilaksh sentence into everyday + English except via inadequate approximation, thus: The woman stood still + as something made the boy run from ahead and above her, then past her, while + I watched them from behind and below. However, a more exact, narrow translation + of this sentence, capturing all of the positional/orientational specificity + of the original, would run as follows:
    +

    +
    +

    As the woman held still, something made the boy run from + a position above, ahead of, and to the right of her relative to the direction + of the sunrise-to-sunset vector, a plane perpendicular to it, and the axis + of gravity, toward a position still above, but behind and to the left of her + relative to the same directional vector, perpendicular plane and gravitational + axis, as I was watching them from below, behind, and to the right of her relative + to the same vector, plane, and axis.
    +
    +

    +
    +
    10.4.3.2 Object-Internal Shape and Orientation. Note that, in + addition the above concepts of a positional grid for locating objects in space + and in positional relation to each other, Ilaksh also employs a whole set of + vocabulary to describe the physical topology, shape and internal self-orientation + of an object by itself. These are similar to words such as “face, back, + front, sides, top, bottom, appendage, tail, arm, etc., although it should be noted + that the equivalent Ilaksh terms are wholly autonomous and bear no metaphorical + relationship whatsoever to anthropomorphic body parts. Therefore, the “legs” + of a chair correspond more accurately to its “supports” or “struts” + in Ilaksh, while the “face” of a blackboard would correspond to a + word translatable only periphrastically as “main functional surface” + or “primary interface area” (although note that even this paraphrase + cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme “-face”).
    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.5 LEXICAL GENERALIZATION
    +

    In a word-for-word comparison to a Eurocentric vocabulary, + especially one as large as that of English, the Ilaksh lexicon appears very + overgeneralized in many respects. At first impression, it appears that shades + of meaning expressed by multiple words in English are expressed by only one + root in Ilaksh. As we have seen repeatedly throughout this work, this is primarily + due to the fact that shades of meaning for a single underlying cognitive concept + are normally differentiated at the morphological level in Ilaksh, as opposed + to the lexical. Nevertheless, there are several lexico-semantic areas where + Ilaksh truly does generalize in comparison to Western languages. This occurs + primarily where (1) Western vocabulary distinguishes separate lexemes for a + redundant concept based on different participants to, practitioners of, or manifestations + of that concept, and (2) where lexification is at an arbitrarily detailed or + particularized level. These topics are discussed in detail in the following + sections.

    +


    + 10.5.1 Consolidation of Unnecessary Distinctions

    +
    As an example of lexical generalization in Ilaksh (or over-lexicalization + in English!), compare the following words for animal vocal sounds: meow, + bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray, etc. Each of these words mean merely to + make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ilaksh utilizes only + a single stem for this concept (essentially meaning vocal sound/vocalize – from the same root which gives the stem for (human) voice), + based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or + moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate + lexically the innate vocal sound being made by an animal if the animal making + the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one might argue that English + allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in The + sergeant barked out orders to the platoon, or The baby squealed in + delight. Such constructions are perfectly captured in Ilaksh via the ESSIVE and ASSIMILATIVE cases, as in He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog, or The + baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight, or + via the manipulation of Function, Incorporation and Format (see Sections 6.4 and 6.5).
    +

    Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem + in Ilaksh would be (1) herd, flock, pride, gaggle, etc.; (2) hair, + fur, fleece, coat, etc.; (3) skin, hide, pelt, pellicle, peel, rind, + lambskin, leather, integument, etc.

    +

     

    +

    10.5.2 Translative Motion, Paths and Trajectories

    +

    By translative motion is meant the idea of an object moving + (or being moved) from one location to another. English is particularly rich + in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such an object, + not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, + but also the means of initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as to + toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run, or pass a ball or + other object. In reaching its destination, the object can fly, float, wing, + pass, arc, sail, plummet, drop, fall, thread, hop, leap, bounce, roll, zig-zag, + slide, glide, slither, or jump its way there.

    +

    As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ilaksh lexifies + concepts of translative motion with a focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, + not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. + Essentially, Ilaksh is less concerned with how the object gets there and is + more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For + example, look at the following two columns of English sentences :

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    I tossed it into + the basket.

    +
    		It sailed + into the basket.
    +

    I flung it into the + basket.

    +
    		It flew into the basket.
    +

    I hurled it into + the basket.

    +
    		It arced its way into + the basket.
    +

    I pitched it into + the basket.

    +
    		It fell into the basket.
    +
    +

    The sentences in the lefthand column + describes how I initiate the action while those in the righthand column describe + how the object moves. In Ilaksh the lefthand column of sentences would normally + all be translated by a single sentence narrowly translatable as I made it + end up inside the basket, while the righthand column of sentences would + all be translated by the exact same sentence minus the ERGATIVE personal referent I, thus: It ended up inside the basket.

    +

    So where are the words translating the range of descriptive + nuance surrounding the means of sending it into the basket and the different + trajectories it takes there? In normal Ilaksh speech, such distinctions would + be considered irrelevant. This is because Ilaksh grammar questions all acts, + conditions and events as to their underlying cognitive purpose. For the above + sentences, Ilaksh views them as all having the same underlying purpose: to + express that I have caused an object to pass from a state of being in my alienable + possession to a state of being within the basket, by passing through the physical + space between me and the basket. Therefore there is only one translation for + the varying sentence pairs.

    +

    Before the reader begins to think that Ilaksh is incapable + of distinguishing the shades of meaning present in the above examples, it should + be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by additional affixes + and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to + indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ilaksh can + augment the sentence I made it end up inside the basket to include + affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes + indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly + translatable as Using my hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I + caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully inside the basket.

    +

    While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances + of English “flung,” Ilaksh first makes us stop and ask ourselves, + why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force + initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English + speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or + “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in + the above sentence, would his/her speaker be considered to have been given information + any less sufficient or essential for understanding the message and its purpose? + All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ilaksh lexico-semantics: if + a complex, highly detailed morphology already conveys a high degree of semantic + and cognitive nuance, why belabor the obvious by reinforcing such nuances at + the lexical level if the context and underlying cognitive purpose of the utterance + does not require it? Thus the Ilaksh language not only captures levels of cognitive + detail beyond the scope of Western languages, but it also allows the speaker + to avoid having to provide such detail when it is inessential.

    +

     

    +

    10.5.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying + Processes

    +

    In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ilaksh perspective, + an example would be limp, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ + Ilaksh recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not + the condition per se that is relevant, but rather the manner in which + the condition causes the person to move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously + in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” + expectation of walking. Ilaksh speakers would consider English limp to represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative + movement. To a Ilaksh speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. + The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping + or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” + is an underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity + which causes the person to move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead + of He has a limp because of his war wound, a Ilaksh speaker would + say He walks asymmetrically/irregularly because of his war wound.

    +

    To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when + dancing to rock music, has a tendency to jerk his/her head to the left at the + sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it ludicrous over-lexicalization + to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s + head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical + sentence She spreggles to rock music. Yet, from the Ilaksh standpoint, + there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” + and the actual word ‘limp.’

    +

    Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both + animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ilaksh has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ + ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ + or ‘paralysis.’ In Ilaksh, one simply says He can’t see, + She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t + move, or alternately His faculty of sight (or other sense or innate + faculty) doesn’t function/no longer functions. [Note: each of + these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, + case, voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, + whether temporary or permanent, whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally + caused or inherently developed, etc.]

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.6 LEXICAL DIFFERENTIATION
    +

    While we have examined the many ways in which the dynamism + and logic of Ilaksh grammar eliminates whole swaths of equivalent English vocabulary, + there are, nevertheless, many concepts where Ilaksh provides autonomous lexical + roots and stems for which neither English nor other Western languages provide + similar words and must resort to paraphrase in order to translate. Such concepts + are particularly found in the realm of human emotions, social relationships, + functional interrelationships between objects, philosophy, psychology, and sensory + phenomena.

    +

    Underlying such differentiation is the idea that the Ilaksh + language is meant to reflect in linguistic terms as close a representation of + human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is possible + in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure + mathematical logic. Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded + in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented + in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language + which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require + many more words to describe that life than are commonly available in existing + human languages.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.7 COMPARISON TO WESTERN CATEGORIZATION
    +

    Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which + there is no exactly corresponding equivalent in Ilaksh. These include the concepts + embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ilaksh + has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” + or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership + equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ilaksh grammar + and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or + inherent existential possession as true semantic functional categories or fundamental + cognitive primitives.

    +


    + 10.7.1 Translating “To Be”

    +

    Ilaksh grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, + at any and all moments, and on all scales large and small, in a state of flux. + The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately identified as + “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ilaksh grammar + has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or + “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that + are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different + from moment to moment, if only because the mere passage of time itself renders + the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. + Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” + anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” + or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something + else. Fundamental to Ilaksh grammar are the notions of function and purpose, + not mere description; results, not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. + This explains why there is no true distinction between nouns and verbs in Ilaksh, + both being mere differences in functional roles played by any given formative + concept whose underlying meaning is not inherently nominal or verbal, but rather + a conceptual primitive waiting to be manifested as either (1) a representation + of an action, process, or event, (i.e., a verb), or (2) as a concrete or abstract + entity that is representative of, or embodies the underlying concept (i.e., + a noun).

    +

    So, an Ilaksh speaker does not say I am John, She is a + cook, The leaf is green, Stan is ill, or Murder is wrong, but + rather One calls me John, She cooks [for a living], The leaf [currently] + manifests a green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease], and Murder + controverts morality.

    +


    + 10.7.2 Translating ‘To Have’

    +

    In regard to “have” or “having,” Ilaksh + views the concept of possession as breaking down into more specific functional + states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation + to each other.

    +


    + 10.7.3 Translating Questions

    +

    As was discussed earlier in Section + 5.7.6 on the INTERROGATIVE illocution, the Ilaksh + language does not have a way of forming questions. Instead, Ilaksh grammar + treats an interrogative as reflecting an underlying cognitive demand for information + and/or a validation of the truth or factuality of a statement. Therefore, a + specific kind of imperative command is employed, telling the addressee to provide + the required validation or information. In some instances, questions in Western + languages are rhetorical and in fact represent a request or command. As might + be expected, Ilaksh translates such rhetorical questions as the commands they + truly are. The following examples illustrate how questions are handled in Ilaksh.

    +

    Do you know the way to San Jose?
    + [= Validate whether you know the way to San Jose.]

    +

    Will you please leave me alone?
    + [= I request that you leave me alone.]

    +

    Will you sing us a song?
    + [= We request that you sing us a song.]

    +

    What is the square root of 400?
    + [= State the square root of 400.]

    +

    Do you speak Ilaksh?
    + [= Demonstrate that you can speak in Ilaksh.]

    +

    Which bird is the one that was injured?
    + [= Indicate which bird was injured.]

    +

    How old are you?
    + [= State the amount/number of years you have lived.]

    +


    + 10.7.4 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections

    +

    As there are no interjections in Ilaksh, there are no true + equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ilaksh. Nevertheless, + there are abbreviated ways of answering the requests for information or commands + for validation that substitute for questions in Ilaksh. The closest approximations + are a few standardized sentences that answer commands using the validative mode. + These sentences translate in various ways, such as “It functions/happens/manifests + in that manner” or “It does not function/happen/manifest in that + manner”; or, “I can(not) validate that information based on... [state + evidence for validation].”

    +

    Observe how this operates in the following examples.

    +

    “Do you want to dance?” “No.”
    + [“State whether you will dance with me.” “I do not want to + dance with you.”

    +

    Ilaksh grammar also allows for the use of Bias affixes (see Sec. 6.6) to function + as autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to + interjections in Western languages. This phenomenon has already been discussed + in Section 8.5. + Additionally, Section + 8.3 described how affixual adjuncts may be used to convey information similarly + to autonomous interjections.

    +


    + 10.7.5 Translating Metaphorically Structured Phrases

    +

    Ilaksh grammar recognizes that much of our understanding and + expression of everyday experience is structured in terms of metaphor and metonymy + (the latter being the reference to an entity by one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business). + Ilaksh allows for the overt designation of metaphorical concepts by several + means. These include the REPRESENTATIONAL context, Function and Incorporation, + the metonymic MET affix + -V0py, + and the two part-whole + affixes -V0rs and -V0š.

    +

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 11: The Writing System >>

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    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      10.1 Systemic Morphological Derivation  10.5 Lexical Generalization  
      10.2 Phonological Classification of Roots  10.6 Lexical Differentiation  
      10.3 Dimensional and Descriptive Oppositions  10.7 Comparison to Western Categorization  
      10.4 Spatial Position and Orientation    
    +

    The term lexico-semantics refers to the relationship + between the lexicon of a language (i.e., its root-words and word-stems) and + the various possible semantic categories created by the human mind. Every language + (and particularly every language family) divides the world up differently in + terms of what sorts of concepts are made into words and how the meanings of + those words reflect the reality around us. In other words, the lexico-semantics + of a language answers the questions what semantic concepts does this language + psycho-linguistically categorize into autonomous words and how are each of these +categories internally organized?

    +

    Lexico-semantics is extremely important in Ilaksh for two + related reasons:

    +

    1) Ilaksh morpho-phonology only allows for 3600 possible root + words, as explained in Chapter 2. This means that the concepts chosen to be + conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the widest range + of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework.

    +

    2) We have seen throughout this work how Ilaksh’s matrix-like + grammatical structure allows for an incredible amount of synergy in terms of + morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, emergent concepts from + word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent derivations. + In order to ensure the maximum amount of dynamism in deriving new concepts morphologically + from existing word-roots, it is important that those initial roots be carefully + selected in terms of meaning.

    +

    In this chapter, we will examine the many considerations that + go in to the assigning of concepts to those 3600 roots, in order to optimally + accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using the dynamics + of Ilaksh morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more + autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting + the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.”

    +

    We will start first with a review of key components in the + systemic design of Ilaksh morphology. This will be followed by sections on + those areas of Ilaksh lexico-semantics which are most profoundly distinct from + Western languages.

    +

    The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, + examining how Ilaksh lexico-semantics reinterprets certain concepts considered + “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.1 SYSTEMIC MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATION
    +

    Ilaksh systematically uses its myriad of morphological categories + to derive secondary concepts from more basic concepts, often eliminating the + need for separate lexicalization, i.e., eliminating the need to create separate + word-roots for new but related concepts as is so often the case in Western languages. + We will explore this system of morphological derivation more closely, particularly + in regard to its universality across the spectrum of Ilaksh word-roots.

    +


    + 10.1.1 Stem Derivation from Roots

    +

    We have already seen many applied examples of the above-described + concepts, particularly in Section + 2.4 et seq. regarding the use of the three different syllabic stress patterns to derive a trinary array of interrelated stems from a root, as well as mutating the root-consonant of those trinary stems to in turn derive two separate arrays + of complementary stems from the initial holistic array of stems. Through this + system of stress patterns and consonant mutation, we saw how a single root generates no + less than eighteen formative stems, each functioning as a noun or verb. This + is illustrated below using the example root dù-‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    DÙ- ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’
    INFORMAL Designation
    FORMAL Designation
    +
    1. dù- move/motion from one place to another
    +
    +
    1. ùdu- travel/traverse; journey
    +
    +
    2. adù- set in motion/self-directed movement from one place to another
    +
    +
    2. udù- set off for/journey to/directed travel toward
    +
    +
    3. àdu(la)- move/movement between one place and another (i.e., along line between two points)
    +
    +
    +
    +
    3. ùdu(la)- travel/journey along way between two places
    +
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    1. tpù- go = movement outward/away
    +
    1. -ddù- come = movement inward/toward
    1. ùtpu- go traveling, be off
    1. ùddu- journey to(ward)
    2. atpù- go away/move away = increase distance from a starting point
    2. addù- come toward/to close the distance = decrease distance toward endpoint
    2. utpù- travel/journey further away from starting point
    2. uddù- reach vicinity of, close in on destination
    3. àtpu(la)- leave/depart = move away from one point towards another
    3. àddu(la)- approach = approach one point from direction of another
    3. ùtpu(la)- depart/departure from starting point on journey toward elsewhere
    3. ùddu(la)- arrive/arrival, reach destination
    +


    + As described in Chapter 2, this hierarchical pattern of stem + derivation and division into complementary stems from a more basic or underlying + “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number + of word-roots necessary compared to Western languages, as words that are semantically + interrelated in a hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically + from a basic root, as opposed to being assigned separate word-roots as in other + languages. The above root dù- demonstrates how concepts such come versus go are expressed as complementary derivations of a single underlying concept TRANSLATIVE + MOTION. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective +are similarly patterned, e.g., lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take, etc.

    +

    Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation + from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” + classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. Biological + taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, as illustrated + below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    BẸ- ‘MAMMAL’
    INFORMAL Designation
    FORMAL Designation
    +
    1. bẹ- marsupial
    +
    +
    1. ụbe- tamed/domesticated/pet marsupial
    +
    +
    2. abẹ- ovoviviparous (egg-laying) mammal
    +
    +
    2. ubẹ-tamed/domesticated/pet ovoviviparous (egg-laying) mammal
    +
    +
    3. ạbe(la)- placental mammal
    +
    +
    +
    +
    3. ụbe(la)-tamed/domesticated/pet placental mammal
    +
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS
    1. pkẹ- bat
    +
    1. -bbẹ- primate
    1. ụpke-
    +     tamed/domesticated/pet bat
    1. ụbbe- tamed/domesticated/pet primate
    2. apkẹ- rodent
    2. abbẹ- small common mammal (e.g., cat, dog, weasel, ferret, etc.)
    2. upkẹ- tamed/domesticated/pet rodent
    2. ubbẹ- tamed/domesticated/pet small common mammal
    3. ạpke(la)- large non-primate mammal (e.g., rhino, hippopotamus, etc.)
    3. ạbbe(la)- large common mammal (e.g., horse, cow, pig, sheep, goat, etc.)
    3. ụpke(la)-
    + tamed/domesticated/pet large non-primate mammal
    3. ụbbe(la)- tamed/domesticated/pet large common mamal
    +

    Using the nine degrees of the Stem + Specific Derivative SSD affix -V1k from Section 7.4.13 on such a root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific + parts, products or derived resources such as a the milk, oil, meat, skin or + hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The Degree + of Maturity MAT affix -V0ç from Section 7.4.10 is also applied to indicate the developmental stage of the +animal.

    +

    A different pattern applies to individual animal species, first + dividing the two Forms (Designations) of the root into the animal itself versus + the animal as a resource, the holistic stems indicating first the generic species + then male versus female. The complementary stems then make the further distinction + between wild versus domesticated for the informal stem and between food/prey + and derived or processed products for the formal stem. The SSD affix is again used to specify parts or products of the animal, while the MAT affix distinguishes the developmental stages, providing derived equivalents + to words such as foal, fawn, lamb or cub, from horse, + deer, goat, or lion.

    +


    + 10.1.2 The Use of Affixes

    +

    In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the 150-odd affix categories + can be used to generate both derivative concepts (e.g., xäl ‘hill’ + V1x/7 + ‘very large’ → xälïx ‘very large hill’) as + well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning (e.g., xäl ‘hill’ + V2x/7 + ‘very large’ → xälëx ‘mountain’). As an example, + here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes + from the stem allá- ‘say something [i.e., + communicate a verbal message]’:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    lalloákt
    +
    ‘share a secret’
    suffix = DSR2/8
    +
    lalliépt
    +
    ‘news’
    suffix = ATC2/3
    +
    lalliávz
    +
    ‘quip’
    suffix = SCO2/5
    +
    lalluikyá
    +
    ‘praise’
    suffix = NTR2/9
    +
    lalliëépt
    +
    ‘lie’ [= tell a lie]
    suffix = REA2/7
    +
    lalloált
    +
    ‘shout out a message’
    suffix = STR2/8
    +
    lallién
    +
    ‘persuasive person, a persuader’
    suffix = AGC2/3
    +
    lalliëén
    +
    ‘liaison, a go-between’
    suffix = AGC2/7
    +
    lallëhiókç
    +
    ‘whisper sweet nothings’
    suffixes = AFT2/1 + FRC2/2
    + + + + + + +
    +
    lallëciéps
    +
    ‘cuss, curse ’
    suffixes = UNQ 2/1 + MTA 2/3
    +

     

    +

    Similarly the use of the Consent CNS suffix, the Reason RSN suffix, the Expectation XPT suffix, the Deliberateness DLB suffix, the Enablement ENB suffix, the Agency/Intent AGN suffix, and the Impact IMP suffix from Section + 7.4.12 in conjunction w/ Transrelative cases (Sec. + 4.3), provides a means for describing extremely subtle scenarios of causation, + willingness, enablement, hindrance, etc. which other languages can only capture + via long-winded paraphrase. Employing this array of affixes and cases, a sentence + such as The singer stopped the boys from playing around can be translated + into Ilaksh in many syntactically equivalent (but morphologically distinct) + ways to indicate whether the singer used physical force or persuasion to stop + the boys, whether she stopped them via an indirect enabling means (such as turning + out the lights), or whether it was the boys themselves who stopped upon hearing + her voice or seeing her beauty, or even by her mere presence interrupting them + (such as walking in on them inadvertently), as well as the degree of willingness + or consent with which they stopped. The following example sentence further illustrates + the complex detail which these suffixes make possible:

    +
    +

    Eňt  aktäiliornüùls  tlẹiliërz  ustançirbūams.
    + XPT1/2   IFL-‘man’-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DLB2/2-ENB1/6   IFL-‘bird’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IMP2/7   FML-OPR-‘room’-DEL/U/COA/CST-DEV1/1-AGN2/9
    + Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally + killed it without even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting + it out of the house.__________

    +
    +


    + The DEV suffix from Sec. 7.4.9, + in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of English such + as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate + the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in Ilaksh this suffix is productive + for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with Modality + (Section 6.1) + and the Modality suffixes from Section 7.4.11 to extend the system of modalities, as illustrated by the following:

    +
    +
    promise to + DEV/1 = + foreswear, vow never to
    + can (know how to) +     DEV/1 = be ignorant of
    + decide to +     DEV/1 = avoid
    + offer to +     DEV/1 = refuse to
    + agree upon/to +     DEV/1 = decline to/abstain from
    + like to +     DEV/1 = loathe
    + fear to +     DEV/1 = love to
    + need to +     DEV/1 = dispensable, unnecessary to, can dispense with
    +
    +

     

    +

    10.1.3 The Use of Configuration, Affiliation, and Context

    +

    Each of these categories has means to generate amalgamate, + holistic, or emergent concepts from a more basic underlying stem.

    +

    10.1.3.1 Configuration: In Sec. + 3.1 we saw how applying each of the nine Configuration categories to a stem + often generates forms based on amalgamation of sets which require complete relexification + when translated into English. Examples are:

    +
    +

    bone → skeleton
    + strut/girder     → frame → framework
    + component     → structure → system
    + ingredient     → compound
    + food     → dish → meal
    + tool     → toolset
    + do/perform     → coordinate
    + vehicle     → convoy
    + person     → group → crowd → masses
    + activity     → process.

    +
    +

    10.1.3.2 Affiliation: In Sec. + 3.2 we saw how the four Affiliations can generate new concepts based on + delineations of purpose, benefit, or function. Examples include:

    +
    +

    group → team,
    + grove     → orchard
    + assortment     → collection → junk
    + process     → plan

    +
    +

    10.1.3.3 Context: In Sec. + 3.5.4 we encountered the AMALGAMATE context, which + serves to identify a stem specifically as a gestalt entity, composed of objective + and subjective/social elements or components which contribute to the overall + nature of the stem. Depending on the stem to which it is applied, the use of + the amalgamate can cause relexification in translating to English. Examples:

    +
    +

    demeanor → personality
    + craftsmanship     → artistry
    + career     → livelihood
    + (one’s) past     → (one’s) + life
    + to look after/tend     → nurture

    +
    +

    +

    10.1.4 The Use of Designation and Version

    +

    In Section + 3.6 on Designation as well as Sec. + 5.5 on Version, we saw how both of these morphological categories create + distinctions in word-stems which usually require relexification in translation. + The following word pairs illustrate such relexification:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    (the) past → historysee → observe
    writings → literatureone → single/singular
    wordplay → rhetorichear → listen
    behavior → demeanordesire → request
    wander → travelquery → research
    eat → dineponder → analyze
    containment → storagepath → route
    +
    +

    Again we see that application of morphological categories + to word-stems serves to generate forms which substitute for lexical distinctions + in other languages, thus helping to reduce the size of the Ilaksh lexicon.

    +
    +
     
    +
    +

    10.1.5 The Use of Phase and Extension

    +

    The use of the nine Phases, as explained in Sec. + 5.3, used in conjunction with the category of Extension (Sec. + 3.4) gives rise to an elaborate means by which to describe phenomena in + terms of duration, periodicity, repetition, iterativity, and cyclic phenomena. + When used in conjunction with the twelve Modulative affixes from Sec. + 7.4.7, the Iteration ITN and Repetition RPN affixes from Sec. 7.4.5 and the Intensity ITY affix from Sec. 7.4.10, + Phase becomes an extremely powerful means to describe with great subtlety all + phenomena which display vibratory, oscillative, wavering, on-off, or variative + movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific application of the various + phases combined with the aforementioned affixes and other affix categories to + a single stem ččà- ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following + English words:

    + +
    + + + + + + + +
    acoustic
    + audible
    + auditory
    + bang
    + blast
    + boom
    + buzz
    + cacophony
    + calm
    + click
    + clickety-clack
    + clink
    + crack
    + crackle
    + crash
    + din
    + discord
    + dissonance
    + drone
    + echo
    + explosion    		faint + sound
    + fizz
    + gag
    + grate
    + hiss
    + howl
    + hullabaloo
    + hum
    + hush
    + jangle
    + kerplunk
    + knock
    + loud(ness)
    + lull
    + moan
    + muffle
    + murmur
    + mute
    + noise
    + pandemonium
    + peal
    +

    pit-a-pat
    + plink
    + pop
    + quaver
    + quiet
    + racket
    + rap
    + rat-a-tat
    + rattle
    + raucous
    + resonant
    + reverberate
    + ring
    + roar
    + rumble
    + rush of sound
    + rustle
    + screech
    + shrill
    + silence
    + snap

    		sonorous
    + sound
    + staccato
    + stifle
    + strident
    + stutter
    + swirl
    + swish
    + tap
    + thump
    + tick
    + toot
    + twang
    + uproar
    + vibration
    + whir
    + whistle
    + whiz
    + whoosh
    +
    +

    The same principles applied to other types of stems give rise + to a plethora of complex and subtle means for describing motions, paths, trajectories, + movement in situ, light emanation, reflection, consistency, texture, variation + in shape, visual complexity, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.2 PHONOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROOTS
    +

    Many languages have class systems for both nouns and verbs, + in which a specific pattern of morpho-phonological markers are assigned to a + specified set of roots. Often, class membership is quite arbitrary as in the + three conjugational classes of Spanish, Italian, or French verbs. In other cases, + class membership roughly corresponds to an underlying semantic category, as + seen in the masculine versus feminine versus neuter class system of many languages. + Non-Western languages often delineate a greater number of classes determined + by categories of shape, purpose, socio-cultural factors, and other objective + or subjective semantic factors.

    +

    Ilaksh displays a pattern of ten morpho-semantic classes for + its 3600 roots. In Ilaksh, class is delineated by a combination of the Vr vocalic component of the stem (see Section + 2.2) plus the stem’s tone, i.e., the Vr plus tone indicates + to which of the ten classes a root belongs. In this manner, the consonant pattern + of an Ilaksh root always provides a clue as to general meaning of the root. + The ten Ilaksh classes with their corresponding Vr plus tone combinations are shown + in the table below.

    +


    + Table 34: Ilaksh Morpho-Semantic Classes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CLASS
    Vr+tone MARKERS
    SIGNIFICATION
    1
    à, è, ù
    		concepts relating to the physical attributes of organic matter, taxonomies of organic life
    2
    ạ, ẹ, ụ
    		taxonomies of organic life
    3
    ì, ò, ĭ
    		concepts relating to the physical attributes of inorganic matter, taxonomies of physical substances
    4
    ị, ọ, ŏ
    		taxonomies of physical substances
    5
    ā, ē, ū
    		spatio-dimensional concepts, form and motion
    6
    í, ó, î
    		concepts relating to change and causation; relational concepts, identity, associations; concepts relating to existence, state, occurrence, subjectiveness
    7
    ī, ō, ô
    		numerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics, temporal concepts, concepts relating to order, arrangement, configuration
    8
    á, é, ú
    		intellectual concepts, thought, ideas, propositions; concepts relating to communication, learning and language
    9
    â, ê, û
    		personal affect, emotion, feelings, preferences; concepts relating to individual volition and choice
    10
    ă, ĕ, ŭ
    		socially or externally-induced affectations; concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations
    +


    +

    + + + + +
    10.3 DIMENSIONAL AND DESCRIPTIVE OPPOSITIONS
    +

    Another area of the lexicon where Western languages tend to + divide up reality into binary oppositions is the realm of spatial dimensions, + where pairs such as near/far, small/large, thin/thick, narrow/wide, tall/short, + light/heavy, hot/cold, etc. are commonplace. As with the perspective-based + oppositions seen in the preceding section, again Ilaksh lexico-semantics treats + such concepts in a wholly different way. Rather than lexicalize such concepts + as pairs of binary oppositions, Ilaksh delineates these qualities as varying + points along a continuous range. In other words, in Ilaksh you do not + say X is cold and Y is hot, but rather X has less temperature and Y has greater temperature. Similarly, one does not say A is + near to me and B is far from me, but rather the distance from + me to A (or proximity of A to me) is less than the distance from me + to B (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for + the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ + becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ilaksh formative is ‘amount + of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western + descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ilaksh as + mere variance in the quantity of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, + or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.4 SPATIAL POSITION AND ORIENTATION
    +

    Concepts of spatial position and orientation are expressed + very differently in Ilaksh as compared to Western languages such as English. + The three major differences are explained below, each of which will be explored + in detail in the sections which follow.

    +

    1) Ilaksh does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial + relationships, position, and orientation are designated by nominal/verbal formatives.

    +

    2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference + to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic + intent, Ilaksh subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexico-semantic + level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What + this means is that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional + reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance + is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in fact, + the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful + relationship (where a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), + the Ilaksh sentence will describe this function or purpose, not the spatial + relationship. For example, in answer to the question Where’s Billy? an English speaker might give answers such as (a) He’s standing right + next to Sam, or (b) He’s in bed, or (c) He’s in + the bathtub. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only + the first is truly intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while + sentences (b) and (c) imply information that is, in fact, more relevant than + the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s + sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s + bathing.’ An Ilaksh speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) + in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question Where’s + Billy? is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position + in absolute space. If the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial + information, he/she would have asked the Ilaksh equivalent of What’s + Billy doing? or What’s happening with Billy? to which a + Ilaksh speaker would answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions + of (b) or (c), not their original versions.

    +

    3) Ilaksh utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative + spacial reference, not a relative one as found in most languages. Note the positional + ambiguity inherent in sentences such as He’s standing to the left + of the desk. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose + perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, + the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of + the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, + or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) + Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages employ a relative coordinate + system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. Ilaksh + spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective + of a participant (e.g., the speaker or addressee) or referent object (i.e., + the thing(s) whose position is being described), as opposed to the relative + coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ilaksh system allows listeners + to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) + in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal + perspective.

    +


    + 10.4.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions

    +

    Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- + and three-dimensional space in different ways than in Western languages, Ilaksh + has no prepositions. Rather, Ilaksh utilizes formatives which describe a spatial + relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, + the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a + verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western + preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.”

    +

     

    +

    10.4.2 Underlying Cognitive Purpose of an Utterance

    +

    Ilaksh grammar considers the functional relationship between + two objects to be primarily relevant, not their spatial orientation or position + relative to each other (or between an object and its background). When it comes + to describing an object against a background or the relationship between two + objects, Ilaksh grammar is more interested in answering the question How + do X and Y function relative to each other, rather than How are X and + Y positioned in space relative to each other?

    +

    For example: in uttering the English sentence The vase + is on the table, is the intention of the sentence to tell the listener + the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, + or to tell the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against + gravity) by the table? If the intention is the former, the corresponding Ilaksh + sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest + self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction + of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support + against gravity, the Ilaksh sentence would not utilize a spatial reference + at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as The table is supporting + the vase. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in + Ilaksh are used far less often than corresponding prepositions and spatial + constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the following examples + illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ + (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ilaksh + using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ENGLISH + SENTENCE
    CONCEPT + CORRESPONDING TO 'IN(SIDE or INTO)'
    NEAREST + TRANSLATION TO Ilaksh EQUIVALENT
    The man works in(side) that building.general locational + reference where idea of interiority or containment is incidentalThe man works at that building.
    The book is in that box.physical containment + only with no specific purpose That box contains the book.
    You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can.incidental, temporary, + or circumstantial constraint/holder to prevent spillage from gravityThe small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.
    I poured soup in(to) the bowl.same as aboveI enabled the bowl to hold soup
    We stayed in(side) due to the rain.shelter, containment + for purpose of protectionWe shelter ourselves from the rain.
    He placed the sword in(side or into) its sheath.containment in fitted + covering for purposes of protectionHe sheathed the sword.
    He stayed in(side) his room.containment for purpose + of privacyHe shuttered himself.
    The tiger was kept in(side) a cage.containment to prevent + escapeThe tiger remained captured.
    There are high concentrations of lead in(side) that + pottery.ingredient, composite + substance That pottery contains much lead.
    Microchips can be found in(side) any machine these + days.inherent or integral + componentThese days, any machine incorporates microchips.
    I put fuel in the gas tank.integral component + having function to hold or contain other componentI (re-)fueled the gas tank.
    We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head.intangible containmentWe’ll never know her thoughts.
    He has a tumor in(side) his pancreas.enveloped to inaccessible + depth by surrounding mediumHis pancreas “harbors” a tumor.
    He hammered a nail in(to) the wall.fastening/connectingHe fastened the nail to the wall with a hammer.
    The child tried putting the square block in(side or + into) the round hole.fitting together one + object to anotherThe child tried to fit the round hole and the square + block together.
    +


    +     This functional prioritization notwithstanding, Ilaksh is nevertheless + able, if necessary, to describe true spatial relationships and orientations + quite specifically. However, it does so in ways that are very unfamiliar in + terms of Western grammar. These are described in the following section.

    +


    + 10.4.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates

    +

    While Western languages are capable of describing the physical + position and orientation of object in absolute terms (e.g., My hometown + is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N), it is not normal + to do so in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation + is normally relative, i.e., described from the dynamic perspective of the two + objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party observer (usually, + but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of + objects in my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, + phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue + is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ + and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information + without first having to establish a common frame of reference based on where + the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard (in order to interpret + what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing + relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), + perhaps even the orientation of the shape of the yard relative to some external + absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, E, + W).

    +

    In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ + change completely if I turn my body 180 degrees. Confusion also occurs when + I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of + the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left + side of the chair from the perspective of someone sitting in the chair?

    +

    Ilaksh avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute + coordinate system of spatial reference as opposed to a relative system (similar + in nature to the absolute system used in navigation based on the four cardinal + points.). Very few languages on Earth utilize such absolute systems to the exclusion + of relative systems. (Examples include Guugu Yimidhirr, an Australian aboriginal + language; Tzeltal, a Yucatec Mayan language; and Yurok, an Algonquian Indian + language of Northern California). Ilaksh utilizes three different absolute + coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. These + coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid + superimposed upon space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular + to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), + the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the direction of gravity (which + may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which + differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three + points of reckoning depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. + The three schemes are as follows:

    +

    1) Solar-based system. This is the standard + Ilaksh system of reckoning. The line of the Y-axis runs parallel to the rising + and setting points of the sun in mid-summer, with the vector oriented in the + direction of the setting sun. Note that the alignment of this Y-axis relative + to the X-axis is variable; i.e., the line connecting the rising and setting + points of the sun merely designate the direction of the Y-axis, not + it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships + can be made using a “quadrant locator” system based on this grid, + where any two objects can be made to lie within different quadrants relative + to each other (this will be illustrated below).

    +

    Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime + and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge + and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of + the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective + understanding of the orientation of the building/structure/room relative to + the solar-based Y-axis (i.e., everyone in the room can still tell the orientation + of the outdoor Y-axis, whether by sight through windows, or by noticing that + the length-width ratios of the room are aligned with the outdoor Y-axis).

    +

    2) Length vs. width of enclosed space or room. + In indoor situations where the orientation of the outdoor solar-based Y-axis + is unknown (or cannot be readily determined on a continuous basis as new speakers + enter the room), an arbitrary Y-axis is connoted by the length of the room in + a direction away from whichever end of the room displays a visibly unique feature + (e.g., the doorway, a window, an alcove, an imposing piece of furniture, a stage + or dais, etc.), this symbolically substituting for the position of the rising + sun. This is the coordinate system which would be employed in theaters, enclosed + banquet halls without windows, and cellars without windows or ready access to + outside orientation.

    +

    3) Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, + objects, or persons. This is similar to a Western relative system in + which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An Ilaksh + speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method + of reckoning. Nevertheless, it is possible to designate a personally defined + reckoning system using words to designate the origin point and direction of + the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on + a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between + the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the NAVIGATIVE case (see Sec. 4.7.6). + The primary use for this system of reckoning is literary or narrative, such + as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in which he/she wishes + to describe spatial relationships solely within the context of the story in + order to convey a mental map or image of the goings-on to his/her audience.

    +


    + 10.4.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects. + Using such a triaxial three-dimensional grid, Ilaksh then lexically divides + up space into “quadrants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” + of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight quadrants.

    +
    +

    +X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant + 1 = Root: plā-
    + +X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2 = Root: ňā-
    + +X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3 = Root: rā-
    + +X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4 = Root: řā-
    + -X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5 = Root: tlā-
    + -X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6 = Root: psā-
    + -X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7 = Root: ksā-
    + -X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8 = Root: pŧā-

    +
    +

    There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above + where either one or two of the X/Y/Z values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent + English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight + down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight + up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc. The above quadrants are + indicated in the illustrations below.

    +

    Because the lateral alignment (but not direction) of the solar-based + X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each can be slid laterally relative to the + other axis), any two objects whose relative positions are to be described can + be made to fall within two different quadrants, as illustrated in figures A, + B, C and D below (Figure A represents the background context for which Figures + B, C and D present varying positional frames of reference).
    +
    +

    +
    +

    +

     

    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    +
    +


    + It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional + grid that allows Ilaksh to easily describe the relative position of objects + in an absolute manner. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two objects + each fall into different quadrants, a series of quadrant-to-quadrant relationships + between the two objects can be lexified. Thus, each of the above roots has a + stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, designates a spatial relationship + between an object occupying that quadrant and a second object occupying any + of the seven other quadrants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call + each of these quadrant-to-quadrant static relationships a “positional + frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while + 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. + Used to mark the participant nouns with motion sentences described below.)

    +

    Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker + to describe exactly the spatial relationships between two objects in motion relative + to each other. This is done in Ilaksh by stating that two object are moving + from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by + “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, + not a specific location in space, it can be seen how such a simple formula easily + describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An Ilaksh speaker is describing + exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short sentence + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship the two objects have to start with, and + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship they will have when the motion is ended. + The root used to describe the motion indicates the nature of the motion in terms + of its smoothness, speed, etc.

    +

    To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing + where the speaker or addressee or third party is situated relative to the two + objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is added to the + sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) + which states the positional frame between that third party and the FIRST party + (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the + ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame + of the dog and ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog.

    +

    Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ilaksh can be + in describing relative position between objects in an absolute manner. This + is best illustrated by narrowly translating into English an Ilaksh sentence + which describes a three-party positional situation.
    +

    +
    +

    Akkà’uilafs  àgmël  äxän-nā  emplatōk  uxöò’ausk  zza’yal  ŧäāwäl.
    + IFL-‘woman’-COR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MVT1/5   IFL-‘child’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘run’-NNR    SCH-TNV-‘motion-from-Quadrant-1’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI-SSD1/8     FML-OPR-‘see’-CNR-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    1m/IND-ua/OBL     IFL-‘Position: +X / Y=0 / -Z’-LOC-DEL/U/CSL/UNI
    +

    +
    +

    There is no way to translate this Ilaksh sentence into everyday + English except via inadequate approximation, thus: The woman stood still + as something made the boy run from ahead and above her, then past her, while + I watched them from behind and below. However, a more exact, narrow translation + of this sentence, capturing all of the positional/orientational specificity + of the original, would run as follows:
    +

    +
    +

    As the woman held still, something made the boy run from + a position above, ahead of, and to the right of her relative to the direction + of the sunrise-to-sunset vector, a plane perpendicular to it, and the axis + of gravity, toward a position still above, but behind and to the left of her + relative to the same directional vector, perpendicular plane and gravitational + axis, as I was watching them from below, behind, and to the right of her relative + to the same vector, plane, and axis.
    +
    +

    +
    +
    10.4.3.2 Object-Internal Shape and Orientation. Note that, in + addition the above concepts of a positional grid for locating objects in space + and in positional relation to each other, Ilaksh also employs a whole set of + vocabulary to describe the physical topology, shape and internal self-orientation + of an object by itself. These are similar to words such as “face, back, + front, sides, top, bottom, appendage, tail, arm, etc., although it should be noted + that the equivalent Ilaksh terms are wholly autonomous and bear no metaphorical + relationship whatsoever to anthropomorphic body parts. Therefore, the “legs” + of a chair correspond more accurately to its “supports” or “struts” + in Ilaksh, while the “face” of a blackboard would correspond to a + word translatable only periphrastically as “main functional surface” + or “primary interface area” (although note that even this paraphrase + cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme “-face”).
    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.5 LEXICAL GENERALIZATION
    +

    In a word-for-word comparison to a Eurocentric vocabulary, + especially one as large as that of English, the Ilaksh lexicon appears very + overgeneralized in many respects. At first impression, it appears that shades + of meaning expressed by multiple words in English are expressed by only one + root in Ilaksh. As we have seen repeatedly throughout this work, this is primarily + due to the fact that shades of meaning for a single underlying cognitive concept + are normally differentiated at the morphological level in Ilaksh, as opposed + to the lexical. Nevertheless, there are several lexico-semantic areas where + Ilaksh truly does generalize in comparison to Western languages. This occurs + primarily where (1) Western vocabulary distinguishes separate lexemes for a + redundant concept based on different participants to, practitioners of, or manifestations + of that concept, and (2) where lexification is at an arbitrarily detailed or + particularized level. These topics are discussed in detail in the following + sections.

    +


    + 10.5.1 Consolidation of Unnecessary Distinctions

    +
    As an example of lexical generalization in Ilaksh (or over-lexicalization + in English!), compare the following words for animal vocal sounds: meow, + bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray, etc. Each of these words mean merely to + make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ilaksh utilizes only + a single stem for this concept (essentially meaning vocal sound/vocalize – from the same root which gives the stem for (human) voice), + based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or + moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate + lexically the innate vocal sound being made by an animal if the animal making + the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one might argue that English + allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in The + sergeant barked out orders to the platoon, or The baby squealed in + delight. Such constructions are perfectly captured in Ilaksh via the ESSIVE and ASSIMILATIVE cases, as in He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog, or The + baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight, or + via the manipulation of Function, Incorporation and Format (see Sections 6.4 and 6.5).
    +

    Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem + in Ilaksh would be (1) herd, flock, pride, gaggle, etc.; (2) hair, + fur, fleece, coat, etc.; (3) skin, hide, pelt, pellicle, peel, rind, + lambskin, leather, integument, etc.

    +

     

    +

    10.5.2 Translative Motion, Paths and Trajectories

    +

    By translative motion is meant the idea of an object moving + (or being moved) from one location to another. English is particularly rich + in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such an object, + not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, + but also the means of initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as to + toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run, or pass a ball or + other object. In reaching its destination, the object can fly, float, wing, + pass, arc, sail, plummet, drop, fall, thread, hop, leap, bounce, roll, zig-zag, + slide, glide, slither, or jump its way there.

    +

    As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ilaksh lexifies + concepts of translative motion with a focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, + not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. + Essentially, Ilaksh is less concerned with how the object gets there and is + more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For + example, look at the following two columns of English sentences :

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    I tossed it into + the basket.

    +
    		It sailed + into the basket.
    +

    I flung it into the + basket.

    +
    		It flew into the basket.
    +

    I hurled it into + the basket.

    +
    		It arced its way into + the basket.
    +

    I pitched it into + the basket.

    +
    		It fell into the basket.
    +
    +

    The sentences in the lefthand column + describes how I initiate the action while those in the righthand column describe + how the object moves. In Ilaksh the lefthand column of sentences would normally + all be translated by a single sentence narrowly translatable as I made it + end up inside the basket, while the righthand column of sentences would + all be translated by the exact same sentence minus the ERGATIVE personal referent I, thus: It ended up inside the basket.

    +

    So where are the words translating the range of descriptive + nuance surrounding the means of sending it into the basket and the different + trajectories it takes there? In normal Ilaksh speech, such distinctions would + be considered irrelevant. This is because Ilaksh grammar questions all acts, + conditions and events as to their underlying cognitive purpose. For the above + sentences, Ilaksh views them as all having the same underlying purpose: to + express that I have caused an object to pass from a state of being in my alienable + possession to a state of being within the basket, by passing through the physical + space between me and the basket. Therefore there is only one translation for + the varying sentence pairs.

    +

    Before the reader begins to think that Ilaksh is incapable + of distinguishing the shades of meaning present in the above examples, it should + be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by additional affixes + and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to + indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ilaksh can + augment the sentence I made it end up inside the basket to include + affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes + indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly + translatable as Using my hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I + caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully inside the basket.

    +

    While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances + of English “flung,” Ilaksh first makes us stop and ask ourselves, + why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force + initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English + speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or + “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in + the above sentence, would his/her speaker be considered to have been given information + any less sufficient or essential for understanding the message and its purpose? + All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ilaksh lexico-semantics: if + a complex, highly detailed morphology already conveys a high degree of semantic + and cognitive nuance, why belabor the obvious by reinforcing such nuances at + the lexical level if the context and underlying cognitive purpose of the utterance + does not require it? Thus the Ilaksh language not only captures levels of cognitive + detail beyond the scope of Western languages, but it also allows the speaker + to avoid having to provide such detail when it is inessential.

    +

     

    +

    10.5.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying + Processes

    +

    In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ilaksh perspective, + an example would be limp, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ + Ilaksh recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not + the condition per se that is relevant, but rather the manner in which + the condition causes the person to move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously + in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” + expectation of walking. Ilaksh speakers would consider English limp to represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative + movement. To a Ilaksh speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. + The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping + or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” + is an underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity + which causes the person to move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead + of He has a limp because of his war wound, a Ilaksh speaker would + say He walks asymmetrically/irregularly because of his war wound.

    +

    To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when + dancing to rock music, has a tendency to jerk his/her head to the left at the + sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it ludicrous over-lexicalization + to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s + head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical + sentence She spreggles to rock music. Yet, from the Ilaksh standpoint, + there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” + and the actual word ‘limp.’

    +

    Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both + animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ilaksh has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ + ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ + or ‘paralysis.’ In Ilaksh, one simply says He can’t see, + She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t + move, or alternately His faculty of sight (or other sense or innate + faculty) doesn’t function/no longer functions. [Note: each of + these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, + case, voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, + whether temporary or permanent, whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally + caused or inherently developed, etc.]

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.6 LEXICAL DIFFERENTIATION
    +

    While we have examined the many ways in which the dynamism + and logic of Ilaksh grammar eliminates whole swaths of equivalent English vocabulary, + there are, nevertheless, many concepts where Ilaksh provides autonomous lexical + roots and stems for which neither English nor other Western languages provide + similar words and must resort to paraphrase in order to translate. Such concepts + are particularly found in the realm of human emotions, social relationships, + functional interrelationships between objects, philosophy, psychology, and sensory + phenomena.

    +

    Underlying such differentiation is the idea that the Ilaksh + language is meant to reflect in linguistic terms as close a representation of + human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is possible + in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure + mathematical logic. Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded + in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented + in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language + which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require + many more words to describe that life than are commonly available in existing + human languages.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.7 COMPARISON TO WESTERN CATEGORIZATION
    +

    Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which + there is no exactly corresponding equivalent in Ilaksh. These include the concepts + embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ilaksh + has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” + or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership + equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ilaksh grammar + and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or + inherent existential possession as true semantic functional categories or fundamental + cognitive primitives.

    +


    + 10.7.1 Translating “To Be”

    +

    Ilaksh grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, + at any and all moments, and on all scales large and small, in a state of flux. + The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately identified as + “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ilaksh grammar + has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or + “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that + are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different + from moment to moment, if only because the mere passage of time itself renders + the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. + Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” + anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” + or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something + else. Fundamental to Ilaksh grammar are the notions of function and purpose, + not mere description; results, not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. + This explains why there is no true distinction between nouns and verbs in Ilaksh, + both being mere differences in functional roles played by any given formative + concept whose underlying meaning is not inherently nominal or verbal, but rather + a conceptual primitive waiting to be manifested as either (1) a representation + of an action, process, or event, (i.e., a verb), or (2) as a concrete or abstract + entity that is representative of, or embodies the underlying concept (i.e., + a noun).

    +

    So, an Ilaksh speaker does not say I am John, She is a + cook, The leaf is green, Stan is ill, or Murder is wrong, but + rather One calls me John, She cooks [for a living], The leaf [currently] + manifests a green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease], and Murder + controverts morality.

    +


    + 10.7.2 Translating ‘To Have’

    +

    In regard to “have” or “having,” Ilaksh + views the concept of possession as breaking down into more specific functional + states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation + to each other.

    +


    + 10.7.3 Translating Questions

    +

    As was discussed earlier in Section + 5.7.6 on the INTERROGATIVE illocution, the Ilaksh + language does not have a way of forming questions. Instead, Ilaksh grammar + treats an interrogative as reflecting an underlying cognitive demand for information + and/or a validation of the truth or factuality of a statement. Therefore, a + specific kind of imperative command is employed, telling the addressee to provide + the required validation or information. In some instances, questions in Western + languages are rhetorical and in fact represent a request or command. As might + be expected, Ilaksh translates such rhetorical questions as the commands they + truly are. The following examples illustrate how questions are handled in Ilaksh.

    +

    Do you know the way to San Jose?
    + [= Validate whether you know the way to San Jose.]

    +

    Will you please leave me alone?
    + [= I request that you leave me alone.]

    +

    Will you sing us a song?
    + [= We request that you sing us a song.]

    +

    What is the square root of 400?
    + [= State the square root of 400.]

    +

    Do you speak Ilaksh?
    + [= Demonstrate that you can speak in Ilaksh.]

    +

    Which bird is the one that was injured?
    + [= Indicate which bird was injured.]

    +

    How old are you?
    + [= State the amount/number of years you have lived.]

    +


    + 10.7.4 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections

    +

    As there are no interjections in Ilaksh, there are no true + equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ilaksh. Nevertheless, + there are abbreviated ways of answering the requests for information or commands + for validation that substitute for questions in Ilaksh. The closest approximations + are a few standardized sentences that answer commands using the validative mode. + These sentences translate in various ways, such as “It functions/happens/manifests + in that manner” or “It does not function/happen/manifest in that + manner”; or, “I can(not) validate that information based on... [state + evidence for validation].”

    +

    Observe how this operates in the following examples.

    +

    “Do you want to dance?” “No.”
    + [“State whether you will dance with me.” “I do not want to + dance with you.”

    +

    Ilaksh grammar also allows for the use of Bias affixes (see Sec. 6.6) to function + as autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to + interjections in Western languages. This phenomenon has already been discussed + in Section 8.5. + Additionally, Section + 8.3 described how affixual adjuncts may be used to convey information similarly + to autonomous interjections.

    +


    + 10.7.5 Translating Metaphorically Structured Phrases

    +

    Ilaksh grammar recognizes that much of our understanding and + expression of everyday experience is structured in terms of metaphor and metonymy + (the latter being the reference to an entity by one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business). + Ilaksh allows for the overt designation of metaphorical concepts by several + means. These include the REPRESENTATIONAL context, Function and Incorporation, + the metonymic MET affix + -V0py, + and the two part-whole + affixes -V0rs and -V0š.

    +

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 11: The Writing System >>

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +

    ©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +
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    +
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    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_11.htm b/2004-en/Chapter_11.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..145ba41 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_11.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3798 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 11: The Script + + + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 11: The Writing System

    +

    [This page still partially under construction. Hopefully, I will finish it sometime in 2009.]
    +

    +

    The Ilaksh writing system is utterly different from the Ithkuil writing system, the only similarity being that they are both morpho-phonemic scripts, although the phonological information presented in the Ilaksh script is minimal, making the script nearly a pure morphography.

    +

    The Ilaksh writing system comes in two related varieties:  a formal “ornamental” writing system, and an informal cursive (i.e., handwritten) script derived from the formal writing system.  The formal system is two-dimensional and graphically non-linear.  It operates somewhat like an abstract morphological “map” of a sentence and is illustrated below left.  The informal cursive version of the same sentence appears on the right.  A horizontal variant of the informal cursive script (used optionally for short passages or sentences that can be written on one line) is also shown immediately below the formal version of the sentence.  Below all of them is the romanized transliteration and English translation of the sentence.

    +

    Ilaksh Writing Sample

    +
    +
    +
    +

    Andmùt  žiëlùimäv  asavéwöc  ukšu’ŭs  ujgălärň  žö’äàcërb.
    + The incompetent tailor began crying after finding out about the clowns’ new directive on nakedness.

    +
    +
    +
    +

     

    +

    11.1 The Formal (Ornamental) Writing System

    +

    We will first analyze the formal writing system.  The formal writing system utilizes combinations of various elements to distinguish the hundreds of morphological categories and thousands of roots/stems.  These elements are indicated in the following diagram of a written Ilaksh sentence.

    +

    Explanatory diagram of script

    +
    +
    +
    +

    En-nà  ççwačotëērbïkç  ukšëěuh  çéitëpš  äirei’wuŧ  a’läçewöóřzah  žie.
    + If only the troupe of clowns had gotten together and destroyed their musical instruments just after performing that lovely recital for us.

    +
    +
    +
    +

    The following explanations explain the purpose of each part of the writing system as illustrated in the above diagram.

    +
      +
    1. Geometrically-shaped two-dimensional containers or “cartouches” of the following varieties:
      2. +
        +
      1. Both vertically-oriented and horizontally-oriented cartouches whose long edges are parallel lines, but whose short edges consist of various straight-edged and/or curving contours.
        2. +
      2. Triangular cartouches which be either equilateral triangles or right-angled triangles, oriented so that at least one side is either flat/horizontal or perpendicular/vertical.
        3. +
      3. Hexagonal cartouches.
        4. +
      +
    +
      +
    1. Glyph-like symbols based on portions cut out from one-half of a hexagonal form.  The two halves of the hexagon-based glyphs are juxtaposed opposite each other to complete the hexagonal form.  These glyphs are placed inside the geometric cartouche shapes
      2. +
    +
      +
    1. A four-way “color” distinction consisting of any light, mid-tone, and dark color, reduceable in grayscale to dark/black, light/white, and mid-tone gray (to allow color-blind persons to distinguish them).  The fourth “color” is actually a pattern of texture, consisting of any pattern of striation, mottling, cross-hatching, etc., as long as it is distinguishable from the mid-tone gray when reduced to gray scale.  These colors are applied to both the geometric shapes and the hexagon-based glyphs (NOTE:  there is only a three-way color distinction for the hexagon-based glyphs, as the mottling/texture is applied only to the cartouche shapes.)   
      2. +
    +
      +
    1. Layering of the cartouche shapes one upon the other in partially overlapping fashion to create a “stacking” order from forward-most to back-most.
      2. +
    +
      +
    1. Positioning of the glyphs within the cartouches in terms of a upper-mid-lower and left-center-right orientation.
      2. +
    +
      +
    1. Switching of the “axis” of the hexagonal glyphs (i.e., the orientation of the partition between the two halves of the glyph) from vertical to horizontal to oblique.
      2. +
    +

     

    +

    11.2 REPRESENTING NOMINAL FORMATIVES

    +

    The above six elements are manipulated to create a morphological “picture” or “map” of a sentence.  We will start by explaining how the formatives within a sentence are written (see Sec. 2.6 for an explanation of formatives).

    +


    + 11.2.1 Representing the 3600 Roots

    +

    The 3600 Ilaksh roots are shown by means of the “cartouche”-like shapes within which the glyph-like symbols are placed.  It is the edge-shape of the “ends” of the cartouche, along with the color of the cartouche as a whole, which indicates which root is being represented. 

    +

    When a root is written as a horizontally-oriented cartouche, it represents a nominal formative.  By horizontally-oriented is meant that the cartouche is wider than it is tall, and it is the left and right edges that change, while the top and bottom edges are simple parallel lines.

    +

    There are thirty different edges used in writing the cartouches.  The thirty edges are shown in Table 35 below, first as they appear when used as the left-hand edge of a nominal formative, which may be considered the “default” form of each edge, secondly when they appear as the right-hand edge.

    +


    + Table 35(a): Left-Hand Cartouche Edge Shapes

    +

    Left Side Cartouche Edges

    +

    When used as the right-hand edge of a nominal formative, the default shapes are horizontally reversed, as follows:
    +

    +

    Table 35(b): Right-Hand Cartouche Edge Shapes

    +

    Right Side Cartouche Edges

    +

     

    +

    As was explained in Chapter 2, an Ilaksh root consists of one of 120 Cr consonantal forms, plus one of five Vr vowels, plus one of six tones.  These phonological elements correspond to the following written elements:

    +

    The 120 Cr forms are represented by the 30 left-hand (or top) cartouche edges in conjunction with the four colors (black, white, gray, textured) of the cartouche as a whole, as shown in Table 36 below:
    +

    +

    TABLE 36: 120 Cr radicals shown by 30 lefthand edges X 4 cartouche colors (white, grey, textured, black)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    WHITE

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    GRAY

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    TEXTURED

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    BLACK

    edge

    Cr

    edge

    Cr

    edge

    Cr

    edge

    Cr

    1

    p

    1

    fy

    1

    pl

    1

    đr

    2

    t

    2

    ŧy

    2

    tl

    2

    sr

    3

    k

    3

    vy

    3

    kl

    3

    šr

    4

    b

    4

    đy

    4

    bl

    4

    zr

    5

    d

    5

    my

    5

    dl

    5

    žr

    6

    g

    6

    ny

    6

    gl

    6

    mr

    7

    f

    7

    ry

    7

    fl

    7

    nr

    8

    ŧ

    8

    ly

    8

    ŧl

    8

    pm

    9

    x

    9

    ř

    9

    xl

    9

    pn

    10

    v

    10

    çp

    10

    vl

    10

    çk

    11

    đ

    11

    pf

    11

    đl

    11

    sp

    12

    s

    12

    tf

    12

    sl

    12

    st

    13

    š

    13

    kf

    13

    šl

    13

    sk

    14

    z

    14

    bv

    14

    zl

    14

    šp

    15

    ž

    15

    dv

    15

    žl

    15

    št

    16

    m

    16

    gv

    16

    ml

    16

    šk

    17

    n

    17

    ps

    17

    nl

    17

    sm

    18

    ň

    18

    pš

    18

    sx

    18

    šm

    19

    r

    19

    ks

    19

    šx

    19

    sn

    20

    l

    20

    kš

    20

    çt

    20

    šn

    21

    c

    21

    bz

    21

    pr

    21

    př

    22

    č

    22

    bž

    22

    tr

    22

    tř

    23

    ż

    23

    gz

    23

    kr

    23

    kř

    24

    j

    24

    gž

    24

    br

    24

    bř

    25

    py

    25

    sf

    25

    dr

    25

    dř

    26

    ty

    26

    šf

    26

    gr

    26

    gř

    27

    ky

    27

    sŧ

    27

    fr

    27

    tm

    28

    by

    28

    šŧ

    28

    ŧr

    28

    tn

    29

    dy

    29

    pŧ

    29

    xr

    29

    km

    30

    gy

    30

    kŧ

    30

    vr

    30

    kn

    +


    +The five Vr vowels and six tones are represented by the 30 right-hand (or bottom) cartouche edges, as shown in Table 37 below.

    +


    +Table 37: 6 tones X 5 vowels     shown by 30 righthand edges of cartouche

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    low tone

    high tone

    falling tone

    rising tone

    falling-rising

    rising-falling

    Vr  vowels ↓

    edge

    edge

    edge

    edge

    edge

    edge

     

    a

    1

     

    +

     

    6

     

    +

     

    11

     

    +

     

    16

     

    +

     

    21

     

    +

     

    26

     

    +

     

    e

    2

    7

    12

    17

    22

    27

    i

    3

    8

    13

    18

    23

    28

    o

    4

    9

    14

    19

    24

    29

    u

    5

    10

    15

    20

    25

    30

    +

     

    +

    11.2.2 Representing Specific Stems

    +

    The default glyph is simply two halves of a hexagon joined side-by-side into the full hexagon shape, with the “axis” separating the two halves in a vertically-oriented position, i.e.,

    +

    Hex archetype

    +

    As explained in Chapter 2, each Ilaksh root generates three Patterns (corresponding to the holistic stems plus two groups of complementary stems).  In turn, each of the three Patterns contains three stems. 

    +

    The three Patterns are shown via the color of the left-hand half of this first glyph, while the three stems within each Pattern are shown via the color of the right-hand half of this glyph. The specific patterns are indicated in Table 38 below.

    +


    + Table 38: Colors of Lefthand and Righthand Glyph-Halves Representing Pattern and Stem

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    Pattern 1
    + (Holistic stems)

    Pattern 2
    + (First Complementary
    + Stems)

    Pattern 3
    + (Second Complementary Stems)

    Stem 1

    +

     

    black-white hex

    +

    black - white

    gray-white

    +

    gray - white

    white-white hex

    +

    white - white

    Stem 2

    +

     

    black-gray hex

    +

    black - gray

    gray-gray hex

    +

    gray - gray

    white-gray hex

    +

    white - gray

    Stem 3

    +

     

    black-black hex

    +

    black - black

    gray-black hex

    +

    gray - black

    white-black hex

    +

    white - black

    +

     

    +

    11.2.3 Representing Case

    +

    The 96 cases (see Chapter 4) are represented by 96 modifications to the shape of the left half of the first glyph within the cartouche.  These modifications are essentially portions of the default glyph (Glyph No. 1).  The 96 different glyph-halves are shown in Table 39 below.

    +


    + Table 39: The 96 Glyph Halves (only lefthand forms shown)

    +

    Formal script glyph halves

    +

    The 96 cases are mapped directly to the 96 glyph halves, as indicated in Table 40 below:
    +

    +

    Table 40: Glyph Half numbers Representing the 96 Cases

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    label

    case

    glyph

    label

    case

    glyph

    label

    case

    glyph

    label

    case

    glyph

                  

    OBL

    OBLIQUE

    1

    PUR

    PURPOSIVE

    25

    EXC

    EXCEPTIVE

    49

    CMP1A

    COMPARATIVE 1A

    73

    IND

    INDUCIVE

    2

    CSD

    CONSIDERATIVE

    26

    AVR

    AVERSIVE

    50

    CMP2A

    COMPARATIVE 2A

    74

    ABS

    ABSOLUTIVE

    3

    ESS

    ESSIVE

    27

    CMP

    COMPARATIVE

    51

    CMP3A

    COMPARATIVE 3A

    75

    ERG

    ERGATIVE

    4

    ASI

    ASSIMILATIVE

    28

    SML

    SIMULTANEITIVE

    52

    CMP4A

    COMPARATIVE 4A

    76

    EFF

    EFFECTUATIVE

    5

    FUN

    FUNCTIVE

    29

    ASS

    ASSESSIVE

    53

    CMP5A

    COMPARATIVE 5A

    77

    AFF

    AFFECTIVE

    6

    TFM

    TRANSFORMATIVE

    30

    CNR

    CONCURSIVE

    54

    CMP6A

    COMPARATIVE 6A

    78

    DAT

    DATIVE

    7

    REF

    REFERENTIAL

    31

    ACS

    ACCESSIVE

    55

    CMP7A

    COMPARATIVE 7A

    79

    INS

    INSTRUMENTAL

    8

    CLA

    CLASSIFICATIVE

    32

    DFF

    DIFFUSIVE

    56

    CMP8A

    COMPARATIVE 8A

    80

    ACT

    ACTIVATIVE

    9

    CNV

    CONDUCTIVE

    33

    PER

    PERIODIC

    57

    CMP1B

    COMPARATIVE 1B

    81

    DER

    DERIVATIVE

    10

    IDP

    INTERDEPENDENT

    34

    PRO

    PROLAPSIVE

    58

    CMP2B

    COMPARATIVE 2B

    82

    SIT

    SITUATIVE

    11

    BEN

    BENEFACTIVE

    35

    PCV

    PRECURSIVE

    59

    CMP3B

    COMPARATIVE 3B

    83

    POS

    POSSESSIVE

    12

    TSP

    TRANSPOSITIVE

    36

    PCR

    POSTCURSIVE

    60

    CMP4B

    COMPARATIVE 4B

    84

    PRP

    PROPRIETIVE

    13

    CMM

    COMMUTATIVE

    37

    ELP

    ELAPSIVE

    61

    CMP5B

    COMPARATIVE 5B

    85

    GEN

    GENITIVE

    14

    COM

    COMITATIVE

    38

    ALP

    ALLAPSIVE

    62

    CMP6B

    COMPARATIVE 6B

    86

    ATT

    ATTRIBUTIVE

    15

    CNJ

    CONJUNCTIVE

    39

    INP

    INTERPOLATIVE

    63

    CMP7B

    COMPARATIVE 7B

    87

    PDC

    PRODUCTIVE

    16

    UTL

    UTILITATIVE

    40

    EPS

    EPISODIC

    64

    CMP8B

    COMPARATIVE 8B

    88

    ITP

    INTERPRETIVE

    17

    ABE

    ABESSIVE

    41

    PRL

    PROLIMITIVE

    65

    CMP1C

    COMPARATIVE 1C

    89

    OGN

    ORIGINATIVE

    18

    CVS

    CONVERSIVE

    42

    LIM

    LIMITATIVE

    66

    CMP2C

    COMPARATIVE 2C

    90

    PAR

    PARTITIVE

    19

    COR

    CORRELATIVE

    43

    LOC

    LOCATIVE

    67

    CMP3C

    COMPARATIVE 3C

    91

    CRS

    CONTRASTIVE

    20

    DEP

    DEPENDENT

    44

    ORI

    ORIENTATIVE

    68

    CMP4C

    COMPARATIVE 4C

    92

    CPS

    COMPOSITIVE

    21

    PVS

    PROVISIONAL

    45

    PSV

    PROCURSIVE

    69

    CMP5C

    COMPARATIVE 5C

    93

    PRD

    PREDICATIVE

    22

    PTL

    POSTULATIVE

    46

    ALL

    ALLATIVE

    70

    CMP6C

    COMPARATIVE 6C

    94

    MED

    		MEDIATIVE23DFRDEFERENTIAL47 ABLABLATIVE71 CMP7CCOMPARATIVE 7C95
    APL

    APPLICATIVE

    24

    CON

    CONCESSIVE

    48

    NAV

    NAVIGATIVE

    72

    CMP8C

    COMPARATIVE 8C

    96

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    +

     

    +

    11.2.4 Representing Configuration

    +

    The nine configurations (see Section 3.1) are represented by the positioning of the first glyph within the cartouche relative to the edges.

    +

    There are three horizontal positions (left, center, right) and three vertical positions (top, mid, bottom).  These correspond to the nine configurations as indicated in Table 41 below.

    +


    + Table 41: Position Within Cartouche of First Glyph as Indicator of Configuration

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    LEFT

    CENTER

    RIGHT

    TOP

    UNI-Uniplex

    AGG-Aggregative

    COH-Coherent

    MID

    DCT-Discrete

    CPN-Componential

    MLT-Multiform

    BOTTOM

    DPX-Duplex

    SEG-Segmentative

    CST-Composite

    +

     

    +

    11.2.5 Representing Affiliation, Perspective, and Extension

    +

    The four affiliations, four perspectives, and six extensions (see Chapter 3) are shown via the right-hand half of the first glyph (as opposed to the left-hand representing case).  Being in the right half of the glyph, the forms are necessarily reversed horizontally in comparison to their form used in the left half of the glyph.  The specific morphological correspondences to the 96 glyph-halves are shown in Table 42 below.

    +


    + Table 42: Glyph-Half Numbers Representing Affiliation, Extension, and Perspective

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    4 Affiliations

    Shown by right-hand glyph-half of 1st glyph within a formative cartouche. 
    + The particular glyph number corresponding to the particular set of affiliations, extensions and perspectives are listed below.

    6 Extensions

    4 Perspectives

    Affiliation
    +

    Perspective
    +

    EXTENSION

    DEL

    PRX

    ICP

    TRM

    DPL

    GRD

     

    +

    CSL – Consolidative

    M–monadic

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    U-unbounded

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    N-nomic

    13

    14

    15

    16

    17

    18

    A-abstract

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

     

    +

    ASO –
    + Associative

    M–monadic

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    U-unbounded

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    N-nomic

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    A-abstract

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

     

    +

    VAR –
    + Variative

    M–monadic

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    U-unbounded

    55

    56

    57

    58

    59

    60

    N-nomic

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    A-abstract

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

     

    +

    COA –
    + Coalescent

    M–monadic

    73

    74

    75

    76

    77

    78

    U-unbounded

    79

    80

    81

    82

    83

    84

    N-nomic

    85

    86

    87

    88

    89

    90

    A-abstract

    91

    92

    93

    94

    95

    96

    +

     

    +

    11.2.6 Representing Designation and Essence

    +

    The categories of Designation and Essence are both shown by a reversal in the vertical orientation of the left-hand and right-hand glyph halves respectively.  As an illustration of such a vertical reversal, here are Glyph Nos. 10 and 82 shown in their lefthand forms, then the same vertically reversed.

    +

    Example of reversal of vertical orientation

    +

    The morphological correspondences are as follows:

    +
    +

    Designation: 
    + IFR (INFORMAL) = default orientation; FRM (FORMAL) = lefthand glyph-half vertically reversed

    +

    Essence: 
    + NRM (NORMAL) = default orientation; RPV (REPRESENTATIVE) = righthand glyph-half vertically reversed

    +
    +

    The following glyph-halves, being vertically symmetrical (i.e., the top and bottom halves of the symbol are mirror images of each other), have specialized forms when required to be vertically “reversed.”  Those forms are:

    +

    Special reversed forms for glyphs 1, 2, 3, 31, 32, 43

    +

     

    +

    11.2.7 Representing Context

    +

    As stated earlier, the default “axis” (the line splitting the two halves of the hexagonal glyph) is vertically oriented.  It is possible to shift this axis to be horizontal, as well as at an oblique angle.  Such axis shifts as applied to the first glyph in the cartouche are used for representing the four contexts (see Sec. 3.X), as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    CONTEXT

     

    EXS

    FNC

    RPS

    AMG


    +

    +

    Axis Orientation

     

    +

    Hex Axis Vertical

    +

    vertical

     

    +

    Hex Axis Horizontal

    +

    horizontal

     

    +

    Hex Axis Oblique Descending

    +

    oblique-descending

     

    +

    Hex Axis Oblique Ascending

    +

    oblique-ascending

    +

     

    +

    Note on Axis Shifting:  When a “bivalve”-like hexagonal glyph undergoes a shifting of the axis from the vertical, then it becomes necessary to reinterpret what is meant by the “left-hand” and “right-hand” glyph halves.  The correspondences are illustrated as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    vertical

    horizontal

    oblique-descending

    oblique-ascending

     

    +

    Vertical Axis

    +

     

     

    +

    Hex Axis Horizontal

     

    +

    Hex Axis Oblique Descending

     

    +

    Hex Axis Oblique Ascending

    left half →

    top half

    lower-left half

    upper-left half

    right half →

    bottom half

    upper-right half

    lower-right half

    +

     

    +

    Note that the two oblique axis shifts shown above also entail a rotation of the glyph as a whole so that the six vertices are all horizontally parallel to each other (i.e., so that the hexagon has a top side and a bottom side).  There are two additional axis shifts which appear in limited contexts.  These are similar to the oblique-descending and oblique-ascending orientations but with the hexagon not rotated, i.e., like the default (vertical) orientation, the hexagon has top and bottom vertices rather than top and bottom sides.  These two axial orientations are labelled upright-descending and upright-ascending and are illustrated below.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    vertical

    horizontal

     

    +

    Hex Axis Upright Descending

    +

     

     

    +

    Hex Axis Upright Ascending

    lower-left half

    upper-left half

    upper-right half

    lower-right half

    +

     

    +

    11.2.8 Representing Suffixes

    +
    +

    [this section is under construction]

    +
    +

     

    +

    11.3 WRITING VERBAL FORMATIVES

    +

    As explained above, nominal formatives are written with a horizontal orientation, the thirty different edges being applied to the left and right sides of the cartouche.  To represent a verbal formative, the cartouche is written in a vertically-oriented manner. Vertically-oriented means the cartouche is taller than it is wide, and it is the top and bottom edges that change, while the left and right edges are simple parallel lines.  It is actually easier to think of written verbal formatives as simply being the same as nominal formatives, but tipped 90 degrees to the right, so that the left and right edges of a nominal formative cartouche correspond respectively to the top and bottom edges of a verbal formative.

    +

    When used as the top edge of a verbal formative, the default shapes from Table XX above are tilted 90 degrees to right, as follows:

    +

    Top Side Cartouche Edges

    +

    When used as the bottom edge of a verbal formative, the default shapes are horizontally reversed, then tilted 90 degrees to the right, as follows:

    +

    Bottom Side Cartouche Edges

    +

     

    +

    Note that the glyphs within a verbal formative operate independently of the vertical orientation of the cartouche, i.e., they do not tilt 90 degrees to the left simply because the cartouche containing them has tilted.  Thus, for example, the word shown below on the left is a nominal formative, while its equivalent as a verbal formative is shown on the right.

    +

    Nominal to Verbal Cartouche Shift - Orientation of internal glyphs preserved

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1 Representing Pragmatic Relations

    +

    In Chapter 9, it was explained how Ilaksh uses word order to indicate pragmatic relations, i.e., the marking of topic and focus on formatives.  Formatives functioning as the topic of a sentence will appear first in a sentence, while formatives which are the focus of a sentence will appear immediately preceding the verb.  Neutral sentences with no specific topic or focus will be verb initial. 

    +

    In the formal writing system, this word ordering is conveyed by “layering” the various cartouches to overlap one another from front to back in a quasi-three-dimensional order relative to the point of view of the reader.  In neutral, verb-initial sentences, the vertically-oriented verb cartouche will be forward-most in the “stack” of cartouches, while in sentences with topic and/or focus formatives, these cartouches will overlap the verb cartouche, with a topic being placed higher up along the length of the verb cartouche than a subsequent focus formative.  This layering of cartouches is illustrated by the following examples:

    +
    +

    [examples forthcoming - under construction]

    +
    +

     

    +

    11.3.2 Representing Mood

    +

    The following morphological categories specific to verbs are shown by means of special triangular-shaped cartouche which is placed behind the verb cartouche:  Mood, Function, Illocution, Format, Phase, Version, Valence, Modality, Validation, Sanction, Aspect and Level.  In this section and the sections which follow, we will examine how each of these categories are displayed in this triangular cartouche.  We will begin with Mood.

    +

    The eight moods are represented by the shape and directional orientation of the triangular cartouche, as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MOOD

    FAC

    SUB

    ASM

    SPE

    COU

    HYP

    IPL

    ASC

     

    +

    triangle 1 

    +

    upward-pointing  equilateral triangle

     

    +

    triangle 2

    +

    downward-pointing equilateral triangle

     

    +

    triangle 3

    +

    leftward-pointing equilateral triangle

     

    +

    triangle 4

    +

    rightward-pointing  equilateral triangle

     

    +

    triangle 5

    +

    triangle w/ right-angle pointed down and right

     

    +

    triangle 6

    +

    triangle w/ right-angle pointed down and left

     

    +

    triangle 7

    +

    triangle w/ right-angle pointed up and right

     

    +

    triangle 8

    +

    triangle w/ right-angle pointed up and left

    +

     

    +

    11.3.3 Representing Function and Illocution

    +

    Either the eight Functions or the eight Illocutions can be shown by a combination of cartouche color plus axial orientation of the first glyph within the cartouche.  If the axial orientation of the glyph is either vertical or horizontal, then it is Function which is being represented.  If the axial orientation is oblique (whether descending or ascending), it is Illocution being conveyed.  The specific morphological correspondences are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    FUNCTION

     

    Cartouche Color

    black

    gray

    textured

    white

    black

    gray

    textured

    white


    +

    +

    Glyph axis

     

    +

    vertical axis

    +

    vertical

     

    +

    vertical axis

    +

    vertical

     

    +

    vertical axis

    +

    vertical

     

    +

    vertical axis

    +

    vertical

     

    +

    horizontal axis

    +

    horizontal

     

    +

    horizontal axis

    +

    horizontal

     

    +

    horizontal axis

    +

    horizontal

     

    +

    horizontal axis

    +

    horizontal

    +

    OR

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ILLOCUTION

    Cartouche Color

    black

    gray

    textured

    white

    black

    gray

    textured

    white


    + Oblique
    + glyph axis

     

    +

    ascending axis

    +

    ascending

     

    +

    ascending axis

    +

    ascending

     

    +

    ascending axis

    +

    ascending

     

    +

    ascending axis

    +

    ascending

     

    +

    descending axis

    +

    descending

     

    +

    descending axis

    +

    descending

     

    +

    descending axis

    +

    descending

     

    +

    descending axis

    +

    descending

    +

    NOTE:  If the verb contains non-default information for both Function and Illocution (i.e., the verb’s Function is not OPERATIVE and the Illocution is not DECLARATIVE, then it will be Function that is represented by the cartouche color and glyph axis.  Illocution in turn will be conveyed via an alternate means explained below in Sec. 11.3.8.

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4 Representing Format, Phase, and Version

    +

    The combination of 8 Formats, 9 Phases, and 6 Versions (see Sections XX and XX respectively) is conveyed by the value, vertical orientation, and color of the left-hand half of the first glyph within the triangular cartouche underlapping a verbal formative cartouche. 

    + + + + + +

    8 Formats x 9 Phases x 6 Versions

    shown by glyph on left/top half of 1st glyph + reversal + color

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FORMAT

    Version

    Phase

    Color + rev

    SCH

    ISR

    ATH

    PRC

    RSL

    SBQ

    CCM

    OBJ

     

    +

     

    +

    PRC

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    white

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    CPT

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    gray

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    INE

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    black

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    INC

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    white + rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    PST

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    gray + rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    EFC

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    black + rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    +

     

    +

    11.3.5 Representing Valence and Modality

    +

    The combination of thirty modalities and the fourteen valences (see Sections XX and XX respectively) is conveyed by the value, vertical orientation, and color of the right-hand half of the first glyph within the triangular cartouche underlapping a verbal formative cartouche.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Modalities
    + ↓

    color of glyph half

    Rev of glyph half

    VALENCES – R/B half of 1st glyph

    MNO

    PRL

    CRO

    RCP

    CPL

    NNR

    DUP

    DEM

    RES

    IMT

    CNG

    PTI

    IDC

    MUT

    1

    DES

    Desiderative

     

    +

    white

     

    +

    --

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    2

    ASP

    Aspirative

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    3

    EPC

    Expectative

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    4

    CRD

    Credential

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    5

    REQ

    Requisitive

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    6

    EXH

    Exhortative

     

    +

    gray

     

    +

    --

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    7

    OPR

    Opportunitive

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    8

    CPC

    Capacitative

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    9

    PRM

    Permissive

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    10

    PTN

    Potential

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    11

    CLS

    Compulsory

     

    +

    black

     

    +

    --

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    12

    OBG

    Obligative

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    13

    IMS

    Impositive

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    14

    ADV

    Advocative

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    15

    ITV

    Intentive

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    16

    ANT

    Anticipative

     

    +

    white

     

    +

    rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    17

    DSP

    Dispositive

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    18

    PRE

    Preparative

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    19

    NEC

    Necessitative

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    20

    DEC

    Decisive

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    21

    PTV

    Proclivitive

     

    +

    gray

     

    +

    rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    22

    VOL

    Voluntative

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    23

    ACC

    Accordative

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    24

    INC

    Inclinative

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    25

    DVR

    Divertive

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    26

    DVT

    Devotive

     

    +

    black

     

    +

    rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    27

    PFT

    Preferential

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    28

    IPS

    Impressional

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    29

    PMS

    Promissory

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

     

    (none)

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    +

     

    +

    11.3.6 Representing Validation and Sanction

    +

    The combination of fourteen validations and nine sanctions (see Sections 6.3 and 5.4 respectively) is shown by the value and vertical orientation of the left-hand glyph half of the second glyph within the triangular cartouche underlapping a verbal formative cartouche.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    14 Validations x 9 Sanctionsshown by 126 glyphs on left/top half of 2nd glyph (63 + 63 reversed)
     
    SANCTION
    VALIDATION
    		         

    CNF

    		CONFIRMATIVE

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    AFM

    		AFFIRMATIVE

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    17

    18

    RPT

    		REPORTIVE

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    INF

    		INFERENTIAL

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    ITU

    		INTUITIVE

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    PSM

    PRESUMPTIVE

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    PSM2

    PRESUMPTIVE 2

    55

    56

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    PPT

    		PURPORTIVE

    1r *

    2 r

    3r

    4r

    5r

    6r

    7r

    8r

    9r

    PPT2

    		PURPORTIVE 2

    10r

    11

    12r

    13r

    14r

    15r

    16r

    17r

    18r

    CNJ

    CONJECTURAL

    19r

    20r

    21r

    22r

    23r

    24r

    25r

    26r

    27r

    DUB

    DUBITATIVE

    28r

    29r

    30r

    31r

    32r

    33r

    34r

    35r

    36r

    TEN

    TENTATIVE

    37r

    38r

    39r

    40r

    41r

    42r

    43r

    44r

    45r

    PUT

    PUTATIVE

    46r

    47r

    48r

    49r

    50r

    51r

    52r

    53r

    54r

    IPB

    IMPROBABLE

    55r

    56r

    57r

    58r

    59r

    60r

    61r

    62r

    63r

    +* (“r” after glyph value = vertically reversed) +

     

    +

    11.3.7 Representing Aspect

    +

    The thirty-two aspects (see Section 5.6) are conveyed by the colors and axis shift of the second glyph within the triangular cartouche underlapping the verbal formative cartouche.

    + + + + + +

    32 Aspects

    3 colors of L/T half of 2nd glyph + 3 colors of R/B half of 2nd glyph  x  4 axis shifts of 2nd glyph

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ASPECT

    L/T

    R/B

    axis

     

    ASPECT

    L/T

    R/B

    axis

     

    ASPECT

    L/T

    R/B

    axis

    (NONE)

    black

    black

    |

    11

    RCS

    Recessative

    white

    black

    —

    22

    CSQ

    Consequential

    gray

    black

    /

    1

    RTR

    Retrospective

    white

    white

    |

    12

    PAU

    Pausal

    gray

    white

    —

    23

    SQN

    Sequential

    black

    white

    /

    2

    PRS

    Prospective

    white

    gray

    |

    13

    RGR

    Regressive

    gray

    gray

    —

    24

    EPD

    Expeditive

    black

    gray

    /

    3

    HAB

    Habitual

    white

    black

    |

    14

    PCL

    Preclusive

    gray

    black

    —

    25

    DSC

    Disclusive

    white

    white

    \

    4

    PRG

    Progressive

    gray

    white

    |

    15

    CNT

    Continuative

    black

    white

    —

    26

    CCL

    Conclusive

    white

    gray

    \

    5

    IMM

    Imminent

    gray

    gray

    |

    16

    ICS

    Incessative

    black

    gray

    —

    27

    CUL

    Culminative

    white

    black

    \

    6

    PCS

    Precessive

    gray

    black

    |

    17

    PMP

    Preemptive

    white

    white

    /

    28

    IMD

    Intermediative

    gray

    white

    \

    7

    REG

    Regulative

    black

    white

    |

    18

    CLM

    Climactic

    white

    gray

    /

    29

    TRD

    Tardative

    gray

    gray

    \

    8

    EXP

    experiential

    black

    gray

    |

    19

    PRC

    Protractive

    white

    black

    /

    30

    TNS

    Transitional

    gray

    black

    \

    9

    RSM

    Resumptive

    white

    white

    —

    20

    TMP

    Temporary

    gray

    white

    /

    31

    ITC

    Intercommutative

    black

    white

    \

    10

    CSS

    Cessative

    white

    gray

    —

    21

    MTV

    Motive

    gray

    gray

    /

    32

    CSM

    Consumptive

    black

    gray

    \

    +

     

    +

    11.3.8 Representing Level and Alternative Illocution

    +

    The eight illocutions (see Section 5.7) and eighteen levels (see Section 5.8) are shown by the value and vertical orientation of the right-hand glyph half of the second glyph within the triangular cartouche underlapping a verbal formative cartouche. This combination results in a grid of 152 possible glyph-halves in the position (76 glyph-halves plus their vertically reversed counterparts). The specific values and vertical orientation are shown in the following table.

    +


    + Table: Glyph Values Representing the Combination of Level and Illocution

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Illocution

    Level

    ASR

    DIR

    CMV

    EXP

    DEC

    IRG

    ADM

    HOR

    (none)

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    1

    EQUr

    		EQUATIVE - relative

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    2

    SURr

    		SURPASSIVE - relative

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    3

    DEFr

    		DEFICIENT - relative

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    4

    OPTr

    		OPTIMAL - relative

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    5

    MINr

    		MINIMAL - relative

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    6

    SPLr

    		SUPERLATIVE - relative

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    7

    IFRr

    		INFERIOR - relative

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    8

    SPEr

    		SUPEREQUATIVE - relative

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    9

    SBEr

    		SUBEQUATIVE - relative

    1r *

    2r

    3r

    4r

    5r

    6r

    7rr

    8r

    10

    EQUa

    		EQUATIVE - absolute

    9r

    10r

    11r

    12r

    13r

    14r

    15r

    16r

    11

    SURa

    		SURPASSIVE - absolute

    17r

    18r

    19r

    20r

    21r

    22r

    23r

    24r

    12

    DEFa

    		DEFICIENT - absolute

    25r

    26r

    27r

    28r

    29r

    30r

    31r

    32r

    13

    OPTa

    		OPTIMAL - absolute

    33r

    34r

    35r

    36r

    37r

    38r

    39r

    40r

    14

    MINa

    		MINIMAL - absolute

    41r

    42r

    43r

    44r

    45r

    46r

    47r

    48r

    15

    SPLa

    		SUPERLATIVE - absolute

    49r

    50r

    51r

    52r

    53r

    54r

    55r

    56r

    16

    IFRa

    		INFERIOR - absolute

    57r

    58r

    59r

    60r

    61r

    62r

    63r

    64r

    17

    SPEa

    		SUPEREQUATIVE - absolute

    65r

    66r

    67r

    68r

    69r

    70r

    71r

    72r

    18

    SBEa

    		SUBEQUATIVE - absolute

    73

    74

    75

    76

    73r

    74r

    75r

    76r

    +

    * (“r” after glyph value = vertically reversed)

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    11.3.9 Representing Incorporated Stems

    +

    Incorporated stems (see Section 5.7) are shown by placing the stem-cartouche of the incorporated stem in a position underlapping the triangular verbal mood cartouche introduced in Section 11.3.2 above. This is illustrated in the following example:

    +
    +

    [example forthcoming - under construction]

    +
    +

     

    +

    11.4 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATIONS OF VERBAL CATEGORIES

    +
    +

    [this section is under construction]

    +

     

    +
    +

    11.5 REPRESENTING PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS

    +
    +

    [this section is under construction]

    +

     

    +
    +

    11.6 THE INFORMAL (CURSIVE) SCRIPT

    +

    The cursive script is designed to be handwritten.  Unlike the formal script, it is written in a sequential linear fashion like most writing systems.  The direction of writing is a vertical boustrophedon (zig-zag) pattern in columns starting from the top left, read downward for the first column and subsequent odd-numbered columns, then upward (i.e, from bottom to top) for the second and subsequent even-numbered columns.  The vertical orientation of the characters themselves does not change in the even-numbered columns (i.e., they are not vertically reversed despite being read in reverse (i.e., upward) sequence.  As it is always possible to visually determine the start of a new word (by means of specialized characters corresponding to the cartouche edges of the formal script), there is no need for spacing between words.  Spacing is used to separate different sentences within a paragraph.

    +

    The following figure presents an analogy with English writing as to how the Ilaksh cursive script is read.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    curved arrow downward
    curved arrow downward
    curved arrow downward

    T

    W

    A

    R

    S

    E

    N

    H

    E

    Y

    U

    I

    T

    A

    I

    H

    T

    C

    V

    T

    N

    S

    T

    H

    H

    E

    I

    D

    R

    S

    A

    S

    S

    R

    R

    E

    T

    T

    K

    C

    W

    E

    P

    N

    T

    A

    R

    S

    A

    R

    E

    H

    L

    I

    I

    D

    E

    S

    E

    I

    P

    T

    .

    arrow curved upward
    arrow curved upward
    arrow curved upward
    		 
    +

     

    +

    When writing the cursive script, it is usual to allow the various characters to partially overlap each other to create “ligature”-like effects, as long as the degree of overlap is not so much as to be unable to distinguish the individual characters from each other.  This is seen in the sample shown at the outset of the chapter, repeated here.

    +

    Cursive Example - Vertical

    +

    As stated (and illustrated) at the outset of this chapter, it is also possible to write the Ilaksh cursive script horizontally left-to-right for short passages which do not exceed a single line in length.  When written this way, only the characters representing cartouche edges normally overlap into ligatures; the remaining characters are written without overlapping, as seen below in the horizontal version of the same Ilaksh passage from above.

    +

    Cursive Example - Horizontal

    +

     

    +

    11.6.1 Cursive Equivalents to the 96 Glyph-Halves

    +

    Each of the 96 half-hexagonal glyph-halves from the formal/ornamental writing system has a corresponding character in the informal script, shown in the table below.

    +

    Glyph halves

    +

    As in the formal writing system, these characters become laterally reversed (i.e., mirror-imaged) when functioning as the right-hand half of the corresponding hexagonal glyph and can be vertically inverted as well. However, where the formal writing system allows the hexagonal glyphs to undergo “axis” shifts from vertical to horizontal to oblique (as explained in Section 11.2.7 above), the informal cursive script indicates the equivalent of these axis shifts via the use of diacritic marks, which also are used to convey the equivalent of the various color shifts for both cartouches and glyph-halves. These diacritic marks are explained in Section 11.6.3 below.

    +


    +11.6.2 Cursive Representation of the Cartouche Edges

    +

    As for the cursive equivalent of the cartouches from the formal writing system, these are represented in the informal script by characters which are essentially small representations of the cartouche edges themselves, i.e., the symbols shown in Tables 35(a), 35(b), and the two tables in Section 11.3 above. This can be seen in the example text from Sec. XX above where the five formative cartouches used in the sentence...

    +

    Sample Cartouche Edges

    +

    ...are represented in the in the informal script by the following five character combinations:

    +

    Examples of cursive cartouche edges

    +

    These cartouche characters are written as the first characters of a word, followed by the characters representing the internal glyphs.

    +

    Non-formative cartouches (i.e., the triangular and hexagonal cartouches representing personal reference adjuncts and additional verb morphology) are shown as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

    triangle 1 

    +

    +

     

     

    +

    triangle 2

    +

    +

     

     

    +

    triangle 3

    +

    +

     

     

    +

    triangle 4

    +

     

    +

    triangle 5

    +

    +

     

     

    +

    triangle 6

    +

    +

     

     

    +

    triangle 7

    +

     

    +

    triangle 8

    +


    + hex shape

    +

    +

     

    +

    11.6.3 Using Diacritics to Represent Axis Shifts and Color Shifts

    +
    +

    [this section under construction]

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_11.htm.orig b/2004-en/Chapter_11.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..62343a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_11.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,3798 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 11: The Script + + + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 11: The Writing System

    +

    [This page still partially under construction. Hopefully, I will finish it sometime in 2009.]
    +

    +

    The Ilaksh writing system is utterly different from the Ithkuil writing system, the only similarity being that they are both morpho-phonemic scripts, although the phonological information presented in the Ilaksh script is minimal, making the script nearly a pure morphography.

    +

    The Ilaksh writing system comes in two related varieties:  a formal “ornamental” writing system, and an informal cursive (i.e., handwritten) script derived from the formal writing system.  The formal system is two-dimensional and graphically non-linear.  It operates somewhat like an abstract morphological “map” of a sentence and is illustrated below left.  The informal cursive version of the same sentence appears on the right.  A horizontal variant of the informal cursive script (used optionally for short passages or sentences that can be written on one line) is also shown immediately below the formal version of the sentence.  Below all of them is the romanized transliteration and English translation of the sentence.

    +

    Ilaksh Writing Sample

    +
    +
    +
    +

    Andmùt  žiëlùimäv  asavéwöc  ukšu’ŭs  ujgălärň  žö’äàcërb.
    + The incompetent tailor began crying after finding out about the clowns’ new directive on nakedness.

    +
    +
    +
    +

     

    +

    11.1 The Formal (Ornamental) Writing System

    +

    We will first analyze the formal writing system.  The formal writing system utilizes combinations of various elements to distinguish the hundreds of morphological categories and thousands of roots/stems.  These elements are indicated in the following diagram of a written Ilaksh sentence.

    +

    Explanatory diagram of script

    +
    +
    +
    +

    En-nà  ççwačotëērbïkç  ukšëěuh  çéitëpš  äirei’wuŧ  a’läçewöóřzah  žie.
    + If only the troupe of clowns had gotten together and destroyed their musical instruments just after performing that lovely recital for us.

    +
    +
    +
    +

    The following explanations explain the purpose of each part of the writing system as illustrated in the above diagram.

    +
      +
    1. Geometrically-shaped two-dimensional containers or “cartouches” of the following varieties:
      2. +
        +
      1. Both vertically-oriented and horizontally-oriented cartouches whose long edges are parallel lines, but whose short edges consist of various straight-edged and/or curving contours.
        2. +
      2. Triangular cartouches which be either equilateral triangles or right-angled triangles, oriented so that at least one side is either flat/horizontal or perpendicular/vertical.
        3. +
      3. Hexagonal cartouches.
        4. +
      +
    +
      +
    1. Glyph-like symbols based on portions cut out from one-half of a hexagonal form.  The two halves of the hexagon-based glyphs are juxtaposed opposite each other to complete the hexagonal form.  These glyphs are placed inside the geometric cartouche shapes
      2. +
    +
      +
    1. A four-way “color” distinction consisting of any light, mid-tone, and dark color, reduceable in grayscale to dark/black, light/white, and mid-tone gray (to allow color-blind persons to distinguish them).  The fourth “color” is actually a pattern of texture, consisting of any pattern of striation, mottling, cross-hatching, etc., as long as it is distinguishable from the mid-tone gray when reduced to gray scale.  These colors are applied to both the geometric shapes and the hexagon-based glyphs (NOTE:  there is only a three-way color distinction for the hexagon-based glyphs, as the mottling/texture is applied only to the cartouche shapes.)   
      2. +
    +
      +
    1. Layering of the cartouche shapes one upon the other in partially overlapping fashion to create a “stacking” order from forward-most to back-most.
      2. +
    +
      +
    1. Positioning of the glyphs within the cartouches in terms of a upper-mid-lower and left-center-right orientation.
      2. +
    +
      +
    1. Switching of the “axis” of the hexagonal glyphs (i.e., the orientation of the partition between the two halves of the glyph) from vertical to horizontal to oblique.
      2. +
    +

     

    +

    11.2 REPRESENTING NOMINAL FORMATIVES

    +

    The above six elements are manipulated to create a morphological “picture” or “map” of a sentence.  We will start by explaining how the formatives within a sentence are written (see Sec. 2.6 for an explanation of formatives).

    +


    + 11.2.1 Representing the 3600 Roots

    +

    The 3600 Ilaksh roots are shown by means of the “cartouche”-like shapes within which the glyph-like symbols are placed.  It is the edge-shape of the “ends” of the cartouche, along with the color of the cartouche as a whole, which indicates which root is being represented. 

    +

    When a root is written as a horizontally-oriented cartouche, it represents a nominal formative.  By horizontally-oriented is meant that the cartouche is wider than it is tall, and it is the left and right edges that change, while the top and bottom edges are simple parallel lines.

    +

    There are thirty different edges used in writing the cartouches.  The thirty edges are shown in Table 35 below, first as they appear when used as the left-hand edge of a nominal formative, which may be considered the “default” form of each edge, secondly when they appear as the right-hand edge.

    +


    + Table 35(a): Left-Hand Cartouche Edge Shapes

    +

    Left Side Cartouche Edges

    +

    When used as the right-hand edge of a nominal formative, the default shapes are horizontally reversed, as follows:
    +

    +

    Table 35(b): Right-Hand Cartouche Edge Shapes

    +

    Right Side Cartouche Edges

    +

     

    +

    As was explained in Chapter 2, an Ilaksh root consists of one of 120 Cr consonantal forms, plus one of five Vr vowels, plus one of six tones.  These phonological elements correspond to the following written elements:

    +

    The 120 Cr forms are represented by the 30 left-hand (or top) cartouche edges in conjunction with the four colors (black, white, gray, textured) of the cartouche as a whole, as shown in Table 36 below:
    +

    +

    TABLE 36: 120 Cr radicals shown by 30 lefthand edges X 4 cartouche colors (white, grey, textured, black)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    WHITE

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    GRAY

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    TEXTURED

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    BLACK

    edge

    Cr

    edge

    Cr

    edge

    Cr

    edge

    Cr

    1

    p

    1

    fy

    1

    pl

    1

    đr

    2

    t

    2

    ŧy

    2

    tl

    2

    sr

    3

    k

    3

    vy

    3

    kl

    3

    šr

    4

    b

    4

    đy

    4

    bl

    4

    zr

    5

    d

    5

    my

    5

    dl

    5

    žr

    6

    g

    6

    ny

    6

    gl

    6

    mr

    7

    f

    7

    ry

    7

    fl

    7

    nr

    8

    ŧ

    8

    ly

    8

    ŧl

    8

    pm

    9

    x

    9

    ř

    9

    xl

    9

    pn

    10

    v

    10

    çp

    10

    vl

    10

    çk

    11

    đ

    11

    pf

    11

    đl

    11

    sp

    12

    s

    12

    tf

    12

    sl

    12

    st

    13

    š

    13

    kf

    13

    šl

    13

    sk

    14

    z

    14

    bv

    14

    zl

    14

    šp

    15

    ž

    15

    dv

    15

    žl

    15

    št

    16

    m

    16

    gv

    16

    ml

    16

    šk

    17

    n

    17

    ps

    17

    nl

    17

    sm

    18

    ň

    18

    pš

    18

    sx

    18

    šm

    19

    r

    19

    ks

    19

    šx

    19

    sn

    20

    l

    20

    kš

    20

    çt

    20

    šn

    21

    c

    21

    bz

    21

    pr

    21

    př

    22

    č

    22

    bž

    22

    tr

    22

    tř

    23

    ż

    23

    gz

    23

    kr

    23

    kř

    24

    j

    24

    gž

    24

    br

    24

    bř

    25

    py

    25

    sf

    25

    dr

    25

    dř

    26

    ty

    26

    šf

    26

    gr

    26

    gř

    27

    ky

    27

    sŧ

    27

    fr

    27

    tm

    28

    by

    28

    šŧ

    28

    ŧr

    28

    tn

    29

    dy

    29

    pŧ

    29

    xr

    29

    km

    30

    gy

    30

    kŧ

    30

    vr

    30

    kn

    +


    +The five Vr vowels and six tones are represented by the 30 right-hand (or bottom) cartouche edges, as shown in Table 37 below.

    +


    +Table 37: 6 tones X 5 vowels     shown by 30 righthand edges of cartouche

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    low tone

    high tone

    falling tone

    rising tone

    falling-rising

    rising-falling

    Vr  vowels ↓

    edge

    edge

    edge

    edge

    edge

    edge

     

    a

    1

     

    +

     

    6

     

    +

     

    11

     

    +

     

    16

     

    +

     

    21

     

    +

     

    26

     

    +

     

    e

    2

    7

    12

    17

    22

    27

    i

    3

    8

    13

    18

    23

    28

    o

    4

    9

    14

    19

    24

    29

    u

    5

    10

    15

    20

    25

    30

    +

     

    +

    11.2.2 Representing Specific Stems

    +

    The default glyph is simply two halves of a hexagon joined side-by-side into the full hexagon shape, with the “axis” separating the two halves in a vertically-oriented position, i.e.,

    +

    Hex archetype

    +

    As explained in Chapter 2, each Ilaksh root generates three Patterns (corresponding to the holistic stems plus two groups of complementary stems).  In turn, each of the three Patterns contains three stems. 

    +

    The three Patterns are shown via the color of the left-hand half of this first glyph, while the three stems within each Pattern are shown via the color of the right-hand half of this glyph. The specific patterns are indicated in Table 38 below.

    +


    + Table 38: Colors of Lefthand and Righthand Glyph-Halves Representing Pattern and Stem

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    Pattern 1
    + (Holistic stems)

    Pattern 2
    + (First Complementary
    + Stems)

    Pattern 3
    + (Second Complementary Stems)

    Stem 1

    +

     

    black-white hex

    +

    black - white

    gray-white

    +

    gray - white

    white-white hex

    +

    white - white

    Stem 2

    +

     

    black-gray hex

    +

    black - gray

    gray-gray hex

    +

    gray - gray

    white-gray hex

    +

    white - gray

    Stem 3

    +

     

    black-black hex

    +

    black - black

    gray-black hex

    +

    gray - black

    white-black hex

    +

    white - black

    +

     

    +

    11.2.3 Representing Case

    +

    The 96 cases (see Chapter 4) are represented by 96 modifications to the shape of the left half of the first glyph within the cartouche.  These modifications are essentially portions of the default glyph (Glyph No. 1).  The 96 different glyph-halves are shown in Table 39 below.

    +


    + Table 39: The 96 Glyph Halves (only lefthand forms shown)

    +

    Formal script glyph halves

    +

    The 96 cases are mapped directly to the 96 glyph halves, as indicated in Table 40 below:
    +

    +

    Table 40: Glyph Half numbers Representing the 96 Cases

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    label

    case

    glyph

    label

    case

    glyph

    label

    case

    glyph

    label

    case

    glyph

                  

    OBL

    OBLIQUE

    1

    PUR

    PURPOSIVE

    25

    EXC

    EXCEPTIVE

    49

    CMP1A

    COMPARATIVE 1A

    73

    IND

    INDUCIVE

    2

    CSD

    CONSIDERATIVE

    26

    AVR

    AVERSIVE

    50

    CMP2A

    COMPARATIVE 2A

    74

    ABS

    ABSOLUTIVE

    3

    ESS

    ESSIVE

    27

    CMP

    COMPARATIVE

    51

    CMP3A

    COMPARATIVE 3A

    75

    ERG

    ERGATIVE

    4

    ASI

    ASSIMILATIVE

    28

    SML

    SIMULTANEITIVE

    52

    CMP4A

    COMPARATIVE 4A

    76

    EFF

    EFFECTUATIVE

    5

    FUN

    FUNCTIVE

    29

    ASS

    ASSESSIVE

    53

    CMP5A

    COMPARATIVE 5A

    77

    AFF

    AFFECTIVE

    6

    TFM

    TRANSFORMATIVE

    30

    CNR

    CONCURSIVE

    54

    CMP6A

    COMPARATIVE 6A

    78

    DAT

    DATIVE

    7

    REF

    REFERENTIAL

    31

    ACS

    ACCESSIVE

    55

    CMP7A

    COMPARATIVE 7A

    79

    INS

    INSTRUMENTAL

    8

    CLA

    CLASSIFICATIVE

    32

    DFF

    DIFFUSIVE

    56

    CMP8A

    COMPARATIVE 8A

    80

    ACT

    ACTIVATIVE

    9

    CNV

    CONDUCTIVE

    33

    PER

    PERIODIC

    57

    CMP1B

    COMPARATIVE 1B

    81

    DER

    DERIVATIVE

    10

    IDP

    INTERDEPENDENT

    34

    PRO

    PROLAPSIVE

    58

    CMP2B

    COMPARATIVE 2B

    82

    SIT

    SITUATIVE

    11

    BEN

    BENEFACTIVE

    35

    PCV

    PRECURSIVE

    59

    CMP3B

    COMPARATIVE 3B

    83

    POS

    POSSESSIVE

    12

    TSP

    TRANSPOSITIVE

    36

    PCR

    POSTCURSIVE

    60

    CMP4B

    COMPARATIVE 4B

    84

    PRP

    PROPRIETIVE

    13

    CMM

    COMMUTATIVE

    37

    ELP

    ELAPSIVE

    61

    CMP5B

    COMPARATIVE 5B

    85

    GEN

    GENITIVE

    14

    COM

    COMITATIVE

    38

    ALP

    ALLAPSIVE

    62

    CMP6B

    COMPARATIVE 6B

    86

    ATT

    ATTRIBUTIVE

    15

    CNJ

    CONJUNCTIVE

    39

    INP

    INTERPOLATIVE

    63

    CMP7B

    COMPARATIVE 7B

    87

    PDC

    PRODUCTIVE

    16

    UTL

    UTILITATIVE

    40

    EPS

    EPISODIC

    64

    CMP8B

    COMPARATIVE 8B

    88

    ITP

    INTERPRETIVE

    17

    ABE

    ABESSIVE

    41

    PRL

    PROLIMITIVE

    65

    CMP1C

    COMPARATIVE 1C

    89

    OGN

    ORIGINATIVE

    18

    CVS

    CONVERSIVE

    42

    LIM

    LIMITATIVE

    66

    CMP2C

    COMPARATIVE 2C

    90

    PAR

    PARTITIVE

    19

    COR

    CORRELATIVE

    43

    LOC

    LOCATIVE

    67

    CMP3C

    COMPARATIVE 3C

    91

    CRS

    CONTRASTIVE

    20

    DEP

    DEPENDENT

    44

    ORI

    ORIENTATIVE

    68

    CMP4C

    COMPARATIVE 4C

    92

    CPS

    COMPOSITIVE

    21

    PVS

    PROVISIONAL

    45

    PSV

    PROCURSIVE

    69

    CMP5C

    COMPARATIVE 5C

    93

    PRD

    PREDICATIVE

    22

    PTL

    POSTULATIVE

    46

    ALL

    ALLATIVE

    70

    CMP6C

    COMPARATIVE 6C

    94

    MED

    		MEDIATIVE23DFRDEFERENTIAL47 ABLABLATIVE71 CMP7CCOMPARATIVE 7C95
    APL

    APPLICATIVE

    24

    CON

    CONCESSIVE

    48

    NAV

    NAVIGATIVE

    72

    CMP8C

    COMPARATIVE 8C

    96

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    +

     

    +

    11.2.4 Representing Configuration

    +

    The nine configurations (see Section 3.1) are represented by the positioning of the first glyph within the cartouche relative to the edges.

    +

    There are three horizontal positions (left, center, right) and three vertical positions (top, mid, bottom).  These correspond to the nine configurations as indicated in Table 41 below.

    +


    + Table 41: Position Within Cartouche of First Glyph as Indicator of Configuration

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    LEFT

    CENTER

    RIGHT

    TOP

    UNI-Uniplex

    AGG-Aggregative

    COH-Coherent

    MID

    DCT-Discrete

    CPN-Componential

    MLT-Multiform

    BOTTOM

    DPX-Duplex

    SEG-Segmentative

    CST-Composite

    +

     

    +

    11.2.5 Representing Affiliation, Perspective, and Extension

    +

    The four affiliations, four perspectives, and six extensions (see Chapter 3) are shown via the right-hand half of the first glyph (as opposed to the left-hand representing case).  Being in the right half of the glyph, the forms are necessarily reversed horizontally in comparison to their form used in the left half of the glyph.  The specific morphological correspondences to the 96 glyph-halves are shown in Table 42 below.

    +


    + Table 42: Glyph-Half Numbers Representing Affiliation, Extension, and Perspective

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    4 Affiliations

    Shown by right-hand glyph-half of 1st glyph within a formative cartouche. 
    + The particular glyph number corresponding to the particular set of affiliations, extensions and perspectives are listed below.

    6 Extensions

    4 Perspectives

    Affiliation
    +

    Perspective
    +

    EXTENSION

    DEL

    PRX

    ICP

    TRM

    DPL

    GRD

     

    +

    CSL – Consolidative

    M–monadic

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    U-unbounded

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    N-nomic

    13

    14

    15

    16

    17

    18

    A-abstract

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

     

    +

    ASO –
    + Associative

    M–monadic

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    U-unbounded

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    N-nomic

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    A-abstract

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

     

    +

    VAR –
    + Variative

    M–monadic

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    U-unbounded

    55

    56

    57

    58

    59

    60

    N-nomic

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    A-abstract

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

     

    +

    COA –
    + Coalescent

    M–monadic

    73

    74

    75

    76

    77

    78

    U-unbounded

    79

    80

    81

    82

    83

    84

    N-nomic

    85

    86

    87

    88

    89

    90

    A-abstract

    91

    92

    93

    94

    95

    96

    +

     

    +

    11.2.6 Representing Designation and Essence

    +

    The categories of Designation and Essence are both shown by a reversal in the vertical orientation of the left-hand and right-hand glyph halves respectively.  As an illustration of such a vertical reversal, here are Glyph Nos. 10 and 82 shown in their lefthand forms, then the same vertically reversed.

    +

    Example of reversal of vertical orientation

    +

    The morphological correspondences are as follows:

    +
    +

    Designation: 
    + IFR (INFORMAL) = default orientation; FRM (FORMAL) = lefthand glyph-half vertically reversed

    +

    Essence: 
    + NRM (NORMAL) = default orientation; RPV (REPRESENTATIVE) = righthand glyph-half vertically reversed

    +
    +

    The following glyph-halves, being vertically symmetrical (i.e., the top and bottom halves of the symbol are mirror images of each other), have specialized forms when required to be vertically “reversed.”  Those forms are:

    +

    Special reversed forms for glyphs 1, 2, 3, 31, 32, 43

    +

     

    +

    11.2.7 Representing Context

    +

    As stated earlier, the default “axis” (the line splitting the two halves of the hexagonal glyph) is vertically oriented.  It is possible to shift this axis to be horizontal, as well as at an oblique angle.  Such axis shifts as applied to the first glyph in the cartouche are used for representing the four contexts (see Sec. 3.X), as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    CONTEXT

     

    EXS

    FNC

    RPS

    AMG


    +

    +

    Axis Orientation

     

    +

    Hex Axis Vertical

    +

    vertical

     

    +

    Hex Axis Horizontal

    +

    horizontal

     

    +

    Hex Axis Oblique Descending

    +

    oblique-descending

     

    +

    Hex Axis Oblique Ascending

    +

    oblique-ascending

    +

     

    +

    Note on Axis Shifting:  When a “bivalve”-like hexagonal glyph undergoes a shifting of the axis from the vertical, then it becomes necessary to reinterpret what is meant by the “left-hand” and “right-hand” glyph halves.  The correspondences are illustrated as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    vertical

    horizontal

    oblique-descending

    oblique-ascending

     

    +

    Vertical Axis

    +

     

     

    +

    Hex Axis Horizontal

     

    +

    Hex Axis Oblique Descending

     

    +

    Hex Axis Oblique Ascending

    left half →

    top half

    lower-left half

    upper-left half

    right half →

    bottom half

    upper-right half

    lower-right half

    +

     

    +

    Note that the two oblique axis shifts shown above also entail a rotation of the glyph as a whole so that the six vertices are all horizontally parallel to each other (i.e., so that the hexagon has a top side and a bottom side).  There are two additional axis shifts which appear in limited contexts.  These are similar to the oblique-descending and oblique-ascending orientations but with the hexagon not rotated, i.e., like the default (vertical) orientation, the hexagon has top and bottom vertices rather than top and bottom sides.  These two axial orientations are labelled upright-descending and upright-ascending and are illustrated below.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    vertical

    horizontal

     

    +

    Hex Axis Upright Descending

    +

     

     

    +

    Hex Axis Upright Ascending

    lower-left half

    upper-left half

    upper-right half

    lower-right half

    +

     

    +

    11.2.8 Representing Suffixes

    +
    +

    [this section is under construction]

    +
    +

     

    +

    11.3 WRITING VERBAL FORMATIVES

    +

    As explained above, nominal formatives are written with a horizontal orientation, the thirty different edges being applied to the left and right sides of the cartouche.  To represent a verbal formative, the cartouche is written in a vertically-oriented manner. Vertically-oriented means the cartouche is taller than it is wide, and it is the top and bottom edges that change, while the left and right edges are simple parallel lines.  It is actually easier to think of written verbal formatives as simply being the same as nominal formatives, but tipped 90 degrees to the right, so that the left and right edges of a nominal formative cartouche correspond respectively to the top and bottom edges of a verbal formative.

    +

    When used as the top edge of a verbal formative, the default shapes from Table XX above are tilted 90 degrees to right, as follows:

    +

    Top Side Cartouche Edges

    +

    When used as the bottom edge of a verbal formative, the default shapes are horizontally reversed, then tilted 90 degrees to the right, as follows:

    +

    Bottom Side Cartouche Edges

    +

     

    +

    Note that the glyphs within a verbal formative operate independently of the vertical orientation of the cartouche, i.e., they do not tilt 90 degrees to the left simply because the cartouche containing them has tilted.  Thus, for example, the word shown below on the left is a nominal formative, while its equivalent as a verbal formative is shown on the right.

    +

    Nominal to Verbal Cartouche Shift - Orientation of internal glyphs preserved

    +

     

    +

    11.3.1 Representing Pragmatic Relations

    +

    In Chapter 9, it was explained how Ilaksh uses word order to indicate pragmatic relations, i.e., the marking of topic and focus on formatives.  Formatives functioning as the topic of a sentence will appear first in a sentence, while formatives which are the focus of a sentence will appear immediately preceding the verb.  Neutral sentences with no specific topic or focus will be verb initial. 

    +

    In the formal writing system, this word ordering is conveyed by “layering” the various cartouches to overlap one another from front to back in a quasi-three-dimensional order relative to the point of view of the reader.  In neutral, verb-initial sentences, the vertically-oriented verb cartouche will be forward-most in the “stack” of cartouches, while in sentences with topic and/or focus formatives, these cartouches will overlap the verb cartouche, with a topic being placed higher up along the length of the verb cartouche than a subsequent focus formative.  This layering of cartouches is illustrated by the following examples:

    +
    +

    [examples forthcoming - under construction]

    +
    +

     

    +

    11.3.2 Representing Mood

    +

    The following morphological categories specific to verbs are shown by means of special triangular-shaped cartouche which is placed behind the verb cartouche:  Mood, Function, Illocution, Format, Phase, Version, Valence, Modality, Validation, Sanction, Aspect and Level.  In this section and the sections which follow, we will examine how each of these categories are displayed in this triangular cartouche.  We will begin with Mood.

    +

    The eight moods are represented by the shape and directional orientation of the triangular cartouche, as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MOOD

    FAC

    SUB

    ASM

    SPE

    COU

    HYP

    IPL

    ASC

     

    +

    triangle 1 

    +

    upward-pointing  equilateral triangle

     

    +

    triangle 2

    +

    downward-pointing equilateral triangle

     

    +

    triangle 3

    +

    leftward-pointing equilateral triangle

     

    +

    triangle 4

    +

    rightward-pointing  equilateral triangle

     

    +

    triangle 5

    +

    triangle w/ right-angle pointed down and right

     

    +

    triangle 6

    +

    triangle w/ right-angle pointed down and left

     

    +

    triangle 7

    +

    triangle w/ right-angle pointed up and right

     

    +

    triangle 8

    +

    triangle w/ right-angle pointed up and left

    +

     

    +

    11.3.3 Representing Function and Illocution

    +

    Either the eight Functions or the eight Illocutions can be shown by a combination of cartouche color plus axial orientation of the first glyph within the cartouche.  If the axial orientation of the glyph is either vertical or horizontal, then it is Function which is being represented.  If the axial orientation is oblique (whether descending or ascending), it is Illocution being conveyed.  The specific morphological correspondences are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    FUNCTION

     

    Cartouche Color

    black

    gray

    textured

    white

    black

    gray

    textured

    white


    +

    +

    Glyph axis

     

    +

    vertical axis

    +

    vertical

     

    +

    vertical axis

    +

    vertical

     

    +

    vertical axis

    +

    vertical

     

    +

    vertical axis

    +

    vertical

     

    +

    horizontal axis

    +

    horizontal

     

    +

    horizontal axis

    +

    horizontal

     

    +

    horizontal axis

    +

    horizontal

     

    +

    horizontal axis

    +

    horizontal

    +

    OR

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ILLOCUTION

    Cartouche Color

    black

    gray

    textured

    white

    black

    gray

    textured

    white


    + Oblique
    + glyph axis

     

    +

    ascending axis

    +

    ascending

     

    +

    ascending axis

    +

    ascending

     

    +

    ascending axis

    +

    ascending

     

    +

    ascending axis

    +

    ascending

     

    +

    descending axis

    +

    descending

     

    +

    descending axis

    +

    descending

     

    +

    descending axis

    +

    descending

     

    +

    descending axis

    +

    descending

    +

    NOTE:  If the verb contains non-default information for both Function and Illocution (i.e., the verb’s Function is not OPERATIVE and the Illocution is not DECLARATIVE, then it will be Function that is represented by the cartouche color and glyph axis.  Illocution in turn will be conveyed via an alternate means explained below in Sec. 11.3.8.

    +

     

    +

    11.3.4 Representing Format, Phase, and Version

    +

    The combination of 8 Formats, 9 Phases, and 6 Versions (see Sections XX and XX respectively) is conveyed by the value, vertical orientation, and color of the left-hand half of the first glyph within the triangular cartouche underlapping a verbal formative cartouche. 

    + + + + + +

    8 Formats x 9 Phases x 6 Versions

    shown by glyph on left/top half of 1st glyph + reversal + color

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FORMAT

    Version

    Phase

    Color + rev

    SCH

    ISR

    ATH

    PRC

    RSL

    SBQ

    CCM

    OBJ

     

    +

     

    +

    PRC

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    white

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    CPT

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    gray

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    INE

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    black

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    INC

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    white + rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    PST

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    gray + rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

     

    +

    EFC

    CTX

     

    +

     

    +

    black + rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    PCT

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    ITR

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    REP

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    ITM

    33

    34

    45

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    RCT

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    FRE

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    FRG

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    FLC

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    +

     

    +

    11.3.5 Representing Valence and Modality

    +

    The combination of thirty modalities and the fourteen valences (see Sections XX and XX respectively) is conveyed by the value, vertical orientation, and color of the right-hand half of the first glyph within the triangular cartouche underlapping a verbal formative cartouche.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Modalities
    + ↓

    color of glyph half

    Rev of glyph half

    VALENCES – R/B half of 1st glyph

    MNO

    PRL

    CRO

    RCP

    CPL

    NNR

    DUP

    DEM

    RES

    IMT

    CNG

    PTI

    IDC

    MUT

    1

    DES

    Desiderative

     

    +

    white

     

    +

    --

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    2

    ASP

    Aspirative

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    3

    EPC

    Expectative

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    4

    CRD

    Credential

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    5

    REQ

    Requisitive

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    6

    EXH

    Exhortative

     

    +

    gray

     

    +

    --

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    7

    OPR

    Opportunitive

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    8

    CPC

    Capacitative

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    9

    PRM

    Permissive

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    10

    PTN

    Potential

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    11

    CLS

    Compulsory

     

    +

    black

     

    +

    --

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    12

    OBG

    Obligative

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    13

    IMS

    Impositive

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    14

    ADV

    Advocative

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    15

    ITV

    Intentive

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    16

    ANT

    Anticipative

     

    +

    white

     

    +

    rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    17

    DSP

    Dispositive

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    18

    PRE

    Preparative

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    19

    NEC

    Necessitative

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    20

    DEC

    Decisive

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    21

    PTV

    Proclivitive

     

    +

    gray

     

    +

    rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    22

    VOL

    Voluntative

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    23

    ACC

    Accordative

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    24

    INC

    Inclinative

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    25

    DVR

    Divertive

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    26

    DVT

    Devotive

     

    +

    black

     

    +

    rev

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    27

    PFT

    Preferential

    15

    16

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    28

    28

    IPS

    Impressional

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    29

    PMS

    Promissory

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

     

    (none)

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    +

     

    +

    11.3.6 Representing Validation and Sanction

    +

    The combination of fourteen validations and nine sanctions (see Sections 6.3 and 5.4 respectively) is shown by the value and vertical orientation of the left-hand glyph half of the second glyph within the triangular cartouche underlapping a verbal formative cartouche.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    14 Validations x 9 Sanctionsshown by 126 glyphs on left/top half of 2nd glyph (63 + 63 reversed)
     
    SANCTION
    VALIDATION
    		         

    CNF

    		CONFIRMATIVE

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    9

    AFM

    		AFFIRMATIVE

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    17

    18

    RPT

    		REPORTIVE

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    25

    26

    27

    INF

    		INFERENTIAL

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    33

    34

    35

    36

    ITU

    		INTUITIVE

    37

    38

    39

    40

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    PSM

    PRESUMPTIVE

    46

    47

    48

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    PSM2

    PRESUMPTIVE 2

    55

    56

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    PPT

    		PURPORTIVE

    1r *

    2 r

    3r

    4r

    5r

    6r

    7r

    8r

    9r

    PPT2

    		PURPORTIVE 2

    10r

    11

    12r

    13r

    14r

    15r

    16r

    17r

    18r

    CNJ

    CONJECTURAL

    19r

    20r

    21r

    22r

    23r

    24r

    25r

    26r

    27r

    DUB

    DUBITATIVE

    28r

    29r

    30r

    31r

    32r

    33r

    34r

    35r

    36r

    TEN

    TENTATIVE

    37r

    38r

    39r

    40r

    41r

    42r

    43r

    44r

    45r

    PUT

    PUTATIVE

    46r

    47r

    48r

    49r

    50r

    51r

    52r

    53r

    54r

    IPB

    IMPROBABLE

    55r

    56r

    57r

    58r

    59r

    60r

    61r

    62r

    63r

    +* (“r” after glyph value = vertically reversed) +

     

    +

    11.3.7 Representing Aspect

    +

    The thirty-two aspects (see Section 5.6) are conveyed by the colors and axis shift of the second glyph within the triangular cartouche underlapping the verbal formative cartouche.

    + + + + + +

    32 Aspects

    3 colors of L/T half of 2nd glyph + 3 colors of R/B half of 2nd glyph  x  4 axis shifts of 2nd glyph

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ASPECT

    L/T

    R/B

    axis

     

    ASPECT

    L/T

    R/B

    axis

     

    ASPECT

    L/T

    R/B

    axis

    (NONE)

    black

    black

    |

    11

    RCS

    Recessative

    white

    black

    —

    22

    CSQ

    Consequential

    gray

    black

    /

    1

    RTR

    Retrospective

    white

    white

    |

    12

    PAU

    Pausal

    gray

    white

    —

    23

    SQN

    Sequential

    black

    white

    /

    2

    PRS

    Prospective

    white

    gray

    |

    13

    RGR

    Regressive

    gray

    gray

    —

    24

    EPD

    Expeditive

    black

    gray

    /

    3

    HAB

    Habitual

    white

    black

    |

    14

    PCL

    Preclusive

    gray

    black

    —

    25

    DSC

    Disclusive

    white

    white

    \

    4

    PRG

    Progressive

    gray

    white

    |

    15

    CNT

    Continuative

    black

    white

    —

    26

    CCL

    Conclusive

    white

    gray

    \

    5

    IMM

    Imminent

    gray

    gray

    |

    16

    ICS

    Incessative

    black

    gray

    —

    27

    CUL

    Culminative

    white

    black

    \

    6

    PCS

    Precessive

    gray

    black

    |

    17

    PMP

    Preemptive

    white

    white

    /

    28

    IMD

    Intermediative

    gray

    white

    \

    7

    REG

    Regulative

    black

    white

    |

    18

    CLM

    Climactic

    white

    gray

    /

    29

    TRD

    Tardative

    gray

    gray

    \

    8

    EXP

    experiential

    black

    gray

    |

    19

    PRC

    Protractive

    white

    black

    /

    30

    TNS

    Transitional

    gray

    black

    \

    9

    RSM

    Resumptive

    white

    white

    —

    20

    TMP

    Temporary

    gray

    white

    /

    31

    ITC

    Intercommutative

    black

    white

    \

    10

    CSS

    Cessative

    white

    gray

    —

    21

    MTV

    Motive

    gray

    gray

    /

    32

    CSM

    Consumptive

    black

    gray

    \

    +

     

    +

    11.3.8 Representing Level and Alternative Illocution

    +

    The eight illocutions (see Section 5.7) and eighteen levels (see Section 5.8) are shown by the value and vertical orientation of the right-hand glyph half of the second glyph within the triangular cartouche underlapping a verbal formative cartouche. This combination results in a grid of 152 possible glyph-halves in the position (76 glyph-halves plus their vertically reversed counterparts). The specific values and vertical orientation are shown in the following table.

    +


    + Table: Glyph Values Representing the Combination of Level and Illocution

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Illocution

    Level

    ASR

    DIR

    CMV

    EXP

    DEC

    IRG

    ADM

    HOR

    (none)

    1

    2

    3

    4

    5

    6

    7

    8

    1

    EQUr

    		EQUATIVE - relative

    9

    10

    11

    12

    13

    14

    15

    16

    2

    SURr

    		SURPASSIVE - relative

    17

    18

    19

    20

    21

    22

    23

    24

    3

    DEFr

    		DEFICIENT - relative

    25

    26

    27

    28

    29

    30

    31

    32

    4

    OPTr

    		OPTIMAL - relative

    33

    34

    35

    36

    37

    38

    39

    40

    5

    MINr

    		MINIMAL - relative

    41

    42

    43

    44

    45

    46

    47

    48

    6

    SPLr

    		SUPERLATIVE - relative

    49

    50

    51

    52

    53

    54

    55

    56

    7

    IFRr

    		INFERIOR - relative

    57

    58

    59

    60

    61

    62

    63

    64

    8

    SPEr

    		SUPEREQUATIVE - relative

    65

    66

    67

    68

    69

    70

    71

    72

    9

    SBEr

    		SUBEQUATIVE - relative

    1r *

    2r

    3r

    4r

    5r

    6r

    7rr

    8r

    10

    EQUa

    		EQUATIVE - absolute

    9r

    10r

    11r

    12r

    13r

    14r

    15r

    16r

    11

    SURa

    		SURPASSIVE - absolute

    17r

    18r

    19r

    20r

    21r

    22r

    23r

    24r

    12

    DEFa

    		DEFICIENT - absolute

    25r

    26r

    27r

    28r

    29r

    30r

    31r

    32r

    13

    OPTa

    		OPTIMAL - absolute

    33r

    34r

    35r

    36r

    37r

    38r

    39r

    40r

    14

    MINa

    		MINIMAL - absolute

    41r

    42r

    43r

    44r

    45r

    46r

    47r

    48r

    15

    SPLa

    		SUPERLATIVE - absolute

    49r

    50r

    51r

    52r

    53r

    54r

    55r

    56r

    16

    IFRa

    		INFERIOR - absolute

    57r

    58r

    59r

    60r

    61r

    62r

    63r

    64r

    17

    SPEa

    		SUPEREQUATIVE - absolute

    65r

    66r

    67r

    68r

    69r

    70r

    71r

    72r

    18

    SBEa

    		SUBEQUATIVE - absolute

    73

    74

    75

    76

    73r

    74r

    75r

    76r

    +

    * (“r” after glyph value = vertically reversed)

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    11.3.9 Representing Incorporated Stems

    +

    Incorporated stems (see Section 5.7) are shown by placing the stem-cartouche of the incorporated stem in a position underlapping the triangular verbal mood cartouche introduced in Section 11.3.2 above. This is illustrated in the following example:

    +
    +

    [example forthcoming - under construction]

    +
    +

     

    +

    11.4 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATIONS OF VERBAL CATEGORIES

    +
    +

    [this section is under construction]

    +

     

    +
    +

    11.5 REPRESENTING PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS

    +
    +

    [this section is under construction]

    +

     

    +
    +

    11.6 THE INFORMAL (CURSIVE) SCRIPT

    +

    The cursive script is designed to be handwritten.  Unlike the formal script, it is written in a sequential linear fashion like most writing systems.  The direction of writing is a vertical boustrophedon (zig-zag) pattern in columns starting from the top left, read downward for the first column and subsequent odd-numbered columns, then upward (i.e, from bottom to top) for the second and subsequent even-numbered columns.  The vertical orientation of the characters themselves does not change in the even-numbered columns (i.e., they are not vertically reversed despite being read in reverse (i.e., upward) sequence.  As it is always possible to visually determine the start of a new word (by means of specialized characters corresponding to the cartouche edges of the formal script), there is no need for spacing between words.  Spacing is used to separate different sentences within a paragraph.

    +

    The following figure presents an analogy with English writing as to how the Ilaksh cursive script is read.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    curved arrow downward
    curved arrow downward
    curved arrow downward

    T

    W

    A

    R

    S

    E

    N

    H

    E

    Y

    U

    I

    T

    A

    I

    H

    T

    C

    V

    T

    N

    S

    T

    H

    H

    E

    I

    D

    R

    S

    A

    S

    S

    R

    R

    E

    T

    T

    K

    C

    W

    E

    P

    N

    T

    A

    R

    S

    A

    R

    E

    H

    L

    I

    I

    D

    E

    S

    E

    I

    P

    T

    .

    arrow curved upward
    arrow curved upward
    arrow curved upward
    		 
    +

     

    +

    When writing the cursive script, it is usual to allow the various characters to partially overlap each other to create “ligature”-like effects, as long as the degree of overlap is not so much as to be unable to distinguish the individual characters from each other.  This is seen in the sample shown at the outset of the chapter, repeated here.

    +

    Cursive Example - Vertical

    +

    As stated (and illustrated) at the outset of this chapter, it is also possible to write the Ilaksh cursive script horizontally left-to-right for short passages which do not exceed a single line in length.  When written this way, only the characters representing cartouche edges normally overlap into ligatures; the remaining characters are written without overlapping, as seen below in the horizontal version of the same Ilaksh passage from above.

    +

    Cursive Example - Horizontal

    +

     

    +

    11.6.1 Cursive Equivalents to the 96 Glyph-Halves

    +

    Each of the 96 half-hexagonal glyph-halves from the formal/ornamental writing system has a corresponding character in the informal script, shown in the table below.

    +

    Glyph halves

    +

    As in the formal writing system, these characters become laterally reversed (i.e., mirror-imaged) when functioning as the right-hand half of the corresponding hexagonal glyph and can be vertically inverted as well. However, where the formal writing system allows the hexagonal glyphs to undergo “axis” shifts from vertical to horizontal to oblique (as explained in Section 11.2.7 above), the informal cursive script indicates the equivalent of these axis shifts via the use of diacritic marks, which also are used to convey the equivalent of the various color shifts for both cartouches and glyph-halves. These diacritic marks are explained in Section 11.6.3 below.

    +


    +11.6.2 Cursive Representation of the Cartouche Edges

    +

    As for the cursive equivalent of the cartouches from the formal writing system, these are represented in the informal script by characters which are essentially small representations of the cartouche edges themselves, i.e., the symbols shown in Tables 35(a), 35(b), and the two tables in Section 11.3 above. This can be seen in the example text from Sec. XX above where the five formative cartouches used in the sentence...

    +

    Sample Cartouche Edges

    +

    ...are represented in the in the informal script by the following five character combinations:

    +

    Examples of cursive cartouche edges

    +

    These cartouche characters are written as the first characters of a word, followed by the characters representing the internal glyphs.

    +

    Non-formative cartouches (i.e., the triangular and hexagonal cartouches representing personal reference adjuncts and additional verb morphology) are shown as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     

    +

    triangle 1 

    +

    +

     

     

    +

    triangle 2

    +

    +

     

     

    +

    triangle 3

    +

    +

     

     

    +

    triangle 4

    +

     

    +

    triangle 5

    +

    +

     

     

    +

    triangle 6

    +

    +

     

     

    +

    triangle 7

    +

     

    +

    triangle 8

    +


    + hex shape

    +

    +

     

    +

    11.6.3 Using Diacritics to Represent Axis Shifts and Color Shifts

    +
    +

    [this section under construction]

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_12.htm b/2004-en/Chapter_12.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..984f653 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_12.htm @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 12: The Number System + + + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morph.11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 12: The Number System

    +

     

    +

    (This page is under construction. Hopefully sometime in 2009 I will finish it.)

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_12.htm.orig b/2004-en/Chapter_12.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3a024ec --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_12.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 12: The Number System + + + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morph.11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 12: The Number System

    +

     

    +

    (This page is under construction. Hopefully sometime in 2009 I will finish it.)

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_2.html b/2004-en/Chapter_2.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ffbd78 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_2.html @@ -0,0 +1,2211 @@ + + + + +Chapter 2 + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
     
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      2.1 Grammatical Typology  2.5 Vocalic Mutation   
      2.2 Root and Stem Formation  2.6 Parts of Speech   
      2.3 Consonantal Mutation  2.7 Affixes   
      2.4 Semantic Instantiation of Stems  2.8 Note On Terminology   
    +


    + Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., +singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY
    +
    +

    Ilaksh morpho-phonology is primarily agglutinative and secondarily + synthetic. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily + via affixation and secondarily via phonetic modification of the word stem itself. Specifically, Ilaksh morpho-phonology utilizes both consonantal + and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different +kinds of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.
    +

    +

    2.1.1 The Structure of Ilaksh Words

    +

    As will be discussed later in Section 2.6, the part of speech in Ilaksh which corresponds to nouns and verbs in Western languages is called a formative. The morphological structure of the Ilaksh formative can be shown by the following formula:

    +

    ((VL +) Ci + Vc (+ Cx + Vp) +) (Cm +) Cr + Vr + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ VF (+ Cb)) [+ tone] [+ stress]

    +

    The above terms, other than Vr and Ca refer to various consonantal and/or vocalic affixes. Cr and Vr correspond to the word-stem itself which is dicussed below in Section 2.2. All of the terms shown in gray are optional. However, as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the formula, the presence of certain terms requires the presence of others.. A brief, preliminary explanation of these terms is given in the following chart.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    VL
    		A word-initial vocalic prefix which shows a verbal category called Level, discussed in Section Section 5.8.
    Ci
    		A consonantal affix which indicates a verbal category called Illocution, discussed in Section Section 5.7.
    Vc
    		A vocalic "portmanteau" affix (i.e., conveying multiple types of morphological information), indicating the following morphological categories: Designation (discussed in Section 3.6), Essence (discussed in Section 3.6), and Format (discussed in Section 6.5.2).
    Cx
    		A consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following three verbal categories: Phase, Sanction, and Version. These categories are discussed in Chapter 5.
    Vp
    		A vocalic affix indicating a verbal category called Aspect, discussed in Section 5.6.
    Cm
    		Indicates a verbal category called Function, discussed in Section 6.4.
    Cr + Vr
    		The basic root of the word, consisting ofthe structure consonant + vowel (+ tone), declined into a category called Case. The structure of the root and stem is discussed below in Section 2.2. The category of Case is discussed in Chapter 4.
    Ca
    		A consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following four categories: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, and Extension. These are all discussed in Chapter 3.
    Vx-C
    		An optional derivational suffix of the form vowel + consonant(s) which conveys additional morpho-semantic information. There are over 1300 such suffixes which can be combined with a formative to expand the meaning of a word. These suffixes can also be multiply added to a stem, i.e., two or more such affixes can appear on a stem. The nature of these affixes are introduced below in Section 2.7 and analyzed at length in Chapter 7.
    VF
    		A vocalic suffix which conveys the category of Context (discussed in Section 3.5) and verbal Mood (discussed in Section 5.1).
    ’Cb
    		A consonantal word-final suffix of the form glottal stop + consonant which indicates one of 48 Bias categories (discussed in Section 6.6)
    [tone]
    		In conjunction with the Cr + Vr elements above, signifies which of the 3600 roots of the language is the basis of the word.
    [stress]
    		Shows which of three particular stems derived from the root is indicated. The relationship between root and stem is discussed below in Section 2.2.
    +
    +
    +

    As an example of part of the above structure in actual use, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the + Ilaksh word uccuẹilšrokö’z (listen audio ). + The stem of this word, cu + low tone meaning ‘sheep,’ has been completely transformed + into + a word containing no less than 16 morphemes (i.e., sixteen semantically distinct + word-components). These morphemes and the mutation and affixation process +by which they combine to create this word can be analyzed as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vdiv))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    18 Levels
    +
    7 Illocutions
    +
    2 Designation X 2 Relations
    + X 2 Essences X 8 Formats
    9 phases
    + X 9 Sanctions
    + X6 Versions +
    32 aspects
    8 functions
    +
    +
    120 C-root
    + X 3 patterns
    +
    5 V-root
    + X 6 tones
    + x 96 cases
    +
    9 configurations
    + x 4 affiliations
    + x 6 extensions
    + x 4 perspectives
    VxC- suffix
    +
    4 contexts X 8 moods
    48 biases
    penultimate
    + = Stem 1
    + ultimate
    += Stem 2
    +antepenultimate
    += Stem 3
    —
    —
    u
    —
    —
    —
    cc
    uẹi
    lšr
    ok
    ö
    ’z
    [antepen.]
    + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    u-
    		a synthetic infix indicating FORMAL Designation, UNFRAMED Relation, NORMAL Essence, and SCHEMATIC Format
    -ccuei-
    		in conjunction with low tone, indicates the root cu + low tone in Pattern 3 = ‘derived product of sheep’, declined into the REFERENTIAL Case
    -lšr-
    		a synthetic infix indicating COHERENT Configuration, COALESCENT Affiliation, DEPLETIVE extension, and ABSTRACT Perspective
    -ok-
    		a Type-1 sufix in 8th degree, indicating a specific derivation of the stem (in this case: ‘wool’)
    -ö
    		a synthetic suffix indicating the AMALGAMATIVE Context and the DESIDERATIVE Modality
    ’z
    		a suffix indicating CONTEMPLATIVE Bias
    [stress]
    		antepenultimate stress indicates Stem 3 of the root = ‘derived product of ewe ’
    +

    APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION: ‘concerning a hypothetically puzzling desire for an end to everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing’ +
    +

    + +

    2.2.2 Disambiguation of Specific Affixes Within Words

    +

    Because many of the terms in the above morphological formula are optional, the reader might easily wonder how a speaker/reader of Ilaksh, when looking at or hearing an Ilaksh word, can possibly know which terms are actually shown in any given word, i.e., how to interpret from the given consonants and vowels in a particular word which of the optional morphological categories is being displayed or spoken. In fact, such interpretation is indeed possible and is unambiguous due to the specific allowable consonant or vowel combinations allowed for each term, i.e., the specific consonantal or vocalic values allowed for one term are distinct from those allowed for another term which might occupy the same sequential position in a specific word. Also, as previously stated in Section 2.1.1 above and as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the ((VL +) Ci + Vc (+ Cx + Vp) +) (Cm +) Cr + Vr + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ VF (+ Cb)) [+ tone][+ stress] morphological formula, the presence of certain terms e.g., VL, requires the presence of other terms (Ci + Vc), in order to maintain a discernible sequence which can be unambiguously differentiated.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION
    +

    All words in Ilaksh which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic stem, which + in turn derives from an semantically abstract root. This process + is explained in the sections below.

    +


    + 2.2.1 The Root

    +

    The root in Ilaksh forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a combination + of a consonantal form, Cr, plus one of five vowels Vr, plus one of six tones. The Cr consonantal form can consist of a single consonant or a consonant cluster. There are 120 possible Cr consonantal forms. Combined with the five Vr vowels and six tones, this renders 3600 possible roots. Example roots are tâ- or ksù-.

    +

    The root is the basic semantic unit in Ilaksh. For example, dá- is a root whose semantic referent is NAME/DESIGNATION. + To generate functional word-stems (or simply stems) from the + roots, the CR consonantal form can be mutated and the syllabic stress of the word containing the root can be shifted. Such consonant mutation and stress shifting is described below.

    +


    + 2.2.2 The Stem

    +

    There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ilaksh roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate Patterns. Pattern is shown by mutation of the CR consonantal form (i.e., modifying the consonant or consonant cluster into another consonant or consonant cluster). The three stems are shown by the syllabic stress of the word containing the root, either ultimate (stress on the last syllable of the word), penultimate (stress on the second-to-last syllable), or antepenultimate (third-from-last syllable).

    +


    + 2.2.3 Pattern

    +

    The three patterns are labeled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a holistic stem and two complementary sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem spouse, with its two complementary + sub-stems husband and wife. This holistic versus complementary distinction is discussed at length below in Section 2.4. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ilaksh systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ilaksh + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while +having such a small number of semantic word roots.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    2.3 CONSONANTAL MUTATION
    +

    As stated earlier, there are 120 distinct Cr + consonantal forms. Each of these can mutate into two other forms, giving a total of three possible manifestations + of each Cr form. These are labelled +Grade A, Grade B, and Grade C. The three grades of all 120 Cr forms are shown in Table No. 3 below.

    +


    + Table No. 3: Cr Mutation Patterns by Grade

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    A
    B
    C
    		     
    A
    B
    C
    		     
    A
    B
    C
    		     
    A
    B
    C
    		     
    A
    B
    C
    p
    pt
    pp
    py
    ŧp
    ppy
    pl
    spl
    špl
    pr
    spr
    špr
    př
    fř
    ftr
    t
    tk
    tt
    ty
    ŧt
    tty
    tl
    stl
    štl
    tr
    str
    štr
    tř
    ŧř
    ŧkr
    k
    kt
    kk
    ky
    ŧk
    kky
    kl
    skl
    škl
    kr
    skr
    škr
    kř
    bg
    xtr
    b
    pk
    bb
    by
    db
    bby
    bl
    zbl
    žbl
    br
    zbr
    žbr
    bř
    vř
    ptř
    d
    tp
    dd
    dy
    bd
    ddy
    dl
    zdl
    ždl
    dr
    zdr
    ždr
    dř
    đř
    tkř
    g
    kp
    gg
    gy
    dg
    ggy
    gl
    zgl
    žgl
    gr
    zgr
    žgr
    gř
    gd
    ktř
    f
    ft
    ff
    fy
    fp
    ffy
    fl
    sfl
    šfl
    fr
    sfr
    šfr
    ps
    psr
    psl
    ŧ
    đg
    ŧŧ
    ŧy
    fŧ
    ŧŧy
    ŧl
    sŧl
    šŧl
    ŧr
    sŧr
    šŧr
    pš
    pšr
    pšl
    x
    xt
    xx
    vy
    bđ
    vvy
    xl
    skř
    škř
    xr
    zgř
    žgř
    ks
    ksr
    ksl
    v
    fk
    vv
    đy
    gđ
    đđy
    vl
    spř
    špř
    vr
    zbř
    žbř
    kš
    kšr
    kšl
    đ
    đb
    đđ
    my
    vm
    mmy
    đl
    stř
    štř
    đr
    zdř
    ždř
    bz
    pst
    psk
    s
    ç
    ss
    ny
    vn
    nny
    ml
    fsl
    fsr
    mr
    ňl
    mř
    bž
    pšt
    pšk
    š
    çç
    šš
    ly
    đm
    lly
    nl
    ŧkl
    ftl
    nr
    ňr
    nř
    gz
    kst
    ksp
    z
    pç
    z
    ry
    đn
    rry
    sl
    cl
    cř
    sr
    cr
    sř
    gž
    kšt
    kšp
    ž
    kç
    žž
    pf
    spf
    spy
    šl
    čl
    čř
    šr
    čr
    šř
    sf
    zv
    cp
    m
    çm
    mm
    tf
    stf
    sty
    zl
    żl
    żř
    zr
    żr
    zř
    šf
    žv
    čp
    n
    çn
    nn
    kf
    skf
    sky
    žl
    jl
    jř
    žr
    jr
    žř
    sŧ
    zđ
    ct
    ň
    çň
    +
    ňň
    +
    bv
    špf
    špy
    sp
    zb
    gzb
    +
    pm
    +
    fm
    bm
    šŧ
    žđ
    čt
    c
    ck
    cc
    dv
    štf
    šty
    st
    zd
    gzd
    +
    pn
    +
    fn
    bn
    sx
    xf
    xtl
    č
    čk
    čč
    gv
    škf
    šky
    sk
    zg
    bzg
    +
    km
    +
    xm
    gm
    šx
    xŧ
    xtř
    ż
    żg
    żż
    çp
    ptl
    ptr
    šp
    žb
    gžb
    +
    kn
    +
    xn
    gn
    sm
    zm
    cm
    j
    jg
    jj
    çt
    tkl
    tkr
    št
    žd
    gžd
    +
    tm
    +
    ŧm
    dm
    šm
    zn
    čm
    l
    çl
    ll
    çk
    ktl
    ktr
    šk
    žg
    bžg
    +
    tn
    +
    ŧn
    dn
    sn
    žm
    cn
    r
    çr
    rr
    ř
    xp
    řř
    pŧ
    pŧl
    pŧr
    kŧ
    kŧl
    kŧr
    šn
    žn
    čn
    +

     

    + + + + +
    2.4 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS
    +

    We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. We will start with the three stems associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.

    +


    + 2.4.1 Holistic Stems

    +

    The three stems for Pattern 1 are designated by Grade 1 mutation, plus penultimate, ultimate, and antepenultimate stress respectively, as previously stated in Sec. 2.2.2 above. Thus, + the previously mentioned root -dá- generates the following stems:

    +
    +

    1. dá- ‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’
    + 2. adá- ‘designation + or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’
    + 3. áda(la)*- ‘a + (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary + or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’

    +

    * The -la- syllable shown here (and in subsequent examples below) is not part of the stem but merely indicates that this stem, when used as an actual word, would bear antepenultimate stress, thus requiring the addition of an additional syllable, acccomplished by adding any of numerous required suffixes which we will begin to explore in Chapter 3.

    +
    +

    The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying + root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem + 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation + of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible + manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem + 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of + Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship + between the individual stems for the root dá above with that of the Form I root xá (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below.

    +
    +

    1. xá-‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’
    + 2. axá- ‘an + eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’
    + 3. áxa(la)- ‘an + image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’

    +
    +

    Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology.

    +


    + 2.4.2 Complementary Stems

    +

    Any Ilaksh stem is capable of being further broken down into + two complementary stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts of the main stem. Many Ilaksh stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems.

    +

    By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ilaksh, + for example, words such as male, night, speech, sit, + and happen are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole.

    +

    Thus, Ilaksh lexical structure recognizes that the word male has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) from the underlying concept translatable as day (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of speak(ing) divides into complementary concepts + of talking (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus saying/telling (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound).

    +

    Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word happen or occur, which Ilaksh recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as event or situation.

    +

    2.4.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by mutation of the holistic stem consonant from Pattern 1 into Pattern 2, e.g., k → kt , while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation + from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., k → kk . Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:

    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemakà-: + human being, person
    1st + Comp. Stemaktà-: + male person
    2nd + Comp. Stem akkà-: + female person
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemùklo-: + a river
    1st + Comp. Stemùsklo-: + the water in a river
    2nd + Comp. Stemùzglo-: + a riverbed
    +
    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemáta(la): + an act of written composition; to compose something in writing
    1st + Comp. Stemátka(la): + the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition
    2nd + Comp. Stem átta(la): + the written content or message of a composition; to create written + content
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemàxa-: + sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing + seen)
    1st + Comp. Stemàxta-: + an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see + with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting
    2nd + Comp. Stemàxxa-: + a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image
    +


    +
    + 2.4.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ilaksh holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is +counterintuitive to Western semantic notions.

    +

    For example, let us analyze the root kmè ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages + would consider the concept parent as fundamentally opposite from the + concept child and assign separate word-roots to each, Ilaksh recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem kmè. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of kmè is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ilaksh root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for kmè.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Holistic + Stem
    1st + Complementary Stem
    2nd + Complementary Stem
    Stem 1kmè- + nuclear family member xmè-: + parentgmè-: + child
    Stem 2akmè-: + male nuclear family member axmè-: + father agmè-: + son
    Stem 3àkme(la): + female nuclear family member àxme(la): + mother àgme(la): + daughter
    +

    Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ilaksh lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Concept
    Complementary + Concepts
    eatingfoodingestion
    think, act of thinkinga thought (thing considered)process of consideration
    liquidfluid (= ontological nature)wet[ness] (=defining attribute)
    measuring a measurementprocess of measuring
    transference of possessiongivingtaking
    traversal between pointscoming, arrival going, departure
    commercial transaction buyingselling
    +


    +

    + + + + + +
    2.5 VOCALIC MUTATION
    +

    In addition to the mutation of the 120 Cr consonantal forms, each of the five vowels used to form roots can in turn mutate into 95 + variations for a total of 96 mutations, termed Series 1, Series 2, Series + 3, etc., all the way to Series 96. This mutation of the root vowel is used to show a morphological category called Case which will be analyzed in Chapter 4. These series of vowel + mutations are shown in Tables 4(a) through (f) below.

    +

    Tables 4(a)-(f): Vocalic +Mutation Series

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1
    		 
    2
    3
    4
    5
    6
    7
    8
    9
    10
    11
    12
    13
    14
    15
    16
    17
    18
    a
    →
    ä
    ai
    au
    äi
    ia
    ea
    iä
    oa
    öa
    ä-i
    üä
    a-ü
    ua
    üa
    a’e
    a’i
    a’u
    e
    →
    ë
    ei
    eu
    äu
    ie
    eë
    ae
    oe
    öe
    eö
    eä
    e-ü
    ue
    üe
    e’e
    e’i
    e’u
    i
    →
    ï
    ëi
    iu
    iö
    ië
    e-i
    a-i
    o-i
    ö-i
    ë-i
    üë
    ö-ü
    u-i
    uä
    i’e
    i’i
    i’u
    o
    →
    ö
    oi
    ou
    öi
    io
    eo
    ao
    oë
    öä
    ë-u
    oä
    o-ü
    uo
    üo
    o’e
    o’i
    o’u
    u
    →
    ü
    ui
    ëu
    öu
    i-u
    e-u
    a-u
    o-u
    ö-u
    ä-u
    üö
    ë-ü
    uë
    uö
    u’e
    u’i
    u’u
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    19
    20
    21
    22
    23
    24
    25
    26
    27
    28
    29
    30
    31
    32
    33
    34
    35
    36
    a →
    a’a
    a’o
    a’ë
    a’ö
    ä’ä
    a’ü
    ä’ë
    ü’a
    ö’a
    ä’ö
    aoi
    aou
    aei
    aeu
    a-ui
    a-iu
    iai
    iau
    e →
    e’a
    e’o
    e’ë
    e’ö
    e’ä
    e’ü
    ë’ë
    ü’e
    ö’e
    ë’i
    eoi
    eou
    eëi
    eëu
    e-ui
    e-iu
    eai
    eau
    i →
    i’a
    i’o
    i’ë
    i’ö
    i’ä
    i’ü
    ö’ä
    ü’i
    ö’i
    ë’ü
    ioi
    iou
    iei
    ieu
    i-ui
    u-iu
    iëi
    iëu
    o →
    o’a
    o’o
    o’ë
    ö’ö
    o’ä
    o’ü
    ö’ë
    ü’o
    ö’u
    ö’ü
    oëi
    oëu
    oei
    oeu
    o-ui
    o-iu
    oai
    oau
    u →
    u’a
    u’o
    u’ë
    u’ö
    u’ä
    ü’ü
    ü’ë
    ü’ö
    ë’u
    ü’ä
    uoi
    uou
    uei
    ueu
    uëi
    uëu
    uai
    uau
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    37
    38
    39
    40
    41
    42
    43
    44
    45
    46
    47
    48
    49
    50
    51
    52
    53
    54
    a →
    a’ai
    a’au
    a’ei
    a’eu
    a’oi
    a’ou
    a’ui
    a’iu
    a’ëi
    a’ëu
    a’öi
    a’öu
    ë’ai
    ë’au
    ü’ai
    ü’au
    ö’ai
    ö’au
    e →
    e’ai
    e’au
    a’ei
    e’eu
    e’oi
    e’ou
    e’ui
    e’iu
    e’ëi
    e’ëu
    e’öi
    e’öu
    ë’ei
    ë’eu
    ü’ei
    ü’eu
    ö’ei
    ö’eu
    i →
    i’ai
    i’au
    i’ei
    i’eu
    i’oi
    i’ou
    i’ui
    i’iu
    i’ëi
    i’ëu
    i’öi
    i’öu
    ë’ëi
    ë’ëu
    ü’ëi
    ü’iu
    ö’ëi
    ö’iu
    o →
    o’ai
    o’au
    o’ei
    o’eu
    o’oi
    o’ou
    o’ui
    o’iu
    o’ëi
    o’ëu
    o’öi
    o’öu
    ë’oi
    ë’ou
    ü’oi
    ü’ou
    ö’öi
    ö’öu
    u →
    u’ai
    u’au
    u’ei
    u’eu
    u’oi
    u’ou
    u’ui
    u’iu
    u’ëi
    u’ëu
    u’öi
    u’öu
    ë’ui
    ë’iu
    u’öi
    u’öu
    ö’ui
    ü’ëu
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    55
    56
    57
    58
    59
    60
    61
    62
    63
    64
    65
    66
    67
    68
    69
    70
    71
    72
    a →
    awa
    awe
    awi
    awo
    awu
    awö
    aya
    aye
    ayi
    ayo
    ayu
    ayö
    äwä
    awü
    äyä
    üwa
    üya
    ayü
    e →
    ewa
    ewe
    ewi
    ewo
    ewu
    ewö
    eya
    eye
    eyi
    eyo
    eyu
    eyö
    ewä
    ewü
    eyä
    üwe
    üye
    eyü
    i →
    iwa
    iwe
    iwi
    iwo
    iwu
    iwö
    iya
    iye
    iyi
    iyo
    iyu
    iyö
    iwä
    iwü
    iyä
    üwi
    üyi
    iyü
    o →
    owa
    owe
    owi
    owo
    owu
    owö
    oya
    oye
    oyi
    oyo
    oyu
    oyö
    owä
    owü
    oyä
    üwo
    üyo
    oyü
    u →
    uwa
    uwe
    uwi
    uwo
    uwu
    uwö
    uya
    uye
    uyi
    uyo
    uyu
    uyö
    uwä
    öwü
    uyä
    üwü
    üyü
    öyü
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    73
    74
    75
    76
    77
    78
    79
    80
    81
    82
    83
    84
    85
    86
    87
    88
    89
    90
    a →
    awai
    awei
    awoi
    awui
    ayau
    ayeu
    ayou
    ayiu
    aiwa
    aiwe
    aiwi
    aiwo
    aiwu
    aiwë
    aiwö
    aiwä
    auya
    auye
    e →
    ewai
    ewei
    ewoi
    ewui
    eyau
    eyeu
    eyou
    eyiu
    eiwa
    eiwe
    eiwi
    eiwo
    eiwu
    eiwë
    eiwö
    eiwä
    euya
    euye
    i →
    iwai
    iwei
    iwoi
    iwui
    iyau
    iyeu
    iyou
    iyiu
    ëiwa
    ëiwe
    ëiwi
    ëiwo
    ëiwu
    ëiwë
    ëiwö
    ëiwä
    iuya
    iuye
    o →
    owai
    owei
    owoi
    owui
    oyau
    oyeu
    oyou
    oyiu
    oiwa
    oiwe
    oiwi
    oiwo
    oiwu
    oiwë
    oiwö
    oiwä
    ouya
    ouye
    u →
    uwai
    uwei
    uwoi
    uwui
    uyau
    uyeu
    uyou
    uyiu
    uiwa
    uiwe
    uiwi
    uiwo
    uiwu
    uiwë
    uiwö
    uiwä
    ëuya
    ëuye
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    91
    92
    93
    94
    95
    96
    a →
    auyi
    auyo
    auyu
    auyë
    auyö
    auyä
    e →
    euyi
    euyo
    euyu
    euyë
    euyö
    euyä
    i →
    iuyi
    iuyo
    iuyu
    iuyë
    iuyö
    iuyä
    o →
    ouyi
    ouyo
    ouyu
    ouyë
    ouyö
    ouyä
    u →
    ëuyi
    ëuyo
    ëuyu
    ëuyë
    ëuyö
    ëuyä
    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    2.6 + PARTS OF SPEECH
    +

    Ilaksh has only two parts of speech: formatives and adjuncts. While there are words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term formative. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.6.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ilaksh, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.

    +

    Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will, of course, + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).

    +


    + 2.6.1 Formatives

    +

    The stem formed as per the discussion in Section + 2.3 above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the formative. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative ùklo- illustrated above in Section 2.4.2 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ilaksh to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ilaksh formative exclusively into a noun or verb form +is arbitrary.

    +

    The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ilaksh morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ilaksh instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either spatially “reify” this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:

    +
    +


    +

    +
    +

     

    +

    2.6.2 Adjuncts

    +

    Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”).

    +

    Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, + most of which are described in detail in Chapter + 8: Adjuncts. These include:

    +
      +
    • Personal Reference Adjuncts: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship.
      +
      +
      • +
    • Valence Adjuncts and Modality Adjuncts: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Version, Derivation, Format, + Level, and Modality. Each of these categories is discussed in Chapter + 5: Verb Morphology.
      +
      • +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    2.7 AFFIXES
    +

    Ilaksh, like English, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. Ilaksh makes a fundamental distinction between purely vocalic + affixes (i.e., containing no consonants), affixes which are based on a consonant + only, and consonant-based affixes which contain vowels. The former two are simple static affixes, while the rules governing the formation of these vowel+consonant affixes + are rather complex. The fundamentals of these vowel+consonant affixes are discussed below, while the actual affixes + themselves are explored later in Chapter + 7: Suffixes.
    +

    +

    2.7.1 Consonant-based Suffixes

    +

    In this section we will explore those consonant-based + affixes which also contain a vowel. Such affixes always appear as suffixes in Ilaksh (i.e., they are appended to the end of a formative stem, rather than preceding the stem).

    +

    Every consonant-based suffix used with a formative is composed + of an invariable (i.e., non-mutating) consonant, but has a variable vocalic + form associated with it. The form of a consonant-based suffix is of the + form V+C (i.e., vowel + consonant). While the consonantal portion of the suffix is always invariable, + the vocalic portion mutates depending on two morphological factors known as degree and suffix-type. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for suffix-type, + every consonantal-based V+C suffix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before (or after) the invariable consonant + C. The three suffix-types are labelled V1, V2, and V3, + in reference to the vowel portion of the suffix.

    +


    + 2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting

    +

    In addition to the three suffix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three suffix-types. + Table 5 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each suffix-type.

    +

    Under certain circumstances where the final stem consonant + and the consonant portion of the consonantal suffix can be conjoined without + causing confusion (i.e., where the conjoined consonants will not be mistaken + for a mutation of the final consonantal radical C2), + Ilaksh permits the option to reverse the order of the vowel and consonant of + the suffix. This alternate form is shown in the second column of the table for + each degree. In this alternate form, the vocalic portion follows, rather than + precedes the consonant portion of the suffix.

    +

    +

    Table 5: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Suffix Type

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Suffix + Type 1: -V1C
    Suffix + Type 2: -V2C
    Suffix + Type 3: -V3C
    Degree + 1
    -iC
    -ëC
    -iuC
    Degree + 2
    -eC
    -ëuC /-ioC
    -eiC
    Degree + 3
    -äC
    -ieC
    -auC /-eaC
    Degree + 4
    -öC
    -ueC
    -euC
    Degree + 5
    -(a)C
    -iaC
    -aiC
    Degree + 6
    -üC
    -uëC
    -uoC
    Degree + 7
    -ïC
    -iëC
    -ëiC
    Degree + 8
    -oC
    -oaC
    -oiC
    Degree + 9
    -uC
    -uaC / -uiC
    -ouC
    +

    Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 6 below how these suffixes (and their alternate word-final forms) + would actually appear in conjunction with the stem ri-, which must first take a suffix such as -t indicating various morphological categories which will be explained in Chapter 3, thus giving the form rit-:

    +


    + TABLE 6: Example of Application of Suffixes to a Stem

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Suffix: + -V1k
    Suffix + Type 2: -V2k
    Suffix + Type 3: -V3k
    Degree + 1
    ritik
    ritëk
    ritiuk
    Degree + 2
    ritek
    		ritëuk / ritiok
    riteik
    Degree + 3
    ritäk
    		ritiek
    ritauk / riteak
    Degree + 4
    ritök
    		rituek
    riteuk
    Degree + 5
    ritak
    		ritiak
    ritaik
    Degree + 6
    ritük
    		rituëk
    rituok
    Degree + 7
    ritïk
    		ritiëk
    ritëik
    Degree + 8
    ritok
    		ritoak
    ritoik
    Degree + 9
    rituk
    		rituak/rituik
    ritouk
    +

    As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ilaksh to create a gradient system for all consonantal suffixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + suffix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in Chapter + 7: Suffixes how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated +with the nine degrees for the suffix -V1d.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Degree
    Suffix
    Meaning
     
    1
    		-id wholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all
     
    2
    		-edway too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough
     
    3
    		-äd not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]
     
    4
    		-ödnot quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]
     
    5
    		 -adenough (of) / sufficient(ly)
     
    6
    		-üda little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]
     
    7
    		-ïdtoo / too much / over-[+verb]
     
    8
    		-odway too much / totally over-[+verb]
     
    9
    		-udnothing but / to the exclusion of all else
    +


    +

    + + + + +
    2.8 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
    +

    While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ilaksh, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity + of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.

    +

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >>

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    ©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    +

    +
    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_2.html.orig b/2004-en/Chapter_2.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..79c07b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_2.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2211 @@ + + + + +Chapter 2 + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
     
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      2.1 Grammatical Typology  2.5 Vocalic Mutation   
      2.2 Root and Stem Formation  2.6 Parts of Speech   
      2.3 Consonantal Mutation  2.7 Affixes   
      2.4 Semantic Instantiation of Stems  2.8 Note On Terminology   
    +


    + Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., +singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY
    +
    +

    Ilaksh morpho-phonology is primarily agglutinative and secondarily + synthetic. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily + via affixation and secondarily via phonetic modification of the word stem itself. Specifically, Ilaksh morpho-phonology utilizes both consonantal + and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different +kinds of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.
    +

    +

    2.1.1 The Structure of Ilaksh Words

    +

    As will be discussed later in Section 2.6, the part of speech in Ilaksh which corresponds to nouns and verbs in Western languages is called a formative. The morphological structure of the Ilaksh formative can be shown by the following formula:

    +

    ((VL +) Ci + Vc (+ Cx + Vp) +) (Cm +) Cr + Vr + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ VF (+ Cb)) [+ tone] [+ stress]

    +

    The above terms, other than Vr and Ca refer to various consonantal and/or vocalic affixes. Cr and Vr correspond to the word-stem itself which is dicussed below in Section 2.2. All of the terms shown in gray are optional. However, as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the formula, the presence of certain terms requires the presence of others.. A brief, preliminary explanation of these terms is given in the following chart.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    VL
    		A word-initial vocalic prefix which shows a verbal category called Level, discussed in Section Section 5.8.
    Ci
    		A consonantal affix which indicates a verbal category called Illocution, discussed in Section Section 5.7.
    Vc
    		A vocalic "portmanteau" affix (i.e., conveying multiple types of morphological information), indicating the following morphological categories: Designation (discussed in Section 3.6), Essence (discussed in Section 3.6), and Format (discussed in Section 6.5.2).
    Cx
    		A consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following three verbal categories: Phase, Sanction, and Version. These categories are discussed in Chapter 5.
    Vp
    		A vocalic affix indicating a verbal category called Aspect, discussed in Section 5.6.
    Cm
    		Indicates a verbal category called Function, discussed in Section 6.4.
    Cr + Vr
    		The basic root of the word, consisting ofthe structure consonant + vowel (+ tone), declined into a category called Case. The structure of the root and stem is discussed below in Section 2.2. The category of Case is discussed in Chapter 4.
    Ca
    		A consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following four categories: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, and Extension. These are all discussed in Chapter 3.
    Vx-C
    		An optional derivational suffix of the form vowel + consonant(s) which conveys additional morpho-semantic information. There are over 1300 such suffixes which can be combined with a formative to expand the meaning of a word. These suffixes can also be multiply added to a stem, i.e., two or more such affixes can appear on a stem. The nature of these affixes are introduced below in Section 2.7 and analyzed at length in Chapter 7.
    VF
    		A vocalic suffix which conveys the category of Context (discussed in Section 3.5) and verbal Mood (discussed in Section 5.1).
    ’Cb
    		A consonantal word-final suffix of the form glottal stop + consonant which indicates one of 48 Bias categories (discussed in Section 6.6)
    [tone]
    		In conjunction with the Cr + Vr elements above, signifies which of the 3600 roots of the language is the basis of the word.
    [stress]
    		Shows which of three particular stems derived from the root is indicated. The relationship between root and stem is discussed below in Section 2.2.
    +
    +
    +

    As an example of part of the above structure in actual use, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the + Ilaksh word uccuẹilšrokö’z (listen audio ). + The stem of this word, cu + low tone meaning ‘sheep,’ has been completely transformed + into + a word containing no less than 16 morphemes (i.e., sixteen semantically distinct + word-components). These morphemes and the mutation and affixation process +by which they combine to create this word can be analyzed as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vdiv))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    18 Levels
    +
    7 Illocutions
    +
    2 Designation X 2 Relations
    + X 2 Essences X 8 Formats
    9 phases
    + X 9 Sanctions
    + X6 Versions +
    32 aspects
    8 functions
    +
    +
    120 C-root
    + X 3 patterns
    +
    5 V-root
    + X 6 tones
    + x 96 cases
    +
    9 configurations
    + x 4 affiliations
    + x 6 extensions
    + x 4 perspectives
    VxC- suffix
    +
    4 contexts X 8 moods
    48 biases
    penultimate
    + = Stem 1
    + ultimate
    += Stem 2
    +antepenultimate
    += Stem 3
    —
    —
    u
    —
    —
    —
    cc
    uẹi
    lšr
    ok
    ö
    ’z
    [antepen.]
    + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    u-
    		a synthetic infix indicating FORMAL Designation, UNFRAMED Relation, NORMAL Essence, and SCHEMATIC Format
    -ccuei-
    		in conjunction with low tone, indicates the root cu + low tone in Pattern 3 = ‘derived product of sheep’, declined into the REFERENTIAL Case
    -lšr-
    		a synthetic infix indicating COHERENT Configuration, COALESCENT Affiliation, DEPLETIVE extension, and ABSTRACT Perspective
    -ok-
    		a Type-1 sufix in 8th degree, indicating a specific derivation of the stem (in this case: ‘wool’)
    -ö
    		a synthetic suffix indicating the AMALGAMATIVE Context and the DESIDERATIVE Modality
    ’z
    		a suffix indicating CONTEMPLATIVE Bias
    [stress]
    		antepenultimate stress indicates Stem 3 of the root = ‘derived product of ewe ’
    +

    APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION: ‘concerning a hypothetically puzzling desire for an end to everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing’ +
    +

    + +

    2.2.2 Disambiguation of Specific Affixes Within Words

    +

    Because many of the terms in the above morphological formula are optional, the reader might easily wonder how a speaker/reader of Ilaksh, when looking at or hearing an Ilaksh word, can possibly know which terms are actually shown in any given word, i.e., how to interpret from the given consonants and vowels in a particular word which of the optional morphological categories is being displayed or spoken. In fact, such interpretation is indeed possible and is unambiguous due to the specific allowable consonant or vowel combinations allowed for each term, i.e., the specific consonantal or vocalic values allowed for one term are distinct from those allowed for another term which might occupy the same sequential position in a specific word. Also, as previously stated in Section 2.1.1 above and as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the ((VL +) Ci + Vc (+ Cx + Vp) +) (Cm +) Cr + Vr + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ VF (+ Cb)) [+ tone][+ stress] morphological formula, the presence of certain terms e.g., VL, requires the presence of other terms (Ci + Vc), in order to maintain a discernible sequence which can be unambiguously differentiated.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION
    +

    All words in Ilaksh which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic stem, which + in turn derives from an semantically abstract root. This process + is explained in the sections below.

    +


    + 2.2.1 The Root

    +

    The root in Ilaksh forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a combination + of a consonantal form, Cr, plus one of five vowels Vr, plus one of six tones. The Cr consonantal form can consist of a single consonant or a consonant cluster. There are 120 possible Cr consonantal forms. Combined with the five Vr vowels and six tones, this renders 3600 possible roots. Example roots are tâ- or ksù-.

    +

    The root is the basic semantic unit in Ilaksh. For example, dá- is a root whose semantic referent is NAME/DESIGNATION. + To generate functional word-stems (or simply stems) from the + roots, the CR consonantal form can be mutated and the syllabic stress of the word containing the root can be shifted. Such consonant mutation and stress shifting is described below.

    +


    + 2.2.2 The Stem

    +

    There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ilaksh roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate Patterns. Pattern is shown by mutation of the CR consonantal form (i.e., modifying the consonant or consonant cluster into another consonant or consonant cluster). The three stems are shown by the syllabic stress of the word containing the root, either ultimate (stress on the last syllable of the word), penultimate (stress on the second-to-last syllable), or antepenultimate (third-from-last syllable).

    +


    + 2.2.3 Pattern

    +

    The three patterns are labeled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a holistic stem and two complementary sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem spouse, with its two complementary + sub-stems husband and wife. This holistic versus complementary distinction is discussed at length below in Section 2.4. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ilaksh systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ilaksh + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while +having such a small number of semantic word roots.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    2.3 CONSONANTAL MUTATION
    +

    As stated earlier, there are 120 distinct Cr + consonantal forms. Each of these can mutate into two other forms, giving a total of three possible manifestations + of each Cr form. These are labelled +Grade A, Grade B, and Grade C. The three grades of all 120 Cr forms are shown in Table No. 3 below.

    +


    + Table No. 3: Cr Mutation Patterns by Grade

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    A
    B
    C
    		     
    A
    B
    C
    		     
    A
    B
    C
    		     
    A
    B
    C
    		     
    A
    B
    C
    p
    pt
    pp
    py
    ŧp
    ppy
    pl
    spl
    špl
    pr
    spr
    špr
    př
    fř
    ftr
    t
    tk
    tt
    ty
    ŧt
    tty
    tl
    stl
    štl
    tr
    str
    štr
    tř
    ŧř
    ŧkr
    k
    kt
    kk
    ky
    ŧk
    kky
    kl
    skl
    škl
    kr
    skr
    škr
    kř
    bg
    xtr
    b
    pk
    bb
    by
    db
    bby
    bl
    zbl
    žbl
    br
    zbr
    žbr
    bř
    vř
    ptř
    d
    tp
    dd
    dy
    bd
    ddy
    dl
    zdl
    ždl
    dr
    zdr
    ždr
    dř
    đř
    tkř
    g
    kp
    gg
    gy
    dg
    ggy
    gl
    zgl
    žgl
    gr
    zgr
    žgr
    gř
    gd
    ktř
    f
    ft
    ff
    fy
    fp
    ffy
    fl
    sfl
    šfl
    fr
    sfr
    šfr
    ps
    psr
    psl
    ŧ
    đg
    ŧŧ
    ŧy
    fŧ
    ŧŧy
    ŧl
    sŧl
    šŧl
    ŧr
    sŧr
    šŧr
    pš
    pšr
    pšl
    x
    xt
    xx
    vy
    bđ
    vvy
    xl
    skř
    škř
    xr
    zgř
    žgř
    ks
    ksr
    ksl
    v
    fk
    vv
    đy
    gđ
    đđy
    vl
    spř
    špř
    vr
    zbř
    žbř
    kš
    kšr
    kšl
    đ
    đb
    đđ
    my
    vm
    mmy
    đl
    stř
    štř
    đr
    zdř
    ždř
    bz
    pst
    psk
    s
    ç
    ss
    ny
    vn
    nny
    ml
    fsl
    fsr
    mr
    ňl
    mř
    bž
    pšt
    pšk
    š
    çç
    šš
    ly
    đm
    lly
    nl
    ŧkl
    ftl
    nr
    ňr
    nř
    gz
    kst
    ksp
    z
    pç
    z
    ry
    đn
    rry
    sl
    cl
    cř
    sr
    cr
    sř
    gž
    kšt
    kšp
    ž
    kç
    žž
    pf
    spf
    spy
    šl
    čl
    čř
    šr
    čr
    šř
    sf
    zv
    cp
    m
    çm
    mm
    tf
    stf
    sty
    zl
    żl
    żř
    zr
    żr
    zř
    šf
    žv
    čp
    n
    çn
    nn
    kf
    skf
    sky
    žl
    jl
    jř
    žr
    jr
    žř
    sŧ
    zđ
    ct
    ň
    çň
    +
    ňň
    +
    bv
    špf
    špy
    sp
    zb
    gzb
    +
    pm
    +
    fm
    bm
    šŧ
    žđ
    čt
    c
    ck
    cc
    dv
    štf
    šty
    st
    zd
    gzd
    +
    pn
    +
    fn
    bn
    sx
    xf
    xtl
    č
    čk
    čč
    gv
    škf
    šky
    sk
    zg
    bzg
    +
    km
    +
    xm
    gm
    šx
    xŧ
    xtř
    ż
    żg
    żż
    çp
    ptl
    ptr
    šp
    žb
    gžb
    +
    kn
    +
    xn
    gn
    sm
    zm
    cm
    j
    jg
    jj
    çt
    tkl
    tkr
    št
    žd
    gžd
    +
    tm
    +
    ŧm
    dm
    šm
    zn
    čm
    l
    çl
    ll
    çk
    ktl
    ktr
    šk
    žg
    bžg
    +
    tn
    +
    ŧn
    dn
    sn
    žm
    cn
    r
    çr
    rr
    ř
    xp
    řř
    pŧ
    pŧl
    pŧr
    kŧ
    kŧl
    kŧr
    šn
    žn
    čn
    +

     

    + + + + +
    2.4 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS
    +

    We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. We will start with the three stems associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.

    +


    + 2.4.1 Holistic Stems

    +

    The three stems for Pattern 1 are designated by Grade 1 mutation, plus penultimate, ultimate, and antepenultimate stress respectively, as previously stated in Sec. 2.2.2 above. Thus, + the previously mentioned root -dá- generates the following stems:

    +
    +

    1. dá- ‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’
    + 2. adá- ‘designation + or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’
    + 3. áda(la)*- ‘a + (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary + or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’

    +

    * The -la- syllable shown here (and in subsequent examples below) is not part of the stem but merely indicates that this stem, when used as an actual word, would bear antepenultimate stress, thus requiring the addition of an additional syllable, acccomplished by adding any of numerous required suffixes which we will begin to explore in Chapter 3.

    +
    +

    The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying + root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem + 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation + of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible + manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem + 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of + Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship + between the individual stems for the root dá above with that of the Form I root xá (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below.

    +
    +

    1. xá-‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’
    + 2. axá- ‘an + eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’
    + 3. áxa(la)- ‘an + image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’

    +
    +

    Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology.

    +


    + 2.4.2 Complementary Stems

    +

    Any Ilaksh stem is capable of being further broken down into + two complementary stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts of the main stem. Many Ilaksh stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems.

    +

    By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ilaksh, + for example, words such as male, night, speech, sit, + and happen are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole.

    +

    Thus, Ilaksh lexical structure recognizes that the word male has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) from the underlying concept translatable as day (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of speak(ing) divides into complementary concepts + of talking (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus saying/telling (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound).

    +

    Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word happen or occur, which Ilaksh recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as event or situation.

    +

    2.4.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by mutation of the holistic stem consonant from Pattern 1 into Pattern 2, e.g., k → kt , while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation + from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., k → kk . Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:

    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemakà-: + human being, person
    1st + Comp. Stemaktà-: + male person
    2nd + Comp. Stem akkà-: + female person
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemùklo-: + a river
    1st + Comp. Stemùsklo-: + the water in a river
    2nd + Comp. Stemùzglo-: + a riverbed
    +
    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemáta(la): + an act of written composition; to compose something in writing
    1st + Comp. Stemátka(la): + the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition
    2nd + Comp. Stem átta(la): + the written content or message of a composition; to create written + content
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemàxa-: + sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing + seen)
    1st + Comp. Stemàxta-: + an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see + with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting
    2nd + Comp. Stemàxxa-: + a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image
    +


    +
    + 2.4.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ilaksh holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is +counterintuitive to Western semantic notions.

    +

    For example, let us analyze the root kmè ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages + would consider the concept parent as fundamentally opposite from the + concept child and assign separate word-roots to each, Ilaksh recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem kmè. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of kmè is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ilaksh root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for kmè.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Holistic + Stem
    1st + Complementary Stem
    2nd + Complementary Stem
    Stem 1kmè- + nuclear family member xmè-: + parentgmè-: + child
    Stem 2akmè-: + male nuclear family member axmè-: + father agmè-: + son
    Stem 3àkme(la): + female nuclear family member àxme(la): + mother àgme(la): + daughter
    +

    Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ilaksh lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Concept
    Complementary + Concepts
    eatingfoodingestion
    think, act of thinkinga thought (thing considered)process of consideration
    liquidfluid (= ontological nature)wet[ness] (=defining attribute)
    measuring a measurementprocess of measuring
    transference of possessiongivingtaking
    traversal between pointscoming, arrival going, departure
    commercial transaction buyingselling
    +


    +

    + + + + + +
    2.5 VOCALIC MUTATION
    +

    In addition to the mutation of the 120 Cr consonantal forms, each of the five vowels used to form roots can in turn mutate into 95 + variations for a total of 96 mutations, termed Series 1, Series 2, Series + 3, etc., all the way to Series 96. This mutation of the root vowel is used to show a morphological category called Case which will be analyzed in Chapter 4. These series of vowel + mutations are shown in Tables 4(a) through (f) below.

    +

    Tables 4(a)-(f): Vocalic +Mutation Series

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1
    		 
    2
    3
    4
    5
    6
    7
    8
    9
    10
    11
    12
    13
    14
    15
    16
    17
    18
    a
    →
    ä
    ai
    au
    äi
    ia
    ea
    iä
    oa
    öa
    ä-i
    üä
    a-ü
    ua
    üa
    a’e
    a’i
    a’u
    e
    →
    ë
    ei
    eu
    äu
    ie
    eë
    ae
    oe
    öe
    eö
    eä
    e-ü
    ue
    üe
    e’e
    e’i
    e’u
    i
    →
    ï
    ëi
    iu
    iö
    ië
    e-i
    a-i
    o-i
    ö-i
    ë-i
    üë
    ö-ü
    u-i
    uä
    i’e
    i’i
    i’u
    o
    →
    ö
    oi
    ou
    öi
    io
    eo
    ao
    oë
    öä
    ë-u
    oä
    o-ü
    uo
    üo
    o’e
    o’i
    o’u
    u
    →
    ü
    ui
    ëu
    öu
    i-u
    e-u
    a-u
    o-u
    ö-u
    ä-u
    üö
    ë-ü
    uë
    uö
    u’e
    u’i
    u’u
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    19
    20
    21
    22
    23
    24
    25
    26
    27
    28
    29
    30
    31
    32
    33
    34
    35
    36
    a →
    a’a
    a’o
    a’ë
    a’ö
    ä’ä
    a’ü
    ä’ë
    ü’a
    ö’a
    ä’ö
    aoi
    aou
    aei
    aeu
    a-ui
    a-iu
    iai
    iau
    e →
    e’a
    e’o
    e’ë
    e’ö
    e’ä
    e’ü
    ë’ë
    ü’e
    ö’e
    ë’i
    eoi
    eou
    eëi
    eëu
    e-ui
    e-iu
    eai
    eau
    i →
    i’a
    i’o
    i’ë
    i’ö
    i’ä
    i’ü
    ö’ä
    ü’i
    ö’i
    ë’ü
    ioi
    iou
    iei
    ieu
    i-ui
    u-iu
    iëi
    iëu
    o →
    o’a
    o’o
    o’ë
    ö’ö
    o’ä
    o’ü
    ö’ë
    ü’o
    ö’u
    ö’ü
    oëi
    oëu
    oei
    oeu
    o-ui
    o-iu
    oai
    oau
    u →
    u’a
    u’o
    u’ë
    u’ö
    u’ä
    ü’ü
    ü’ë
    ü’ö
    ë’u
    ü’ä
    uoi
    uou
    uei
    ueu
    uëi
    uëu
    uai
    uau
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    37
    38
    39
    40
    41
    42
    43
    44
    45
    46
    47
    48
    49
    50
    51
    52
    53
    54
    a →
    a’ai
    a’au
    a’ei
    a’eu
    a’oi
    a’ou
    a’ui
    a’iu
    a’ëi
    a’ëu
    a’öi
    a’öu
    ë’ai
    ë’au
    ü’ai
    ü’au
    ö’ai
    ö’au
    e →
    e’ai
    e’au
    a’ei
    e’eu
    e’oi
    e’ou
    e’ui
    e’iu
    e’ëi
    e’ëu
    e’öi
    e’öu
    ë’ei
    ë’eu
    ü’ei
    ü’eu
    ö’ei
    ö’eu
    i →
    i’ai
    i’au
    i’ei
    i’eu
    i’oi
    i’ou
    i’ui
    i’iu
    i’ëi
    i’ëu
    i’öi
    i’öu
    ë’ëi
    ë’ëu
    ü’ëi
    ü’iu
    ö’ëi
    ö’iu
    o →
    o’ai
    o’au
    o’ei
    o’eu
    o’oi
    o’ou
    o’ui
    o’iu
    o’ëi
    o’ëu
    o’öi
    o’öu
    ë’oi
    ë’ou
    ü’oi
    ü’ou
    ö’öi
    ö’öu
    u →
    u’ai
    u’au
    u’ei
    u’eu
    u’oi
    u’ou
    u’ui
    u’iu
    u’ëi
    u’ëu
    u’öi
    u’öu
    ë’ui
    ë’iu
    u’öi
    u’öu
    ö’ui
    ü’ëu
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    55
    56
    57
    58
    59
    60
    61
    62
    63
    64
    65
    66
    67
    68
    69
    70
    71
    72
    a →
    awa
    awe
    awi
    awo
    awu
    awö
    aya
    aye
    ayi
    ayo
    ayu
    ayö
    äwä
    awü
    äyä
    üwa
    üya
    ayü
    e →
    ewa
    ewe
    ewi
    ewo
    ewu
    ewö
    eya
    eye
    eyi
    eyo
    eyu
    eyö
    ewä
    ewü
    eyä
    üwe
    üye
    eyü
    i →
    iwa
    iwe
    iwi
    iwo
    iwu
    iwö
    iya
    iye
    iyi
    iyo
    iyu
    iyö
    iwä
    iwü
    iyä
    üwi
    üyi
    iyü
    o →
    owa
    owe
    owi
    owo
    owu
    owö
    oya
    oye
    oyi
    oyo
    oyu
    oyö
    owä
    owü
    oyä
    üwo
    üyo
    oyü
    u →
    uwa
    uwe
    uwi
    uwo
    uwu
    uwö
    uya
    uye
    uyi
    uyo
    uyu
    uyö
    uwä
    öwü
    uyä
    üwü
    üyü
    öyü
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    73
    74
    75
    76
    77
    78
    79
    80
    81
    82
    83
    84
    85
    86
    87
    88
    89
    90
    a →
    awai
    awei
    awoi
    awui
    ayau
    ayeu
    ayou
    ayiu
    aiwa
    aiwe
    aiwi
    aiwo
    aiwu
    aiwë
    aiwö
    aiwä
    auya
    auye
    e →
    ewai
    ewei
    ewoi
    ewui
    eyau
    eyeu
    eyou
    eyiu
    eiwa
    eiwe
    eiwi
    eiwo
    eiwu
    eiwë
    eiwö
    eiwä
    euya
    euye
    i →
    iwai
    iwei
    iwoi
    iwui
    iyau
    iyeu
    iyou
    iyiu
    ëiwa
    ëiwe
    ëiwi
    ëiwo
    ëiwu
    ëiwë
    ëiwö
    ëiwä
    iuya
    iuye
    o →
    owai
    owei
    owoi
    owui
    oyau
    oyeu
    oyou
    oyiu
    oiwa
    oiwe
    oiwi
    oiwo
    oiwu
    oiwë
    oiwö
    oiwä
    ouya
    ouye
    u →
    uwai
    uwei
    uwoi
    uwui
    uyau
    uyeu
    uyou
    uyiu
    uiwa
    uiwe
    uiwi
    uiwo
    uiwu
    uiwë
    uiwö
    uiwä
    ëuya
    ëuye
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    91
    92
    93
    94
    95
    96
    a →
    auyi
    auyo
    auyu
    auyë
    auyö
    auyä
    e →
    euyi
    euyo
    euyu
    euyë
    euyö
    euyä
    i →
    iuyi
    iuyo
    iuyu
    iuyë
    iuyö
    iuyä
    o →
    ouyi
    ouyo
    ouyu
    ouyë
    ouyö
    ouyä
    u →
    ëuyi
    ëuyo
    ëuyu
    ëuyë
    ëuyö
    ëuyä
    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    2.6 + PARTS OF SPEECH
    +

    Ilaksh has only two parts of speech: formatives and adjuncts. While there are words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term formative. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.6.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ilaksh, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.

    +

    Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will, of course, + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).

    +


    + 2.6.1 Formatives

    +

    The stem formed as per the discussion in Section + 2.3 above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the formative. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative ùklo- illustrated above in Section 2.4.2 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ilaksh to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ilaksh formative exclusively into a noun or verb form +is arbitrary.

    +

    The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ilaksh morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ilaksh instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either spatially “reify” this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:

    +
    +


    +

    +
    +

     

    +

    2.6.2 Adjuncts

    +

    Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”).

    +

    Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, + most of which are described in detail in Chapter + 8: Adjuncts. These include:

    +
      +
    • Personal Reference Adjuncts: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship.
      +
      +
      • +
    • Valence Adjuncts and Modality Adjuncts: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Version, Derivation, Format, + Level, and Modality. Each of these categories is discussed in Chapter + 5: Verb Morphology.
      +
      • +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    2.7 AFFIXES
    +

    Ilaksh, like English, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. Ilaksh makes a fundamental distinction between purely vocalic + affixes (i.e., containing no consonants), affixes which are based on a consonant + only, and consonant-based affixes which contain vowels. The former two are simple static affixes, while the rules governing the formation of these vowel+consonant affixes + are rather complex. The fundamentals of these vowel+consonant affixes are discussed below, while the actual affixes + themselves are explored later in Chapter + 7: Suffixes.
    +

    +

    2.7.1 Consonant-based Suffixes

    +

    In this section we will explore those consonant-based + affixes which also contain a vowel. Such affixes always appear as suffixes in Ilaksh (i.e., they are appended to the end of a formative stem, rather than preceding the stem).

    +

    Every consonant-based suffix used with a formative is composed + of an invariable (i.e., non-mutating) consonant, but has a variable vocalic + form associated with it. The form of a consonant-based suffix is of the + form V+C (i.e., vowel + consonant). While the consonantal portion of the suffix is always invariable, + the vocalic portion mutates depending on two morphological factors known as degree and suffix-type. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for suffix-type, + every consonantal-based V+C suffix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before (or after) the invariable consonant + C. The three suffix-types are labelled V1, V2, and V3, + in reference to the vowel portion of the suffix.

    +


    + 2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting

    +

    In addition to the three suffix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three suffix-types. + Table 5 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each suffix-type.

    +

    Under certain circumstances where the final stem consonant + and the consonant portion of the consonantal suffix can be conjoined without + causing confusion (i.e., where the conjoined consonants will not be mistaken + for a mutation of the final consonantal radical C2), + Ilaksh permits the option to reverse the order of the vowel and consonant of + the suffix. This alternate form is shown in the second column of the table for + each degree. In this alternate form, the vocalic portion follows, rather than + precedes the consonant portion of the suffix.

    +

    +

    Table 5: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Suffix Type

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Suffix + Type 1: -V1C
    Suffix + Type 2: -V2C
    Suffix + Type 3: -V3C
    Degree + 1
    -iC
    -ëC
    -iuC
    Degree + 2
    -eC
    -ëuC /-ioC
    -eiC
    Degree + 3
    -äC
    -ieC
    -auC /-eaC
    Degree + 4
    -öC
    -ueC
    -euC
    Degree + 5
    -(a)C
    -iaC
    -aiC
    Degree + 6
    -üC
    -uëC
    -uoC
    Degree + 7
    -ïC
    -iëC
    -ëiC
    Degree + 8
    -oC
    -oaC
    -oiC
    Degree + 9
    -uC
    -uaC / -uiC
    -ouC
    +

    Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 6 below how these suffixes (and their alternate word-final forms) + would actually appear in conjunction with the stem ri-, which must first take a suffix such as -t indicating various morphological categories which will be explained in Chapter 3, thus giving the form rit-:

    +


    + TABLE 6: Example of Application of Suffixes to a Stem

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Suffix: + -V1k
    Suffix + Type 2: -V2k
    Suffix + Type 3: -V3k
    Degree + 1
    ritik
    ritëk
    ritiuk
    Degree + 2
    ritek
    		ritëuk / ritiok
    riteik
    Degree + 3
    ritäk
    		ritiek
    ritauk / riteak
    Degree + 4
    ritök
    		rituek
    riteuk
    Degree + 5
    ritak
    		ritiak
    ritaik
    Degree + 6
    ritük
    		rituëk
    rituok
    Degree + 7
    ritïk
    		ritiëk
    ritëik
    Degree + 8
    ritok
    		ritoak
    ritoik
    Degree + 9
    rituk
    		rituak/rituik
    ritouk
    +

    As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ilaksh to create a gradient system for all consonantal suffixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + suffix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in Chapter + 7: Suffixes how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated +with the nine degrees for the suffix -V1d.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Degree
    Suffix
    Meaning
     
    1
    		-id wholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all
     
    2
    		-edway too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough
     
    3
    		-äd not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]
     
    4
    		-ödnot quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]
     
    5
    		 -adenough (of) / sufficient(ly)
     
    6
    		-üda little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]
     
    7
    		-ïdtoo / too much / over-[+verb]
     
    8
    		-odway too much / totally over-[+verb]
     
    9
    		-udnothing but / to the exclusion of all else
    +


    +

    + + + + +
    2.8 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
    +

    While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ilaksh, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity + of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.

    +

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >>

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    ©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    +
    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_3.html b/2004-en/Chapter_3.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ddd3605 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_3.html @@ -0,0 +1,3339 @@ + + + + +Chapter 3 + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 3: Basic Morphology

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      3.1 Configuration  3.5 Context   
      3.2 Affiliation  3.6 Designation   
      3.3 Perspective  3.7 Essence   
      3.4 Extension  3.8 Note On Morpho-Phonological Agreement   
    +

     

    +

    As previously discussed in Section 2.6.1, the distinction between nouns and verbs common to most languages + is rather blurred in Ilaksh. All lexical stems in Ilasksh function equally + as nouns or verbs and share many of the same morpho-semantic features and categories. + This is because Ilaksh morpho-semantics does not see nouns and verbs as being + cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations + of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components + are space and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are + merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or + verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s + sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal formatives as + verbs when discussing their morphology.

    +

    All Ilaksh formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs, + inflect for nine Configurations, four Affiliations, + four Perspectives, six Extensions, four Contexts, two Designations, + and two Essences, and can take any of more than 1300 optional + affixes. These morphological categories are explained in the sections which + follow.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    3.1 CONFIGURATION
    +
    +

    To understand the Ilaksh concept of enumeration and quantification + of nouns (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one must analyze + three separate but related grammatical categories termed Configuration, Affiliation, and Perspective. These concepts + are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which + are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually made at the lexical + level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological as + in Ilaksh. In this section we will deal first with Configuration, followed + by Affiliation in Section 3.2 and Perspective in Section + 3.3.

    +

    Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity + or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, collections, + sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal + composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential + structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain + English sets of words.

    +

    Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a + single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of + trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a + plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees. + However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings + than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as + in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different + kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray + such as a ‘jungle.’

    +

    As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ + While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) + person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons + (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as + ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

    +

    Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further + configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships + between car versus convoy, hanger versus rack, chess piece versus chess set, sentry versus blockade, piece of paper versus sheaf, girder versus (structural) + framework, and coin versus roll of coins all exemplify + these principles.

    +

    Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary + sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two + identical referents as in a pair of eyes, however they are more often + opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in limbs, ears, hands, wings, etc.

    +

    In Ilaksh, the semantic distinctions implied by the above + examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be + accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ + into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis + of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made + by means of Affiliation (see Section 3.2 below) and by + the use of specific affixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ + or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ + via Configuration, the Ilaksh words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ + ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation + and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using affixes are explored in + detail in Chapter + 7: Suffixes.)

    +

    Ilaksh words indicate Configuration via a synthetic consonantal affix immediately following the C+V stem which also indicates the Affiliation, Perspective and Extension of the Stem. This is the Ca affix discussed in Section 2.1.1.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below, following the explanation of Extension.

    +

    The nine configurations are the UNIPLEX, DUPLEX, DISCRETE, AGGREGATIVE, SEGMENTATIVE, COMPONENTIAL, COHERENT, + COMPOSITE, and MULTIFORM. +The function and morphology of these categories are explained below along with examples of the various configurations applied to four different stems: pa-, akà-, alá-, and xrî-.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.1
    UNI
    		The Uniplex
    +
    +

    The UNIPLEX configuration indicates + a single, contextual embodiment of the stem concept, i.e., one whole contextual + unit of the basic nominal stem, e.g., a tree, a person, a screwdriver, a + grape, a hammer blow, a hole. With verbs the UNIPLEX signifies a single, holistic act, state, or event, e.g., to be a tree, to + become a person, to use a screwdriver, to eat a grape, to strike (once) with + a hammer, to dig a hole. Listen to the following examples audio :

    + +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pal
    + ‘a tree’    		akàl
    + ‘a person’
    alál
    + ‘an utterance; a spoken word’    		xrîl
    + ‘an occurrence; an instance of something’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.2
    DPX
    		The Duplex
    +
    +

    The DUPLEX configuration indicates + a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s + eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., it can also be used to describe any set of two + identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., a matched pair of + vases, a two-volume set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents. Thus, the + Ilaksh word for spouse inflected for the DUPLEX configuration would translate as a man and wife or a married couple.

    +

    One context in which the DUPLEX appears + for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” + exemplified by English words such as bounce, flash, arc, wag, swing, switch, breathe/respiration, + indeed, any concept which involves a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth, + in/out, empty/full, or on/off. Use of the DUPLEX in these + contexts implies a full cycling through the two complementary states involved. + For example the word for hammer blow inflected for the UNIPLEX would signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected + for the DUPLEX signifies a single down-then-up cycle of + the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action + being divided by the impact. Listen to the following examples audio :

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pall
    + ‘a pair of trees’    		akàll
    + ‘a pair of persons; a couple’
    aláll
    + ‘a pair of uttered/spoken words’    		xrîll
    + ‘a pair of instances’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +

     

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.3
    DCT
    		The Discrete
    +
    +

    The DISCRETE configuration indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units that are more or less identiform (each + having the same design or physical appearance). This grouping or set-nature + can be either spatial, as in a flock of gulls (flying together), or + temporal (i.e., sequentially repetitive or iterative) as in (a flock of) + gulls flying one after another. Further examples of English nouns or noun + phrases which would be translated using the DISCRETE are a grove, a set of screwdrivers, a group of soldiers, a pile of leaves, a + bowl of grapes, a series of hammer blows, an area of holes. Thus, the Ilaksh + word for (identical) set would simply be the word for thing or object inflected for the DISCRETE configuration. + Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a temporally + (i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of an additional affix, + -V1šk, + specifying which spacetime axis is implied. This affix is analyzed in Sec. + 7.4.13.

    +

    For verbs, the DISCRETE signifies a single + set of repetitions, whether spatially or temporally, viewed as a single holistic + event. The individual member components acts, states, or events within this + set can be either UNIPLEX, e.g., to take steps, to + flip through pages, to have spots, to dig holes in an area, or DUPLEX in nature, e.g., to hammer, to spin, to breathe.

    +

    It should be noted that the Containment CNM affix, -Vomt, + can be used with the DISCRETE, as well as most of the + following configurations, to designate specifically the type of container, holder, + or means of conveyance for a configurative set (e.g., a sack, package, jar, +bottle, pile, load, etc.) Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạr
    + ‘a grove’    		akàr
    + ‘a group of matching people’
    alár
    + ‘a set of identical words’    		xrîr
    + ‘a set of similar circumstances/occurrences’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.4
    AGG
    		The Aggregative
    +
    +

    The AGGREGATE configuration functions + like the DISCRETE above in referring to an associated + group or set of entities, except that the members of the configurational set + are not identical to one another. Examples of English words/entities which would + be translated using the AGGREGATIVE are a forest (of different kinds of trees), a toolset, a citizens group, a mixed pile + of leaves, an assortment of animals, an area of different-sized holes, a series + of musical notes. With verbs, the AGGREGATIVE implies + a spatially or temporally repeated set of non-identical acts, events, or states + considered as a whole contextual unit. It would be used, for example, in translating + the sentence This morning I dug holes in my garden (i.e., of different + sizes). Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạh
    +‘a forest; a wood’    		akàh
    + ‘a group of different people’
    aláh
    + ‘a set of (differing) words; a phrase’    		xrîh
    + ‘a set of differing cirucumstances/occurrences’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +

     

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.5SEG The Segmentative
    +
    +

    The SEGMENTATIVE configuration indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units, the individual members of which are + physically similar or identical and are either in physical contact with one + another, physically connected via some linking medium, or in sufficiently close + contact with one another so that the group moves or operates together. Examples + would be a web, a train of flatcars, a convoy of schoolbuses, a string of + pearls, a fall of leaves, a line of dancers, a parade of Barbie dolls (e.g., + coming off an assembly line). To illustrate the difference between this configuration + and the DISCRETE above, we saw that the word grape in the DISCRETE would be translated as a serving of + grapes, while in the SEGMENTATIVE it would mean a + bunch of grapes (i.e., still connected to each other on a portion of vine).

    +

    With verbs, the use of the SEGMENTATIVE versus the DISCRETE implies that the repetitive/iterative + nature of the act, state, or event occurs naturally due to the contextual nature + of the precipitating event or agent. It would thus be used to distinguish the + fuselage of bullets from a machine-gun from the simple hail of bullets from + single-fire weapons. Likewise, it would distinguish The light is blinking from The light is flashing, where blink implies the way + in which the source naturally emits light, while flash implies that +the light is being made to emit repetitive bursts of light. Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạŧ
    + ‘a stand (or line) of trees’    		akàŧ
    + ‘a line/wall of matching people’ (e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with arms linked)
    aláŧ
    + ‘a string of words’    		xrîŧ
    + ‘a chain of similar events’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.6CPN The Componential
    +
    +

    The COMPONENTIAL configuration operates + identically to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the + individual members of the configurational set are not physically similar or + identical to each other. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated + using the COMPONENTIAL are a freight train, a cascade + of (mixed) fruit (i.e., a continuous stream of fruit falling), a line of ticketholders, + a parade of floats, a pattern of musical notes. With verbs, the COMPONENTIAL signifies a connected series of repetitions where the individual acts, events, + or states comprising the repetitive set are non-identical. It would distinguish The light twinkled from The light was blinking. Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạf
    + ‘a line/stand of different trees’    		akàf
    + ‘a line/wall of different people’ (e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with arms linked)
    aláf
    +‘a string of differing words’    		xrîf
    + ‘a chain of differing events’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.
    +

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.7COH The Coherent
    +
    +

    The COHERENT configuration functions + similarly to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the individual + members of the configuration are connected, fused or mixed with one another + to form a coherent emergent entity, i.e., the total configuration of objects + constitutes an entirely new gestalt-like entity. Examples of English words which + would be translated using the COHERENT are a bookcase, + a phalanx, a xylophone.

    +

    In the realm of verbs, finding English translations illustrating + the COHERENT is difficult. If one can imagine the verb to glow to mean a series of flashes blurred one into another to create + a continuous emanation, then glow versus flash might suffice. + Perhaps a better illustration would be the difference between to buzz from to make a set of repeating noises. Listen to the following examples audio:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạř
    + ‘an entangled grove of trees’
    + (i.e., their roots/branches intertwined and grown together)     		akàř
    + ‘a mass/unit of similar people’
    alář
    + ‘a speech made up of similar words’    		xrîř
    + ‘a web of similar circumstances or events’
    +
    + +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +

     

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.8CST The Composite
    +
    +

    The COMPOSITE configuration operates + the same as the COHERENT above except that the individual + members of the configurational set are not identical or physically similar to + one another. Examples of words/concepts that would be translated using the COMPOSITE are a building (= a constructional set of walls, floors, doors, windows, + etc.), a communications array, a conspiracy, a jungle thicket. Thus + the Ilaksh words for recipe, skeleton, and melody would simply + be the words for ingredient, bone, and musical note inflected for the COMPOSITE configuration. For verbs, + the COMPOSITE versus COHERENT distinction + would distinguish to rumble from to buzz, or to glitter from to glow. Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạks
    + ‘a jungle’    		akàks
    + ‘a mass/unit of different people’
    aláks
    + ‘a speech’    		xrîks
    + ‘a complex situation’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.9MLT The Multiform
    +
    +

    The MULTIFORM configuration is + the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent. + The MULTIFORM serves to identify the noun as an individual + member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates + in non-traditional logic, describing a set whose individual members do not all + share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there + may be one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining + attributes of the set exclusively and exactly, other members of the set may + vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical + resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. Indeed, some members of the set may + display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype + of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient + overlap” between members of differing sets.

    +

    It is difficult to accurately translate into English without + resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ilaksh easily expresses + using the MULTIFORM. For example, the Ilaksh word for + ‘tree’ inflected for the MULTIFORM configuration + would mean something like a group of what appear to be trees, or better + yet, a group of tree-like objects (i.e., some being trees, and others + seeming less like trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity + of membership varies by different degrees in comparison to an archetypical member + of the set can be expressed using the MULTIFORM. For examples, + the Ilaksh word for library would simply be a word meaning something + like work (i.e. thing authored/composed) inflected for the MULTIFORM, + signifying a hodge-podge assortment of writings and compositions (e.g., including + books, pamphlets, notebooks, ledgers, formulas, letters, journals, recordings, + magazines, etc.). Other example concepts translatable using the MULTIFORM would be a rag-tag group of people, an incoherent pattern, lives in flux.

    +

    With verbs, the MULTIFORM implies that + the individual repetitions comprising an act, state, or event have varying degrees + of spatio-temporal similarity to each other. A few English verbs such as fluctuate, + sputter or flicker capture this sense. Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạps
    + ‘a thicket/jungle thicket’    		akàps
    + ‘rag-tag group of people’
    aláps
    + ‘incoherent speech/speak incoherently’    		xrîps
    + ‘chaos’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.
    +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    3.2 AFFILIATION
    +
    +

    While the category of Configuration from the preceding section + distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set in terms + of physical characteristics, physical attributes or physical connections, the + category of Affiliation operates similarly to distinguish the member relationships + in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically + in conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship + between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the meanings of nouns or verbs + in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into + English.

    +

    Returning to our earlier example of the word tree, + we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes a grove in + the DISCRETE configuration. The word grove implies + that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in + regard to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may + be planted by design, in which case they become an orchard. We saw + how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed a + forest. However, such assortments can become wholly chaotic, displaying + patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming a jungle.

    +

    As another example, we saw how the word person becomes group, or gathering, both of which are neutral as to subjective + purpose or function. However, applying a sense of purposeful design generates + words such as team, while the absence of purpose results in crowd.

    +

    There are four affiliations: CONSOLIDATIVE, ASSOCIATIVE, VARIATIVE, and COALESCENT. + Affiliation is indicated as part of the Ca affix as explained in Sec. 3.1 above and in Section 2.1.1.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below. following the explanation of Extension. The details of the four affiliations are explained below.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.2.1 CSLThe Consolidative
    +

    The CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring + set where the function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable, + irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the ASSOCIATIVE affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively + defined by human design. Examples are tree branches, a grove, a mound of + rocks, some people, the clouds.

    +

    The CONSOLIDATIVE is also the affiliation + normally applied to nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration + when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the UNIPLEX specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept + of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, + a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf. With verbs, the CONSOLIDATIVE would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral + as to purpose or design.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.2.2
    ASO
    		The Associative
    +

    The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective + function, state, purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the + Ilaksh word for soldier in the DISCRETE configuration + and comparing its English translations when inflected for the CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation (= a group of soldiers) versus the ASSOCIATIVE (= a troop, a platoon). It is this CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction, then, that would distinguish + otherwise equivalent DISCRETE inflections of the Ilaksh + word for tree by translating them respectively as a grove versus an + orchard.

    +

    The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation can also + be used with nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration to signify + a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. + For example, the word person inflected for the UNIPLEX and ASSOCIATIVE would translate as a single-minded + person. Even nouns such as rock, tree or work of + art could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as a well-formed + rock, a tree with integrity, a “balanced” work of art.

    +

    With verbs, the ASSOCIATIVE signifies + that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction could be used, for example, + with the verb turn in I turned toward the window to indicate + whether it was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.2.3
    VAR
    		The Variative
    +

    The VARIATIVE affiliation indicates that + the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function, + state, purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees + (i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, purpose, etc.) or at + complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the VARIATIVE would not be used to signify opposed but complementary differences among set + members (see the COALESCENT affiliation below). It would + thus be used to signify a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering, + a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of + books, a collection in disarray. It operates with nouns in the UNIPLEX to render meanings such as a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock, + a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation.

    +

    With verbs, the VARIATIVE indicates an + act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that + those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably + be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in She bought the house + for various reasons or My being at the party served several purposes. + With non-UNIPLEX configurations, the use of the VARIATIVE affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using + the SEGMENTATIVE configuration such as The light is + blinking in conjunction with the VARIATIVE would + mean that each blink of the light signals something different than the preceding + or following blinks.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.2.4
    COA
    		The Coalescent
    +

    The COALESCENT affiliation indicates + that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship + with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. + This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of + other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For + example, the Ilaksh word translating English toolset would be the + word for tool in the AGGREGATIVE configuration + (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the COALESCENT affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function + in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example + would be the Ilaksh word for finger inflected for the SEGMENTATIVE configuration and the COALESCENT affiliation, translatable + as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the SEGMENTATIVE to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further + example would be using the COALESCENT with the word for (piece of) food to signify a well-balanced meal.

    +

    The COALESCENT naturally appears most + often in conjunction with the DUPLEX configuration since + binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical + binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image + distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. + Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g., one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the COALESCENT affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., one’s left and + right eye functioning together).

    +

    With verbs, the COALESCENT signifies + that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which + make up a greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structure + onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work together in + complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for + example, to distinguish the sentences He traveled in the Yukon from He ventured in the Yukon, or I came up with a plan versus I fashioned a plan.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table +11 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    3.3. PERSPECTIVE
    +

    + Perspective is the closest Ilaksh morphological category to the Number and + Tense categories of other languages (e.g., singular/plural and past/present/future). + However, the correspondence is only approximate because Perspective does not + specifically address the quantity to which a formative is instantiated within + a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the + manner in which it is spatio-temporally instantiated. Specifically, + Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded” + contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation), + 2) an unbounded entity (i.e., manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible), + 3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as + a spatio-temporally neutral abstraction. How this works requires separate explanations + for nouns and verbs.
    +

    Perspective with Nouns. What Perspective means + for nouns is that, in addition to merely indicating whether a given spatial + context contains one or more than one, it also specifies single versus multiple + manifestations in time, as well as along an axis of concreteness versus abstraction. + Complicating the picture is the fact that the categories of Configuration and + Affiliation (see Sections 3.1 and 3.2 above) already + contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe + multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular” + and “plural” have been avoided.

    +

    Perspective with Verbs. For verbs, the aspect + of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative + context but rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” + i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole + within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” + categories of Western languages. In Ilaksh, the notion of linearly progressive + time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified, + if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see Section + 5.6).

    +

    There are four perspectives in Ilaksh: MONADIC, UNBOUNDED, NOMIC, and ABSTRACT. + These are indicated as part of the Ca affix as explained in Sec. 3.1 above.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table + 7 in Section 3.4.7 below, following the explanation of Extension. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is explained + below and illustrated using the three example formatives ùklo, àřořa, and vyúb.
    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.3.1
    M
    		The Monadic
    +

    The MONADIC signifies a bounded embodiment + of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant + a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted + in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless being contextually + viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived + to exist within a literal or figurative psychologically uninterrupted boundary. + This is important, since configurations other than the UNIPLEX technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking + place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container, + corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or + psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, specifically + the “present” (which in Ilaksh might be better thought of as the + “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). + This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for + nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ilaksh considers nouns as spatially + reified concepts while considering verbs to be their temporally “activized” counterparts (see Section 2.6.1).

    +

    Thus, using the word tree for example, while there + might be many trees present in terms of number, the MONADIC implies they form only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category + is manifested. Using the AGGREGATIVE configuration as + an example, the MONADIC would mean there is only one AGGREGATIVE set of trees, i.e., one forest.

    +

    At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective + that Ilaksh makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” + (or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between + those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., one apple, four boys, several + nations), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., water, + sand, plastic, air, laughter). All nouns are countable in Ilaksh in that + all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations + of certain Ilaksh nouns must often be “contextual” rather than + literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable + context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a + puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”

    +

    With verbs, the MONADIC superficially + corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories + except in a habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed + by the MONADIC means that the act, state, or event is + temporally contiguous and accessible from the point of view of the present context. + It would be used to describes an act, state, or event which:

    +
      +
    • +
      takes + place entirely in the present context
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in the accessible past and has continued on into the present context
      +
      • +
    • +
      starts + within the present context and continues on into an accessible future
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past, but only the portion taking place in the present + context is being addressed or is under consideration or relevant within + the context of the utterance
      +
      • +
    • +
      starts + within the present context and may continue into an inaccessible future, + but only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, but + only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance
      +
      • +
    +

    By “accessible past” or “accessible future” + is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present + at the time and the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically + contiguous, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now as + one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected + predictions, or historical reports. Conversely, “inaccessible” would + mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which + he/she knows only from memory, reports, or predictions.

    +

    Listen to the following examples audio :

    +
    + + + + + + +
    ùklol
    +     ‘a river;
    + a river flows’
    +     		àřořa
    +     ‘constellation;
    + a constellation shines (in the night sky) ’    		vyúb
    +     ‘a set of benefits;
    + to be a set of benefits’
    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.3.2
    U
    		The Unbounded
    +

    The UNBOUNDED signifies “unbounded + embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun + or verb manifests itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary, + i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, + the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member + nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a non-monadic + (i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient + translation into English would be to use the plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps + of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would + be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and + another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’

    +

    For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the + psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible + from the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which:

    +
      +
    • +
      occurs + entirely in the inaccessible past
      +
      • +
    • +
      will + occur entirely in the inaccessible future
      +
      • +
    • +
      may + be occurring in the present context but started in an inaccessible past, + and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account that past portion
      +
      • +
    • +
      may + be occurring in the present context but will continue into an inaccessible + future, and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood + without taking into account the future portion
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, and + the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account these inaccessible portions
      +
      • +
    +

    If necessary to specify whether the UNBOUNDED is referencing the past versus the future, additional aspectual markers can + be employed (see Sec. 5.6 on Aspect). Note that, even more so than with the MONADIC, + translation of the UNBOUNDED into Western languages is + subjective, as the translation must necessarily convey linear tense information + which is not conveyed by the Ilaksh original.

    +

    Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ùklot
    +     ‘what once was a river / a future river / a river-to-be;
    + the river once flowed (but no longer) / the river will flow (someday)’
    +
    àřonda
    +     ‘a past constellation / a future constellation;
    +the constellation shone (but no longer) / the constellation will shine (someday)’
    +
    vyúlk
    +     ‘a former set of benefits;
    +to have been a set of benefits (but no longer)’
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.3.3
    N
    		The Nomic
    +

    The NOMIC refers to a generic collective + entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative + set throughout space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context). + Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in particular, + this category is mutually exclusive from the MONADIC or UNBOUNDED. For nouns, the NOMIC corresponds approximately to the several constructions used for referring to + collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences The dog is a noble beast, Clowns are what children love most, There + is nothing like a tree.

    +

    With verbs, the NOMIC designates an action, + event, or situation which describes a general law of nature or a persistently + true condition or situation spoken of in general, without reference to a specific + instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible instances + or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of + expressing such generic statements, generally using the simple present tense. + Examples of usage would be The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele + is sickly, In winter it snows a lot, That girl sings well.

    +

    Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ùklos
    +     ‘(flowing) river(s) (as a generic concept)’
    +
    +
    àřoňsa
    +     ‘(shining) constelation(s) (as a generic concept)’
    +
    vyúlš
    +     ‘(being) a set of benefits as a generic concept’
    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.3.4
    A
    		The Abstract
    +

    Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes + such as -hood or -ness, the ABSTRACT transforms a configurative + category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless + context. While only certain nouns in English can be made into abstracts via + suffixes, all Ilaksh nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into + abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., grove → the idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book → everything + about books, having to do with books, involvement with books.

    +

    With verbs, the ABSTRACT is used in verbal + constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship + of the action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable, + similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund form (used as substitutes + for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences: Singing is not his strong suit; It makes no sense to + worry about it; I can't stand her pouting. As + a result, the ABSTRACT acts as a "timeless" + verb form which, much like these English infinitives and gerunds, operates in + conjunction with a separate main verb in one of the other three perspectives. + The ABSTRACT is often used in conjunction with certain + modalities and moods of the verb (see Sec. + 6.1 on Modality and Section + 5.1 on Mood) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which + the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or unknowable.

    +

    Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ùkloc
    +     ‘the river as an idea / everything about being a river / “river-hood” ’
    +
    +
    àřosxa
    +     ‘the idea of a constellation / “constellation-hood” ’
    +
    vyúlč
    +     ‘the idea of having/providing benefits’
    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    3.4 EXTENSION
    +

    Extension is another Ilaksh morphological category for which + there is no exact equivalent in other languages. It applies to all formatives + and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms +of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. There are six extensions: DELIMITIVE, PROXIMAL, INCEPTIVE, TERMINATIVE, DEPLETIVE, and GRADUATIVE.

    +

    Extension is shown as part of the Ca affix which also indicates Configuration, Affiliation and Perspective. The values of this affix are shown below in Sec. 3.4.7.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The details of how each of the six extensions operates are explained as follows:

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.1
    DEL
    		The Delimitive
    +

    The DELIMITIVE extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with + clear spatio-temporal boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion, + edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It can be + considered the neutral or default view, e.g., a tree, a grove, a set of + books, an army. To illustrate a contextual example, the English sentence He climbed the ladder would be translated with the word ladder in the DELIMITIVE to show it is being considered as a + whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is + being considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, e.g., She diets + every winter (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet).

    + + + + + +
    +

    The DELIMITIVE can be thought + of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite beginning and ending points, + beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. The graphic to + the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in + the DELIMITIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the + spatio-temporal “present”).

    +

    Examples:

    +

    ùklol ‘a river’

    +

    xrîks ‘a situation’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.2
    PRX
    		The Proximal
    +

    The PROXIMAL extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the + portion, duration, subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand. + It would be used to translate the words tree, journey, and ladder in the sentences That tree is hard there (e.g., in + the spot where I hit against it), She lost weight during her journey, + or He climbed on the ladder (i.e., it is not relevant to the context + to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences, + the PROXIMAL does not refer to a specific or delineated + piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder, but rather to the fact that + delineated boundaries such as the ends of the ladder or the entirety of the + tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this + extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which + is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the + act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a diet + every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not + the total time spent dieting from start to finish).

    +

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates + the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the PROXIMAL to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). +

    Examples:

    +

    ùklosk ‘a section/stretch of (the) river’

    +

    xrîřsk ‘the midst of a situation’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.3
    ICP
    		The Inceptive
    +

    The INCEPTIVE extension focuses on the + closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion + of a noun or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. It would + be used in translating the nouns tunnel, song, desert, daybreak and plan in the following sentences: We looked + into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song (i.e., from the + first few notes), They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait + for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). + In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ + or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s + starting to molt, or She goes on a diet every winter.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the INCEPTIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). + Examples: +

    uklòkka ‘the beginning of a river’

    +

    xrîkva ‘the beginning/start of a situation’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.4
    TRM
    		The Terminative
    +

    The TERMINATIVE extension focuses on + the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without + focusing on the preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would + be used in translating the words water, story, and arrival in the sentences There’s no water (i.e., we ran out), I like + the end of that story, and We await your arrival. With verbs, + it is illustrated by the sentences It finished molting or She’s + come off her diet.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the TERMINATIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). +

    Examples:

    +

    uklòpla ‘the end of a river’

    +

    xrîltla ‘the end of a situation’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.5
    DPL
    		The Depletive
    +

    The DEPLETIVE extension focuses on the + terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus + is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the + at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). + Essentially, it applies to any context involving actual or figurative fading. + It would be used in translating the words water, strength, + and twilight in the sentences He drank the last of the water, I + have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight. With verbs, + it is exemplified by the phrases to wind down, to fade out, to disappear + gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’s eating less and less + these days.

    + + + + + +
    +

    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the DEPLETIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

    +

    Listen to the following examples audio :

    +

    uklòmla‘the mouth of a river’

    +

    xrîlnla ‘the last vestiges of a situation’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.6
    GRD
    		The Graduative
    +

    The GRADUATIVE extension is the inverse + of the DEPLETIVE, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” + or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words darkness, wonder, and music in the following sentences: Darkness + came upon us, I felt a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first. + With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as to fade in, to + start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., She’s + been eating more and more lately.

    + + + + + +
    +

    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun in the GRADUATIVE to the + context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

    +

    Examples:

    +

    uklòstra ‘the headwaters of a river’

    +

    xrîrstla ‘a gradually developing situation’

    +
    +

    +

    3.4.7 Affix Tables for Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective and Extension

    +

    Tables 7(a) through 7(f) below indicate all the affix values of Ca, the synthetic affix which indicates which of the nine Configurations, four Affiliations, four Perspectives, and six Extensions are applied to a particular stem.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The Ca affix is attached directly following the stem vowel(s) Vr.

    +


    + Tables 7(a)-(f):
    + Ca Configuration/Affiliation/Perspective/Extension +Affixes for Formatives

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    DEL
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    l
    ll
    r
    h
    ŧ
    f
    ř
    ks
    ps
    ASO
    m
    mm
    b
    hh
    v
    vv
    rr
    bz
    gz
    VAR
    n
    nn
    d
    r n
    ln
    rm
    řř
    bž
    gž
    COA
    ň
    ňň
    g
    r ň
    lň
    řl
    rl
    kš
    pš
    U
    CSL
    t
    nt
    lt
    rt
    ld
    rd
    nd
    hk
    řt
    ASO
    k
    ňk
    lk
    rk
    lg
    rg
    ňg
    ht
    řk
    VAR
    p
    mp
    lp
    rp
    lb
    rb
    mb
    hp
    řp
    COA
    ç
    çç
    lç
    rç
    nç
    pç
    mç
    ňç
    řç
    N
    CSL
    s
    ss
    ls
    rs
    ns
    fs
    ňs
    hs
    řs
    ASO
    š
    šš
    lš
    rš
    nš
    fš
    ňš
    hš
    řš
    VAR
    z
    zz
    lz
    rz
    mz
    ňz
    zb
    zd
    zg
    COA
    ž
    žž
    lž
    rž
    mž
    ňž
    žb
    žd
    žg
    A
    CSL
    c
    cc
    lc
    rc
    ms
    hc
    sx
    řz
    řc
    ASO
    č
    čč
    lč
    rč
    mš
    hč
    šx
    řž
    řč
    VAR
    x
    xx
    lx
    rx
    xs
    xš
    kç
    řň
    řx
    COA
    đ
    đđ
    lŧ
    rŧ
    ŧŧ
    lf
    rf
    ff
    rđ
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    PRX
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    sk
    ssk
    lsk
    rsk
    msk
    nsk
    ňsk
    řsk
    řkt
    ASO
    st
    sst
    lst
    rst
    mst
    nst
    ňst
    řst
    řft
    VAR
    sp
    ssp
    lsp
    rsp
    msp
    nsp
    ňsp
    řsp
    řpt
    COA
    ż
    żż
    lż
    rż
    nz
    żb
    żd
    żg
    řż
    U
    CSL
    šk
    ššk
    lšk
    ršk
    mšk
    nšk
    ňšk
    řšk
    řg
    ASO
    št
    ššt
    lšt
    ršt
    mšt
    nšt
    ňšt
    řšt
    řd
    VAR
    šp
    ššp
    lšp
    ršp
    mšp
    nšp
    ňšp
    řšp
    řb
    COA
    j
    jj
    lj
    rj
    nž
    jg
    jb
    jd
    řj
    N
    CSL
    kf
    lh
    lkf
    rkf
    ňt
    ňŧ
    fň
    vž
    řf
    ASO
    tf
    rh
    ltf
    rtf
    mt
    mŧ
    ţň
    đň
    řŧ
    VAR
    pf
    lm
    lpf
    rpf
    ňp
    ňf
    vň
    vz
    řv
    COA
    xp
    hw
    lv
    řy
    nm
    mx
    fx
    vx
    řm
    A
    CSL
    pt
    sf
    lpt
    rpt
    pŧ
    mf
    ŧp
    ŧs
    nđ
    ASO
    ft
    šf
    lft
    rft
    fŧ
    nŧ
    ŧt
    đz
    řđ
    VAR
    kt
    sŧ
    lkt
    rkt
    kŧ
    ňx
    ŧk
    xf
    ňd
    COA
    xt
    šŧ
    px
    tx
    xŧ
    mn
    ŧx
    đx
    řn
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    ICP
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    kk
    ky
    lky
    rky
    ňky
    kky
    fk
    kv
    kp
    ASO
    tt
    ty
    lty
    rty
    nty
    tty
    vt
    tv
    tk
    VAR
    pp
    py
    lpy
    rpy
    mpy
    ppy
    fp
    pv
    pk
    COA
    pc
    lpç
    kc
    fc
    vc
    lkç
    sj
    fj
    xj
    U
    CSL
    çk
    kw
    lkw
    rkw
    ňkw
    kkw
    ck
    čk
    kpw
    ASO
    çt
    tw
    ltw
    rtw
    ntw
    ttw
    ct
    čt
    tkw
    VAR
    çp
    pw
    lpw
    rpw
    mpw
    ppw
    cp
    čp
    pkw
    COA
    pč
    rpç
    kč
    fč
    vč
    rkç
    šj
    pj
    kj
    N
    CSL
    gg
    gw
    lgw
    rgw
    ňgy
    ggy
    gv
    gd
    gb
    ASO
    dd
    dw
    ldw
    rdw
    ndy
    ddy
    dv
    db
    dg
    VAR
    bb
    bw
    lbw
    rbw
    mby
    bby
    bv
    bd
    bg
    COA
    my
    mh
    çm
    cm
    čm
    lmy
    rmy
    cň
    jm
    A
    CSL
    gy
    hg
    lgy
    rgy
    ňgw
    ggw
    tg
    pg
    vg
    ASO
    dy
    hd
    ldy
    rdy
    ndw
    ddw
    sc
    kd
    vd
    VAR
    by
    hb
    lby
    rby
    mbw
    bbw
    tp
    kb
    vb
    COA
    ny
    nh
    çn
    cn
    čn
    lny
    rny
    čň
    jn
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    TRM
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    pl
    tl
    kl
    rpl
    rtl
    rkl
    lpl
    ltl
    lkl
    ASO
    pr
    tr
    kr
    rpr
    rtr
    rkr
    lpr
    ltr
    lkr
    VAR
    př
    tř
    kř
    rpř
    rtř
    rkř
    lpř
    ltř
    lkř
    COA
    sl
    zl
    sř
    rsl
    rzl
    rsř
    lsl
    lzl
    lsř
    U
    CSL
    bl
    dl
    gl
    rbl
    rdl
    rgl
    lbl
    ldl
    lgl
    ASO
    br
    dr
    gr
    rbr
    rdr
    rgr
    lbr
    ldr
    lgr
    VAR
    bř
    dř
    gř
    rbř
    rdř
    rgř
    lbř
    ldř
    lgř
    COA
    šl
    žl
    šř
    ršl
    ržl
    ršř
    lšl
    lžl
    lšř
    N
    CSL
    fl
    fr
    fř
    rfl
    rfr
    rfř
    lfl
    lfr
    lfř
    ASO
    ţl
    ţr
    ţř
    rţl
    rţr
    rţř
    lţl
    lţr
    lţř
    VAR
    xl
    xr
    çl
    rxl
    rxr
    çr
    lxl
    lxr
    çř
    COA
    sr
    zr
    zř
    rsr
    rzr
    rzř
    lsr
    lzr
    lzř
    A
    CSL
    vl
    vr
    vř
    rvl
    rvr
    rvř
    lvl
    lvr
    lvř
    ASO
    đl
    đr
    đř
    rđl
    rđr
    rđř
    lđl
    lđr
    lđř
    VAR
    hl
    hr
    çf
    rhl
    rhr
    çv
    lhl
    lhr
    rř
    COA
    šr
    žr
    žř
    ršr
    ržr
    ržř
    lšr
    lžr
    lžř
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    DPL
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    ml
    nl
    ňl
    rml
    rnl
    rňl
    lml
    lnl
    lňl
    ASO
    mr
    nr
    ňr
    rmr
    rnr
    rňr
    lmr
    lnr
    lňr
    VAR
    mř
    nř
    ňř
    żm
    żn
    żň
    bj
    gj
    vj
    COA
    mw
    nw
    ňw
    rmw
    rnw
    rňw
    lmw
    lnw
    lňw
    U
    CSL
    sv
    lsv
    rsv
    ksw
    psw
    lks
    rks
    lps
    rps
    ASO
    zv
    lzv
    rzv
    gzw
    bzw
    lgz
    rgz
    lbz
    rbz
    VAR
    šv
    lšv
    ršv
    kšw
    pšw
    lkš
    rkš
    lpš
    rpš
    COA
    žv
    lžv
    ržv
    gžw
    bžw
    lgž
    rgž
    lbž
    rbž
    N
    CSL
    sw
    sy
    ssw
    cw
    cy
    lsw
    rsw
    lsy
    rsy
    ASO
    zw
    zy
    ššw
    żw
    ży
    lzw
    rzw
    lzy
    rzy
    VAR
    šw
    šy
    zzw
    čw
    čy
    lšw
    ršw
    lšy
    ršy
    COA
    žw
    žy
    žžw
    jw
    jy
    lžw
    ržw
    lžy
    ržy
    A
    CSL
    sm
    sn
    sň
    lsm
    lsn
    lsň
    rsm
    rsn
    rsň
    ASO
    zm
    zn
    zň
    lzm
    lzn
    lzň
    rzm
    rzn
    rzň
    VAR
    šm
    šn
    šň
    lšm
    lšn
    lšň
    ršm
    ršn
    ršň
    COA
    žm
    žn
    žň
    lžm
    lžn
    lžň
    ržm
    ržn
    ržň
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    GRA
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    str
    stl
    stw
    lstr
    lstl
    lstw
    rstr
    rstl
    rstw
    ASO
    skr
    skl
    skw
    lskr
    lskl
    lskw
    rskr
    rskl
    rskw
    VAR
    str
    stl
    spw
    lstr
    lstl
    lspw
    rstr
    rstl
    rspw
    COA
    cr
    cl
    żr
    żl
    cř
    żř
    çc
    xc
    sč
    U
    CSL
    štr
    štl
    štw
    lštr
    lštl
    lštw
    rštr
    rštl
    rštw
    ASO
    škr
    škl
    škw
    lškr
    lškl
    lškw
    rškr
    rškl
    rškw
    VAR
    štr
    štl
    špw
    lštr
    lštl
    lšpw
    rštr
    rštl
    ršpw
    COA
    čr
    čl
    jr
    jl
    čř
    jř
    çč
    xč
    šč
    N
    CSL
    fw
    fy
    lfw
    rfw
    lfy
    rfy
    bf
    fm
    fn
    ASO
    ţw
    ţy
    lţw
    rţw
    lţy
    rţy
    df
    ţm
    ţn
    VAR
    vw
    vy
    lvw
    rvw
    lvy
    rvy
    gf
    vm
    vn
    COA
    đw
    đy
    lđw
    rđw
    lđy
    rđy
    lđ
    đm
    đn
    A
    CSL
    hm
    hhw
    rhw
    tm
    tn
    dm
    dn
    mc
    ňc
    ASO
    hn
    çw
    lhw
    km
    kn
    gm
    gn
    mč
    ňč
    VAR
    xm
    xw
    xv
    pm
    pn
    bm
    bn
    mj
    ňj
    COA
    xn
    řw
    rv
    mv
    ňhw
    ňm
    ňn
    hj
    ňh
    +
    +

    +

    3.4.8 Additional Example of Configuration, Affiliation, and Extension

    + + + + + + + +

    kšŭl
    +‘clown’

    		axāl / xalā
    +‘running + stride’     →

    Ukšüŭb xafpā.
    +     FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/ASO/DCT     IFL-OPR-‘running stride’-ICP/M/VAR/COH
    + The group of clowns begin stumbling as they run.

    		(Listen audio )
    +

    __________________________
    +

    + + + + +
    3.5 CONTEXT
    +

    Context is yet another morphological category with no equivalent + in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or aspects + of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There + is no way to show this in translation other than by paraphrase. There are four + contexts: the EXISTENTIAL, the FUNCTIONAL, + the REPRESENTATIONAL, and the AMALGAMATE, + marked by a vocalic suffix VF which also conveys verbal Mood (the category of Mood will be analyzed in Section 5.1). Table 8 below shows the values for this suffix.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +
    +
    +

    Table 8: Word-final VF-suffix: 4 contexts x 8 moods

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Mood (explained in Sec. 5.1)
    Context↓
    FAC
    SUB
    ASM
    SPE
    HYP
    COU
    IPL
    ASC
    EXISTENTIAL
    a
    o
    ü
    ei
    iu
    au
    io
    uo
    FUNCTIONAL
    ai
    i
    oi
    ë
    ia
    ua
    ie
    ue
    REPRESENTATIONAL
    u
    e
    ëi
    ëu
    ea
    oa
    eo
    üo
    AMALGAMATE
    ui
    ö
    ou
    eu
    ï
    iö
    öi
    öu
    +

    The four Contexts are explained below and illustrated +via example Ilaksh translations of the English sentence The orchestra is playing.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.5.1 EXS The Existential
    +

    + The EXISTENTIAL context is marked by falling tone on the + formative. It focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically + objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, + beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the EXISTENTIAL is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The EXISTENTIAL serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective + entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun + or verb.
    +

    For example, consider the sentence A cat ran past the doorway. + If the Ilaksh words corresponding to cat, run, and doorway are in the EXISTENTIAL, then the sentence merely describes + an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature + of the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that + two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial relationship to each other; + those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely + conveys the nature of the spatial relationship. Listen to the following example audio :

    +
    +

    Asekšiëéma. 
    + IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-EXS-FAC
    + ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [neutral description of event]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.5.2FNC The Functional
    +

    + The FUNCTIONAL context is marked by high tone on the formative. + It focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas, + attitudes, beliefs, opinions, convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit, + etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that + the noun has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose.
    +

    For example, in our previous sentence A cat ran past the + doorway, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into + the FUNCTIONAL, the ‘cat’ no longer simply + identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) + significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could + get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with + mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ + now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. + Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the FUNCTIONAL now implies the furtive nature of the cat. Example:

    +
    +

    Asekšiëémai. 
    + IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-FNC-FAC
    + ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [focus on the personal meaning/importance of the event]]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.5.3RPS The Representational
    +

    + The REPRESENTATIONAL context is marked by rising tone. + It focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym*, in that it indicates + that the formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other + concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical + connotations of the English sentence That pinstripe-suited dog is checking + out a kitty, can be equally conveyed in Ilaksh by inflecting the words + for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the REPRESENTATIONAL context. The REPRESENTATIONAL is one of several ways that + Ilaksh overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from + a grammatical standpoint).
    +

    * Metonymy + is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or + phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The + orders came from the White House,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell + the cook the ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person + as in ‘You-know-who just showed up.’

    +

    Example:

    +
    +

    Asekšiëému. 
    + IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-RPS-FAC
    + ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [connotes that sentence is a metaphor, e.g., ‘life as a symphony’]

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.5.4AMG The Amalgamate
    +

    The AMALGAMATE context is marked by + broken tone. It is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western + linguistic perspective. It focuses on the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like, + componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective + totality is derived synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the + interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static momentary + appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun + and any interactions and relationships it has (whether past, present or potential) + within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting + the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, + psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with + the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, + intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels. + Thus the AMALGAMATE version of our sentence The cat + ran past the doorway would take on quite melodramatic implications, with + the cat being representative of everything about cats and all they stand for, + the doorway as being representative of the nature of doorways as portals of + change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while + the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of + movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc.

    +
    +

    Asekšiëémui. 
    + IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-AMG-FAC
    + ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [connotes a focus on the emotional impact plus cultural significance of the event]

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    3.6 DESIGNATION
    +

    Designation is a somewhat subjective category, + with no equivalent in Western languages. It refers to a two-fold distinction in a formative regarding its contextual + status, authority, permanence, or extra-contextual relevance. The two Designations + are the INFORMAL and the FORMAL, +shown by the vocalic affix Vc in the formative paradigm. This vocalic affix also conveys the category of Essence (explained in Section 3.7 below) as well as the verbal category of Format, explained in Section 6.5. Table 9 below shows these affixes:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

     

    +

    Table 9: Vc Affixes:  Designation/Essence/Format Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    +
    Designation

    +
    Essence

    +
     
    FORMAT
    SCH
    ISR
    ATH
    PRT
    RSL
    SBQ
    CCM
    OBJ
     
    +
    INFORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    (a)
    ai
    au
    ia
    ua
    a-i
    a-u
    ao
    2ndary form
    e
    ei
    eu
    ie
    ue
    e-i
    e-u
    eo
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    i
    ï
    iu
    ea
    u-i
    eë
    ae
    aö
    2ndary form
    o
    oi
    ou
    io
    uo
    o-i
    o-u
    o-ü
     
    +
    FORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    u
    ui
    ü
    i-u
    oa
    oë
    oe
    öa
    2ndary form
    ä
    äi
    äu
    iä
    uä
    eö
    üo
    ä-i
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    ö
    öi
    öu
    iö
    uö
    ö-i
    ö-u
    ä-u
    2ndary form
    ë
    ëi
    ëu
    ië
    uë
    ë-i
    ë-u
    äo
    +

    (NOTE: There are alternate versions of the Vc Affixes given above that are used in specific circumstances which will be discussed in Section 6.5.2 on Format.)

    +

    The two Designations are explained below.
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    3.6.1
    FML
    		 The Informal
    +

    The INFORMAL designation indicates that the noun or verb in question does not exist in + a necessarily permanent state, or is to be considered only for the duration + of the context in which it is spoken, with any lasting effect, influence or + permanency beyond the context being either absent, unknown or irrelevant.
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    3.6.2
    IFL
    		 The Formal
    +

    The FORMAL designation imparts a sense of permanency + and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or institutional + manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if + the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’ + ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the INFORMAL would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and + ‘archetype’ in the FORMAL.

    +

    The FORMAL achieves several subtle purposes + from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ilaksh words would translate + the same in English no matter which designation (e.g., to hurt, to float, + breath, to fall, shade, sleep, cough), many stems would have different + translations in English depending on their designation. For example, the stem ktà- with the + affiliated meanings person → group → gathering → crowd → throng, etc. in the INFORMAL designation would change + to the following series of approximate translations when placed in the FORMAL designation: official → team → association/congregation → assembly → masses, etc.

    +

    Further examples of lexical shifts in translation due to INFORMAL → FORMAL designation are listed below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     to grow something → to cultivatewander → travel
     obtain/get → procure/requisitionlake → reservoir
     (natural) holder → containersee → observe
     to create → construct/buildheap → pile
     animal → domesticated animala thought → an idea
     natural environment →“man-made” + environmentawareness → consciousness
     [natural] exchange → trade/commercehouse → home
     assortment of animals → zoo collection grouping → set
     to group/gather → collectwall → barrier
     get some exercise → to work outplacidity → peace
     problem situation → crisisto populate → to settle
    +

    As can be seen from the above list, the exact interpretation + of Designation for each word-root is specific to each word-root, depending on + its associated semantic context.

    +


    +3.6.3 Examples of Designation in Use

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    INFORMAL FORMAL
    klòl ‘flow of water; to flow’→ùklol ‘river; to flow as a river ’
    dyùl ‘sensation/feeling; to sense (affective)’→ùdyul ‘sensation/feeling (volitional/deliberate); to examine via the senses’
    stūl ‘comparison; to compare/contrast’→ūstul ‘measure(ment)’
    +

     

    + + + + +
    3.7 ESSENCE
    +

    Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which + has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference to + various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English + sentences:

    +
    +

    1a) The boy ran off to sea.
    + 1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.

    +

    2a) The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow.
    + 2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist.

    +
    +

    Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences + in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences + (1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized + contexts for these sentences that they make any sense. For example, (1b) would + make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the + plot for a story, while (2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store + owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is now no longer there.

    +

    Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world + meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog, + but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being + used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative + mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where + events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative + versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is + essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western + languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated + by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called + “modal” verbs of English, e.g., must, can, should, etc. + as seen in the following:

    +
    +

    3) You must come home at once.
    + 4) That girl can sing better than anybody.
    + 5) We should attack at dawn.

    +
    +

    Each of the above three sentences describe potential events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For example, + in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home + is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl may never sing a single note ever + again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether + any attack will actually occur.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    3.7.1
    NRM
    		 The Normal
     
    RPV
    		 The Representative
    +

    The Ilaksh category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world + actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. The + two essences are termed NORMAL and REPRESENTATIVE, + the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns and verbs, the + latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly, + Ilaksh allows a speaker to express any noun or verb as referring to a real-world + versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from + an explanatory context.

    +

    Essence is morpho-phonologically marked by the synthetic Vc vocalic prefix shown in Table 9 above (in conjunction with the categories of Designation and Format.

    +


    + 3.7.2 Examples of Essence in Use

    +

    Compare the following two sentences and their translations to see how placement of the REPRESENTATIVE essence on different formatives changes the meaning. Listen audio:

    +
    +

    Ktiàl ikkalièç àxtal.
    + IFL/NRM-‘man’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL/RPV-‘woman’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT2/3    IFL/NRM-OPR-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The man sees what he thinks is/imagines to be a young girl.

    +

    Ktiàl akkalièç ìxtal.
    + IFL/NRM-‘man’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL/NRM-‘woman’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT2/3    IFL/RPV-OPR-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The man is imagining he sees a young girl.

    +


    + Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    ktà- ‘man’ < kà- ‘PERSON’           kkà- ‘woman’ < kà- ‘PERSON’            xtà- ‘see’ < ‘VISION/SIGHT’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    3.8 NOTE ON MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL AGREEMENT
    + + +

    In regard to the gender categories from other languages, + Ilaksh has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, etc.). There is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological + concord of any kind between a noun and other words or morphological elements + in a sentence, i.e., there is none of the required matching of masculine or + feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and adjectives +as found in most Western languages.

    +

     

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 4: Case Morphology >>

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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

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    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 3: Basic Morphology

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      3.1 Configuration  3.5 Context   
      3.2 Affiliation  3.6 Designation   
      3.3 Perspective  3.7 Essence   
      3.4 Extension  3.8 Note On Morpho-Phonological Agreement   
    +

     

    +

    As previously discussed in Section 2.6.1, the distinction between nouns and verbs common to most languages + is rather blurred in Ilaksh. All lexical stems in Ilasksh function equally + as nouns or verbs and share many of the same morpho-semantic features and categories. + This is because Ilaksh morpho-semantics does not see nouns and verbs as being + cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations + of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components + are space and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are + merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or + verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s + sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal formatives as + verbs when discussing their morphology.

    +

    All Ilaksh formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs, + inflect for nine Configurations, four Affiliations, + four Perspectives, six Extensions, four Contexts, two Designations, + and two Essences, and can take any of more than 1300 optional + affixes. These morphological categories are explained in the sections which + follow.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    3.1 CONFIGURATION
    +
    +

    To understand the Ilaksh concept of enumeration and quantification + of nouns (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one must analyze + three separate but related grammatical categories termed Configuration, Affiliation, and Perspective. These concepts + are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which + are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually made at the lexical + level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological as + in Ilaksh. In this section we will deal first with Configuration, followed + by Affiliation in Section 3.2 and Perspective in Section + 3.3.

    +

    Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity + or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, collections, + sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal + composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential + structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain + English sets of words.

    +

    Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a + single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of + trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a + plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees. + However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings + than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as + in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different + kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray + such as a ‘jungle.’

    +

    As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ + While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) + person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons + (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as + ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

    +

    Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further + configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships + between car versus convoy, hanger versus rack, chess piece versus chess set, sentry versus blockade, piece of paper versus sheaf, girder versus (structural) + framework, and coin versus roll of coins all exemplify + these principles.

    +

    Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary + sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two + identical referents as in a pair of eyes, however they are more often + opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in limbs, ears, hands, wings, etc.

    +

    In Ilaksh, the semantic distinctions implied by the above + examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be + accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ + into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis + of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made + by means of Affiliation (see Section 3.2 below) and by + the use of specific affixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ + or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ + via Configuration, the Ilaksh words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ + ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation + and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using affixes are explored in + detail in Chapter + 7: Suffixes.)

    +

    Ilaksh words indicate Configuration via a synthetic consonantal affix immediately following the C+V stem which also indicates the Affiliation, Perspective and Extension of the Stem. This is the Ca affix discussed in Section 2.1.1.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below, following the explanation of Extension.

    +

    The nine configurations are the UNIPLEX, DUPLEX, DISCRETE, AGGREGATIVE, SEGMENTATIVE, COMPONENTIAL, COHERENT, + COMPOSITE, and MULTIFORM. +The function and morphology of these categories are explained below along with examples of the various configurations applied to four different stems: pa-, akà-, alá-, and xrî-.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.1
    UNI
    		The Uniplex
    +
    +

    The UNIPLEX configuration indicates + a single, contextual embodiment of the stem concept, i.e., one whole contextual + unit of the basic nominal stem, e.g., a tree, a person, a screwdriver, a + grape, a hammer blow, a hole. With verbs the UNIPLEX signifies a single, holistic act, state, or event, e.g., to be a tree, to + become a person, to use a screwdriver, to eat a grape, to strike (once) with + a hammer, to dig a hole. Listen to the following examples audio :

    + +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pal
    + ‘a tree’    		akàl
    + ‘a person’
    alál
    + ‘an utterance; a spoken word’    		xrîl
    + ‘an occurrence; an instance of something’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.2
    DPX
    		The Duplex
    +
    +

    The DUPLEX configuration indicates + a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s + eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., it can also be used to describe any set of two + identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., a matched pair of + vases, a two-volume set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents. Thus, the + Ilaksh word for spouse inflected for the DUPLEX configuration would translate as a man and wife or a married couple.

    +

    One context in which the DUPLEX appears + for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” + exemplified by English words such as bounce, flash, arc, wag, swing, switch, breathe/respiration, + indeed, any concept which involves a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth, + in/out, empty/full, or on/off. Use of the DUPLEX in these + contexts implies a full cycling through the two complementary states involved. + For example the word for hammer blow inflected for the UNIPLEX would signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected + for the DUPLEX signifies a single down-then-up cycle of + the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action + being divided by the impact. Listen to the following examples audio :

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pall
    + ‘a pair of trees’    		akàll
    + ‘a pair of persons; a couple’
    aláll
    + ‘a pair of uttered/spoken words’    		xrîll
    + ‘a pair of instances’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +

     

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.3
    DCT
    		The Discrete
    +
    +

    The DISCRETE configuration indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units that are more or less identiform (each + having the same design or physical appearance). This grouping or set-nature + can be either spatial, as in a flock of gulls (flying together), or + temporal (i.e., sequentially repetitive or iterative) as in (a flock of) + gulls flying one after another. Further examples of English nouns or noun + phrases which would be translated using the DISCRETE are a grove, a set of screwdrivers, a group of soldiers, a pile of leaves, a + bowl of grapes, a series of hammer blows, an area of holes. Thus, the Ilaksh + word for (identical) set would simply be the word for thing or object inflected for the DISCRETE configuration. + Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a temporally + (i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of an additional affix, + -V1šk, + specifying which spacetime axis is implied. This affix is analyzed in Sec. + 7.4.13.

    +

    For verbs, the DISCRETE signifies a single + set of repetitions, whether spatially or temporally, viewed as a single holistic + event. The individual member components acts, states, or events within this + set can be either UNIPLEX, e.g., to take steps, to + flip through pages, to have spots, to dig holes in an area, or DUPLEX in nature, e.g., to hammer, to spin, to breathe.

    +

    It should be noted that the Containment CNM affix, -Vomt, + can be used with the DISCRETE, as well as most of the + following configurations, to designate specifically the type of container, holder, + or means of conveyance for a configurative set (e.g., a sack, package, jar, +bottle, pile, load, etc.) Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạr
    + ‘a grove’    		akàr
    + ‘a group of matching people’
    alár
    + ‘a set of identical words’    		xrîr
    + ‘a set of similar circumstances/occurrences’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.4
    AGG
    		The Aggregative
    +
    +

    The AGGREGATE configuration functions + like the DISCRETE above in referring to an associated + group or set of entities, except that the members of the configurational set + are not identical to one another. Examples of English words/entities which would + be translated using the AGGREGATIVE are a forest (of different kinds of trees), a toolset, a citizens group, a mixed pile + of leaves, an assortment of animals, an area of different-sized holes, a series + of musical notes. With verbs, the AGGREGATIVE implies + a spatially or temporally repeated set of non-identical acts, events, or states + considered as a whole contextual unit. It would be used, for example, in translating + the sentence This morning I dug holes in my garden (i.e., of different + sizes). Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạh
    +‘a forest; a wood’    		akàh
    + ‘a group of different people’
    aláh
    + ‘a set of (differing) words; a phrase’    		xrîh
    + ‘a set of differing cirucumstances/occurrences’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +

     

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.5SEG The Segmentative
    +
    +

    The SEGMENTATIVE configuration indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units, the individual members of which are + physically similar or identical and are either in physical contact with one + another, physically connected via some linking medium, or in sufficiently close + contact with one another so that the group moves or operates together. Examples + would be a web, a train of flatcars, a convoy of schoolbuses, a string of + pearls, a fall of leaves, a line of dancers, a parade of Barbie dolls (e.g., + coming off an assembly line). To illustrate the difference between this configuration + and the DISCRETE above, we saw that the word grape in the DISCRETE would be translated as a serving of + grapes, while in the SEGMENTATIVE it would mean a + bunch of grapes (i.e., still connected to each other on a portion of vine).

    +

    With verbs, the use of the SEGMENTATIVE versus the DISCRETE implies that the repetitive/iterative + nature of the act, state, or event occurs naturally due to the contextual nature + of the precipitating event or agent. It would thus be used to distinguish the + fuselage of bullets from a machine-gun from the simple hail of bullets from + single-fire weapons. Likewise, it would distinguish The light is blinking from The light is flashing, where blink implies the way + in which the source naturally emits light, while flash implies that +the light is being made to emit repetitive bursts of light. Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạŧ
    + ‘a stand (or line) of trees’    		akàŧ
    + ‘a line/wall of matching people’ (e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with arms linked)
    aláŧ
    + ‘a string of words’    		xrîŧ
    + ‘a chain of similar events’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.6CPN The Componential
    +
    +

    The COMPONENTIAL configuration operates + identically to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the + individual members of the configurational set are not physically similar or + identical to each other. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated + using the COMPONENTIAL are a freight train, a cascade + of (mixed) fruit (i.e., a continuous stream of fruit falling), a line of ticketholders, + a parade of floats, a pattern of musical notes. With verbs, the COMPONENTIAL signifies a connected series of repetitions where the individual acts, events, + or states comprising the repetitive set are non-identical. It would distinguish The light twinkled from The light was blinking. Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạf
    + ‘a line/stand of different trees’    		akàf
    + ‘a line/wall of different people’ (e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with arms linked)
    aláf
    +‘a string of differing words’    		xrîf
    + ‘a chain of differing events’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.
    +

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.7COH The Coherent
    +
    +

    The COHERENT configuration functions + similarly to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the individual + members of the configuration are connected, fused or mixed with one another + to form a coherent emergent entity, i.e., the total configuration of objects + constitutes an entirely new gestalt-like entity. Examples of English words which + would be translated using the COHERENT are a bookcase, + a phalanx, a xylophone.

    +

    In the realm of verbs, finding English translations illustrating + the COHERENT is difficult. If one can imagine the verb to glow to mean a series of flashes blurred one into another to create + a continuous emanation, then glow versus flash might suffice. + Perhaps a better illustration would be the difference between to buzz from to make a set of repeating noises. Listen to the following examples audio:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạř
    + ‘an entangled grove of trees’
    + (i.e., their roots/branches intertwined and grown together)     		akàř
    + ‘a mass/unit of similar people’
    alář
    + ‘a speech made up of similar words’    		xrîř
    + ‘a web of similar circumstances or events’
    +
    + +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +

     

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.8CST The Composite
    +
    +

    The COMPOSITE configuration operates + the same as the COHERENT above except that the individual + members of the configurational set are not identical or physically similar to + one another. Examples of words/concepts that would be translated using the COMPOSITE are a building (= a constructional set of walls, floors, doors, windows, + etc.), a communications array, a conspiracy, a jungle thicket. Thus + the Ilaksh words for recipe, skeleton, and melody would simply + be the words for ingredient, bone, and musical note inflected for the COMPOSITE configuration. For verbs, + the COMPOSITE versus COHERENT distinction + would distinguish to rumble from to buzz, or to glitter from to glow. Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạks
    + ‘a jungle’    		akàks
    + ‘a mass/unit of different people’
    aláks
    + ‘a speech’    		xrîks
    + ‘a complex situation’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.9MLT The Multiform
    +
    +

    The MULTIFORM configuration is + the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent. + The MULTIFORM serves to identify the noun as an individual + member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates + in non-traditional logic, describing a set whose individual members do not all + share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there + may be one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining + attributes of the set exclusively and exactly, other members of the set may + vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical + resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. Indeed, some members of the set may + display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype + of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient + overlap” between members of differing sets.

    +

    It is difficult to accurately translate into English without + resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ilaksh easily expresses + using the MULTIFORM. For example, the Ilaksh word for + ‘tree’ inflected for the MULTIFORM configuration + would mean something like a group of what appear to be trees, or better + yet, a group of tree-like objects (i.e., some being trees, and others + seeming less like trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity + of membership varies by different degrees in comparison to an archetypical member + of the set can be expressed using the MULTIFORM. For examples, + the Ilaksh word for library would simply be a word meaning something + like work (i.e. thing authored/composed) inflected for the MULTIFORM, + signifying a hodge-podge assortment of writings and compositions (e.g., including + books, pamphlets, notebooks, ledgers, formulas, letters, journals, recordings, + magazines, etc.). Other example concepts translatable using the MULTIFORM would be a rag-tag group of people, an incoherent pattern, lives in flux.

    +

    With verbs, the MULTIFORM implies that + the individual repetitions comprising an act, state, or event have varying degrees + of spatio-temporal similarity to each other. A few English verbs such as fluctuate, + sputter or flicker capture this sense. Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    pạps
    + ‘a thicket/jungle thicket’    		akàps
    + ‘rag-tag group of people’
    aláps
    + ‘incoherent speech/speak incoherently’    		xrîps
    + ‘chaos’
    +
    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below.
    +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    3.2 AFFILIATION
    +
    +

    While the category of Configuration from the preceding section + distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set in terms + of physical characteristics, physical attributes or physical connections, the + category of Affiliation operates similarly to distinguish the member relationships + in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically + in conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship + between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the meanings of nouns or verbs + in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into + English.

    +

    Returning to our earlier example of the word tree, + we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes a grove in + the DISCRETE configuration. The word grove implies + that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in + regard to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may + be planted by design, in which case they become an orchard. We saw + how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed a + forest. However, such assortments can become wholly chaotic, displaying + patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming a jungle.

    +

    As another example, we saw how the word person becomes group, or gathering, both of which are neutral as to subjective + purpose or function. However, applying a sense of purposeful design generates + words such as team, while the absence of purpose results in crowd.

    +

    There are four affiliations: CONSOLIDATIVE, ASSOCIATIVE, VARIATIVE, and COALESCENT. + Affiliation is indicated as part of the Ca affix as explained in Sec. 3.1 above and in Section 2.1.1.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table +7 in Section 3.4.7 below. following the explanation of Extension. The details of the four affiliations are explained below.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.2.1 CSLThe Consolidative
    +

    The CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring + set where the function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable, + irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the ASSOCIATIVE affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively + defined by human design. Examples are tree branches, a grove, a mound of + rocks, some people, the clouds.

    +

    The CONSOLIDATIVE is also the affiliation + normally applied to nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration + when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the UNIPLEX specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept + of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, + a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf. With verbs, the CONSOLIDATIVE would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral + as to purpose or design.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.2.2
    ASO
    		The Associative
    +

    The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective + function, state, purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the + Ilaksh word for soldier in the DISCRETE configuration + and comparing its English translations when inflected for the CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation (= a group of soldiers) versus the ASSOCIATIVE (= a troop, a platoon). It is this CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction, then, that would distinguish + otherwise equivalent DISCRETE inflections of the Ilaksh + word for tree by translating them respectively as a grove versus an + orchard.

    +

    The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation can also + be used with nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration to signify + a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. + For example, the word person inflected for the UNIPLEX and ASSOCIATIVE would translate as a single-minded + person. Even nouns such as rock, tree or work of + art could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as a well-formed + rock, a tree with integrity, a “balanced” work of art.

    +

    With verbs, the ASSOCIATIVE signifies + that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction could be used, for example, + with the verb turn in I turned toward the window to indicate + whether it was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.2.3
    VAR
    		The Variative
    +

    The VARIATIVE affiliation indicates that + the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function, + state, purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees + (i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, purpose, etc.) or at + complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the VARIATIVE would not be used to signify opposed but complementary differences among set + members (see the COALESCENT affiliation below). It would + thus be used to signify a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering, + a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of + books, a collection in disarray. It operates with nouns in the UNIPLEX to render meanings such as a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock, + a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation.

    +

    With verbs, the VARIATIVE indicates an + act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that + those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably + be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in She bought the house + for various reasons or My being at the party served several purposes. + With non-UNIPLEX configurations, the use of the VARIATIVE affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using + the SEGMENTATIVE configuration such as The light is + blinking in conjunction with the VARIATIVE would + mean that each blink of the light signals something different than the preceding + or following blinks.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.2.4
    COA
    		The Coalescent
    +

    The COALESCENT affiliation indicates + that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship + with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. + This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of + other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For + example, the Ilaksh word translating English toolset would be the + word for tool in the AGGREGATIVE configuration + (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the COALESCENT affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function + in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example + would be the Ilaksh word for finger inflected for the SEGMENTATIVE configuration and the COALESCENT affiliation, translatable + as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the SEGMENTATIVE to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further + example would be using the COALESCENT with the word for (piece of) food to signify a well-balanced meal.

    +

    The COALESCENT naturally appears most + often in conjunction with the DUPLEX configuration since + binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical + binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image + distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. + Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g., one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the COALESCENT affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., one’s left and + right eye functioning together).

    +

    With verbs, the COALESCENT signifies + that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which + make up a greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structure + onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work together in + complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for + example, to distinguish the sentences He traveled in the Yukon from He ventured in the Yukon, or I came up with a plan versus I fashioned a plan.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table +11 in Section 3.4.7 below.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    3.3. PERSPECTIVE
    +

    + Perspective is the closest Ilaksh morphological category to the Number and + Tense categories of other languages (e.g., singular/plural and past/present/future). + However, the correspondence is only approximate because Perspective does not + specifically address the quantity to which a formative is instantiated within + a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the + manner in which it is spatio-temporally instantiated. Specifically, + Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded” + contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation), + 2) an unbounded entity (i.e., manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible), + 3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as + a spatio-temporally neutral abstraction. How this works requires separate explanations + for nouns and verbs.
    +

    Perspective with Nouns. What Perspective means + for nouns is that, in addition to merely indicating whether a given spatial + context contains one or more than one, it also specifies single versus multiple + manifestations in time, as well as along an axis of concreteness versus abstraction. + Complicating the picture is the fact that the categories of Configuration and + Affiliation (see Sections 3.1 and 3.2 above) already + contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe + multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular” + and “plural” have been avoided.

    +

    Perspective with Verbs. For verbs, the aspect + of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative + context but rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” + i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole + within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” + categories of Western languages. In Ilaksh, the notion of linearly progressive + time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified, + if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see Section + 5.6).

    +

    There are four perspectives in Ilaksh: MONADIC, UNBOUNDED, NOMIC, and ABSTRACT. + These are indicated as part of the Ca affix as explained in Sec. 3.1 above.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table + 7 in Section 3.4.7 below, following the explanation of Extension. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is explained + below and illustrated using the three example formatives ùklo, àřořa, and vyúb.
    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.3.1
    M
    		The Monadic
    +

    The MONADIC signifies a bounded embodiment + of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant + a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted + in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless being contextually + viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived + to exist within a literal or figurative psychologically uninterrupted boundary. + This is important, since configurations other than the UNIPLEX technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking + place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container, + corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or + psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, specifically + the “present” (which in Ilaksh might be better thought of as the + “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). + This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for + nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ilaksh considers nouns as spatially + reified concepts while considering verbs to be their temporally “activized” counterparts (see Section 2.6.1).

    +

    Thus, using the word tree for example, while there + might be many trees present in terms of number, the MONADIC implies they form only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category + is manifested. Using the AGGREGATIVE configuration as + an example, the MONADIC would mean there is only one AGGREGATIVE set of trees, i.e., one forest.

    +

    At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective + that Ilaksh makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” + (or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between + those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., one apple, four boys, several + nations), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., water, + sand, plastic, air, laughter). All nouns are countable in Ilaksh in that + all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations + of certain Ilaksh nouns must often be “contextual” rather than + literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable + context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a + puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”

    +

    With verbs, the MONADIC superficially + corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories + except in a habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed + by the MONADIC means that the act, state, or event is + temporally contiguous and accessible from the point of view of the present context. + It would be used to describes an act, state, or event which:

    +
      +
    • +
      takes + place entirely in the present context
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in the accessible past and has continued on into the present context
      +
      • +
    • +
      starts + within the present context and continues on into an accessible future
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past, but only the portion taking place in the present + context is being addressed or is under consideration or relevant within + the context of the utterance
      +
      • +
    • +
      starts + within the present context and may continue into an inaccessible future, + but only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, but + only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance
      +
      • +
    +

    By “accessible past” or “accessible future” + is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present + at the time and the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically + contiguous, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now as + one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected + predictions, or historical reports. Conversely, “inaccessible” would + mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which + he/she knows only from memory, reports, or predictions.

    +

    Listen to the following examples audio :

    +
    + + + + + + +
    ùklol
    +     ‘a river;
    + a river flows’
    +     		àřořa
    +     ‘constellation;
    + a constellation shines (in the night sky) ’    		vyúb
    +     ‘a set of benefits;
    + to be a set of benefits’
    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.3.2
    U
    		The Unbounded
    +

    The UNBOUNDED signifies “unbounded + embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun + or verb manifests itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary, + i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, + the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member + nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a non-monadic + (i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient + translation into English would be to use the plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps + of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would + be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and + another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’

    +

    For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the + psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible + from the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which:

    +
      +
    • +
      occurs + entirely in the inaccessible past
      +
      • +
    • +
      will + occur entirely in the inaccessible future
      +
      • +
    • +
      may + be occurring in the present context but started in an inaccessible past, + and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account that past portion
      +
      • +
    • +
      may + be occurring in the present context but will continue into an inaccessible + future, and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood + without taking into account the future portion
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, and + the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account these inaccessible portions
      +
      • +
    +

    If necessary to specify whether the UNBOUNDED is referencing the past versus the future, additional aspectual markers can + be employed (see Sec. 5.6 on Aspect). Note that, even more so than with the MONADIC, + translation of the UNBOUNDED into Western languages is + subjective, as the translation must necessarily convey linear tense information + which is not conveyed by the Ilaksh original.

    +

    Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ùklot
    +     ‘what once was a river / a future river / a river-to-be;
    + the river once flowed (but no longer) / the river will flow (someday)’
    +
    àřonda
    +     ‘a past constellation / a future constellation;
    +the constellation shone (but no longer) / the constellation will shine (someday)’
    +
    vyúlk
    +     ‘a former set of benefits;
    +to have been a set of benefits (but no longer)’
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.3.3
    N
    		The Nomic
    +

    The NOMIC refers to a generic collective + entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative + set throughout space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context). + Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in particular, + this category is mutually exclusive from the MONADIC or UNBOUNDED. For nouns, the NOMIC corresponds approximately to the several constructions used for referring to + collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences The dog is a noble beast, Clowns are what children love most, There + is nothing like a tree.

    +

    With verbs, the NOMIC designates an action, + event, or situation which describes a general law of nature or a persistently + true condition or situation spoken of in general, without reference to a specific + instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible instances + or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of + expressing such generic statements, generally using the simple present tense. + Examples of usage would be The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele + is sickly, In winter it snows a lot, That girl sings well.

    +

    Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ùklos
    +     ‘(flowing) river(s) (as a generic concept)’
    +
    +
    àřoňsa
    +     ‘(shining) constelation(s) (as a generic concept)’
    +
    vyúlš
    +     ‘(being) a set of benefits as a generic concept’
    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.3.4
    A
    		The Abstract
    +

    Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes + such as -hood or -ness, the ABSTRACT transforms a configurative + category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless + context. While only certain nouns in English can be made into abstracts via + suffixes, all Ilaksh nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into + abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., grove → the idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book → everything + about books, having to do with books, involvement with books.

    +

    With verbs, the ABSTRACT is used in verbal + constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship + of the action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable, + similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund form (used as substitutes + for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences: Singing is not his strong suit; It makes no sense to + worry about it; I can't stand her pouting. As + a result, the ABSTRACT acts as a "timeless" + verb form which, much like these English infinitives and gerunds, operates in + conjunction with a separate main verb in one of the other three perspectives. + The ABSTRACT is often used in conjunction with certain + modalities and moods of the verb (see Sec. + 6.1 on Modality and Section + 5.1 on Mood) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which + the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or unknowable.

    +

    Examples:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ùkloc
    +     ‘the river as an idea / everything about being a river / “river-hood” ’
    +
    +
    àřosxa
    +     ‘the idea of a constellation / “constellation-hood” ’
    +
    vyúlč
    +     ‘the idea of having/providing benefits’
    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    3.4 EXTENSION
    +

    Extension is another Ilaksh morphological category for which + there is no exact equivalent in other languages. It applies to all formatives + and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms +of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. There are six extensions: DELIMITIVE, PROXIMAL, INCEPTIVE, TERMINATIVE, DEPLETIVE, and GRADUATIVE.

    +

    Extension is shown as part of the Ca affix which also indicates Configuration, Affiliation and Perspective. The values of this affix are shown below in Sec. 3.4.7.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The details of how each of the six extensions operates are explained as follows:

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.1
    DEL
    		The Delimitive
    +

    The DELIMITIVE extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with + clear spatio-temporal boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion, + edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It can be + considered the neutral or default view, e.g., a tree, a grove, a set of + books, an army. To illustrate a contextual example, the English sentence He climbed the ladder would be translated with the word ladder in the DELIMITIVE to show it is being considered as a + whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is + being considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, e.g., She diets + every winter (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet).

    + + + + + +
    +

    The DELIMITIVE can be thought + of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite beginning and ending points, + beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. The graphic to + the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in + the DELIMITIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the + spatio-temporal “present”).

    +

    Examples:

    +

    ùklol ‘a river’

    +

    xrîks ‘a situation’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.2
    PRX
    		The Proximal
    +

    The PROXIMAL extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the + portion, duration, subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand. + It would be used to translate the words tree, journey, and ladder in the sentences That tree is hard there (e.g., in + the spot where I hit against it), She lost weight during her journey, + or He climbed on the ladder (i.e., it is not relevant to the context + to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences, + the PROXIMAL does not refer to a specific or delineated + piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder, but rather to the fact that + delineated boundaries such as the ends of the ladder or the entirety of the + tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this + extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which + is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the + act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a diet + every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not + the total time spent dieting from start to finish).

    +

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates + the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the PROXIMAL to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). +

    Examples:

    +

    ùklosk ‘a section/stretch of (the) river’

    +

    xrîřsk ‘the midst of a situation’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.3
    ICP
    		The Inceptive
    +

    The INCEPTIVE extension focuses on the + closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion + of a noun or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. It would + be used in translating the nouns tunnel, song, desert, daybreak and plan in the following sentences: We looked + into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song (i.e., from the + first few notes), They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait + for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). + In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ + or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s + starting to molt, or She goes on a diet every winter.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the INCEPTIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). + Examples: +

    uklòkka ‘the beginning of a river’

    +

    xrîkva ‘the beginning/start of a situation’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.4
    TRM
    		The Terminative
    +

    The TERMINATIVE extension focuses on + the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without + focusing on the preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would + be used in translating the words water, story, and arrival in the sentences There’s no water (i.e., we ran out), I like + the end of that story, and We await your arrival. With verbs, + it is illustrated by the sentences It finished molting or She’s + come off her diet.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the TERMINATIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). +

    Examples:

    +

    uklòpla ‘the end of a river’

    +

    xrîltla ‘the end of a situation’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.5
    DPL
    		The Depletive
    +

    The DEPLETIVE extension focuses on the + terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus + is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the + at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). + Essentially, it applies to any context involving actual or figurative fading. + It would be used in translating the words water, strength, + and twilight in the sentences He drank the last of the water, I + have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight. With verbs, + it is exemplified by the phrases to wind down, to fade out, to disappear + gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’s eating less and less + these days.

    + + + + + +
    +

    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the DEPLETIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

    +

    Listen to the following examples audio :

    +

    uklòmla‘the mouth of a river’

    +

    xrîlnla ‘the last vestiges of a situation’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.6
    GRD
    		The Graduative
    +

    The GRADUATIVE extension is the inverse + of the DEPLETIVE, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” + or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words darkness, wonder, and music in the following sentences: Darkness + came upon us, I felt a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first. + With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as to fade in, to + start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., She’s + been eating more and more lately.

    + + + + + +
    +

    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun in the GRADUATIVE to the + context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

    +

    Examples:

    +

    uklòstra ‘the headwaters of a river’

    +

    xrîrstla ‘a gradually developing situation’

    +
    +

    +

    3.4.7 Affix Tables for Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective and Extension

    +

    Tables 7(a) through 7(f) below indicate all the affix values of Ca, the synthetic affix which indicates which of the nine Configurations, four Affiliations, four Perspectives, and six Extensions are applied to a particular stem.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The Ca affix is attached directly following the stem vowel(s) Vr.

    +


    + Tables 7(a)-(f):
    + Ca Configuration/Affiliation/Perspective/Extension +Affixes for Formatives

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    DEL
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    l
    ll
    r
    h
    ŧ
    f
    ř
    ks
    ps
    ASO
    m
    mm
    b
    hh
    v
    vv
    rr
    bz
    gz
    VAR
    n
    nn
    d
    r n
    ln
    rm
    řř
    bž
    gž
    COA
    ň
    ňň
    g
    r ň
    lň
    řl
    rl
    kš
    pš
    U
    CSL
    t
    nt
    lt
    rt
    ld
    rd
    nd
    hk
    řt
    ASO
    k
    ňk
    lk
    rk
    lg
    rg
    ňg
    ht
    řk
    VAR
    p
    mp
    lp
    rp
    lb
    rb
    mb
    hp
    řp
    COA
    ç
    çç
    lç
    rç
    nç
    pç
    mç
    ňç
    řç
    N
    CSL
    s
    ss
    ls
    rs
    ns
    fs
    ňs
    hs
    řs
    ASO
    š
    šš
    lš
    rš
    nš
    fš
    ňš
    hš
    řš
    VAR
    z
    zz
    lz
    rz
    mz
    ňz
    zb
    zd
    zg
    COA
    ž
    žž
    lž
    rž
    mž
    ňž
    žb
    žd
    žg
    A
    CSL
    c
    cc
    lc
    rc
    ms
    hc
    sx
    řz
    řc
    ASO
    č
    čč
    lč
    rč
    mš
    hč
    šx
    řž
    řč
    VAR
    x
    xx
    lx
    rx
    xs
    xš
    kç
    řň
    řx
    COA
    đ
    đđ
    lŧ
    rŧ
    ŧŧ
    lf
    rf
    ff
    rđ
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    PRX
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    sk
    ssk
    lsk
    rsk
    msk
    nsk
    ňsk
    řsk
    řkt
    ASO
    st
    sst
    lst
    rst
    mst
    nst
    ňst
    řst
    řft
    VAR
    sp
    ssp
    lsp
    rsp
    msp
    nsp
    ňsp
    řsp
    řpt
    COA
    ż
    żż
    lż
    rż
    nz
    żb
    żd
    żg
    řż
    U
    CSL
    šk
    ššk
    lšk
    ršk
    mšk
    nšk
    ňšk
    řšk
    řg
    ASO
    št
    ššt
    lšt
    ršt
    mšt
    nšt
    ňšt
    řšt
    řd
    VAR
    šp
    ššp
    lšp
    ršp
    mšp
    nšp
    ňšp
    řšp
    řb
    COA
    j
    jj
    lj
    rj
    nž
    jg
    jb
    jd
    řj
    N
    CSL
    kf
    lh
    lkf
    rkf
    ňt
    ňŧ
    fň
    vž
    řf
    ASO
    tf
    rh
    ltf
    rtf
    mt
    mŧ
    ţň
    đň
    řŧ
    VAR
    pf
    lm
    lpf
    rpf
    ňp
    ňf
    vň
    vz
    řv
    COA
    xp
    hw
    lv
    řy
    nm
    mx
    fx
    vx
    řm
    A
    CSL
    pt
    sf
    lpt
    rpt
    pŧ
    mf
    ŧp
    ŧs
    nđ
    ASO
    ft
    šf
    lft
    rft
    fŧ
    nŧ
    ŧt
    đz
    řđ
    VAR
    kt
    sŧ
    lkt
    rkt
    kŧ
    ňx
    ŧk
    xf
    ňd
    COA
    xt
    šŧ
    px
    tx
    xŧ
    mn
    ŧx
    đx
    řn
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    ICP
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    kk
    ky
    lky
    rky
    ňky
    kky
    fk
    kv
    kp
    ASO
    tt
    ty
    lty
    rty
    nty
    tty
    vt
    tv
    tk
    VAR
    pp
    py
    lpy
    rpy
    mpy
    ppy
    fp
    pv
    pk
    COA
    pc
    lpç
    kc
    fc
    vc
    lkç
    sj
    fj
    xj
    U
    CSL
    çk
    kw
    lkw
    rkw
    ňkw
    kkw
    ck
    čk
    kpw
    ASO
    çt
    tw
    ltw
    rtw
    ntw
    ttw
    ct
    čt
    tkw
    VAR
    çp
    pw
    lpw
    rpw
    mpw
    ppw
    cp
    čp
    pkw
    COA
    pč
    rpç
    kč
    fč
    vč
    rkç
    šj
    pj
    kj
    N
    CSL
    gg
    gw
    lgw
    rgw
    ňgy
    ggy
    gv
    gd
    gb
    ASO
    dd
    dw
    ldw
    rdw
    ndy
    ddy
    dv
    db
    dg
    VAR
    bb
    bw
    lbw
    rbw
    mby
    bby
    bv
    bd
    bg
    COA
    my
    mh
    çm
    cm
    čm
    lmy
    rmy
    cň
    jm
    A
    CSL
    gy
    hg
    lgy
    rgy
    ňgw
    ggw
    tg
    pg
    vg
    ASO
    dy
    hd
    ldy
    rdy
    ndw
    ddw
    sc
    kd
    vd
    VAR
    by
    hb
    lby
    rby
    mbw
    bbw
    tp
    kb
    vb
    COA
    ny
    nh
    çn
    cn
    čn
    lny
    rny
    čň
    jn
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    TRM
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    pl
    tl
    kl
    rpl
    rtl
    rkl
    lpl
    ltl
    lkl
    ASO
    pr
    tr
    kr
    rpr
    rtr
    rkr
    lpr
    ltr
    lkr
    VAR
    př
    tř
    kř
    rpř
    rtř
    rkř
    lpř
    ltř
    lkř
    COA
    sl
    zl
    sř
    rsl
    rzl
    rsř
    lsl
    lzl
    lsř
    U
    CSL
    bl
    dl
    gl
    rbl
    rdl
    rgl
    lbl
    ldl
    lgl
    ASO
    br
    dr
    gr
    rbr
    rdr
    rgr
    lbr
    ldr
    lgr
    VAR
    bř
    dř
    gř
    rbř
    rdř
    rgř
    lbř
    ldř
    lgř
    COA
    šl
    žl
    šř
    ršl
    ržl
    ršř
    lšl
    lžl
    lšř
    N
    CSL
    fl
    fr
    fř
    rfl
    rfr
    rfř
    lfl
    lfr
    lfř
    ASO
    ţl
    ţr
    ţř
    rţl
    rţr
    rţř
    lţl
    lţr
    lţř
    VAR
    xl
    xr
    çl
    rxl
    rxr
    çr
    lxl
    lxr
    çř
    COA
    sr
    zr
    zř
    rsr
    rzr
    rzř
    lsr
    lzr
    lzř
    A
    CSL
    vl
    vr
    vř
    rvl
    rvr
    rvř
    lvl
    lvr
    lvř
    ASO
    đl
    đr
    đř
    rđl
    rđr
    rđř
    lđl
    lđr
    lđř
    VAR
    hl
    hr
    çf
    rhl
    rhr
    çv
    lhl
    lhr
    rř
    COA
    šr
    žr
    žř
    ršr
    ržr
    ržř
    lšr
    lžr
    lžř
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    DPL
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    ml
    nl
    ňl
    rml
    rnl
    rňl
    lml
    lnl
    lňl
    ASO
    mr
    nr
    ňr
    rmr
    rnr
    rňr
    lmr
    lnr
    lňr
    VAR
    mř
    nř
    ňř
    żm
    żn
    żň
    bj
    gj
    vj
    COA
    mw
    nw
    ňw
    rmw
    rnw
    rňw
    lmw
    lnw
    lňw
    U
    CSL
    sv
    lsv
    rsv
    ksw
    psw
    lks
    rks
    lps
    rps
    ASO
    zv
    lzv
    rzv
    gzw
    bzw
    lgz
    rgz
    lbz
    rbz
    VAR
    šv
    lšv
    ršv
    kšw
    pšw
    lkš
    rkš
    lpš
    rpš
    COA
    žv
    lžv
    ržv
    gžw
    bžw
    lgž
    rgž
    lbž
    rbž
    N
    CSL
    sw
    sy
    ssw
    cw
    cy
    lsw
    rsw
    lsy
    rsy
    ASO
    zw
    zy
    ššw
    żw
    ży
    lzw
    rzw
    lzy
    rzy
    VAR
    šw
    šy
    zzw
    čw
    čy
    lšw
    ršw
    lšy
    ršy
    COA
    žw
    žy
    žžw
    jw
    jy
    lžw
    ržw
    lžy
    ržy
    A
    CSL
    sm
    sn
    sň
    lsm
    lsn
    lsň
    rsm
    rsn
    rsň
    ASO
    zm
    zn
    zň
    lzm
    lzn
    lzň
    rzm
    rzn
    rzň
    VAR
    šm
    šn
    šň
    lšm
    lšn
    lšň
    ršm
    ršn
    ršň
    COA
    žm
    žn
    žň
    lžm
    lžn
    lžň
    ržm
    ržn
    ržň
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    EXTENSION
    PERSPECTIVE
    AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
    GRA
    M
    +
    +
    CSL
    str
    stl
    stw
    lstr
    lstl
    lstw
    rstr
    rstl
    rstw
    ASO
    skr
    skl
    skw
    lskr
    lskl
    lskw
    rskr
    rskl
    rskw
    VAR
    str
    stl
    spw
    lstr
    lstl
    lspw
    rstr
    rstl
    rspw
    COA
    cr
    cl
    żr
    żl
    cř
    żř
    çc
    xc
    sč
    U
    CSL
    štr
    štl
    štw
    lštr
    lštl
    lštw
    rštr
    rštl
    rštw
    ASO
    škr
    škl
    škw
    lškr
    lškl
    lškw
    rškr
    rškl
    rškw
    VAR
    štr
    štl
    špw
    lštr
    lštl
    lšpw
    rštr
    rštl
    ršpw
    COA
    čr
    čl
    jr
    jl
    čř
    jř
    çč
    xč
    šč
    N
    CSL
    fw
    fy
    lfw
    rfw
    lfy
    rfy
    bf
    fm
    fn
    ASO
    ţw
    ţy
    lţw
    rţw
    lţy
    rţy
    df
    ţm
    ţn
    VAR
    vw
    vy
    lvw
    rvw
    lvy
    rvy
    gf
    vm
    vn
    COA
    đw
    đy
    lđw
    rđw
    lđy
    rđy
    lđ
    đm
    đn
    A
    CSL
    hm
    hhw
    rhw
    tm
    tn
    dm
    dn
    mc
    ňc
    ASO
    hn
    çw
    lhw
    km
    kn
    gm
    gn
    mč
    ňč
    VAR
    xm
    xw
    xv
    pm
    pn
    bm
    bn
    mj
    ňj
    COA
    xn
    řw
    rv
    mv
    ňhw
    ňm
    ňn
    hj
    ňh
    +
    +

    +

    3.4.8 Additional Example of Configuration, Affiliation, and Extension

    + + + + + + + +

    kšŭl
    +‘clown’

    		axāl / xalā
    +‘running + stride’     →

    Ukšüŭb xafpā.
    +     FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/ASO/DCT     IFL-OPR-‘running stride’-ICP/M/VAR/COH
    + The group of clowns begin stumbling as they run.

    		(Listen audio )
    +

    __________________________
    +

    + + + + +
    3.5 CONTEXT
    +

    Context is yet another morphological category with no equivalent + in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or aspects + of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There + is no way to show this in translation other than by paraphrase. There are four + contexts: the EXISTENTIAL, the FUNCTIONAL, + the REPRESENTATIONAL, and the AMALGAMATE, + marked by a vocalic suffix VF which also conveys verbal Mood (the category of Mood will be analyzed in Section 5.1). Table 8 below shows the values for this suffix.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +
    +
    +

    Table 8: Word-final VF-suffix: 4 contexts x 8 moods

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Mood (explained in Sec. 5.1)
    Context↓
    FAC
    SUB
    ASM
    SPE
    HYP
    COU
    IPL
    ASC
    EXISTENTIAL
    a
    o
    ü
    ei
    iu
    au
    io
    uo
    FUNCTIONAL
    ai
    i
    oi
    ë
    ia
    ua
    ie
    ue
    REPRESENTATIONAL
    u
    e
    ëi
    ëu
    ea
    oa
    eo
    üo
    AMALGAMATE
    ui
    ö
    ou
    eu
    ï
    iö
    öi
    öu
    +

    The four Contexts are explained below and illustrated +via example Ilaksh translations of the English sentence The orchestra is playing.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.5.1 EXS The Existential
    +

    + The EXISTENTIAL context is marked by falling tone on the + formative. It focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically + objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, + beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the EXISTENTIAL is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The EXISTENTIAL serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective + entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun + or verb.
    +

    For example, consider the sentence A cat ran past the doorway. + If the Ilaksh words corresponding to cat, run, and doorway are in the EXISTENTIAL, then the sentence merely describes + an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature + of the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that + two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial relationship to each other; + those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely + conveys the nature of the spatial relationship. Listen to the following example audio :

    +
    +

    Asekšiëéma. 
    + IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-EXS-FAC
    + ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [neutral description of event]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.5.2FNC The Functional
    +

    + The FUNCTIONAL context is marked by high tone on the formative. + It focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas, + attitudes, beliefs, opinions, convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit, + etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that + the noun has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose.
    +

    For example, in our previous sentence A cat ran past the + doorway, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into + the FUNCTIONAL, the ‘cat’ no longer simply + identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) + significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could + get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with + mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ + now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. + Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the FUNCTIONAL now implies the furtive nature of the cat. Example:

    +
    +

    Asekšiëémai. 
    + IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-FNC-FAC
    + ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [focus on the personal meaning/importance of the event]]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.5.3RPS The Representational
    +

    + The REPRESENTATIONAL context is marked by rising tone. + It focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym*, in that it indicates + that the formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other + concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical + connotations of the English sentence That pinstripe-suited dog is checking + out a kitty, can be equally conveyed in Ilaksh by inflecting the words + for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the REPRESENTATIONAL context. The REPRESENTATIONAL is one of several ways that + Ilaksh overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from + a grammatical standpoint).
    +

    * Metonymy + is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or + phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The + orders came from the White House,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell + the cook the ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person + as in ‘You-know-who just showed up.’

    +

    Example:

    +
    +

    Asekšiëému. 
    + IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-RPS-FAC
    + ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [connotes that sentence is a metaphor, e.g., ‘life as a symphony’]

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.5.4AMG The Amalgamate
    +

    The AMALGAMATE context is marked by + broken tone. It is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western + linguistic perspective. It focuses on the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like, + componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective + totality is derived synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the + interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static momentary + appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun + and any interactions and relationships it has (whether past, present or potential) + within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting + the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, + psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with + the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, + intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels. + Thus the AMALGAMATE version of our sentence The cat + ran past the doorway would take on quite melodramatic implications, with + the cat being representative of everything about cats and all they stand for, + the doorway as being representative of the nature of doorways as portals of + change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while + the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of + movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc.

    +
    +

    Asekšiëémui. 
    + IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-AMG-FAC
    + ‘The orchestra is playing.’  [connotes a focus on the emotional impact plus cultural significance of the event]

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    3.6 DESIGNATION
    +

    Designation is a somewhat subjective category, + with no equivalent in Western languages. It refers to a two-fold distinction in a formative regarding its contextual + status, authority, permanence, or extra-contextual relevance. The two Designations + are the INFORMAL and the FORMAL, +shown by the vocalic affix Vc in the formative paradigm. This vocalic affix also conveys the category of Essence (explained in Section 3.7 below) as well as the verbal category of Format, explained in Section 6.5. Table 9 below shows these affixes:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

     

    +

    Table 9: Vc Affixes:  Designation/Essence/Format Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    +
    Designation

    +
    Essence

    +
     
    FORMAT
    SCH
    ISR
    ATH
    PRT
    RSL
    SBQ
    CCM
    OBJ
     
    +
    INFORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    (a)
    ai
    au
    ia
    ua
    a-i
    a-u
    ao
    2ndary form
    e
    ei
    eu
    ie
    ue
    e-i
    e-u
    eo
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    i
    ï
    iu
    ea
    u-i
    eë
    ae
    aö
    2ndary form
    o
    oi
    ou
    io
    uo
    o-i
    o-u
    o-ü
     
    +
    FORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    u
    ui
    ü
    i-u
    oa
    oë
    oe
    öa
    2ndary form
    ä
    äi
    äu
    iä
    uä
    eö
    üo
    ä-i
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    ö
    öi
    öu
    iö
    uö
    ö-i
    ö-u
    ä-u
    2ndary form
    ë
    ëi
    ëu
    ië
    uë
    ë-i
    ë-u
    äo
    +

    (NOTE: There are alternate versions of the Vc Affixes given above that are used in specific circumstances which will be discussed in Section 6.5.2 on Format.)

    +

    The two Designations are explained below.
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    3.6.1
    FML
    		 The Informal
    +

    The INFORMAL designation indicates that the noun or verb in question does not exist in + a necessarily permanent state, or is to be considered only for the duration + of the context in which it is spoken, with any lasting effect, influence or + permanency beyond the context being either absent, unknown or irrelevant.
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    3.6.2
    IFL
    		 The Formal
    +

    The FORMAL designation imparts a sense of permanency + and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or institutional + manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if + the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’ + ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the INFORMAL would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and + ‘archetype’ in the FORMAL.

    +

    The FORMAL achieves several subtle purposes + from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ilaksh words would translate + the same in English no matter which designation (e.g., to hurt, to float, + breath, to fall, shade, sleep, cough), many stems would have different + translations in English depending on their designation. For example, the stem ktà- with the + affiliated meanings person → group → gathering → crowd → throng, etc. in the INFORMAL designation would change + to the following series of approximate translations when placed in the FORMAL designation: official → team → association/congregation → assembly → masses, etc.

    +

    Further examples of lexical shifts in translation due to INFORMAL → FORMAL designation are listed below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     to grow something → to cultivatewander → travel
     obtain/get → procure/requisitionlake → reservoir
     (natural) holder → containersee → observe
     to create → construct/buildheap → pile
     animal → domesticated animala thought → an idea
     natural environment →“man-made” + environmentawareness → consciousness
     [natural] exchange → trade/commercehouse → home
     assortment of animals → zoo collection grouping → set
     to group/gather → collectwall → barrier
     get some exercise → to work outplacidity → peace
     problem situation → crisisto populate → to settle
    +

    As can be seen from the above list, the exact interpretation + of Designation for each word-root is specific to each word-root, depending on + its associated semantic context.

    +


    +3.6.3 Examples of Designation in Use

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    INFORMAL FORMAL
    klòl ‘flow of water; to flow’→ùklol ‘river; to flow as a river ’
    dyùl ‘sensation/feeling; to sense (affective)’→ùdyul ‘sensation/feeling (volitional/deliberate); to examine via the senses’
    stūl ‘comparison; to compare/contrast’→ūstul ‘measure(ment)’
    +

     

    + + + + +
    3.7 ESSENCE
    +

    Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which + has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference to + various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English + sentences:

    +
    +

    1a) The boy ran off to sea.
    + 1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.

    +

    2a) The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow.
    + 2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist.

    +
    +

    Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences + in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences + (1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized + contexts for these sentences that they make any sense. For example, (1b) would + make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the + plot for a story, while (2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store + owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is now no longer there.

    +

    Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world + meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog, + but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being + used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative + mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where + events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative + versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is + essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western + languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated + by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called + “modal” verbs of English, e.g., must, can, should, etc. + as seen in the following:

    +
    +

    3) You must come home at once.
    + 4) That girl can sing better than anybody.
    + 5) We should attack at dawn.

    +
    +

    Each of the above three sentences describe potential events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For example, + in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home + is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl may never sing a single note ever + again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether + any attack will actually occur.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    3.7.1
    NRM
    		 The Normal
     
    RPV
    		 The Representative
    +

    The Ilaksh category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world + actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. The + two essences are termed NORMAL and REPRESENTATIVE, + the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns and verbs, the + latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly, + Ilaksh allows a speaker to express any noun or verb as referring to a real-world + versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from + an explanatory context.

    +

    Essence is morpho-phonologically marked by the synthetic Vc vocalic prefix shown in Table 9 above (in conjunction with the categories of Designation and Format.

    +


    + 3.7.2 Examples of Essence in Use

    +

    Compare the following two sentences and their translations to see how placement of the REPRESENTATIVE essence on different formatives changes the meaning. Listen audio:

    +
    +

    Ktiàl ikkalièç àxtal.
    + IFL/NRM-‘man’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL/RPV-‘woman’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT2/3    IFL/NRM-OPR-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The man sees what he thinks is/imagines to be a young girl.

    +

    Ktiàl akkalièç ìxtal.
    + IFL/NRM-‘man’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL/NRM-‘woman’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT2/3    IFL/RPV-OPR-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The man is imagining he sees a young girl.

    +


    + Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    ktà- ‘man’ < kà- ‘PERSON’           kkà- ‘woman’ < kà- ‘PERSON’            xtà- ‘see’ < ‘VISION/SIGHT’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    3.8 NOTE ON MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL AGREEMENT
    + + +

    In regard to the gender categories from other languages, + Ilaksh has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, etc.). There is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological + concord of any kind between a noun and other words or morphological elements + in a sentence, i.e., there is none of the required matching of masculine or + feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and adjectives +as found in most Western languages.

    +

     

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 4: Case Morphology >>

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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
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    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 4: Case Morphology

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      4.1 Semantic Role versus Positional Slot  4.5 The Associative Cases   
      4.2 Morpho-Phonological Markers for Case  4.6 The Temporal Cases   
      4.3 The Transrelative Cases  4.7 The Spatial Cases   
      4.4 The Possessive Cases     
    +

    In this chapter, we analyze one additional morphological category: + Case. Like the six categories analyzed in the previous chapter, and unlike + other languages, the category of Case applies to all formatives in Ilaksh, + i.e., to both nouns and verbs alike. However, the syntactical context in which + Case operates is sufficiently dissimilar for nouns and verbs to warrant separate + analysis. In this chapter, we will analyze the case morphology of nouns alone. + The use of Case with verbs will be analyzed in Section +5.2.

    +

    Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek + or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to + a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its + phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays + in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence It was me she saw, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed + to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ + distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object + of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence Der + Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the + man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ + distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) + from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ + (accusative case).

    +

    The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the + notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, + there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether + a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. + In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute + for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases. + The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in + order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and + the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known as its declensions.

    +

    There are 96 cases in Ilaksh, 72 of which correspond to noun cases found in Ithkuil. The remaining 24 cases are new and serve very specialized functions associated with the verbal category called Level. These 24 specialized cases will be discussed separately in Section 5.8 on Level.
    +

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO READERS FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    For those readers familiar with the case morphology of Ithkuil, the 81 noun cases of that language have been consolidated to 72 cases in Ilaksh. Nine Ithkuil cases have either been eliminated or consolidated with other cases in Ilaksh; specifically:

    +
      +
    • The INHERENT case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the CORRELATIVE case.
      • +
    • The ADVERSATIVE case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the CONTRASTIVE case.
      • +
    • The SUPPOSITIVE case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the POSTULATIVE case.
      • +
    • The INTEGRAL case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the ORIGINATIVE case.
      • +
    • The POSITIONAL case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the CORRELATIVE case.
      • +
    +

    Additionally the PROLATIVE, PERLATIVE, PERVASIVE, and PERIPHERAL cases of Ithkuil have been eliminated; their functions are performed in Ilaksh via verbal formatives just like other spatial concepts (see Section 10.4).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    4.1 + SEMANTIC ROLE VERSUS POSITIONAL SLOT
    +
    +

    In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level + of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct + object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is + ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role + can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:

    +
    +

    (1a) John opened the door with the key.
    + (1b) The key opened the door.
    + (1c) The wind opened the door.
    + (1d) The door opened.

    +
    +

    In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, + i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their + semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, John, the key, the wind, and the door. Yet + it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated + in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence + (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that + the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while + in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role + in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. + As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first + three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role + in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a + change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ + in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ + in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), + yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role + of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in + (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act + of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a + subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of + the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while + being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed + choice to initiate such action.

    +


    + 4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role

    +

    The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot + (i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate semantic + role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between + sets of sentences like those above. In Ilaksh, however, the case of a noun + is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the + sentence relative to the verb. These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental + or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns + in other languages. Thus Ilaksh noun declension more accurately reflects the + underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western + grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little + meaning or applicability in Ilaksh grammar.

    +

    The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ilaksh. + They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” + of Western languages:

    +

    AGENT: The animate, (and usually conscious + and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing + a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence + (1a) above.

    +

    FORCE: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an + act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.

    +

    INSTRUMENT: The noun which functions as the + physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ + in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.

    +

    PATIENT: The noun which undergoes a change + in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or + by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.

    +


    + 4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles

    +

    Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects + in Western languages exist in Ilaksh as overt noun cases. These include the + roles of ENABLER, EXPERIENCER, STIMULUS, RECIPIENT, and CONTENT, and are explained + below using the following set of sentences as illustrations.

    +
    +

    (2a) Mary hits the children.
    + (2b) Mary entertains the children.
    + (2c) Mary sees the children.
    + (2d) Mary tells the children a story.
    + (2e) Mary wants children.

    +
    +

    Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary + is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object + (except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns + are entirely different in each of these five sentences. Beginning with Sentence + (2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the + children who obviously function in the role of PATIENT. Thus (2a) is identical + to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct object.

    +

    In Sentence (2b) however, Mary entertains the + children, there is a subtle distinction. At first we might consider Mary + an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become + entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result + (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. + In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, + but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a + sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like + a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or + behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen + to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting + change in the children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the + children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is termed an + ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained + or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or + consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves + unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, + a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS. + Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory + perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and + pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and + autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations + (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).

    +

    This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence + (2c) Mary sees the children, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes + an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other + words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever + a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ + does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” + (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the + “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action + at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. + In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” + as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction + to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled + states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such + as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are + categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role + in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo + any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not + in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being + seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of + sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, + the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting + originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun + participant.

    +

    In Sentence (2d) Mary tells the children a story, + Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the + telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, + or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing + RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western + languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract + referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.

    +

    The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence + (2e) Mary wants children, where they function as the “object” + of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children + undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s + desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory + referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, + being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation + similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, + Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    4.2 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL + MARKERS FOR CASE
    +
    +

    Case is shown in different ways in Ilaksh depending on + whether the case is being shown in conjunction with a formative or a personal + reference adjunct (explained in Section + 8.1). For nouns, case is shown by vocalic mutation of + the stem-vowel Vr. + The permutations of the ninety-six series of vocalic mutation correspond + to the 96 cases. The particular mutational patterns are given in the sections + below as each case is described.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +


    + Case markers for personal reference adjuncts + will be shown later in Section +8.1.

    +

    We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases + in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects” +and “objects” in Western languages.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    4.3 THE TRANSRELATIVE CASES
    +
    +

    The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify + nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms + would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and + most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these + cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in Sec. + 4.1 above. The eleven transrelative cases are the OBLIQUE, + ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, + ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, and SITUATIVE. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples +of these cases in use are provided in Section 4.3.12.
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.1
    OBL
    		The Oblique Case
    +
    +

    The OBLIQUE case is marked by Series + 1 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). As described above in Section 4.1.2, the OBLIQUE identifies the semantic role of CONTENT, whether it is something given to a + RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g., + a memory recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used + in translating sentences such as Sam gave me a book, The + child likes cereal. It is also the case associated with + existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb + ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description + of a noun as in the English sentences That boy is blind or The house was built of wood. The OBLIQUE, + being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun + (i.e., the form in which the noun would be listed in a dictionary).

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.2
    IND
    		The Inducive Case
    +
    +

    The INDUCIVE case is marked by Series + 2 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The INDUCIVE identifies a noun which + undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the noun is a PATIENT of an agential + action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does + not necessarily imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It + would be used in sentences such as The boy jumped, He sang, The dog barked all night, or She danced to the music, in which the party initiating and performing the action + are one and the same.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.3
    ABS
    		The Absolutive Case
    +
    +

    The ABSOLUTIVE case is marked by Series + 3 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the ABSOLUTIVE identifies the semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator + is a different party than the patient who undergoes the resulting action. Note + that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need + not be overtly expressed. Examples of English sentences translatable using the ABSOLUTIVE would be The boy hit the girl, + She forced him to do it, The bird fell from + the sky, The prisoner died during the gun battle.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.4
    ERG
    		The Ergative Case
    +
    +

    The ERGATIVE case is marked by Series + 4 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ERGATIVE identifies the semantic + role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which initiates a tangible action undergone by another + party (the PATIENT), as described in Section 4.1.1. + Note that sentences involving an ERGATIVE agent need not + overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable + using the ERGATIVE would be The boy + hit the girl, She forced him to do it, That murderer kills for fun.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.5
    EFF
    		The Effectuative Case
    +
    +

    The EFFECTUATIVE case is marked by Series + 5 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The EFFECTUATIVE identifies the noun + acting in the semantic role of ENABLER, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events, + ultimately resulting in a final event. An example would be pulling out the plug + of a filled bathtub thereby causing it to empty. This case should therefore + be carefully distinguished from the ERGATIVE case. Ergatively + marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action + directly initiated by the agent, whereas EFFECTUATIVE nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in the + Ilaksh translation of the sentence The clown emptied the blood from the + tub, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by means of the ERGATIVE case, or as an ENABLER using the EFFECTUATIVE case. The + former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would + mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate + the need for Ilaksh to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to + pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ilaksh verb used in translating + the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’

    +

    Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the ENB affix + -V1.ls to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this affix, sentences + can be produced which specify whether the enablement is via giving of consent + or permission, by persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a + hindrance, or even by inaction.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.6
    AFF
    		The Affective Case
    +
    +

    The AFFECTIVE case is marked by Series + 6 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The AFFECTIVE denotes a noun whose + semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described previously in Section + 4.1.2, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled) + experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result + of an external stimulus. Examples of such states would be automatic sensory + experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, + blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; + automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising + one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state + such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, + anxiety, etc.

    +

    Example sentences requiring the use of the AFFECTIVE case would be The baby is coughing, The lightning startled her, Mortimer loves his vittles, Uncle + Davey slept till noon, My back itches me.

    +

    Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about + by the noun undergoing it, the INDUCIVE case would be + used, since the noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce + the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence The children smiled with glee (marked using the AFFECTIVE) + with The children smiled on cue (marked using the INDUCIVE).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.7
    DAT
    		The Dative Case
    +
    +

    The DATIVE case is marked by Series 7 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The DATIVE has two functions in Ilaksh. + Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving + and telling, i.e., the semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via + an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or + the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ilaksh + uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference + to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences + such as We're giving you a present, Jason lent a dollar to his sister, Please grant me a wish, The + student has three books, Those mountains have a mysterious + quality.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.8
    INS
    		The Instrumental Case
    +
    +

    The INSTRUMENTAL case is marked by Series + 8 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). As described previously in Section 4.1.1, + the INSTRUMENTAL denotes a noun which functions as the + INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing + about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples + of usage would be She killed him with a knife, The man + tripped over my foot, The password got him + inside. The INSTRUMENTAL is also used to mark translations + of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the + instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare I pressed the button with + my finger with My finger pressed the button, + both of which would be identical in Ilaksh except for the latter sentence’s + missing agent, I.

    +

    Note that the INSTRUMENTAL does not translate + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied + by’ (see the COMITATIVE case below in Sec. + 4.5.20) as in She arrived with her father. Nor is it used to show + the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the + sentence He cooks with tomatoes (see the COMPOSITIVE case in Sec. 4.5.3), it is not the tomatoes that cook + the food, therefore the INSTRUMENTAL would not be used, + whereas in He fueled the fire with wood it is the wood that fuels the + fire, thus requiring the INSTRUMENTAL case.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.9
    ACT
    		The Activative Case
    +
    +

    The ACTIVATIVE case is marked by Series + 9 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ACTIVATIVE identifies a noun engaged + in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, + creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially + be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated + by the sentence Frank must go to Chicago, in which no actual travel + to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence Mother needs to rest, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both + sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains + an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar + hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences The students want + you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay. + Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” + verbs such as want, need, can, must, etc.

    +

    Notice that the subject of these English sentences (Frank, + Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) are functioning neither as AGENTS + nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify + as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects + are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, + needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, + such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” + the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence Sam wants Shirley + to love him, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked + as EXPERIENCERS using the AFFECTIVE case. Consequently, + Ilaksh uses the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the subject whose + mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized + situation. All of the subjects in the example sentences from the previous paragraph + (i.e., Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) would be so marked. + In Section 6.1 we will see how the ACTIVATIVE is used in conjunction with a morphological + category for verbs termed Modality to create such hypothetical states and situations.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.10
    DER
    		The Derivative Case
    +
    +

    The DERIVATIVE case is marked by Series + 10 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The DERIVATIVE serves two functions + in Ilaksh. Firstly, it identifies an inanimate FORCE of nature (as described + in Sec. 4.1.1) or abstract causative situation which + causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an action, as in The wind blew down the door, or Fame threatened his freedom. + The use of the DERIVATIVE instead of the ERGATIVE or the EFFECTUATIVE denotes that such inanimate agential + forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or willingly initiate + actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the + resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force + or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, + a noun in the DERIVATIVE can often be translated using + phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result + of.’ Nouns in the DERIVATIVE can also appear in + appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun + in the DERIVATIVE denotes the abstract cause or reason + for the other noun, e.g., the danger of fame, love’s heartache, wind song.

    +

    The second function of the DERIVATIVE case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS + of an affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in The coffee smells good, I saw her today, + She hates that boy, Victor coughed from the gas, + We laughed at his jokes, That song makes me + cry. Ilaksh grammar views the stimulus of an experiential state as having + a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as + in the above examples); this explains why the DERIVATIVE case serves to indicate both functions.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.11
    SIT
    		The Situative Case
    +
    +

    The SITUATIVE case is marked by Series + 11 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The SITUATIVE identifies a noun as + the background context for a clause. It is similar to the DERIVATIVE case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship + between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. + It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the + following examples:

    +
    +

    Because of war, our planet will never + be able to join the Federation.
    + Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption + of our children.
    + Using my plan, we will defeat the enemy.

    +
    +


    + 4.3.12 Examples of Transrelative Cases in Use

    +
    +

    Açnăt  ukšüŭl  xmè-ëla  utaluëéx.                                                  LISTEN audio
    + IFL-‘give’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI +    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    + IFL-‘mother’-DAT
    +     FML    -‘written document’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/6
    + The clown gave mother a note.
    +
    + Pšùlk  gmìel  ŧŧöàläč.                                                                           LISTEN audio
    + IFL-‘cough’-PRX/M/CSL/DCT    IFL-‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘odor’-DER-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-QUA1/3
    + The child is coughing due to the awful smell.

    +

    Duňštëmsirxūiç  přĕurn  ukšŭilërz  dà-it.                                     LISTEN audio
    + IFL-‘translative motion’-PRX/U/ASO/COH-AGN2/1-BOD1/1-FRC2/9    IFL-‘anger-based use of force ’-ERG-DEL/M/AGG/VAR    IFL-‘clown’-ABS-IMP2/1    IFL-‘a stone’-INS-DEL/U/CSL/UNI
    + The angry mob stoned the helpless clown to death.
    +(Literally:  trajected-by.hand-with.maximum.force-to.maximum.effect  semi.cohesive.group.-affected.by.anger-acting.as.agent  clown-as.helpless.target  with-stones)

    +


    + Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    çnă- ‘give’ < nă- ‘TRANSFER OF POSSESSION’                                 
    + ukšŭ- ‘clown’ <kšŭ- ‘FOOL/BUFFOON’           
    + àxme(la)- ‘mother’, gmè- ‘child’ < kmè- ‘FAMILY MEMBER’         
    + utá- ‘written document ’ < tá- ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/RECORD’
    + pšù- ‘cough’ < pšù- ‘RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM’                            
    + ŧŧà- ‘odor’ < ŧà- ‘SMELL/ODOR’
    + dū- ‘translative motion ’ < dū- ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’                 
    + dì- ‘a stone ’ < dì- ‘ROCK/MINERAL-BASED FIRMAMENT/GROUND ’
    + přĕ- ‘anger-based use of force’ < přĕ- ‘CONFLICT/ANGER-BASED USE OF FORCE ’
    +
    +

    +
    +

    4.3.13 Specialized Suffixes Used to Expand the Functionality of the Transrelative + Cases

    +

    It should be noted that Ilaksh provides an array of suffixes specifically designed + to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one of the Transrelative cases + to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal + relationships between participants to a verb in an Ilaksh sentence. These suffixes + include the Consent CNS suffix, the Reason RSN suffix, the Expectation XPT suffix, the Deliberateness DLB suffix, the Enablement ENB suffix, the Agency/Intent AGN suffix, and the Impact IMP suffix. These affixes are detailed in Section + 7.4.12 and discussed further in Section + 10.1.2.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    4.4 THE POSESSIVE CASES
    +

    Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually + have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show + varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing + relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    the man’s hat = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]
    + the man’s house = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]
    + the man’s arm = part of his body [inalienable component]
    + the man’s brother = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]
    + the man’s happiness = he feels happy [affective experience]
    + the man’s rescue = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ + purpose]
    + the man’s gift = the gift is for him [benefaction]
    + the man’s gift = the gift is from him [source]
    + the man’s world = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective + association]
    + the man’s team = the team he is associated with [interactive + mutual association]
    + the man’s story = the story about him [topical reference]
    + the man’s painting = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]
    + the man’s command = his being a commander [role or function]

    +
    +

    In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, + e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the + one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do + the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ + one he is giving or receiving? Ilaksh is more exact in specifying the nature + of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed + by the seven Possessive cases.

    +

    The Possessive cases make a distinction between alienable + versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether + the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. + These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many + American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor + noun, not the possessed. The seven Associative cases are the POSSESSIVE, + PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, PRODUCTIVE, INTERPRETATIVE, and ORIGINATIVE. + Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh + examples of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.4.8.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.1
    POS
    		The Possessive Case
    +
    +

    The POSSESSIVE case is marked by Series + 12 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The POSSESSIVE is used to refer to + a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another + noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether + by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in + any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two + can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, + or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent + separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used + to translate English phrases such as his coat (e.g., + the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), the + boy’s book (e.g., the one in his hand), Father’s chair (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.2
    PRP
    		The Proprietive Case
    +
    +

    The PROPRIETIVE case is marked by Series + 13 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PROPRIETIVE identifies a noun having + alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual + control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, + law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The + two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship + cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration, + convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the POSSESSIVE above, we can analyze the connotative difference: his coat (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether + he is wearing it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., + the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the + one assigned to him).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.3
    GEN
    		The Genitive Case
    +
    +

    The GENITIVE case is marked by Series + 14 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The GENITIVE is used to refer to a + noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or + association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent + or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) + bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s doors, the child’s father, the essence of that + woman.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.4
    ATT
    		The Attributive Case
    +
    +

    The ATTRIBUTIVE case is marked by Series + 15 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ATTRIBUTIVE is used to refer to + a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective + (see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another + noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, + whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: his pain, Mother’s guilt, the + child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my needs.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.5
    PDC
    		The Productive Case
    +
    +

    The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by Series + 16 vocalic mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator, + author or originator of another noun, e.g., the girl’s poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue (i.e., the one I sculpted).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.6
    ITP
    		The Interpretative Case
    +
    +

    The INTERPRETATIVE case is marked by + Series 17 vocalic mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun + acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the + noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, + as exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, our world, life as seen by children.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.7
    OGN
    		The Originative Case
    +
    +

    The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by Series + 18 vocalic mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative source of another, or which + is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. , e.g., the man’s story (i.e., the one he told), our gift (i.e., + the one we are giving), water from the river, the fruit of the tree, Fix the kitchen sink! (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), Desert rocks are so + beautiful (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert + or rocks still present in the desert), Northern women are +easy-going.

    +

    The ORIGINATIVE + should be distinguished from the ABLATIVE in Section 4.7.5 below, in that + the ABLATIVE position or path of motion away from, + whereas the ORIGINATIVE merely presents a locational context + as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise similar +noun.

    +


    + 4.4.8 Examples of Possessive Cases in Use +

    +
    +

    LISTEN audio

    +

    ŧàmskäč  akkà’ul
    + IFL-‘gust of odor’-OBL-PRX/M/SEG/UNI-QUA1/3    IFL-‘woman’-OGN-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘woman giving off a bad odor’ or + ‘bad odor coming from/off the woman’ +

    +

    xxàl  štuöl
    + IFL-‘thing seen’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘eagle’-ATT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘what the eagle sees’

    +

    aptrēl  ustūal
    + IFL-‘interior corner’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     FML-‘room/chamber’-GEN-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘corner of a room’

    +

    átalňa  gmeäàl
    + IFL-‘page of writing’-OBL-DEL/M/SEG/COA    IFL-‘male child ’-POS--DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘the boy's book’ [i.e., the one he has in his immediate possession, not one he necessarily owns]
    +
    + uvażgă  ukšë-üŭl
    + FML-‘job/employment’-OBL-PRX/M/CST/COA     FML-‘clown’-PRP-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘the clown's job’

    +


    +Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    ŧà- ‘gust of odor’ < ŧà- ‘SMELL/ODOR’                                        
    + kkà-     ‘woman’ < kà- ‘PERSON’
    + xxà- ‘something seen/a sight ’ < xà- ‘VISION/SIGHT’                     
    + štu- ‘eagle’ <štu- ‘EAGLE’
    + aptrē- ‘interior corner ’ < prē- ‘ANGULAR VERTEX/CORNER’        
    + ustū- ‘room/chamber’ < stū- ‘HOLDING AREA/ENCLOSURE’
    + áta(la)- ‘page of writing’ < tá- ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/RECORD’           
    + agmè    - ‘male child’ < kmè- ‘FAMILY MEMBER’
    +     uvă- ‘job/employment’ < vă- ‘EFFORT/LABOR’                            
    + ukšŭ- ‘clown’ <kšŭ- ‘FOOL/BUFFOON’ 

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    4.5 THE ASSOCIATIVE CASES
    +

    The Associative cases refer to a large group of cases which + modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually adjacent + noun or that it functions in an adverbial relationship to a verb. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, + we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in cat + box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man, etc., or joined by the word + ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., box of coins, dreams + of youth, sounds of laughter, or as a modifier of a verbal phrase. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples + of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.5.34 .

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.1
    PAR
    		The Partitive Case
    +
    +

    The PARTITIVE case is marked by Series + 19 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). When used in conjunction with another noun, the PARTITIVE indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two + nouns, e.g., a cup of coffee, a box(ful) of books, + a train(load) of refugees. When used alone, it signifies + that the context of the phrase or sentence involves only a portion of the noun, + rather than the whole noun, e.g., I ate some bread, Pour (some) water down my back.

    +

    The PARTITIVE is also used to mark a + noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., three boxes, + two clowns, twenty words. This usage + is analyzed in detail in Chapter + 12, where we will see that, in Ilaksh, numbers are formatives (i.e., + full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, + a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not + say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps + more eloquently, “a box trio.”

    +

    The PARTITIVE case is also used in constructing + words for Ilaksh numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed + in Chapter + 12 on enumeration.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.2
    CRS
    		The Contrastive Case
    +
    +

    The CONTRASTIVE case is marked by Series + 20 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONTRASTIVE identifies a distinguishing + characteristic of another noun, i.e., that feature which distinguishes it from + other possible candidates within the given context. It would be used in translating + phrases such as the green bottle (e.g., as opposed + to the blue one); the science text (e.g., versus the + religious text); my statue (i.e., a statue of me); I want your recipe for stew, not soup; + Don’t worry, it’s a pet snake. It also serves to indicate a noun which + has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. + In verbal frame adjuncts it identifies the situation which had been expected + in contrast to what actually takes place. This is translatable by the English + phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘as opposed to,’ or specialized uses of ‘not,’ e.g., Instead + of rain, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, as opposed to +a maid. That's sugar, not salt.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.3
    CPS
    		The Compositive Case
    +
    +

    The COMPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + 21 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The COMPOSITIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is + made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be That + statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) coins, We were caught in a web of lies, I use a wooden ladder, It was a house of cards, Three suits comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups.

    +

    The COMPOSITIVE is also used in conjunction + with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing + or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be She likes to + cook with tomatoes, He reads by candle(light), + That child goes through four sets of clothes a day, My uncle + satisfied his sweet tooth with three chocolate bars.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.4
    PRD
    		The Predicative Case
    +
    +

    The PREDICATIVE case is marked by Series 22 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PREDICATIVE identifies a noun which + constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), + or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by + the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying + on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, + a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, + Can success supported by murder be sustained?

    +

    The PREDICATIVE should be distinguished + from Transrelative cases such as the DERIVATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL, + in that the PREDICATIVE does not denote a cause, merely + the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to + translate anxiety based on terror, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ + or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in + the phrase an attitude fueled by greed, the attitude derives from or + results from greed, but is not relying on it.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.5
    MED
    		The Mediative Case
    +
    +

    The MEDIATIVE case is marked by Series + 23 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The MEDIATIVE indicates the physical, + psychological, or figurative medium through which another noun or event takes + place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as a radio announcement, arrival by water, a letter bomb, air mail, achieving ecstasy through sex, I + showed her my love with chocolate. It should be distinguished + from the INSTRUMENTAL case (see Section 4.3.8 above), + which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a + causative action. For example, in the sentence Call him on the phone!, + translating the phrase on the phone into the INSTRUMENTAL case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call + him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE case + would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.6
    APL
    		The Applicative Case
    +
    +

    The APPLICATIVE case is marked by Series + 24 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which + represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. + As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for + the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be a cup for coffee (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), a box for tools (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold + tools), a room for changing. Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” + cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” + book = ‘a book used as a projectile.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.7
    PUR
    		The Purposive Case
    +
    +

    The PURPOSIVE case is marked by Series + 25 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PURPOSIVE identifies a noun which + characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The PURPOSIVE is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that + the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or + in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another + noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual + instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended + use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or + ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately + an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would + be a coffee cup, a toolbox, a litter box, a trashcan.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.8
    CSD
    		The Considerative Case
    +
    +

    The CONSIDERATIVE case is marked by Series + 26 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONSIDERATIVE identifies a noun + as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs + or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according + to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion + of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s + a coward; He’s leaving town as per orders from the court; + You were arrested pursuant to law; According to our + teacher, humans are descended from apes.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.9
    ESS
    		The Essive Case
    +
    +

    The ESSIVE case is marked by Series 27 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ESSIVE identifies the role or name + by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ + in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would + be used in translating the English sentences They called him a clown, + The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider + you our only hope.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.10
    ASI
    		The Assimilative Case
    +
    +

    The ASSIMILATIVE case is marked by Series + 28 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ASSIMILATIVE identifies a noun used as + a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a + verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in + the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of + usage are She sings like a bird, As children they + seemed to me.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.11
    FUN
    		The Functive Case
    +
    +

    The FUNCTIVE case is marked by Series + 29 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in -ly or the adverbial use of with, identifying the manner in which an action, + event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to + characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately + by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would + be: She dances gracefully (i.e., in a manner characterized + by grace), The boys ate with gusto, That clown is speaking nonsense, Father speaks with such fortitude.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.12
    TFM
    		The Transformative Case
    +
    +

    The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by + Series 30 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome + or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ + or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone + some transformation. Example usages would be The house burned to + ashes, The clown reached a state of tranquility, The + clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank + himself to death.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.13
    REF
    		The Referential Case
    +
    +

    The REFERENTIAL case is marked by Series + 31 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The REFERENTIAL identifies a noun functioning + as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ + ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ + ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ + Examples of use would be a song of love; As for + those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; + His attitude toward women.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.14
    CLA
    		The Classificative Case
    +
    +

    The CLASSIFICATIVE case is marked by + Series 32 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CLASSIFICATIVE identifies a noun + as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various + English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are Place them in groups of three, The workers arranged the + tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can + you count by fives?, I will sort them by color.

    +

    The CLASSIFICATIVE is also used to identify + a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing + the manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time + periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature + of an event. Examples would be Month by month, their departure + crept closer; Year after year, I see more and more clowns; Day in, day out, he’s always working; + The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, bag upon bag; Patient by patient, the nurse administered injections.

    +

    Note that the CLASSIFICATIVE would not + be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used + to translate the sentence One bomb after another fell on the city. + Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations + of the noun (see Sec. + 7.4.4).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.15
    CNV
    		The Conductive Case
    +
    +

    The CONDUCTIVE case is marked by Series + 33 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONDUCTIVE identifies the meaningful + or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship + signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains + to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English + phrases translatable using this case are a circus clown, + a mountain man, a feeling of loneliness, the Mafia’s world, a realm of fear, my life achievement, childhood memories, Let’s + discuss the morality of war.

    +

     

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.16
    IDP
    		The Interdependent Case
    +
    +

    The INTERDEPENDENT case is marked by + Series 34 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The INTERDEPENDENT identifies a noun + which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship + with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal + in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within + it’s natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, + an army general, the blood in my veins, the + driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case + does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the GENITIVE case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, + or the leaves of a tree.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.17
    BEN
    		The Benefactive Case
    +
    +

    The BENEFACTIVE case is marked by Series + 35 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The BENEFACTIVE identifies a noun for + whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the BENEFACTIVE is similar to the DATIVE, except that the BENEFACTIVE implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the + recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or + consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ + Examples of usage are a toy for the children, We threw him a party, Go to the teachers’ + lounge.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.18
    TSP
    		The Transpositive Case
    +
    +

    The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + 36 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution + of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense + of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead + of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are The boss made the speech for me, She went up into the attic for her brother (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.19
    CMM
    		The Commutative Case
    +
    +

    The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by Series + 37 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The COMMUTATIVE translates English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in You + paid too much money for that dress, She kills for thrills.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.20
    COM
    		The Comitative Case
    +
    +

    The COMITATIVE case is marked by Series + 38 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish + or Estonian, the COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’ + in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in The + child went with the clown to the party. Like English ‘with,’ + the COMITATIVE does not imply that the conjoined noun + is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb + as the head noun. For example, in the sentence My father was walking with + a loaf of bread, the loaf of bread is not considered to be itself walking.

    +

    It should be noted, however, that the COMITATIVE is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two + nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences They danced + with each other or Mother wants to talk with you. These would + be translated using the RECIPROCAL valence of the verb, + explained in Section 6.2. + This distinction is illustrated even more clearly by comparing the following + two sentences; the first would be translated using the COMITATIVE, + the second would not: This man fought with my father (e.g., alongside + him during the war) versus This man fought with my father (e.g., they + had a fight with each other).

    +

    Note also that the COMITATIVE is not + used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by + means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as I + cut the meat with a knife. As previously discussed in Section + 4.3.8, instrumentality is indicated by use of the INSTRUMENTAL case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed + in undertaking an act, as in He catches his fish with worms for which the COMPOSITIVE case is used.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.21
    CNJ
    		The Conjunctive Case
    +
    +

    The CONJUNCTIVE case is marked by Series + 39 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONJUNCTIVE translates English + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., + to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary + activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the COMITATIVE above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the walking with + a loaf of bread example from above, it would be incorrect to use the CONJUNCTIVE case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate + the usage, consider the sentence I’m with the brigade. Translating + ‘brigade’ using the COMITATIVE would mean + that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ + while using the CONJUNCTIVE would mean ‘I’m + a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE would be used are They skate with the best team, That teacher works well + with children.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.22
    UTL
    		The Utilitative Case
    +
    +

    The UTILITATIVE case is marked by Series + 40 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in + the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ + where it refers to actual use in progress as in A man with a gun ran into the room. It should be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL (see Sec. 4.3.8) in that the latter indicates the implement + used to accomplish an action, while the UTILITATIVE identifies + a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish + a stated action. For example, compare the sentence The man with + an umbrella was pushing a stroller in the rain (UTILITATIVE) + with The man pushed a stroller in the rain with an umbrella (INSTRUMENTAL). The first sentence implies the man was + pushing a stroller with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the + rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the stroller. + Another way to translate the UTILITATIVE would be to use + an English gerundial construction as in A gun-wielding man ran into the room or An umbrella-toting man pushed + a stroller in the rain.

    +

    Besides the INSTRUMENTAL, the UTILITATIVE should likewise be distinguished from the COMITATIVE case + above, in that the COMITATIVE merely indicates accompaniment, + while the UTILITATIVE indicates use in progress. For example, + the sentence Go sit next to the girl with the book, + if translated using the COMITATIVE would merely identify + a girl who has a book in her visible possession, while with the UTILITATIVE it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.23
    ABE
    		The Abessive Case
    +
    +

    The ABESSIVE case is marked by Series + 41 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ABESSIVE is essentially the opposite + of the COMITATIVE, translating the English ‘without’ + or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not + having’ as in a day without rain or a treeless plain. As noted in the next section below on the CONVERSIVE case, it is not used to translate ‘without’ when + it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome as in I can’t go on without love.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.24
    CVS
    		The Conversive Case
    +
    +

    The CONVERSIVE case is marked by Series + 42 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONVERSIVE is used in conjunction + with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered + a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where + it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the + conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition + ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense + does not correspond to its usual ABESSIVE usage in Sec. + 4.7.1 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by + such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if + it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ + Example of usage: Without peace, this society is doomed; If not for the rain, we would have had a good time.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.25
    COR
    		The Correlative Case
    +
    +

    The CORRELATIVE case is marked by Series + 43 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CORRELATIVE is used to indicate + an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another + noun or verb, including subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic associations. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ + ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association + with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as career goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, + The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, + Our next topic is sex and (or in) art (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Additional examples are years of wonder, + the Clown Planet, life blood, city of + evil. Note that the CORRELATIVE case would often be used to translate constructions for which English often + uses an adjective, e.g., spatial coordinates, the political economy, a dangerous situation (i.e., a situation + characterized by danger).

    +

    When used in contexts involving directional motion or spatial positioning is, + the CORRELATIVE signifies the directional orientation or position of one + noun relative to another, i.e., a noun relative + to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial + orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater + sense once one realizes that, in Ilaksh, most one-to-one spatial relationships + are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the + right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, this use of the CORRELATIVE case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples + of how it would be used are I’m standing four feet north of + the desk, The one hanging above the boxes looks fresh, + It lies at a 30° angle relative to the tree, He turned his back on me, + The upstairs bedroom faces the yard, It’s alongside the + desk (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.26
    DEP
    		The Dependent Case
    +
    +

    The DEPENDENT case is marked by Series + 44 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The DEPENDENT translates the English + phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which + the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be Depending + on the rain, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, depending + on her attitude.

    +

    The DEPENDENT should be distinguished + from the PREDICATIVE case in Sec. + 4.5.4, in that the former denotes contingency, while the PREDICATIVE denotes reliance.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.27
    PVS
    		The Provisional Case
    +
    +

    The PROVISIONAL case is marked by Series + 45 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which + the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required + condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the + main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided + (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ + or ‘but only if,’ e.g., Provided [there’s] food, + I will attend the meeting; We will fight only in case of war.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.28
    PTL
    		The Postulative Case
    +
    +

    The POSTULATIVE case is marked by Series + 46 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The operates somewhat similarly to the PROVISIONAL above, except that the POSTULATIVE implies a causal or + consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s) + and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, + situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, + but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated + by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in + case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where + it means ‘whether’ as in I don’t know if it’s warm + enough, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality + (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). + Examples of usage: If [there’s] snow, I’m not + going out; In case of fire, flee; If friend, + welcome them, if foe, kill ’em.

    +

    The example below is offered to further distinguish the use of the POSTULATIVE case + from the PROVISIONAL case above:

    +

    PROVISIONAL: We’re packing + umbrellas, but only in case of bad weather (i.e., umbrellas + will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).
    + POSTULATIVE: We’re packing umbrellas in + case of bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation +for the possibility of bad weather).
    +

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.29
    DFR
    		The Deferential Case
    +
    +

    The DEFERENTIAL case is marked by Series + 47 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The DEFERENTIAL translates the English + phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or + ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is + paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would + be He remained silent for her sake, They went on with the + ceremony out of respect for the families, They dressed in robes because of tradition.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.30
    CON
    		The Concessive Case
    +
    +

    The CONCESSIVE case is marked by Series + 48 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun, + situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result + which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, + conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ + ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ + ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: In spite of + his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, + I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), + they are welcome, Although foreigners, we will let them attend + the meeting.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.31
    EXC
    		The Exceptive Case
    +
    +

    The EXCEPTIVE case is marked by Series + 49 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The EXCEPTIVE indicates a noun, situation, + or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main + clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ + or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: She loves everybody except + clowns; I like all animals, excluding dogs; He eats + almost anything but (not) spinach.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.32
    AVR
    		The Aversive Case
    +
    +

    The AVERSIVE case is marked by Series + 50 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a + source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions + such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in + avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see Sec. + 5.2) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage + are She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled + by night to avoid the sun.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.33
    CMP
    		The Comparative Case
    +
    +

    The COMPARATIVE case is marked by Series + 51 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being + compared and contrasted to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as + compared to,’ ‘as opposed to.’ With verbal case-frames (see Sec. 5.2) it would translate as + ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). + Examples are She chose the red one as opposed to the blue one, + Sam drives a van as compared to Joe, who prefers a truck.

    +

     

    +

    4.5.34 Examples of Associative Cases in Use

    +
    +

    LISTEN audio

    +

    ukya’al vloliêxek
    + FML-‘coffee bean drink’-PAR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘contain via gravity/basin’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-SSD1/2
    + ‘cup of coffee’

    +

    ukya’ül vloliêxek
    + FML-‘coffee bean drink’-APL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘contain via gravity/basin’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-SSD1/2
    + ‘cup being used for coffee’

    +

    ukyä’ël vloliêxek
    + FML-‘coffee bean drink’-PUR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘contain via gravity/basin’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-SSD1/2
    + ‘coffee cup’

    +

    knul uçmè’ol
    + IFL-‘snake’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    FML-‘pet/domestic animal’-CRS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘pet snake’

    +

    ūstala  pta’ël
    + FML-‘wall of room’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘wood’-CPS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘wooden wall’

    +

    Axmüùl  uđo’äàh  dupfā.
    + IFL-‘virus’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    FML-‘drink of water’-MED-DEL/M/CSL/AGG   IFL-‘(self-)directed motion’-PRX/N/VAR/UNI
    + ‘The virus spreads via the drinking water.’

    +

    uru’äliòn
    + FML-‘prepared/cooked food’-CSD-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/2
    + ‘according to the cook’

    +

    lásk  sëé’ikf
    + IFL-‘voice’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘piece of music’-ASI-PRX/N/CSL/UNI
    + ‘a voice like music’

    +

    Yadálarai  gmièl  ăkšë’ul.
    + DIR-IFL-‘nickname/label’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-FNC/FAC    IFL-‘male child’-AFF    ‘nerd’-ESS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘Don't call the boy a nerd.’

    +

    átalňa  sfueis
    + IFL-‘page of writing’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/SEG    ‘porcupine’-REF-DEL/N/CSL/UNI
    + ‘a book about porcupines’

    +

    kpiĕul
    + IFL-‘extent of spatial length’-CLA-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘lengthwise’

    +


    + Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    ukya- ‘coffee bean drink ’ < kya- ‘COFFEE PLANT’                     
    + vlô-     ‘contain via gravity/basin’ < vlô- ‘HOLD/CONTAIN/CONTENTS’
    + knu- ‘snake’ < knu- ‘SNAKE’                                                      
    + ùçme- ‘pet land/air animal’ <mè- ‘CLASSES OF ANIMAL’
    + ūsta(la)- ‘wall of room’ < stū- ‘HOLDING AREA/ENCLOSURE’               
    + pta    - ‘wood(en)’ < pa- ‘BRANCHED OR LEAVED PLANT’
    + axmù- ‘virus’ < kmù- ‘LOWER-ORDER LIFE-FORM’     
    + uđò- ‘water as nourishment/drink (of) water ’ < đò- ‘WATER AS SUBSTANCE’
    + adū- ‘self-directed motion ’ < dū- ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION ’           
    + urà- ‘prepared/cooked food’ < rà- ‘NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION ’
    +     lá- ‘voice’ < lá- ‘VOCAL/VERBAL SOUND ’        
    + sé- ‘piece of music’ < sé- ‘MUSIC’
    + áda(la)- ‘nickname’ < dá- ‘NAME/TITLE/APPELLATION’           
    + agmè    - ‘male child’ < kmè- ‘FAMILY MEMBER’
    + ăkšu(la)- ‘nerd’ <kšŭ- ‘FOOL/BUFFOON’                  
    + áta(la)- ‘page of writing’ < tá- ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/RECORD’
    + sfu- ‘porcupine’ < sfu- ‘PORCUPINE’                
    + kpĕ- ‘extent/amount of spatial length ’ < kĕ- ‘LONG/LENGTH’
    +

    +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    4.6 THE TEMPORAL CASES
    +

    The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In + many respects, Ilaksh analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly + in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases + as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ + and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear + using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ + ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the SIMULTANEITIVE, + ASSESSIVE, CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, + POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, and LIMITATIVE. Following are explanations + of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples of these cases + in use are provided in Sec. 4.6.16.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.1
    SML
    		The Simultaneitive Case
    +
    +

    The SIMULTANEITIVE case is marked by + Series 52 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The SIMULTANEITIVE identifies a noun + signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion. + Examples would be I was in class at the same time as his accident, + I worked a side-job concurrent to the strike, She laughed simultaneously + with my coughing fit.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.2
    ASS
    		The Assessive Case
    +
    +

    The ASSESSIVE case is marked by Series + 53 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ASSESSIVE specifies the unit of + time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to + English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be My lawyer + charges by the minute, He publishes several books each + year, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles per hour.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.3
    CNR
    		The Concursive Case
    +
    +

    The CONCURSIVE case is marked by Series + 54 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal + locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during + or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered + a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be He prays during + lunch, She studied hard last night, I won’t + visit until then (i.e., during that period in time).

    +
    +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.4
    ACS
    		The Accessive Case
    +

    The ACCESSIVE case is marked by Series + 55 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The is similar to the CONCURSIVE, except + that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly delimited + period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something + occurs. Examples of usage would be Dinner will be served at sunset; When (i.e., at the moment that) you hear his voice, + call in the clowns; Upon impact, both cars were accelerating.

    +
    +

    +
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.5
    DFF
    		The Diffusive Case
    +

    The DIFFUSIVE case is marked by Series + 56 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The DIFFUSIVE is yet another temporal + locative similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time + period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on + the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase + ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be Most cars had tail fins in those days; I was abroad during + that era; At the time of his death, the number of + clowns was increasing; Over the past several seasons, your + talent has matured.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.6
    PER
    		The Periodic Case
    +

    The PERIODIC case is marked by Series + 57 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PERIODIC identifies the span of + time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This + case should be distinguished from the CONCURSIVE above, + in that the periodic specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions, + or durationally extended acts or states take place, whereas the concursive signifies + a contextually single holistic event. Examples would be He wrote the novel in six months, These clowns can corrupt your child within + a few days, The woman has been ill a lot this year, For the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.7
    PRO
    		The Prolapsive Case
    +

    The PROLAPSIVE case is marked by Series + 58 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PROLAPSIVE signifies the duration + of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case + should be distinguished from the PERIODIC above, in that + the PROLAPSIVE specifies the actual duration of the act, + condition, or event, whereas the PERIODIC merely specifies + a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, + or event occurs. Examples would be He prayed through lunch, While he was dying, the number of clowns increased, It rained all night, It took three days for the fever + to break, She sang for an hour.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.8
    PCV
    		The Precursive Case
    +

    The PRECURSIVE case is marked by Series + 59 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PRECURSIVE identifies a point in + time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred before the war, It rained prior + to his appearance, There will be a presentation preceding the + banquet.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.9
    PCR
    		The Postcursive Case
    +

    The POSTCURSIVE case is marked by Series + 60 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The POSTCURSIVE identifies a point + in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred after the war, It rained subsequent + to his appearance, There will be a presentation following the + banquet.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.10
    ELP
    		The Elapsive Case
    +

    The ELAPSIVE case is marked by Series + 61 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ELAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, + condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ + Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going + back three generations, women could not even vote.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.11
    ALP
    		The Allapsive Case
    +

    The ALLAPSIVE case is marked by Series + 62 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ALLAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of + a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be Four years + from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, + clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little + did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.12
    INP
    		The Interpolative Case
    +

    The INTERPOLATIVE case is marked by Series + 63 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The INTERPOLATIVE is used within the + context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the + duration of each repetition. Examples of usage are We heard several five-second snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals of several + seconds; She gets recurring migraines, each lasting hours.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.13
    EPS
    		The Episodic Case
    +
    +

    The EPISODIC case is marked by Series + 64 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The EPISODIC identifies a contextually + recurring time-period. Examples of usage are The man talks with his mother every three days; Each year, I travel to the + Clown Planet; He works nights; By day, she + is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.14
    PRL
    		The Prolimitive Case
    +
    +

    The PROLIMITIVE case is marked by Series + 65 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PROLIMITIVE defines a point in + time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e., + the time by which some act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would + be By the time of your graduation, I want you out of the + house; Please be on board by midnight; By the time + of the raid, there was nothing left to steal.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.15
    LIM
    		The Limitative Case
    +
    +

    The LIMITATIVE case is marked by Series + 66 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The LIMITATIVE signifies a event culminating + an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time + for.’ Examples of usage are He arrived in time for dinner, + Be inside the Big Tent in time for the clowns.

    +


    + 4.6.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use

    +
    +

    LISTEN audio

    +

    šóyel  kī’al
    + IFL-‘three’-ALP-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘day (24-hr. period)’-PAR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + three days from now

    +

    tayùpla  roi
    + IFL-‘life’-PRL-TRM/M/CSL/UNI     ma-ATT
    + by the time of his death

    +

    ukiyogīnnuik
    + FML-‘day (24-hr. period)’-EPS-DEL/M/COA/DCT-SEQ1/1-SBS2/9
    + on Sundays

    +

    Šówol  kī ’al  žìrskukt  tia.
    + IFL-‘three’-PRO-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘day (24-hr. period)’-PAR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-OPR-‘article of clothing’-PRX/M/CSL/AGG-DEF1/9   1m-IND
    + I’ve been (deliberately) wearing these clothes for three days.

    +

    krûwösk  žoi
    + IFL-‘grief’-PCR-PRX/M/CSL/UNI     1m+2u+ua-ATT
    + after our period of grief

    +


    + Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    šó- ‘three’ < šó-‘THREE’                     
    + kī-     ‘day (= 24-hour period)’ < kī- ‘DAY (24-HOUR PERIOD)’
    + tà- ‘life/living being’ < tà- ‘LIFE/ALIVE/LIVING BEING ’                                                      
    + žì- ‘article of clothing ’ <žì- ‘CLOTHE/CLOTHING/FASHION’
    + krû- ‘grief/sadness from (a) loss’ < krû- ‘GRIEF/SADNESS FROM (A) LOSS’               

    +
    +


    + _____

    + + + + +
    4.7 THE SPATIAL CASES

    +

    As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ilaksh. + While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque + and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional + relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished + in Ilaksh via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be + inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, + there are six cases corresponding to certain types of spatial relationships. + These are the LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, + and NAVIGATIVE.

    +

    Also: see Section 4.5.25 above regarding the use of the CORRELATIVE case in sentences involving spatial direction or orientation.

    +

    Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples of these cases in use are provided + in Sec. 4.7.7.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.1
    LOC
    		The Locative Case
    +
    +

    The LOCATIVE case is marked by Series + 67 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The LOCATIVE signifies general static + position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable + by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ + or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., in that building, by + the wall, on the street, at my house.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.2
    ORI
    		The Orientative Case
    +
    +

    The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by Series + 68 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ORIENTATIVE identifies the noun + (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” + of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable + into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ + in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., He jumped in feet-first, The car rolled backward. + The ORIENTATIVE allows for the extension of this concept + to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., He walked “butt-ward” + down the street (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading + the way).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.3
    PSV
    		The Procursive Case
    +
    +

    The PROCURSIVE case is marked by Series + 69 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PROCURSIVE identifies a noun (often + a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point, + interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction + with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun usually appears + in the ALLATIVE case (see below). Examples of use would be They + collided sideways, She turned her back on + him, The chair “faced” the doorway (i.e., + The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.4
    ALL
    		The Allative Case
    +
    +

    The ALLATIVE case is marked by Series + 70 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). When used in the context of explicit or implied directional + motion, the ALLATIVE signifies the direction of motion, + translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ + in English. Note that the ALLATIVE in no way implies that + the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion + or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be I wandered eastward, The little girl ran toward me, Throw + the rock at that clown!, We headed for home.

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.5
    ABL
    		The Ablative Case
    +
    +

    The ABLATIVE case is marked by Series + 71 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion, + the ABLATIVE signifies the general directional origin + of movement away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin + or departure. Examples would be He came out of the east, + She walked here from (the direction of) the river.

    +

    When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the ABLATIVE signifies a reverse directional orientation + of one noun relative to another, e.g., He faced away from me.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.6
    NAV
    		The Navigative Case
    +
    +

    The NAVIGATIVE case is marked by Series + 72 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The NAVIGATIVE identifies the noun + relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event + takes place. This is particularly important, as we will see in Section + 10.4.3 that Ilaksh modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors + of movement or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as + the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be I looked down + the street, We aligned it perpendicular to the path of the + sun, He crossed the room diagonally (i.e., walked + diagonally relative to the long axis of the room.)

    +


    + 4.7.7 Examples of Spatial Cases in Use

    +
    +

    LISTEN audio

    +

    zmäāwal
    + IFL-‘valley’-LOC-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + in the valley

    +

    Żgàwül  đđulīmsërt  rua.
    + IFL-‘head’-ORI-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-OPR-‘downward movement’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGN1/1-PHY2/1    ma-AFF
    + He fell headfirst to his death.

    +

    Xàl  tia  zbřeyüūl.
    + IFL-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    1m-IND    IFL-‘pathway’-NAV
    + I’m looking down the path.

    +


    + Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    zmā- ‘valley’ < smā-‘ELEVATION OF TERRAIN/RELATIVE ALTITUDE OF GEOGRAPHIC FEATURE OR AREA ’
    + żgà- ‘head (as physical body part)’ < żà- ‘HEAD’     
    + đđū- ‘downward movement/motion’ < đū- ‘VERTICAL (UPWARD/DOWNWARD) MOVEMENT/MOTION’           
    + urà- ‘prepared/cooked food’ < rà- ‘NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION ’
    +     xà- ‘see’ < xà- ‘VISION/SIGHT’        
    + zbřē- ‘pathway’ < vrē- ‘COURSE/WAY’
    +

    +
    +
    +


    + Proceed to Chapter 5: Verb Morphology >>

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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 4: Case Morphology

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      4.1 Semantic Role versus Positional Slot  4.5 The Associative Cases   
      4.2 Morpho-Phonological Markers for Case  4.6 The Temporal Cases   
      4.3 The Transrelative Cases  4.7 The Spatial Cases   
      4.4 The Possessive Cases     
    +

    In this chapter, we analyze one additional morphological category: + Case. Like the six categories analyzed in the previous chapter, and unlike + other languages, the category of Case applies to all formatives in Ilaksh, + i.e., to both nouns and verbs alike. However, the syntactical context in which + Case operates is sufficiently dissimilar for nouns and verbs to warrant separate + analysis. In this chapter, we will analyze the case morphology of nouns alone. + The use of Case with verbs will be analyzed in Section +5.2.

    +

    Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek + or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to + a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its + phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays + in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence It was me she saw, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed + to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ + distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object + of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence Der + Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the + man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ + distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) + from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ + (accusative case).

    +

    The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the + notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, + there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether + a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. + In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute + for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases. + The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in + order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and + the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known as its declensions.

    +

    There are 96 cases in Ilaksh, 72 of which correspond to noun cases found in Ithkuil. The remaining 24 cases are new and serve very specialized functions associated with the verbal category called Level. These 24 specialized cases will be discussed separately in Section 5.8 on Level.
    +

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO READERS FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    For those readers familiar with the case morphology of Ithkuil, the 81 noun cases of that language have been consolidated to 72 cases in Ilaksh. Nine Ithkuil cases have either been eliminated or consolidated with other cases in Ilaksh; specifically:

    +
      +
    • The INHERENT case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the CORRELATIVE case.
      • +
    • The ADVERSATIVE case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the CONTRASTIVE case.
      • +
    • The SUPPOSITIVE case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the POSTULATIVE case.
      • +
    • The INTEGRAL case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the ORIGINATIVE case.
      • +
    • The POSITIONAL case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the CORRELATIVE case.
      • +
    +

    Additionally the PROLATIVE, PERLATIVE, PERVASIVE, and PERIPHERAL cases of Ithkuil have been eliminated; their functions are performed in Ilaksh via verbal formatives just like other spatial concepts (see Section 10.4).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    4.1 + SEMANTIC ROLE VERSUS POSITIONAL SLOT
    +
    +

    In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level + of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct + object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is + ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role + can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:

    +
    +

    (1a) John opened the door with the key.
    + (1b) The key opened the door.
    + (1c) The wind opened the door.
    + (1d) The door opened.

    +
    +

    In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, + i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their + semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, John, the key, the wind, and the door. Yet + it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated + in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence + (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that + the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while + in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role + in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. + As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first + three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role + in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a + change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ + in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ + in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), + yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role + of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in + (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act + of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a + subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of + the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while + being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed + choice to initiate such action.

    +


    + 4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role

    +

    The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot + (i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate semantic + role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between + sets of sentences like those above. In Ilaksh, however, the case of a noun + is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the + sentence relative to the verb. These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental + or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns + in other languages. Thus Ilaksh noun declension more accurately reflects the + underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western + grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little + meaning or applicability in Ilaksh grammar.

    +

    The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ilaksh. + They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” + of Western languages:

    +

    AGENT: The animate, (and usually conscious + and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing + a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence + (1a) above.

    +

    FORCE: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an + act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.

    +

    INSTRUMENT: The noun which functions as the + physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ + in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.

    +

    PATIENT: The noun which undergoes a change + in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or + by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.

    +


    + 4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles

    +

    Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects + in Western languages exist in Ilaksh as overt noun cases. These include the + roles of ENABLER, EXPERIENCER, STIMULUS, RECIPIENT, and CONTENT, and are explained + below using the following set of sentences as illustrations.

    +
    +

    (2a) Mary hits the children.
    + (2b) Mary entertains the children.
    + (2c) Mary sees the children.
    + (2d) Mary tells the children a story.
    + (2e) Mary wants children.

    +
    +

    Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary + is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object + (except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns + are entirely different in each of these five sentences. Beginning with Sentence + (2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the + children who obviously function in the role of PATIENT. Thus (2a) is identical + to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct object.

    +

    In Sentence (2b) however, Mary entertains the + children, there is a subtle distinction. At first we might consider Mary + an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become + entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result + (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. + In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, + but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a + sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like + a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or + behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen + to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting + change in the children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the + children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is termed an + ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained + or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or + consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves + unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, + a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS. + Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory + perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and + pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and + autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations + (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).

    +

    This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence + (2c) Mary sees the children, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes + an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other + words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever + a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ + does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” + (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the + “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action + at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. + In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” + as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction + to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled + states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such + as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are + categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role + in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo + any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not + in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being + seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of + sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, + the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting + originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun + participant.

    +

    In Sentence (2d) Mary tells the children a story, + Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the + telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, + or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing + RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western + languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract + referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.

    +

    The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence + (2e) Mary wants children, where they function as the “object” + of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children + undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s + desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory + referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, + being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation + similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, + Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    4.2 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL + MARKERS FOR CASE
    +
    +

    Case is shown in different ways in Ilaksh depending on + whether the case is being shown in conjunction with a formative or a personal + reference adjunct (explained in Section + 8.1). For nouns, case is shown by vocalic mutation of + the stem-vowel Vr. + The permutations of the ninety-six series of vocalic mutation correspond + to the 96 cases. The particular mutational patterns are given in the sections + below as each case is described.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +


    + Case markers for personal reference adjuncts + will be shown later in Section +8.1.

    +

    We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases + in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects” +and “objects” in Western languages.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    4.3 THE TRANSRELATIVE CASES
    +
    +

    The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify + nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms + would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and + most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these + cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in Sec. + 4.1 above. The eleven transrelative cases are the OBLIQUE, + ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, + ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, and SITUATIVE. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples +of these cases in use are provided in Section 4.3.12.
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.1
    OBL
    		The Oblique Case
    +
    +

    The OBLIQUE case is marked by Series + 1 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). As described above in Section 4.1.2, the OBLIQUE identifies the semantic role of CONTENT, whether it is something given to a + RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g., + a memory recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used + in translating sentences such as Sam gave me a book, The + child likes cereal. It is also the case associated with + existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb + ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description + of a noun as in the English sentences That boy is blind or The house was built of wood. The OBLIQUE, + being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun + (i.e., the form in which the noun would be listed in a dictionary).

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.2
    IND
    		The Inducive Case
    +
    +

    The INDUCIVE case is marked by Series + 2 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The INDUCIVE identifies a noun which + undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the noun is a PATIENT of an agential + action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does + not necessarily imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It + would be used in sentences such as The boy jumped, He sang, The dog barked all night, or She danced to the music, in which the party initiating and performing the action + are one and the same.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.3
    ABS
    		The Absolutive Case
    +
    +

    The ABSOLUTIVE case is marked by Series + 3 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the ABSOLUTIVE identifies the semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator + is a different party than the patient who undergoes the resulting action. Note + that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need + not be overtly expressed. Examples of English sentences translatable using the ABSOLUTIVE would be The boy hit the girl, + She forced him to do it, The bird fell from + the sky, The prisoner died during the gun battle.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.4
    ERG
    		The Ergative Case
    +
    +

    The ERGATIVE case is marked by Series + 4 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ERGATIVE identifies the semantic + role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which initiates a tangible action undergone by another + party (the PATIENT), as described in Section 4.1.1. + Note that sentences involving an ERGATIVE agent need not + overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable + using the ERGATIVE would be The boy + hit the girl, She forced him to do it, That murderer kills for fun.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.5
    EFF
    		The Effectuative Case
    +
    +

    The EFFECTUATIVE case is marked by Series + 5 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The EFFECTUATIVE identifies the noun + acting in the semantic role of ENABLER, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events, + ultimately resulting in a final event. An example would be pulling out the plug + of a filled bathtub thereby causing it to empty. This case should therefore + be carefully distinguished from the ERGATIVE case. Ergatively + marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action + directly initiated by the agent, whereas EFFECTUATIVE nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in the + Ilaksh translation of the sentence The clown emptied the blood from the + tub, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by means of the ERGATIVE case, or as an ENABLER using the EFFECTUATIVE case. The + former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would + mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate + the need for Ilaksh to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to + pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ilaksh verb used in translating + the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’

    +

    Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the ENB affix + -V1.ls to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this affix, sentences + can be produced which specify whether the enablement is via giving of consent + or permission, by persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a + hindrance, or even by inaction.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.6
    AFF
    		The Affective Case
    +
    +

    The AFFECTIVE case is marked by Series + 6 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The AFFECTIVE denotes a noun whose + semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described previously in Section + 4.1.2, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled) + experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result + of an external stimulus. Examples of such states would be automatic sensory + experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, + blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; + automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising + one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state + such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, + anxiety, etc.

    +

    Example sentences requiring the use of the AFFECTIVE case would be The baby is coughing, The lightning startled her, Mortimer loves his vittles, Uncle + Davey slept till noon, My back itches me.

    +

    Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about + by the noun undergoing it, the INDUCIVE case would be + used, since the noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce + the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence The children smiled with glee (marked using the AFFECTIVE) + with The children smiled on cue (marked using the INDUCIVE).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.7
    DAT
    		The Dative Case
    +
    +

    The DATIVE case is marked by Series 7 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The DATIVE has two functions in Ilaksh. + Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving + and telling, i.e., the semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via + an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or + the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ilaksh + uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference + to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences + such as We're giving you a present, Jason lent a dollar to his sister, Please grant me a wish, The + student has three books, Those mountains have a mysterious + quality.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.8
    INS
    		The Instrumental Case
    +
    +

    The INSTRUMENTAL case is marked by Series + 8 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). As described previously in Section 4.1.1, + the INSTRUMENTAL denotes a noun which functions as the + INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing + about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples + of usage would be She killed him with a knife, The man + tripped over my foot, The password got him + inside. The INSTRUMENTAL is also used to mark translations + of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the + instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare I pressed the button with + my finger with My finger pressed the button, + both of which would be identical in Ilaksh except for the latter sentence’s + missing agent, I.

    +

    Note that the INSTRUMENTAL does not translate + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied + by’ (see the COMITATIVE case below in Sec. + 4.5.20) as in She arrived with her father. Nor is it used to show + the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the + sentence He cooks with tomatoes (see the COMPOSITIVE case in Sec. 4.5.3), it is not the tomatoes that cook + the food, therefore the INSTRUMENTAL would not be used, + whereas in He fueled the fire with wood it is the wood that fuels the + fire, thus requiring the INSTRUMENTAL case.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.9
    ACT
    		The Activative Case
    +
    +

    The ACTIVATIVE case is marked by Series + 9 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ACTIVATIVE identifies a noun engaged + in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, + creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially + be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated + by the sentence Frank must go to Chicago, in which no actual travel + to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence Mother needs to rest, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both + sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains + an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar + hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences The students want + you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay. + Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” + verbs such as want, need, can, must, etc.

    +

    Notice that the subject of these English sentences (Frank, + Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) are functioning neither as AGENTS + nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify + as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects + are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, + needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, + such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” + the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence Sam wants Shirley + to love him, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked + as EXPERIENCERS using the AFFECTIVE case. Consequently, + Ilaksh uses the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the subject whose + mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized + situation. All of the subjects in the example sentences from the previous paragraph + (i.e., Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) would be so marked. + In Section 6.1 we will see how the ACTIVATIVE is used in conjunction with a morphological + category for verbs termed Modality to create such hypothetical states and situations.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.10
    DER
    		The Derivative Case
    +
    +

    The DERIVATIVE case is marked by Series + 10 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The DERIVATIVE serves two functions + in Ilaksh. Firstly, it identifies an inanimate FORCE of nature (as described + in Sec. 4.1.1) or abstract causative situation which + causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an action, as in The wind blew down the door, or Fame threatened his freedom. + The use of the DERIVATIVE instead of the ERGATIVE or the EFFECTUATIVE denotes that such inanimate agential + forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or willingly initiate + actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the + resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force + or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, + a noun in the DERIVATIVE can often be translated using + phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result + of.’ Nouns in the DERIVATIVE can also appear in + appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun + in the DERIVATIVE denotes the abstract cause or reason + for the other noun, e.g., the danger of fame, love’s heartache, wind song.

    +

    The second function of the DERIVATIVE case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS + of an affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in The coffee smells good, I saw her today, + She hates that boy, Victor coughed from the gas, + We laughed at his jokes, That song makes me + cry. Ilaksh grammar views the stimulus of an experiential state as having + a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as + in the above examples); this explains why the DERIVATIVE case serves to indicate both functions.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.11
    SIT
    		The Situative Case
    +
    +

    The SITUATIVE case is marked by Series + 11 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The SITUATIVE identifies a noun as + the background context for a clause. It is similar to the DERIVATIVE case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship + between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. + It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the + following examples:

    +
    +

    Because of war, our planet will never + be able to join the Federation.
    + Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption + of our children.
    + Using my plan, we will defeat the enemy.

    +
    +


    + 4.3.12 Examples of Transrelative Cases in Use

    +
    +

    Açnăt  ukšüŭl  xmè-ëla  utaluëéx.                                                  LISTEN audio
    + IFL-‘give’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI +    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    + IFL-‘mother’-DAT
    +     FML    -‘written document’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/6
    + The clown gave mother a note.
    +
    + Pšùlk  gmìel  ŧŧöàläč.                                                                           LISTEN audio
    + IFL-‘cough’-PRX/M/CSL/DCT    IFL-‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘odor’-DER-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-QUA1/3
    + The child is coughing due to the awful smell.

    +

    Duňštëmsirxūiç  přĕurn  ukšŭilërz  dà-it.                                     LISTEN audio
    + IFL-‘translative motion’-PRX/U/ASO/COH-AGN2/1-BOD1/1-FRC2/9    IFL-‘anger-based use of force ’-ERG-DEL/M/AGG/VAR    IFL-‘clown’-ABS-IMP2/1    IFL-‘a stone’-INS-DEL/U/CSL/UNI
    + The angry mob stoned the helpless clown to death.
    +(Literally:  trajected-by.hand-with.maximum.force-to.maximum.effect  semi.cohesive.group.-affected.by.anger-acting.as.agent  clown-as.helpless.target  with-stones)

    +


    + Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    çnă- ‘give’ < nă- ‘TRANSFER OF POSSESSION’                                 
    + ukšŭ- ‘clown’ <kšŭ- ‘FOOL/BUFFOON’           
    + àxme(la)- ‘mother’, gmè- ‘child’ < kmè- ‘FAMILY MEMBER’         
    + utá- ‘written document ’ < tá- ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/RECORD’
    + pšù- ‘cough’ < pšù- ‘RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM’                            
    + ŧŧà- ‘odor’ < ŧà- ‘SMELL/ODOR’
    + dū- ‘translative motion ’ < dū- ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’                 
    + dì- ‘a stone ’ < dì- ‘ROCK/MINERAL-BASED FIRMAMENT/GROUND ’
    + přĕ- ‘anger-based use of force’ < přĕ- ‘CONFLICT/ANGER-BASED USE OF FORCE ’
    +
    +

    +
    +

    4.3.13 Specialized Suffixes Used to Expand the Functionality of the Transrelative + Cases

    +

    It should be noted that Ilaksh provides an array of suffixes specifically designed + to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one of the Transrelative cases + to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal + relationships between participants to a verb in an Ilaksh sentence. These suffixes + include the Consent CNS suffix, the Reason RSN suffix, the Expectation XPT suffix, the Deliberateness DLB suffix, the Enablement ENB suffix, the Agency/Intent AGN suffix, and the Impact IMP suffix. These affixes are detailed in Section + 7.4.12 and discussed further in Section + 10.1.2.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    4.4 THE POSESSIVE CASES
    +

    Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually + have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show + varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing + relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    the man’s hat = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]
    + the man’s house = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]
    + the man’s arm = part of his body [inalienable component]
    + the man’s brother = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]
    + the man’s happiness = he feels happy [affective experience]
    + the man’s rescue = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ + purpose]
    + the man’s gift = the gift is for him [benefaction]
    + the man’s gift = the gift is from him [source]
    + the man’s world = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective + association]
    + the man’s team = the team he is associated with [interactive + mutual association]
    + the man’s story = the story about him [topical reference]
    + the man’s painting = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]
    + the man’s command = his being a commander [role or function]

    +
    +

    In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, + e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the + one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do + the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ + one he is giving or receiving? Ilaksh is more exact in specifying the nature + of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed + by the seven Possessive cases.

    +

    The Possessive cases make a distinction between alienable + versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether + the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. + These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many + American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor + noun, not the possessed. The seven Associative cases are the POSSESSIVE, + PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, PRODUCTIVE, INTERPRETATIVE, and ORIGINATIVE. + Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh + examples of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.4.8.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.1
    POS
    		The Possessive Case
    +
    +

    The POSSESSIVE case is marked by Series + 12 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The POSSESSIVE is used to refer to + a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another + noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether + by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in + any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two + can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, + or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent + separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used + to translate English phrases such as his coat (e.g., + the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), the + boy’s book (e.g., the one in his hand), Father’s chair (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.2
    PRP
    		The Proprietive Case
    +
    +

    The PROPRIETIVE case is marked by Series + 13 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PROPRIETIVE identifies a noun having + alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual + control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, + law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The + two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship + cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration, + convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the POSSESSIVE above, we can analyze the connotative difference: his coat (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether + he is wearing it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., + the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the + one assigned to him).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.3
    GEN
    		The Genitive Case
    +
    +

    The GENITIVE case is marked by Series + 14 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The GENITIVE is used to refer to a + noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or + association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent + or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) + bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s doors, the child’s father, the essence of that + woman.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.4
    ATT
    		The Attributive Case
    +
    +

    The ATTRIBUTIVE case is marked by Series + 15 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ATTRIBUTIVE is used to refer to + a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective + (see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another + noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, + whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: his pain, Mother’s guilt, the + child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my needs.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.5
    PDC
    		The Productive Case
    +
    +

    The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by Series + 16 vocalic mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator, + author or originator of another noun, e.g., the girl’s poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue (i.e., the one I sculpted).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.6
    ITP
    		The Interpretative Case
    +
    +

    The INTERPRETATIVE case is marked by + Series 17 vocalic mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun + acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the + noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, + as exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, our world, life as seen by children.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.7
    OGN
    		The Originative Case
    +
    +

    The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by Series + 18 vocalic mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative source of another, or which + is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. , e.g., the man’s story (i.e., the one he told), our gift (i.e., + the one we are giving), water from the river, the fruit of the tree, Fix the kitchen sink! (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), Desert rocks are so + beautiful (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert + or rocks still present in the desert), Northern women are +easy-going.

    +

    The ORIGINATIVE + should be distinguished from the ABLATIVE in Section 4.7.5 below, in that + the ABLATIVE position or path of motion away from, + whereas the ORIGINATIVE merely presents a locational context + as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise similar +noun.

    +


    + 4.4.8 Examples of Possessive Cases in Use +

    +
    +

    LISTEN audio

    +

    ŧàmskäč  akkà’ul
    + IFL-‘gust of odor’-OBL-PRX/M/SEG/UNI-QUA1/3    IFL-‘woman’-OGN-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘woman giving off a bad odor’ or + ‘bad odor coming from/off the woman’ +

    +

    xxàl  štuöl
    + IFL-‘thing seen’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘eagle’-ATT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘what the eagle sees’

    +

    aptrēl  ustūal
    + IFL-‘interior corner’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     FML-‘room/chamber’-GEN-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘corner of a room’

    +

    átalňa  gmeäàl
    + IFL-‘page of writing’-OBL-DEL/M/SEG/COA    IFL-‘male child ’-POS--DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘the boy's book’ [i.e., the one he has in his immediate possession, not one he necessarily owns]
    +
    + uvażgă  ukšë-üŭl
    + FML-‘job/employment’-OBL-PRX/M/CST/COA     FML-‘clown’-PRP-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘the clown's job’

    +


    +Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    ŧà- ‘gust of odor’ < ŧà- ‘SMELL/ODOR’                                        
    + kkà-     ‘woman’ < kà- ‘PERSON’
    + xxà- ‘something seen/a sight ’ < xà- ‘VISION/SIGHT’                     
    + štu- ‘eagle’ <štu- ‘EAGLE’
    + aptrē- ‘interior corner ’ < prē- ‘ANGULAR VERTEX/CORNER’        
    + ustū- ‘room/chamber’ < stū- ‘HOLDING AREA/ENCLOSURE’
    + áta(la)- ‘page of writing’ < tá- ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/RECORD’           
    + agmè    - ‘male child’ < kmè- ‘FAMILY MEMBER’
    +     uvă- ‘job/employment’ < vă- ‘EFFORT/LABOR’                            
    + ukšŭ- ‘clown’ <kšŭ- ‘FOOL/BUFFOON’ 

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    4.5 THE ASSOCIATIVE CASES
    +

    The Associative cases refer to a large group of cases which + modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually adjacent + noun or that it functions in an adverbial relationship to a verb. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, + we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in cat + box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man, etc., or joined by the word + ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., box of coins, dreams + of youth, sounds of laughter, or as a modifier of a verbal phrase. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples + of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.5.34 .

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.1
    PAR
    		The Partitive Case
    +
    +

    The PARTITIVE case is marked by Series + 19 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). When used in conjunction with another noun, the PARTITIVE indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two + nouns, e.g., a cup of coffee, a box(ful) of books, + a train(load) of refugees. When used alone, it signifies + that the context of the phrase or sentence involves only a portion of the noun, + rather than the whole noun, e.g., I ate some bread, Pour (some) water down my back.

    +

    The PARTITIVE is also used to mark a + noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., three boxes, + two clowns, twenty words. This usage + is analyzed in detail in Chapter + 12, where we will see that, in Ilaksh, numbers are formatives (i.e., + full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, + a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not + say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps + more eloquently, “a box trio.”

    +

    The PARTITIVE case is also used in constructing + words for Ilaksh numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed + in Chapter + 12 on enumeration.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.2
    CRS
    		The Contrastive Case
    +
    +

    The CONTRASTIVE case is marked by Series + 20 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONTRASTIVE identifies a distinguishing + characteristic of another noun, i.e., that feature which distinguishes it from + other possible candidates within the given context. It would be used in translating + phrases such as the green bottle (e.g., as opposed + to the blue one); the science text (e.g., versus the + religious text); my statue (i.e., a statue of me); I want your recipe for stew, not soup; + Don’t worry, it’s a pet snake. It also serves to indicate a noun which + has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. + In verbal frame adjuncts it identifies the situation which had been expected + in contrast to what actually takes place. This is translatable by the English + phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘as opposed to,’ or specialized uses of ‘not,’ e.g., Instead + of rain, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, as opposed to +a maid. That's sugar, not salt.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.3
    CPS
    		The Compositive Case
    +
    +

    The COMPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + 21 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The COMPOSITIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is + made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be That + statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) coins, We were caught in a web of lies, I use a wooden ladder, It was a house of cards, Three suits comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups.

    +

    The COMPOSITIVE is also used in conjunction + with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing + or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be She likes to + cook with tomatoes, He reads by candle(light), + That child goes through four sets of clothes a day, My uncle + satisfied his sweet tooth with three chocolate bars.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.4
    PRD
    		The Predicative Case
    +
    +

    The PREDICATIVE case is marked by Series 22 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PREDICATIVE identifies a noun which + constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), + or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by + the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying + on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, + a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, + Can success supported by murder be sustained?

    +

    The PREDICATIVE should be distinguished + from Transrelative cases such as the DERIVATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL, + in that the PREDICATIVE does not denote a cause, merely + the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to + translate anxiety based on terror, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ + or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in + the phrase an attitude fueled by greed, the attitude derives from or + results from greed, but is not relying on it.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.5
    MED
    		The Mediative Case
    +
    +

    The MEDIATIVE case is marked by Series + 23 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The MEDIATIVE indicates the physical, + psychological, or figurative medium through which another noun or event takes + place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as a radio announcement, arrival by water, a letter bomb, air mail, achieving ecstasy through sex, I + showed her my love with chocolate. It should be distinguished + from the INSTRUMENTAL case (see Section 4.3.8 above), + which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a + causative action. For example, in the sentence Call him on the phone!, + translating the phrase on the phone into the INSTRUMENTAL case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call + him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE case + would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.6
    APL
    		The Applicative Case
    +
    +

    The APPLICATIVE case is marked by Series + 24 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which + represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. + As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for + the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be a cup for coffee (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), a box for tools (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold + tools), a room for changing. Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” + cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” + book = ‘a book used as a projectile.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.7
    PUR
    		The Purposive Case
    +
    +

    The PURPOSIVE case is marked by Series + 25 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PURPOSIVE identifies a noun which + characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The PURPOSIVE is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that + the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or + in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another + noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual + instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended + use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or + ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately + an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would + be a coffee cup, a toolbox, a litter box, a trashcan.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.8
    CSD
    		The Considerative Case
    +
    +

    The CONSIDERATIVE case is marked by Series + 26 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONSIDERATIVE identifies a noun + as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs + or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according + to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion + of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s + a coward; He’s leaving town as per orders from the court; + You were arrested pursuant to law; According to our + teacher, humans are descended from apes.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.9
    ESS
    		The Essive Case
    +
    +

    The ESSIVE case is marked by Series 27 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ESSIVE identifies the role or name + by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ + in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would + be used in translating the English sentences They called him a clown, + The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider + you our only hope.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.10
    ASI
    		The Assimilative Case
    +
    +

    The ASSIMILATIVE case is marked by Series + 28 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ASSIMILATIVE identifies a noun used as + a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a + verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in + the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of + usage are She sings like a bird, As children they + seemed to me.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.11
    FUN
    		The Functive Case
    +
    +

    The FUNCTIVE case is marked by Series + 29 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in -ly or the adverbial use of with, identifying the manner in which an action, + event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to + characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately + by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would + be: She dances gracefully (i.e., in a manner characterized + by grace), The boys ate with gusto, That clown is speaking nonsense, Father speaks with such fortitude.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.12
    TFM
    		The Transformative Case
    +
    +

    The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by + Series 30 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome + or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ + or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone + some transformation. Example usages would be The house burned to + ashes, The clown reached a state of tranquility, The + clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank + himself to death.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.13
    REF
    		The Referential Case
    +
    +

    The REFERENTIAL case is marked by Series + 31 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The REFERENTIAL identifies a noun functioning + as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ + ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ + ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ + Examples of use would be a song of love; As for + those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; + His attitude toward women.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.14
    CLA
    		The Classificative Case
    +
    +

    The CLASSIFICATIVE case is marked by + Series 32 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CLASSIFICATIVE identifies a noun + as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various + English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are Place them in groups of three, The workers arranged the + tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can + you count by fives?, I will sort them by color.

    +

    The CLASSIFICATIVE is also used to identify + a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing + the manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time + periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature + of an event. Examples would be Month by month, their departure + crept closer; Year after year, I see more and more clowns; Day in, day out, he’s always working; + The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, bag upon bag; Patient by patient, the nurse administered injections.

    +

    Note that the CLASSIFICATIVE would not + be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used + to translate the sentence One bomb after another fell on the city. + Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations + of the noun (see Sec. + 7.4.4).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.15
    CNV
    		The Conductive Case
    +
    +

    The CONDUCTIVE case is marked by Series + 33 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONDUCTIVE identifies the meaningful + or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship + signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains + to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English + phrases translatable using this case are a circus clown, + a mountain man, a feeling of loneliness, the Mafia’s world, a realm of fear, my life achievement, childhood memories, Let’s + discuss the morality of war.

    +

     

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.16
    IDP
    		The Interdependent Case
    +
    +

    The INTERDEPENDENT case is marked by + Series 34 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The INTERDEPENDENT identifies a noun + which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship + with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal + in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within + it’s natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, + an army general, the blood in my veins, the + driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case + does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the GENITIVE case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, + or the leaves of a tree.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.17
    BEN
    		The Benefactive Case
    +
    +

    The BENEFACTIVE case is marked by Series + 35 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The BENEFACTIVE identifies a noun for + whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the BENEFACTIVE is similar to the DATIVE, except that the BENEFACTIVE implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the + recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or + consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ + Examples of usage are a toy for the children, We threw him a party, Go to the teachers’ + lounge.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.18
    TSP
    		The Transpositive Case
    +
    +

    The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + 36 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution + of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense + of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead + of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are The boss made the speech for me, She went up into the attic for her brother (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.19
    CMM
    		The Commutative Case
    +
    +

    The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by Series + 37 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The COMMUTATIVE translates English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in You + paid too much money for that dress, She kills for thrills.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.20
    COM
    		The Comitative Case
    +
    +

    The COMITATIVE case is marked by Series + 38 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish + or Estonian, the COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’ + in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in The + child went with the clown to the party. Like English ‘with,’ + the COMITATIVE does not imply that the conjoined noun + is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb + as the head noun. For example, in the sentence My father was walking with + a loaf of bread, the loaf of bread is not considered to be itself walking.

    +

    It should be noted, however, that the COMITATIVE is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two + nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences They danced + with each other or Mother wants to talk with you. These would + be translated using the RECIPROCAL valence of the verb, + explained in Section 6.2. + This distinction is illustrated even more clearly by comparing the following + two sentences; the first would be translated using the COMITATIVE, + the second would not: This man fought with my father (e.g., alongside + him during the war) versus This man fought with my father (e.g., they + had a fight with each other).

    +

    Note also that the COMITATIVE is not + used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by + means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as I + cut the meat with a knife. As previously discussed in Section + 4.3.8, instrumentality is indicated by use of the INSTRUMENTAL case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed + in undertaking an act, as in He catches his fish with worms for which the COMPOSITIVE case is used.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.21
    CNJ
    		The Conjunctive Case
    +
    +

    The CONJUNCTIVE case is marked by Series + 39 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONJUNCTIVE translates English + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., + to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary + activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the COMITATIVE above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the walking with + a loaf of bread example from above, it would be incorrect to use the CONJUNCTIVE case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate + the usage, consider the sentence I’m with the brigade. Translating + ‘brigade’ using the COMITATIVE would mean + that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ + while using the CONJUNCTIVE would mean ‘I’m + a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE would be used are They skate with the best team, That teacher works well + with children.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.22
    UTL
    		The Utilitative Case
    +
    +

    The UTILITATIVE case is marked by Series + 40 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in + the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ + where it refers to actual use in progress as in A man with a gun ran into the room. It should be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL (see Sec. 4.3.8) in that the latter indicates the implement + used to accomplish an action, while the UTILITATIVE identifies + a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish + a stated action. For example, compare the sentence The man with + an umbrella was pushing a stroller in the rain (UTILITATIVE) + with The man pushed a stroller in the rain with an umbrella (INSTRUMENTAL). The first sentence implies the man was + pushing a stroller with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the + rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the stroller. + Another way to translate the UTILITATIVE would be to use + an English gerundial construction as in A gun-wielding man ran into the room or An umbrella-toting man pushed + a stroller in the rain.

    +

    Besides the INSTRUMENTAL, the UTILITATIVE should likewise be distinguished from the COMITATIVE case + above, in that the COMITATIVE merely indicates accompaniment, + while the UTILITATIVE indicates use in progress. For example, + the sentence Go sit next to the girl with the book, + if translated using the COMITATIVE would merely identify + a girl who has a book in her visible possession, while with the UTILITATIVE it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.23
    ABE
    		The Abessive Case
    +
    +

    The ABESSIVE case is marked by Series + 41 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ABESSIVE is essentially the opposite + of the COMITATIVE, translating the English ‘without’ + or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not + having’ as in a day without rain or a treeless plain. As noted in the next section below on the CONVERSIVE case, it is not used to translate ‘without’ when + it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome as in I can’t go on without love.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.24
    CVS
    		The Conversive Case
    +
    +

    The CONVERSIVE case is marked by Series + 42 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONVERSIVE is used in conjunction + with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered + a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where + it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the + conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition + ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense + does not correspond to its usual ABESSIVE usage in Sec. + 4.7.1 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by + such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if + it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ + Example of usage: Without peace, this society is doomed; If not for the rain, we would have had a good time.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.25
    COR
    		The Correlative Case
    +
    +

    The CORRELATIVE case is marked by Series + 43 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CORRELATIVE is used to indicate + an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another + noun or verb, including subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic associations. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ + ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association + with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as career goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, + The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, + Our next topic is sex and (or in) art (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Additional examples are years of wonder, + the Clown Planet, life blood, city of + evil. Note that the CORRELATIVE case would often be used to translate constructions for which English often + uses an adjective, e.g., spatial coordinates, the political economy, a dangerous situation (i.e., a situation + characterized by danger).

    +

    When used in contexts involving directional motion or spatial positioning is, + the CORRELATIVE signifies the directional orientation or position of one + noun relative to another, i.e., a noun relative + to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial + orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater + sense once one realizes that, in Ilaksh, most one-to-one spatial relationships + are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the + right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, this use of the CORRELATIVE case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples + of how it would be used are I’m standing four feet north of + the desk, The one hanging above the boxes looks fresh, + It lies at a 30° angle relative to the tree, He turned his back on me, + The upstairs bedroom faces the yard, It’s alongside the + desk (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.26
    DEP
    		The Dependent Case
    +
    +

    The DEPENDENT case is marked by Series + 44 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The DEPENDENT translates the English + phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which + the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be Depending + on the rain, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, depending + on her attitude.

    +

    The DEPENDENT should be distinguished + from the PREDICATIVE case in Sec. + 4.5.4, in that the former denotes contingency, while the PREDICATIVE denotes reliance.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.27
    PVS
    		The Provisional Case
    +
    +

    The PROVISIONAL case is marked by Series + 45 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which + the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required + condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the + main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided + (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ + or ‘but only if,’ e.g., Provided [there’s] food, + I will attend the meeting; We will fight only in case of war.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.28
    PTL
    		The Postulative Case
    +
    +

    The POSTULATIVE case is marked by Series + 46 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The operates somewhat similarly to the PROVISIONAL above, except that the POSTULATIVE implies a causal or + consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s) + and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, + situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, + but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated + by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in + case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where + it means ‘whether’ as in I don’t know if it’s warm + enough, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality + (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). + Examples of usage: If [there’s] snow, I’m not + going out; In case of fire, flee; If friend, + welcome them, if foe, kill ’em.

    +

    The example below is offered to further distinguish the use of the POSTULATIVE case + from the PROVISIONAL case above:

    +

    PROVISIONAL: We’re packing + umbrellas, but only in case of bad weather (i.e., umbrellas + will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).
    + POSTULATIVE: We’re packing umbrellas in + case of bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation +for the possibility of bad weather).
    +

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.29
    DFR
    		The Deferential Case
    +
    +

    The DEFERENTIAL case is marked by Series + 47 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The DEFERENTIAL translates the English + phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or + ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is + paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would + be He remained silent for her sake, They went on with the + ceremony out of respect for the families, They dressed in robes because of tradition.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.30
    CON
    		The Concessive Case
    +
    +

    The CONCESSIVE case is marked by Series + 48 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun, + situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result + which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, + conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ + ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ + ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: In spite of + his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, + I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), + they are welcome, Although foreigners, we will let them attend + the meeting.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.31
    EXC
    		The Exceptive Case
    +
    +

    The EXCEPTIVE case is marked by Series + 49 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The EXCEPTIVE indicates a noun, situation, + or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main + clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ + or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: She loves everybody except + clowns; I like all animals, excluding dogs; He eats + almost anything but (not) spinach.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.32
    AVR
    		The Aversive Case
    +
    +

    The AVERSIVE case is marked by Series + 50 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a + source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions + such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in + avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see Sec. + 5.2) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage + are She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled + by night to avoid the sun.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.33
    CMP
    		The Comparative Case
    +
    +

    The COMPARATIVE case is marked by Series + 51 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being + compared and contrasted to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as + compared to,’ ‘as opposed to.’ With verbal case-frames (see Sec. 5.2) it would translate as + ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). + Examples are She chose the red one as opposed to the blue one, + Sam drives a van as compared to Joe, who prefers a truck.

    +

     

    +

    4.5.34 Examples of Associative Cases in Use

    +
    +

    LISTEN audio

    +

    ukya’al vloliêxek
    + FML-‘coffee bean drink’-PAR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘contain via gravity/basin’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-SSD1/2
    + ‘cup of coffee’

    +

    ukya’ül vloliêxek
    + FML-‘coffee bean drink’-APL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘contain via gravity/basin’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-SSD1/2
    + ‘cup being used for coffee’

    +

    ukyä’ël vloliêxek
    + FML-‘coffee bean drink’-PUR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘contain via gravity/basin’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ2/3-SSD1/2
    + ‘coffee cup’

    +

    knul uçmè’ol
    + IFL-‘snake’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    FML-‘pet/domestic animal’-CRS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘pet snake’

    +

    ūstala  pta’ël
    + FML-‘wall of room’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘wood’-CPS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘wooden wall’

    +

    Axmüùl  uđo’äàh  dupfā.
    + IFL-‘virus’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    FML-‘drink of water’-MED-DEL/M/CSL/AGG   IFL-‘(self-)directed motion’-PRX/N/VAR/UNI
    + ‘The virus spreads via the drinking water.’

    +

    uru’äliòn
    + FML-‘prepared/cooked food’-CSD-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/2
    + ‘according to the cook’

    +

    lásk  sëé’ikf
    + IFL-‘voice’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘piece of music’-ASI-PRX/N/CSL/UNI
    + ‘a voice like music’

    +

    Yadálarai  gmièl  ăkšë’ul.
    + DIR-IFL-‘nickname/label’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-FNC/FAC    IFL-‘male child’-AFF    ‘nerd’-ESS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘Don't call the boy a nerd.’

    +

    átalňa  sfueis
    + IFL-‘page of writing’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/SEG    ‘porcupine’-REF-DEL/N/CSL/UNI
    + ‘a book about porcupines’

    +

    kpiĕul
    + IFL-‘extent of spatial length’-CLA-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + ‘lengthwise’

    +


    + Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    ukya- ‘coffee bean drink ’ < kya- ‘COFFEE PLANT’                     
    + vlô-     ‘contain via gravity/basin’ < vlô- ‘HOLD/CONTAIN/CONTENTS’
    + knu- ‘snake’ < knu- ‘SNAKE’                                                      
    + ùçme- ‘pet land/air animal’ <mè- ‘CLASSES OF ANIMAL’
    + ūsta(la)- ‘wall of room’ < stū- ‘HOLDING AREA/ENCLOSURE’               
    + pta    - ‘wood(en)’ < pa- ‘BRANCHED OR LEAVED PLANT’
    + axmù- ‘virus’ < kmù- ‘LOWER-ORDER LIFE-FORM’     
    + uđò- ‘water as nourishment/drink (of) water ’ < đò- ‘WATER AS SUBSTANCE’
    + adū- ‘self-directed motion ’ < dū- ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION ’           
    + urà- ‘prepared/cooked food’ < rà- ‘NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION ’
    +     lá- ‘voice’ < lá- ‘VOCAL/VERBAL SOUND ’        
    + sé- ‘piece of music’ < sé- ‘MUSIC’
    + áda(la)- ‘nickname’ < dá- ‘NAME/TITLE/APPELLATION’           
    + agmè    - ‘male child’ < kmè- ‘FAMILY MEMBER’
    + ăkšu(la)- ‘nerd’ <kšŭ- ‘FOOL/BUFFOON’                  
    + áta(la)- ‘page of writing’ < tá- ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/RECORD’
    + sfu- ‘porcupine’ < sfu- ‘PORCUPINE’                
    + kpĕ- ‘extent/amount of spatial length ’ < kĕ- ‘LONG/LENGTH’
    +

    +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    4.6 THE TEMPORAL CASES
    +

    The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In + many respects, Ilaksh analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly + in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases + as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ + and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear + using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ + ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the SIMULTANEITIVE, + ASSESSIVE, CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, + POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, and LIMITATIVE. Following are explanations + of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples of these cases + in use are provided in Sec. 4.6.16.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.1
    SML
    		The Simultaneitive Case
    +
    +

    The SIMULTANEITIVE case is marked by + Series 52 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The SIMULTANEITIVE identifies a noun + signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion. + Examples would be I was in class at the same time as his accident, + I worked a side-job concurrent to the strike, She laughed simultaneously + with my coughing fit.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.2
    ASS
    		The Assessive Case
    +
    +

    The ASSESSIVE case is marked by Series + 53 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ASSESSIVE specifies the unit of + time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to + English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be My lawyer + charges by the minute, He publishes several books each + year, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles per hour.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.3
    CNR
    		The Concursive Case
    +
    +

    The CONCURSIVE case is marked by Series + 54 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal + locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during + or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered + a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be He prays during + lunch, She studied hard last night, I won’t + visit until then (i.e., during that period in time).

    +
    +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.4
    ACS
    		The Accessive Case
    +

    The ACCESSIVE case is marked by Series + 55 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The is similar to the CONCURSIVE, except + that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly delimited + period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something + occurs. Examples of usage would be Dinner will be served at sunset; When (i.e., at the moment that) you hear his voice, + call in the clowns; Upon impact, both cars were accelerating.

    +
    +

    +
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.5
    DFF
    		The Diffusive Case
    +

    The DIFFUSIVE case is marked by Series + 56 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The DIFFUSIVE is yet another temporal + locative similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time + period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on + the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase + ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be Most cars had tail fins in those days; I was abroad during + that era; At the time of his death, the number of + clowns was increasing; Over the past several seasons, your + talent has matured.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.6
    PER
    		The Periodic Case
    +

    The PERIODIC case is marked by Series + 57 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PERIODIC identifies the span of + time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This + case should be distinguished from the CONCURSIVE above, + in that the periodic specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions, + or durationally extended acts or states take place, whereas the concursive signifies + a contextually single holistic event. Examples would be He wrote the novel in six months, These clowns can corrupt your child within + a few days, The woman has been ill a lot this year, For the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.7
    PRO
    		The Prolapsive Case
    +

    The PROLAPSIVE case is marked by Series + 58 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PROLAPSIVE signifies the duration + of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case + should be distinguished from the PERIODIC above, in that + the PROLAPSIVE specifies the actual duration of the act, + condition, or event, whereas the PERIODIC merely specifies + a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, + or event occurs. Examples would be He prayed through lunch, While he was dying, the number of clowns increased, It rained all night, It took three days for the fever + to break, She sang for an hour.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.8
    PCV
    		The Precursive Case
    +

    The PRECURSIVE case is marked by Series + 59 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PRECURSIVE identifies a point in + time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred before the war, It rained prior + to his appearance, There will be a presentation preceding the + banquet.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.9
    PCR
    		The Postcursive Case
    +

    The POSTCURSIVE case is marked by Series + 60 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The POSTCURSIVE identifies a point + in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred after the war, It rained subsequent + to his appearance, There will be a presentation following the + banquet.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.10
    ELP
    		The Elapsive Case
    +

    The ELAPSIVE case is marked by Series + 61 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ELAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, + condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ + Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going + back three generations, women could not even vote.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.11
    ALP
    		The Allapsive Case
    +

    The ALLAPSIVE case is marked by Series + 62 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ALLAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of + a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be Four years + from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, + clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little + did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.12
    INP
    		The Interpolative Case
    +

    The INTERPOLATIVE case is marked by Series + 63 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The INTERPOLATIVE is used within the + context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the + duration of each repetition. Examples of usage are We heard several five-second snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals of several + seconds; She gets recurring migraines, each lasting hours.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.13
    EPS
    		The Episodic Case
    +
    +

    The EPISODIC case is marked by Series + 64 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The EPISODIC identifies a contextually + recurring time-period. Examples of usage are The man talks with his mother every three days; Each year, I travel to the + Clown Planet; He works nights; By day, she + is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.14
    PRL
    		The Prolimitive Case
    +
    +

    The PROLIMITIVE case is marked by Series + 65 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PROLIMITIVE defines a point in + time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e., + the time by which some act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would + be By the time of your graduation, I want you out of the + house; Please be on board by midnight; By the time + of the raid, there was nothing left to steal.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.15
    LIM
    		The Limitative Case
    +
    +

    The LIMITATIVE case is marked by Series + 66 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The LIMITATIVE signifies a event culminating + an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time + for.’ Examples of usage are He arrived in time for dinner, + Be inside the Big Tent in time for the clowns.

    +


    + 4.6.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use

    +
    +

    LISTEN audio

    +

    šóyel  kī’al
    + IFL-‘three’-ALP-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘day (24-hr. period)’-PAR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + three days from now

    +

    tayùpla  roi
    + IFL-‘life’-PRL-TRM/M/CSL/UNI     ma-ATT
    + by the time of his death

    +

    ukiyogīnnuik
    + FML-‘day (24-hr. period)’-EPS-DEL/M/COA/DCT-SEQ1/1-SBS2/9
    + on Sundays

    +

    Šówol  kī ’al  žìrskukt  tia.
    + IFL-‘three’-PRO-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘day (24-hr. period)’-PAR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-OPR-‘article of clothing’-PRX/M/CSL/AGG-DEF1/9   1m-IND
    + I’ve been (deliberately) wearing these clothes for three days.

    +

    krûwösk  žoi
    + IFL-‘grief’-PCR-PRX/M/CSL/UNI     1m+2u+ua-ATT
    + after our period of grief

    +


    + Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    šó- ‘three’ < šó-‘THREE’                     
    + kī-     ‘day (= 24-hour period)’ < kī- ‘DAY (24-HOUR PERIOD)’
    + tà- ‘life/living being’ < tà- ‘LIFE/ALIVE/LIVING BEING ’                                                      
    + žì- ‘article of clothing ’ <žì- ‘CLOTHE/CLOTHING/FASHION’
    + krû- ‘grief/sadness from (a) loss’ < krû- ‘GRIEF/SADNESS FROM (A) LOSS’               

    +
    +


    + _____

    + + + + +
    4.7 THE SPATIAL CASES

    +

    As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ilaksh. + While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque + and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional + relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished + in Ilaksh via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be + inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, + there are six cases corresponding to certain types of spatial relationships. + These are the LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, + and NAVIGATIVE.

    +

    Also: see Section 4.5.25 above regarding the use of the CORRELATIVE case in sentences involving spatial direction or orientation.

    +

    Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples of these cases in use are provided + in Sec. 4.7.7.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.1
    LOC
    		The Locative Case
    +
    +

    The LOCATIVE case is marked by Series + 67 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The LOCATIVE signifies general static + position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable + by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ + or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., in that building, by + the wall, on the street, at my house.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.2
    ORI
    		The Orientative Case
    +
    +

    The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by Series + 68 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The ORIENTATIVE identifies the noun + (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” + of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable + into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ + in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., He jumped in feet-first, The car rolled backward. + The ORIENTATIVE allows for the extension of this concept + to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., He walked “butt-ward” + down the street (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading + the way).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.3
    PSV
    		The Procursive Case
    +
    +

    The PROCURSIVE case is marked by Series + 69 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The PROCURSIVE identifies a noun (often + a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point, + interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction + with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun usually appears + in the ALLATIVE case (see below). Examples of use would be They + collided sideways, She turned her back on + him, The chair “faced” the doorway (i.e., + The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.4
    ALL
    		The Allative Case
    +
    +

    The ALLATIVE case is marked by Series + 70 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). When used in the context of explicit or implied directional + motion, the ALLATIVE signifies the direction of motion, + translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ + in English. Note that the ALLATIVE in no way implies that + the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion + or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be I wandered eastward, The little girl ran toward me, Throw + the rock at that clown!, We headed for home.

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.5
    ABL
    		The Ablative Case
    +
    +

    The ABLATIVE case is marked by Series + 71 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion, + the ABLATIVE signifies the general directional origin + of movement away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin + or departure. Examples would be He came out of the east, + She walked here from (the direction of) the river.

    +

    When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the ABLATIVE signifies a reverse directional orientation + of one noun relative to another, e.g., He faced away from me.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.6
    NAV
    		The Navigative Case
    +
    +

    The NAVIGATIVE case is marked by Series + 72 mutation of the stem vowel (see Section 2.5). The NAVIGATIVE identifies the noun + relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event + takes place. This is particularly important, as we will see in Section + 10.4.3 that Ilaksh modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors + of movement or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as + the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be I looked down + the street, We aligned it perpendicular to the path of the + sun, He crossed the room diagonally (i.e., walked + diagonally relative to the long axis of the room.)

    +


    + 4.7.7 Examples of Spatial Cases in Use

    +
    +

    LISTEN audio

    +

    zmäāwal
    + IFL-‘valley’-LOC-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + in the valley

    +

    Żgàwül  đđulīmsërt  rua.
    + IFL-‘head’-ORI-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-OPR-‘downward movement’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGN1/1-PHY2/1    ma-AFF
    + He fell headfirst to his death.

    +

    Xàl  tia  zbřeyüūl.
    + IFL-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    1m-IND    IFL-‘pathway’-NAV
    + I’m looking down the path.

    +


    + Stems/Roots for above examples:

    +

    zmā- ‘valley’ < smā-‘ELEVATION OF TERRAIN/RELATIVE ALTITUDE OF GEOGRAPHIC FEATURE OR AREA ’
    + żgà- ‘head (as physical body part)’ < żà- ‘HEAD’     
    + đđū- ‘downward movement/motion’ < đū- ‘VERTICAL (UPWARD/DOWNWARD) MOVEMENT/MOTION’           
    + urà- ‘prepared/cooked food’ < rà- ‘NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION ’
    +     xà- ‘see’ < xà- ‘VISION/SIGHT’        
    + zbřē- ‘pathway’ < vrē- ‘COURSE/WAY’
    +

    +
    +
    +


    + Proceed to Chapter 5: Verb Morphology >>

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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
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    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 5: Verb Morphology

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      5.1 Mood  5.5 Version   
      5.2 Case-Frames  5.6 Aspect   
      5.3 Phase  5.7 Illocution   
      5.4 Sanction  5.8 Level   
    +

    The Ilaksh verbal formative (termed “verb” in + this chapter for simplicity’s sake) is the workhorse of the language, + inflecting for twenty-one different morphological categories. These include + the seven categories shared by all formatives and already discussed in Chapter + 3: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension, Essence, + Context, and Designation. Additionally the following + fourteen categories apply solely to verbs: Mood, Function, Illocution, Level, Case-Frame, Format, Modality, Valence, Validation, Phase, + Sanction, Version, + Aspect, and Bias. The verb can also + theoretically take any number of the over 1300 suffixes available to formatives. + Such suffixes are analyzed in Chapter + 7.

    +

    The full structure of a Ilaksh verbal formative is in two parts, + i.e., having two distinct words, these being a valence/modality adjunct + and the verb itself. In simple sentences, the valence/modality adjunct may be missing. The following extreme example of a fully inflected + Ilaksh verb illustrates all the morphological components of the two-word structure:

    +
    +

    höčoum-mūi’ň   uçweu’çrunsta’ūiđxö         LISTEN audio

    +
    + + + + + +
    +

    h.ö.č.ou.m-m.ūi.’ň

    +

    Validation: PRESUMPTIVE 2
    + Valence: DEMONSTRATIVE
    + Incorporated Stem: čō ‘make/construct’
    + Designation of Incorporated Stem: FORMAL
    + Modality: DESIDERATIVE
    + Aspect 1: REGRESSIVE
    + Bias: COINCIDENTAL

    +
    +

    u.çw.eu’.çr.u.n.st.a’ūi.đx.ö

    +

    Level: SURPASSIVE-RELATIVE
    + Illocution: COMMISSIVE
    + Designation: FORMAL +
    + Essence: REPRESENTATIVE
    + Format: AUTHORITIVE
    + Apect 2: IMMINENT
    + Phase: RECURRENT
    + Sanction: REFUTATIVE
    + Version: COMPLETIVE
    +     Function: INCHOATIVE
    + Root: stā ‘chamber; spatial enclosure’
    + Case-Frame: CONCESSIVE
    + Extension: PROXIMAL
    + Perspective: ABSTRACT
    + Configuration: COMPOSITE
    + Affiliation: COALESCENT
    + Mood: SUBJUNCTIVE
    + Context: AMALGAMATIVE +

    +
    +

    A highly stilted but approximate English translation of the + above, capturing as many of the nuances of the Ilaksh phrase as possible, would + be: ‘…despite presumably being on the verge, contrary to the + allegation, of just so happening to want to succeed in vowing to maybe return + periodically to the honorable practice of superlative architecture for others + to follow by example’

    +

    Of the 14 morphological + categories particular to verbal formatives, we will examine in this chapter eight of the ten which constitute part of the verbal formative itself (Mood, Case-Frame, Phase, Sanction, Version, Aspect, Illocution, and Level). The remaining categories specific to valence/modality adjuncts (Modality, Valence, Validation, and Bias) will be described in Chapter + 6. Additionally, the categories of Function and Format, while displayed within the formative, are closely allied with the phenomenon of stem incorporation which is displayed within the valence/modality adjunct. Therefore, Function, Format, and stem incorporation will be discussed together in Chapter 6.

    +


    +
    +

    +
    + + + + +
    5.1 MOOD
    +
    +

    Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example + moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., Go now!, Sing it for + us! ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., She would travel + if she could), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here), and hortative (indicating + exhortations, e.g., May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!).

    +

    We will see later in Section 5.7 + that in Ilaksh the functions of certain moods in Western languages + correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically + where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ilaksh, moods + simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance + is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether + the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance + (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality + of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders eight moods in Ilaksh.

    +

    The eight moods are FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE, + SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE, and ASCRIPTIVE. +(These are the same as in Ithkuil and have the same function.) They are shown in conjunction with the morphological category of Context (see Section 3.5) by a vocalic suffix. Table 10 below shows these suffixes.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +


    + Table 10: VF-suffix Indicating 4 contexts x 8 moods

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    MOOD
    +
    CONTEXT
    + (explained in Sec. 3.5)
    + ↓
    +

    + FAC

    + SUB

    + ASM

    + SPE

    + HYP

    + COU

    + IPL

    + ASC
    1 EXISTENTIAL
    (a)*
    o
    ü
    ei
    iu
    au
    io
    uo
    2 FUNCTIONAL
    ai
    i
    oi
    ë
    ia
    ua
    ie
    ue
    3 REPRESENTATIONAL
    u
    e
    ëi
    ëu
    ea
    oa
    eo
    üo
    4 AMALGAMATE
    ui
    ö
    ou
    eu
    ï
    iö
    öi
    öu
    +*The suffix -a, being the "default" suffix is optional. It usually appears when an additional syllable is phonotactically necessary or for differentiating syllabic stress.
    +
    +
    +

    The function of the eight moods is described in the sections below.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.1
    FAC
    		The Factual
    +
    +

    The FACTUAL mood signifies that the + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality + is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. + Examples:

    +

    His kids are ill. [i.e., it is known he has kids and + it is known they are ill]

    +

    We’re taking a walk later on. [i.e., it is our + intention and we have the opportunity to do so]
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.2
    SUB
    		The Subjunctive
    +
    +

    The SUBJUNCTIVE mood indicates that the + factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the + particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition + is true. Examples:

    +

    Maybe his kids are ill. [i.e., it is known that he + has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]

    +

    We may take a walk later on. [i.e., it is known that + the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose + to]
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.3
    ASM
    		The Assumptive
    +
    +

    The ASSUMPTIVE mood functions identically to the FACTUAL except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore + conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to + the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:

    +

    His kids’ll be ill OR If he has kids, they are ill. [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, + but if he does, they are certainly ill.]

    +

    We’ll take a walk later on [i.e., if we can] OR We intend to take a walk. [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.4
    SPC
    		The Speculative
    +
    +

    The SPECULATIVE mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement + itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + Compare the examples below to those above:

    +

    Maybe his kids are ill [i.e., it is unknown if he + has kids but if he does, they may be ill].

    +

    We may take a walk later on [i.e., it is unknown whether + we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether + we will choose to].
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.5
    COU
    		The Counterfactive
    +
    +

    The COUNTERFACTIVE mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific + translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with + the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

    +

    His kids would be (would have been) ill [i.e., if + he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].

    +

    We would take (would have taken) a walk later on [i.e., + it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.6
    HYP
    		The Hypothetical
    +
    +

    The HYPOTHETICAL mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is + false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if + a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject + to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the + examples below to those above.

    +

    His kids might’ve been ill [if he had kids, + but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].

    +

    We might’ve taken a walk later on [i.e., but + we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.7
    IPL
    		The Implicative
    +
    +

    The IMPLICATIVE mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between + the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect + chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below.

    +

    His kids are (must be) ill [i.e., as implied by some + other fact such as his staying home from work].

    +

    If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk + later on OR She’s wearing + a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on [i.e., + the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.8
    ASC
    		The Ascriptive
    +
    +

    The ASCRIPTIVE mood functions identically to the IMPLICATIVE immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from + the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples:

    +

    His kids may be ill [i.e., as implied by some other + fact such as his staying home from work].

    +

    If she wears a blue dress, we might be taking a walk later + on OR She’s wearing a + blue dress, so that means we might be taking a walk later on [i.e., the + dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility]. 

    +


    + 5.1.9 Examples of Mood in Use

    +

    The following examples compare the eight moods applied to the same sentence:

    +
    +

    Ūalkresk  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-(FAC)    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + His wife’s clothes are inside-out.

    +

    Uālkresko  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SUB    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + His wife’s clothes may be inside-out.

    +

    Uālkreskü  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-ASM    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + If he has a wife her clothes are inside-out.

    +

    Uālkreskei  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SPE    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + If he has a wife her clothes may be inside-out.

    +

    Uālkreskiu  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-HYP    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + If he were to have a wife her clothes would be inside-out.

    +

    Uālkreskau  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-COU    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + If he were to have a wife her clothes might be inside-out.

    +

    Ualkrēskio  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IPL    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + His wife’s clothes must be inside-out.

    +

    Ualkrēskuo  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-ASC    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + That means his wife’s clothes are inside-out.
    +

    +

     

    +
    +

    +
    + + + + +
    5.2 CASE-FRAMES
    +
    +

    Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically + embedded within other sentences, a process termed subordination. + In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause + or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ + ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ + or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by + whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or + gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated + in the following sentences:

    +
    +

    The dog that ate my hat belongs to + them.
    + I want him to stop shouting.
    + The committee voted to fire the superintendant.
    + We demand (that) you give us equal pay.
    + Although he’s a college graduate, he acts like a child.
    + This is the slot through which the letter is passed.
    + In case you’re unaware, I’ll be leaving next + month.
    + The boy walking toward us is my nephew.

    +
    +

    The Ilaksh equivalent to relative or subordinate clauses is + known as a case-frame, or simply, frame. Conceptually, + the sentence to be embedded is simply treated as a noun participant to the main + verb of a sentence and is therefore marked for case like any other noun. For + example, take the following two sentences:

    +
    +

    She and I were working together.
    + The two nations were at war.

    +
    +

    Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal + context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating + the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ + as in She and I were working together while the two nations were at war. + Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional + phrase, as in She and I were working together during the time (that) the + two nations were at war.

    +

    In Ilaksh, temporal context for a sentence may be provided + by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the CONCURSIVE (see Sec. 4.6.3). A word + such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to create a sentence corresponding to:

    +
    +

    She and I were working together during the summer.
    + She and I were working together at the time of the famine.

    +
    +

    Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ + are placed in the CONCURSIVE case, so an entire sentence + such as The two nations were at war can be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words, + Ilaksh treats the entire subordinate sentence as a noun phrase to be declined + into any required case. That is the purpose of a frame, to place sentences into + noun cases. By doing so, Ilaksh accomplishes the same task for which Western + languages use relative and subordinate conjunctions. In theory, any sentence + can be placed into any of the 96 cases and inserted into another sentence wherever + a simple noun might be placed in the sentence using that same case.

    +


    + 5.2.1 Relation and the Placement of Frames

    +

    To construct a case-frame, the second-order sentence (i.e., + the sentence to be subordinated) is placed in the main sentence at the point + where a noun declined for the required case would appear. The actual case of the second-order sentence is indicated in the verbal + formative the same way as for nominal formatives, i.e., by mutation of the + stem vowel into the appropriate mutation series, as described in Chapter 4 on Case. If inserted + into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame should + be a noun (or a personal reference adjunct – see Sec. + 8.1) and carries a special suffix, V1’ (see details in Section 7.4.13), which signifies the end of the frame if + this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside + the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main +sentence.

    +

    A case-frame usually has its verb appear + as the first element of the case frame. This is to easily recognize the beginning + of the case-frame visible via the mutation of the stem vowel to show the case (see Section 2.5 and Chapter 4). For case-frames in the OBLIQUE case where the stem vowel does not mutate, or where otherwise necessary to overtly indicate that the formative is part of a case frame, the suffix V1’ is added to the formative (details in Section 7.4.13).

    +

    In general, the perspective of the verb in + the secondary sentence operates independently from that of the main verb, however, + it is also common for the perspective of the verb in the secondary sentence + to be placed in the ABSTRACT, which has the effect of + deferring all Perspective information about the verb to the main verb, similarly to the way English subordinate + clauses using gerunds and infinitives defer all tense information to the main +verb of the sentence.
    +

    +

    5.2.2 Reinterpreting the Notion of a Relative Clause

    +

    There is no direct equivalent in Ilaksh to the relative clauses + of Western languages. Ilaksh treats such clauses the same as subordinate clauses + using case-frames as described above. However, the manner in which this is done, + while ultimately logical, is somewhat complex and confusing from a Western perspective. + Therefore, to analyze how Ilaksh reinterprets Western relative clauses into + subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative + clauses in Western languages such as English.

    +

    A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies + or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types + of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent). + The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.

    +

    RESTRICTED CLAUSE
    + (1) Lions that like chasing their tails can be seen at + any circus.
    + (2) That book (that) I just finished reading was written + by a priest.

    +

    UNRESTRICTED CLAUSE
    + (3) Lions, which like chasing their tails, can be seen + at any circus.
    + (4) That book, which I just finished reading, was written + by a priest.

    +

    In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing + their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, + not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just + finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered + by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked + about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the + speaker was referring to.

    +

    Note the difference in meaning, however, when comparing the + first two sentences to the third and fourth sentences. In the third sentence, + the speaker implies that all lions chase their tails regardless of whether they + are in the circus. In the fourth sentence, the identity of the book is already + known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts + about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author. + Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing + by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ + or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in + a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immediately before and + after the clause.

    +


    + 5.2.2.1 Restricted Clauses. Ilaksh treats the above notions + about relative clauses in a different way. We will first analyze how Ilaksh + creates equivalents to restricted relative clauses. This can best be approached + by analyzing the underlying sentences which give rise to the main and relative + clauses. Analyzing Sentence No. 2 above, it can be broken up into two discrete + sentences:

    +

    That book was written by a priest. (= A priest wrote that + book.)
    + I just finished reading that book.

    +

    In Ilaksh, the sentence which will be functioning as the + main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence + is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on + what semantic role, i.e., case (see Chapter + 4) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference + of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that + book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See Sec. + 4.1.2), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the ABSOLUTIVE subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template + ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the OBLIQUE case (See Section 4.3.1). + Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the common point of + reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of + the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have + the two sentences as:

    +
    +

    A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-H.

    +
    +

    The ‘-H’ in the second sentence + above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common + reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ilaksh inserts the + second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the + semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked + by the OBLIQUE case (see Sec. + 4.3.1).

    +
    +

    A priest wrote [OBL]. I just finish + reading that book-H.

    +
    +

    As described in Sec. 5.2.1 above , the verb + of the secondary sentence is moved to the beginning of the case-frame and takes + the relevant case marker (OBLIQUE).

    +
    +

    A priest wrote I just finished reading-OBL that book-H.

    +
    +

    Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest + literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: A priest wrote + what I just finished reading, that book. However, this is how Ilaksh translates + the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’

    +

    Two observations can be noted from the Ilaksh sentence. First + of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” + Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, + there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types + of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged + (or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence, + the exact same way that subordinate clauses are constructed in Ilaksh. Therefore, + as was previously stated, Ilaksh makes no distinction between subordinate and + relative clauses.

    +

    Similarly, the other example sentence from above, Lions + that like chasing their tails can be seen at any circus would become in + Ilaksh: At any circus one can see certain lions-H like to chase-OBL their tails. A literal + translation into English would be: At any circus one can see (that) certain + lions like chasing their tails.

    +


    + 5.2.2.2 Unrestricted Clauses. As for independent or unrestricted + clauses, as shown in example sentences (3) and (4) earlier, Ilaksh treats these + differently still. In Western languages, an unrestricted clause does not help + to identify a noun or provide a context for it, but simply adds additional information + about an already identified noun. Thus, unrestricted relative clauses serve + a wholly different cognitive-semantic purpose than restricted clauses, a fact + hidden by their nearly identical surface structures. Ilaksh acknowledges this + profound difference at the overt sentence level by not subordinating any clause + at all. Rather, the two sentences are given co-equal status as main clauses + and simply joined by a coordinating affix. Thus sentences (3) and (4) from earlier + become:

    +
    +

    One can see lions at any circus and they like chasing + their tails.
    + A priest wrote that book and I just finished reading it.

    +
    +


    + 5.2.2.3 Use of the CORRELATIVE Case In Lieu of Simple + Relative Clauses. The CORRELATIVE case (discussed in Section + 4.5.25) is used to create case-frames which are semantically equivalent to the English phrase ‘that/which/who + is/are…’ Such a case-frame would be used in conjunction with specific Functions (see Section 6.4) to convey whether the relationship of the relativized clause to the main clause is one of description, copula identification, etc.

    +


    + 5.2.3 Example of Case-Frames in Use

    +
    +

    Andmùt  žiëlùimäv  asavéwöc   ukšu’ŭs  ajgălärň  žö’äàcërb.
    + IFL/ICH-‘cry’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘article of clothing’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-ROL2/9-CAP1/3    IFL-CPT-OPR-‘know’-PCR-DEL/A/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-OGN-DEL/N/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘rule’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPP1/3     IFL-“article of clothing’-PUR-DEL/A/CSL/UNI-DEV2/1
    + The incompetent tailor cried after finding out about the clowns’ new directive on nakedness.

    +

    Ria  uleuvăst  utpu’öustūyüž.
    + ma-IND     FML/OPR-PRC/CTX/PPS-CNT-‘job/employment’-PRX/M/ASO/UNI     FML-OPR-‘travel’-CON-PRX/M/ASO/UNI-EXD1/9-CNS1/6
    + He keeps on working despite having to travel more and more.
    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    5.3 PHASE
    +
    +

    Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an + act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive + manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena + that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, + alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of + Extension, previously described in Sec. + 3.4, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative + pattern of a state, action or event. The nine phases are the CONTEXTUAL, + PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE, + and FLUCTUATIVE. These are the same as in Ithkuil. They are marked by one of nine patterns + of the Cx affix to a formative, depending on the sanction + and version of the verb (discussed in Sections 5.4 and 5.5 respectively).

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The presence of a Cx infix requires the presence of a Vc prefix, in order to able to distinguish the Cx infix from the Cr root consonant(s). Furthermore, under certain circumstances, the presence of the Cx + Vp syllable requires that the Vc prefix take an alternate form in order to be able able to discern which consonants in a formative correspond to which terms in the formula below. The specifics of these alternate Vc prefix forms and when/how to use them which will be explained in Section 6.5.2.

    +

    The values for the Cx affix are + shown in Tables 11(a) through 11(f) below.
    +

    +Tables 11(a)-(f): Cx infixes:  9 Sanction x 9 Phases x 6 versions +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    PROCESSUAL
    +
    PRC
    CTX
    Contextual
    l
    ll
    mn
    rl
    lr
    nm
    lř
    lw
    ly
    PCT
    Punctual
    t
    tt
    lt
    rt
    tr
    tl
    tř
    tw
    ty
    ITR
    Iterative
    k
    kk
    lk
    rk
    kr
    kl
    kř
    kw
    ky
    REP
    Repetitive
    p
    pp
    lp
    rp
    pr
    pl
    př
    pw
    py
    ITM
    Intermittent
    r
    rr
    ř
    řl
    řř
    řw
    řy
    rw
    ry
    RCT
    Recurrent
    f
    ff
    lf
    rf
    fr
    fl
    fř
    fw
    fy
    FRE
    Frequentative
    ŧ
    ŧŧ
    lŧ
    rŧ
    ŧr
    ŧl
    ŧř
    ŧw
    ŧy
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    x
    xx
    lx
    rx
    xr
    xl
    ňm
    xw
    ňn
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    nt
    mp
    ňk
    nd
    mb
    ňg
    nŧ
    mf
    ňx
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    COMPLETIVE
    +
    CPT
    CTX
    Contextual
    s
    ss
    ls
    rs
    sr
    sl
    sř
    sw
    sy
    PCT
    Punctual
    š
    šš
    lš
    rš
    šr
    šl
    šř
    šw
    šy
    ITR
    Iterative
    h
    hh
    lh
    rh
    hr
    hl
    ňh
    hw
    řç
    REP
    Repetitive
    v
    vv
    lv
    rv
    vr
    vl
    vř
    vw
    vy
    ITM
    Intermittent
    đ
    đđ
    lđ
    rđ
    đr
    đl
    đř
    đw
    đy
    RCT
    Recurrent
    ç
    çç
    lç
    rç
    çr
    çl
    çř
    çw
    mç
    FRE
    Frequentative
    b
    bb
    lb
    rb
    br
    bl
    bř
    bw
    by
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    d
    dd
    ld
    rd
    dr
    dl
    dř
    dw
    dy
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    g
    gg
    lg
    rg
    gr
    gl
    gř
    gw
    gy
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    INEFFECTUAL
    +
    INE
    CTX
    Contextual
    m
    mm
    lm
    rm
    mr
    ml
    mř
    mw
    my
    PCT
    Punctual
    n
    nn
    ln
    r n
    nr
    nl
    nř
    nw
    ny
    ITR
    Iterative
    ň
    ňň
    lň
    r ň
    ňr
    ňl
    ňř
    ňw
    ňç
    REP
    Repetitive
    z
    zz
    lz
    rz
    zr
    zl
    zř
    zw
    zy
    ITM
    Intermittent
    ž
    žž
    lž
    rž
    žr
    žl
    žř
    žw
    žy
    RCT
    Recurrent
    c
    cc
    lc
    rc
    cr
    cl
    cř
    cw
    cy
    FRE
    Frequentative
    č
    čč
    lč
    rč
    čr
    čl
    čř
    čw
    čy
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    ż
    żż
    lż
    rż
    żl
    żr
    żř
    żw
    ży
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    j
    jj
    lj
    rj
    jl
    jr
    jř
    jw
    jy
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    INCOMPLETIVE
    +
    INC
    CTX
    Contextual
    sk
    zg
    sx
    skl
    zgl
    skr
    zgr
    skř
    zgř
    PCT
    Punctual
    st
    zd
    sŧ
    stl
    zdl
    str
    zdr
    stř
    zdř
    ITR
    Iterative
    sp
    zb
    sf
    spl
    zbl
    spr
    zbr
    spř
    zbř
    REP
    Repetitive
    šk
    žg
    šx
    škl
    žgl
    škr
    žgr
    škř
    žgř
    ITM
    Intermittent
    št
    žd
    šŧ
    štl
    ždl
    štr
    ždr
    štř
    ždř
    RCT
    Recurrent
    šp
    žb
    šf
    špl
    žbl
    špr
    žbr
    špř
    žbř
    FRE
    Frequentative
    sm
    zm
    šm
    žm
    ms
    mš
    mz
    mž
    mv
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    sn
    zn
    šn
    žn
    ns
    nš
    nz
    nž
    nđ
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    sň
    zň
    šň
    žň
    ňs
    ňš
    ňz
    ňž
    ňv
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    POSITIVE
    +
    PST
    CTX
    Contextual
    ks
    gz
    çc
    kc
    hs
    ksm
    ksn
    ksr
    ksl
    PCT
    Punctual
    kš
    gž
    çč
    kč
    hš
    kšm
    kšn
    kšr
    kšl
    ITR
    Iterative
    ps
    bz
    fs
    pc
    vz
    psm
    psn
    psr
    psl
    REP
    Repetitive
    pš
    bž
    fš
    pč
    vž
    pšm
    pšn
    pšr
    pšl
    ITM
    Intermittent
    cm
    cn
    żm
    żn
    sv
    zv
    ftl
    xpl
    xtl
    RCT
    Recurrent
    čm
    čn
    jm
    jn
    šv
    žv
    ftr
    xpr
    xtr
    FRE
    Frequentative
    tm
    tn
    dm
    dn
    ŧm
    ŧn
    ht
    hd
    hn
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    km
    kn
    gm
    gn
    xm
    xn
    hk
    hg
    hň
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    pm
    pn
    bm
    bn
    fm
    fn
    hp
    hb
    hm
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    EFFECTIVE
    +
    EFC
    CTX
    Contextual
    çt
    ct
    čt
    jt
    çtl
    çtr
    ttw
    tty
    nç
    PCT
    Punctual
    çk
    ck
    čk
    jk
    çkl
    çkr
    kkw
    kky
    kç
    ITR
    Iterative
    çp
    cp
    čp
    jp
    çpl
    çpr
    ppw
    ppy
    pç
    REP
    Repetitive
    tp
    db
    ŧp
    tf
    ŧf
    tpl
    tpr
    ntl
    nt
    ITM
    Intermittent
    kp
    gb
    xp
    kf
    xf
    kpl
    kpr
    mpl
    mpr
    RCT
    Recurrent
    kt
    gd
    xt
    kŧ
    xŧ
    ktl
    ktr
    ňkl
    ňkr
    FRE
    Frequentative
    pt
    bd
    ft
    pŧ
    fŧ
    ptl
    ptr
    ndl
    ndr
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    pk
    bg
    fk
    fkl
    fkr
    pkl
    pkr
    mbl
    mb
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    tk
    dg
    ŧk
    ŧkl
    ŧkr
    tkl
    tkr
    ňgl
    ňgr
    +


    + The nine phases + are explained in the following sections. Sanction and Version are explained in Sections 5.4 and 5.5 respectively.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.1
    CTX
    		The Contextual
    +
    +

    The CONTEXTUAL is the default phase, + describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not + instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual + duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can + be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., —
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.2
    PUN
    		The Punctual
    +
    +

    The PUNCTUAL describes an act, condition, + or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as + an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between + two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It + can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.3
    ITR
    		The Iterative
    +
    +

    The ITERATIVE refers to a momentary or + instantaneous event, like the PUNCTUAL above, which repeats + itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe + light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, + the whole comprising a single CONTEXTUAL event.

    +

    Visual representation: • + • • •

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.4
    REP
    		The Repetitive
    +
    +

    The REPETITIVE refers to a relatively + brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the CONTEXTUAL phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being + honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual + representation: — — + — —
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.5
    ITM
    		The Intermittent
    +
    +

    The INTERMITTENT is similar to the ITERATIVE above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a PUNCTUAL event, however, unlike the ITERATIVE, the duration of + time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would + be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping + of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc.

    +

    Visual representation: — • — • — • — •
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.6
    RCT
    		The Recurrent
    +
    +

    The RECURRENT is to the REPETITIVE as the INTERMITTENT is to the ITERATIVE. + It indicates a slow repetition of a CONTEXTUAL event, + where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. + Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl.

    +

    Visual representation: —— ——— ——— ——— —
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.7
    FRE
    		The Frequentative
    +
    +

    The FREQUENTATIVE indicates an iterative + occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, + the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. Examples + would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short + bursts of a jackhammer.

    +

    Visual representation: ——• + • •— • • + •— • • + •— • • + •
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.8
    FRG
    		The Fragmentative
    +
    +

    The FRAGMENTATIVE indicates a random + pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event.

    +

    Visual representation: ——• + •— • • • ——• + • —• • • + • •—— • —• + •
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.9
    FLC
    		The Fluctuative
    +
    +

    The FLUCTUATIVE indicates a random pattern + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of + birds in the wild, etc.

    +

    Visual representation:—— + • • —— • — • •— ——• + • — • + • • —• + •— —— • — • •

    +

     

    +

    5.3.10 Examples of Phase in Use

    +
    +

    Uxakloskò.
    + FRM-PRC/FRG/PPS-OPR-‘rain’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SUB
    + It may be raining.

    +

    Apaččàsk  ta’ulštíën.
    + IFL-PRC/REP/PPS-OPR-‘sound’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘inscribe’-OGN-PRX/U/ASO/DCT-AGC2/7
    + The sound coming from the banks of printers keeps on steadily repeating.

    +

    Antaláršp  azdlëh.
    + IFL-PRC/FLC/PPS-OPR-‘voice’-PRX/U/VAR/AGG    IFL-‘bird’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/AGG
    + Birds are chirping, tweeting, and calling.

    +

    Epsiolřūl  aktäàl.
    + IFL-PST/ITR/PPS-TMP-ATV-‘circular motion’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘man’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The man succeeded in twirling/spinning around for a while.

    +

     

    +


    +

    +
    +
    + + + + +
    5.4 SANCTION
    +
    +

    The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related + purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener + should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance + is a neutral proposition or assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption, + a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.

    +

    There are nine sanctions: the PROPOSITIONAL, + EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE, + and AXIOMATIC. Sanction is shown by the Cx affix to formative, as shown in Table + 11 in Sec. 5.3 above, the specific affix value being dependent on the version + and phase of the verb.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The presence of a Cx infix requires the presence of a Vc prefix, in order to able to distinguish the Cx infix from the Cr root consonant(s). Furthermore, under certain circumstances, the presence of the Cx + Vp syllable requires that the Vc prefix take an alternate form in order to be able able to discern which consonants in a formative correspond to which terms in the formula below. The specifics of these alternate Vc prefix forms and when/how to use them which will be explained in Section 6.5.2.

    +

    Each sanction is explained in the sections below.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.1
    PPS
    		The Propositional
    +
    +

    The PROPOSITIONAL sanction is either + unmarked (where there is no aspectual adjunct), or marked by Grade 1 mutation + of the Cx affix. It is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents + a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a + statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. + Example of such statements would be That is a mountain, or I’m + hungry.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.2
    EPI
    		The Epistemic
    +
    +

    The EPISTEMIC sanction is marked by Grade + 2 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance as being a statement + of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention + (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human + knowledge. An example would be That mountain is Mount Fuji or The + U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.3
    ALG
    		The Allegative
    +
    +

    The ALLEGATIVE sanction is marked by Grade + 3 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + or refutation. Examples would be That mountain is beautiful or No + one in the United States goes hungry.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.4
    IPU
    		The Imputative
    +
    +

    The IMPUTATIVE sanction is marked by Grade + 4 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective + or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a + sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be He knows + how to drive [e.g., because he owns a car] or She can’t be hungry + now [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant].
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.5
    RFU
    		The Refutative
    +
    +

    The REFUTATIVE sanction is marked by Grade + 5 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic + in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically + objective fact.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.6
    REB
    		The Rebuttative
    +
    +

    The REBUTTATIVE sanction is marked by Grade + 6 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based + on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief, + or interpretation.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.7
    THR
    		The Theoretical
    +
    +

    The THEORETICAL sanction is marked by Grade + 7 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.8
    EXV
    		The Expatiative
    +
    +

    The EXPATIATIVE sanction is marked by Grade + 8 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.9
    AXM
    		The Axiomatic
    +
    +

    The AXIOMATIC sanction is marked by Grade + 9 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential + fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be Gravity + is ubiquitous, or Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food.

    +


    + 5.4.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use

    +
    +

    Amnemrûsk  zmöōal.
    + IFL-PRC/CTX/ALG-PRS-OPR-‘awe’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘valley’-DER-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The valley will be awe-inspiring.

    +

    Anmeulkrûsk  àgmiel.
    + IFL-PRC/CTX/REB-CNT-STA-‘sadness’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘female child ’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + On the contrary, the girl is still sad.

    +

    Uxriwöôluëŧ  wain-nya  u’rleuvaskăr  ktòal.
    + FML-‘incident’-PCR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT2/6     INF-MNO-CPC    FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-CNT-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5     IFL-‘man’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + After an incident like that, it's a fair guess the man won’t be able to work any longer.

    +

     

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    5.5 VERSION
    +

    Version refers to a six-way aspectual distinction indicating + whether the verb refers to an act, event or state which is goal- or result-oriented, + and/or whether it has been successfully actualized subsequent to one’s + initial intention. Like many Ilaksh morphological categories, version addresses + semantic distinctions which are usually rendered by lexical differentiation + (i.e., word choice) in other languages.

    +

    Version is shown by the Cx affix to a formative, in conjunction with Phase and Sanction as explained above in Sections 5.3 and 5.4. The values for Cx are shown above in Table 11 above. The six versions are PROCESSUAL, COMPLETIVE, INEFFECTUAL, INCOMPLETIVE, POSITIVE and EFFECTIVE.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The presence of a Cx infix requires the presence of a Vc prefix, in order to able to distinguish the Cx infix from the Cr root consonant(s). Furthermore, under certain circumstances, the presence of the Cx + Vp syllable requires that the Vc prefix take an alternate form in order to be able able to discern which consonants in a formative correspond to which terms in the formula below. The specifics of these alternate Vc prefix forms and when/how to use them which will be explained in Section 6.5.2.

    +


    + The six versions are explained below:
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.1
    PRC
    		The Processual
    +
    +

    The PROCESSUAL describes all acts, conditions, + or events which are ends in themselves and not goal-oriented, i.e., are not + focused on an anticipated outcome or final purpose toward which a progressive + effort is being made.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.2
    CPT
    		The Completive
    +
    +

    The COMPLETIVE describes acts, conditions, + or events which achieve, or are intended to achieve, an anticipated outcome, + i.e., which are oriented toward the achievement of some purpose, outcome, or + final state. Such a distinction is usually handled by word choice in Western + languages. The dynamism of Version can be seen in the following comparisons:

    +
    +

    PROCESSUAL → COMPLETIVE

    +

    hunt → to hunt down
    + to be losing → to lose
    + to study → to learn
    + to be winning → to win
    + to strive for → to accomplish, achieve
    + to risk → to defeat the odds; win
    + to work → to build, construct, make
    + to displace; infiltrate → infest, to take over; vanquish
    + to pour out → to drain
    + to remove (incrementally) → to eliminate
    + to increase → to maximize
    + to read → to read to the end; finish reading
    + to decrease → minimize
    + to flank → to surround
    + to enlarge → to make gigantic
    + to spread upon or over → to cover, engulf, envelop
    + to shrink → miniaturize
    + to chase → to catch up to
    + to eat → eat + all up
    + to pursue → to capture
    + to compete → to win
    + to be pregnant → to give birth
    + to throw at → to hit (with a throw)
    + to run low on → to run out of, deplete
    + to grow → to grow up
    + to use → use + up
    + to possess, hold → to keep
    + to tear/ rip → to tear/rip up or to pieces
    + to join together → to unify
    + to accelerate, speed up → to achieve maximum speed
    + to pour into → to fill (up)
    + to bleed → to bleed to death
    + to run → to + run all the way
    + to descend, go down → to get to the bottom
    + to brighten → to illuminate
    + to decelerate, slow down → to stop
    + to search for, seek → to find
    + to polish → to burnish
    + to practice → to perfect
    + to darken → to make dark
    + to ascend, rise → to reach the top
    + to explore → to discover

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.3
    INE
    		The Ineffectual
    +

    This version, the INEFFECTUAL, and the + next, the INCOMPLETIVE, operate in parallel fashion to + the PROCESSUAL and the COMPLETIVE versions respectively but are specific to acts, events, or states initially + expressed (whether explicitly or implicitly) as unrealized intentions, attempts, + desires, needs, etc., often in conjunction with a modality affix to the verb + (see Section 6.1). Such “unrealized” + verbs are exemplified in the following sentences: I want to dance, She needs + to work, I tried to finish, She must find him, I choose to celebrate. Each + of these sentences in itself does not specify whether the action was “realized” + or not, i.e., just because I want to dance doesn’t necessarily mean that + I actually do dance; her need to work doesn’t tell us by itself whether + she in fact will work, etc.

    +

    The INEFFECTUAL version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” PROCESSUAL verb is unsuccessful. Thus the sentence I want to dance in the INEFFECTUAL would be translated as I want to dance but I’m not going to, + while the sentence I tried to eat in the INEFFECTUAL means I tried to eat but couldn’t.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.4
    INC
    		The Incompletive
    +
    +

    The INCOMPLETIVE version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” COMPLETIVE verb is unsuccessful. It functions identically to the INEFFECTUAL, + except that it refers to a verb that is result/goal-oriented, as illustrated + in the comparative chart shown above for the COMPLETIVE version. Thus, the sentence I tried to eat in the INCOMPLETIVE means I tried to eat all of it but couldn’t.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.5
    PST
    		The Positive
    +
    +

    Complementing the INEFFECTUAL, the POSITIVE version indicates an intention brought to reality. Thus the sentence I want + to dance in the POSITIVE would be translated as I + want to dance and so I’m going to, while the sentence I tried + to eat in the POSITIVE means I succeeded in eating + something.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.6
    EFC
    		The Effective
    +
    +

    Likewise, the EFFECTIVE version complements + the INCOMPLETIVE, indicating the same successful effort + implied by the POSITIVE version, only applied to goal-/result-oriented + verbs. Thus I wanted to finish in the EFFECTIVE implies that the desire was successfully carried out; I tried to eat in the EFFECTIVE means I succeeded in eating it all + up.

    +


    + 5.5.7 Examples of Version in Use

    +
    +

    Teo  fwò-ul  ilákš  ujtavépla.
    + 1M-GEN    IFL-‘male maternal cousin’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-DEL/M/COA/CST       FML-EFC/CTX/IPU-OPR-‘study’-TRM/M/CSL/UNI
    + My cousin has finally learned Ilaksh.

    +

    Compare:
    + Uräliòn  āddul.     →    Uräliòn   asāddul.
    + FML-‘prepare food’-IND-AGC2/2     IFL-‘come’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     
    +      →      FML-‘prepare food’-IND-AGC2/2        IFL-CPT/CTX/PPS-‘come’    -DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The cook is on his way.      →      The cook has arrived.

    +

    Epsiolřūl  aktäàl.
    + IFL-PST/ITR/PPS-TMP-ATV-‘circular motion’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘man’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The man succeeded in twirling/spinning around for a while.

    +

     

    +
    +


    +

    +
    + + + + +
    5.6 + ASPECT
    +
    +

    Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + (as with Perspective in Sec. + 3.3), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects, each + shown by a vocalic prefix to an aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be shown + by a vocalic suffix. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial + phrases used in English.

    +


    + 5.6.1 Aspect Infixes

    +

    Each + aspect is represented by a single vocalic form, appearing as the Vp infix to a formative. The presence of a Vp infix requires the presence of both a preceding Cx infix as well as a Vc prefix, in order to able to distinguish the Cx infix from the Cr root consonant(s). Furthermore, under certain circumstances, the presence of the Cx + Vp syllable requires that the Vc prefix take an alternate form in order to be able able to discern which consonants in a formative correspond to which terms in the formula below. The specifics of these alternate Vc prefix forms and when/how to use them which will be explained in Section 6.5.2. The values +of the Vp infix are shown in Table 12 below.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    NOTE: In Section 6.7, we will see that aspect may also be shown as a suffix to a valence/modality adjunct.

    +

     

    +

    Table + 12: Aspectual Infixes (Vp)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ASPECT    [ neutral Vp = a ]
    Vp
     
    		 
    Vp
    1
    RTR
    RETROSPECTIVE
    i
    17
    PMP
    PREEMPTIVE
    ou
    2
    PRS
    PROSPECTIVE
    e
    18
    CLM
    CLIMACTIC
    ia
    3
    HAB
    HABITUAL
    ï
    19
    PTC
    PROTRACTIVE
    ie
    4
    PRG
    PROGRESSIVE
    o
    20
    TMP
    TEMPORARY
    io
    5
    IMM
    IMMINENT
    u
    21
    MTV
    MOTIVE
    ua
    6
    PCS
    PRECESSIVE
    ä
    22
    CSQ
    CONSEQUENTIAL
    ue
    7
    REG
    REGULATIVE
    ë
    23
    SQN
    SEQUENTIAL
    uo
    8
    EXP
    EXPERIENTIAL
    ö
    24
    EPD
    EXPEDITIVE
    ië/äu
    9
    RSM
    RESUMPTIVE
    ü
    25
    DSC
    DISCLUSIVE
    uë/üa
    10
    CSS
    CESSATIVE
    ai
    26
    CCL
    CONCLUSIVE
    ea
    11
    RCS
    RECESSATIVE
    ei
    27
    CUL
    CULMINATIVE
    oa
    12
    PAU
    PAUSAL
    oi
    28
    IMD
    INTERMEDIATIVE
    äi
    13
    RGR
    REGRESSIVE
    ui
    29
    TRD
    TARDATIVE
    öu
    14
    PCL
    PRECLUSIVE
    au
    30
    TNS
    TRANSITIONAL
    öi
    15
    CNT
    CONTINUATIVE
    eu
    31
    ITC
    INTERCOMMUTATIVE
    ëi
    16
    ICS
    INCESSATIVE
    iu
    32
    CSM
    CONSUMPTIVE
    ëu
    +
    +
    +

    5.6.2 Explanation of Aspect Categories

    +

    The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below.

    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.1
    RTR
    		RETROSPECTIVE
    + This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create + various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the MONADIC, + the RETROSPECTIVE can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the UNBOUNDED, + the RETROSPECTIVE is equates with the English simple past + tense. With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + verb.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.2
    PRS
    		PROSPECTIVE
    + Like the RETROSPECTIVE above, this aspect operates in + conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense + categories. With the MONADIC, the PROSPECTIVE equates with the English future tense. With the UNBOUNDED, + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, it + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.3
    HAB
    		HABITUAL
    + When used with the MONADIC perspective, this aspect conveys + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the UNBOUNDED, the English ‘used to’ construction + offers an equivalent translation, as in She used to come see me on Wednesdays.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.4
    PRG
    		PROGRESSIVE
    + This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + in Spanish.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.5
    IMM
    		IMMINENT
    + Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in I + think Carl is about to cry.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.6
    PCS
    		PRECESSIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in We just + saw a clown in the toy store.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.7
    REG
    		REGULATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event + over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + the new bridge.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.8
    EPR
    		EXPERIENTIAL
    + Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + as in Does he ever shut up? Note the EXPERIENTIAL does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + in Ever does he seek his destiny nor as an adverb of mere emphasis + as in Was she ever tired.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.9
    RSM
    		RESUMPTIVE
    + Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously + ceased, as in The girl resumed singing, or He is starting to laugh + again.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.10
    CSS
    		CESSATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + as in They stopped dancing at midnight.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.11
    RCS
    		RECESSATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased + then resumed, as in Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy + a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.12
    PAU
    		PAUSAL
    + Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with + her friends.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.13
    RGR
    		REGRESSIVE
    + Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event + after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The REGRESSIVE should be distinguished from the RESUMPTIVE above, which + merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change + of state or situation. An example would be Mr. Yates returned to golf after + recovering from his stroke.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.14
    PCL
    		PRECLUSIVE
    + Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + etc. as in Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.15
    CNT
    		CONTINUATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.16
    ICS
    		INCESSATIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in They danced the night away or They’ve been battling + on and on since last year.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.17
    PMP
    		PREEMPTIVE
    + Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.18
    CLM
    		CLIMACTIC
    + Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.19
    PTC
    		PROTRACTIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. + If used with the CONTEXTUAL or PUNCTUAL phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the PROTRACTIVE conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: It + rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a + long time coming.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.20
    TMP
    		TEMPORARY
    + Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable + only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in This will be sufficient + for now or For the time being you’ll have to drink water.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.21
    MTV
    		MOTIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence + of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in Dad’s off hunting or They went off to cavort with the clowns.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.22
    CSQ
    		CONSEQUENTIAL
    + This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event + despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in She went + ahead and bought the furniture or I decided to go there anyway.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.23
    SQN
    		SEQUENTIAL
    + This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single + event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English + use of ‘off’ as in He's checking off each item as it is inventoried, + or The sheep died off from the disease.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.24
    EPD
    		EXPEDITIVE
    + Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English + ‘hurry (up)’ as in Hurry up and finish or They ate + in a hurry.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.25
    DSC
    		DISCLUSIVE
    + Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.26
    CCL
    		CONCLUSIVE
    + Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in I ended up crashing the car or He drank to the point where he passed out.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.27
    CUL
    		CULMINATIVE
    + Similar to the CONCLUSIVE above, but with a focus on the + eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series + of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the CONCLUSIVE aspect above: In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.28
    IMD
    		INTERMEDIATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point + along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.29
    TRD
    		TARDATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens + in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source + of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.30
    TNS
    		TRANSITIONAL
    + Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in I’m planning to take up golf.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.31
    ITC
    		INTERCOMMUTATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + as in The boy threw it back or She stared back at the men ogling + her.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.32CSMCONSUMPTIVE
    + Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in Mother spends her life + worrying or He’s pining away.
    +


    + 5.6.3 Examples of Aspect In Use

    +
    +

    Alianyût  lülùlt  teo.
    + IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-CLM-OPR-‘choose’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘brother’-IND-CFD1/9    1M-GEN
    + My over-confident brother made a choice once and for all.

    +

    Akkäàl  uluisét.
    + IFL-‘woman’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     FML-PRC/CTX/PPS-RGR-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI
    + The woman returned to singing.

    +

    Ççwa’lauralaruëèŧ  güliëèn.
    + HOR-IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-PCL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +

    Wain-nya  u’rleuvastăr  ktòal.
    + INF-MNO-CPC     FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-CNT-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/ASO/UNI-NA11/5     IFL-‘man’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + It's fair to say the man won't be able to work any longer.

    +
    +


    +

    + + + + +
    5.7 + ILLOCUTION
    +

    Illocution refers to what in linguistics is usually termed + types of speech acts, i.e., the general purpose of a statement such as whether + it is an assertion, a command, a declaratory pronouncement, a question, a warning, + etc. This is a category which is not generally marked within Western languages + in any consistent grammatical sense, the nearest equivalent grammatical category + usually being Mood. As was seen above in Section 5.1, Mood functions in a much narrower grammatical range than in Western languages. + When the moods of Western language actually relate to types of speech acts, + the equivalent function in Ilaksh is shown by the category of Illocution.

    +

    There are eight illocutions in Ilaksh: ASSERTIVE, DIRECTIVE, COMMISSIVE, EXPRESSIVE, DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, ADMONITIVE and HORTATIVE. + They distinguish the type of speech act being performed by the speaker, with + a specific focus on the type of commitment being made on the part of either + the speaker or the hearer to the truth or purpose of the utterance. Illocution is + marked by a consonantal prefix to the verb, Ci, which immediately precedes the Vc Designation-Essence-Format + prefix as shown in our standard morphological diagram for formatives below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +


    +The illocutions are described below.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.1
    ASR
    		The Assertive
    +
    +

    The ASSERTIVE illocution is unmarked + if the Ci element is in word-initial position. However, in cases where it is preceded by the VL Level prefix, then the ASSERTIVE is indicated by the prefix hw- as the Ci element. The ASSERTIVE is used to express propositions + which purport to describe or name some act, event, or state in the real world, + with the purpose of committing the hearer to the truth of the proposition. Thus, + an utterance in the ASSERTIVE illocution is one that can + be believed or disbelieved, and is either true or false. Such utterances would + include general statements, descriptions, and explanations.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.2
    DIR
    		The Directive
    +

    The DIRECTIVE illocution is marked by + the prefix h-. + The DIRECTIVE illocution is for the purpose of committing + the hearer to undertake a course of action represented by the proposition, where + the proposition describes a mental wish, desire, or intention on the part of + the speaker. Thus, an utterance in the DIRECTIVE is one + that is neither true nor false because it is not describing something that purports + to exist in the real world; rather, it describes an act or situation which can + potentially be made real, i.e., that can be fulfilled or carried out. Such utterances + include commands, orders, and requests and would generally be marked in Western + languages by either the imperative, optative, or subjunctive moods. The commitment + on the part of the hearer is not belief or disbelief, but rather whether to + obey, comply with, or grant.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.3
    CMV
    		The Commissive
    +
    +

    The COMMISSIVE illocution is marked by + the prefix çw-. The COMMISSIVE illocution is similar to the DIRECTIVE above, except that the listener and the speaker are the same person, i.e., the + statement is a wish or command directed at oneself as in a promise, vow, pledge, + oath, contract, or guarantee.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.4
    EXP
    		The Expressive
    +

    The EXPRESSIVE illocution is marked by + the prefix hm-. + The EXPRESSIVE is used for various types of specialized + utterances where the truth-value of the proposition is taken for granted and + the commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of acceptance or non-acceptance. + Such utterances include welcomes, offers, congratulations, condolences, and + apologies.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.5
    DEC
    		The Declarative
    +
    +

    The DECLARATIVE illocution is marked + by the prefix y-. The DECLARATIVE is used for utterances + whose purpose is to themselves effect a change upon the real world, based upon + convention, cultural rules, law, subjective authority, or personal authority + or control of a situation. The commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of + recognition or non-recognition. Such utterances include declarations, announcements, + proclamations, and various “performative” expressions. Certain languages + mark this function of a verb using a mood known as hortative. Examples would + be: I dub thee “Clown Master”!, The king will hear all grievances + at noon each day, This court is now in session, We hereby declare this treaty + null and void!

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.6
    IRG
    		The Interrogative
    +
    +

    The INTERROGATIVE illocution is marked + by the prefix w-. The INTERROGATIVE is used for utterances corresponding to questions in other languages. Questions, + as such, do not exist in Ilaksh. All inquiries and interrogatives are treated + as a type of directive in which the speaker tells the addressee to validate + the truth of an assertion or provide missing information specified by an interrogative + affix to a formative, i.e., when using the INTERROGATIVE, + one is not asking Would you like to dance with me? Rather, one is expressing + what can only be translated either a specialized command (State whether) + you will dance with me or a specialized assertion (I inquire whether) + you will dance with me. One does not say What’s your name?, + but rather Tell me your name.

    +

    Indeed, Ilaksh has no words corresponding to the English words + ‘question’ or ‘ask,’ the nearest equivalents being derived + from the words for ‘investigation’ and ‘determine.’ + Consequently, there is no question mark used at the end of the sentence, nor + does the pitch of the voice rise as is usual with Western languages when asking + questions. The commitment on the part of the listener in regard to the INTERROGATIVE is one of compliance or non-compliance in divulging the information sought, + and the truth value of the utterance is neutral pending the reply.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.7
    ADM
    		The Admonitive
    +
    +

    The ADMONITIVE illocution is marked by + the prefix hn-. The ADMONITIVE is used for admonitions and warnings, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘(I) caution you lest…,’ ‘(I) warn you against…,’ + or ‘Be careful not to….’ The utterance is neither true nor + false because it describes only a potential act or situation which may occur + unless avoided. The commitment on the part of the hearer is to assess the degree + of likelihood of the potentiality, followed by a choice whether to heed or ignore/defy + the utterance.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.8
    HOR
    		The Hortative
    +
    +

    The ADMONITIVE illocution is marked by + the prefix ççw-. The HORTATIVE is used for statements that are untrue or unreal, but wished to be true or real, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘if only…’, or ‘were it that….’
    +

    +


    + 5.7.9 Examples of Illocution in Use

    +
    +

    Huđòl.
    + DIR-FML-OPR-‘water as nourishment ’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Drink some water!

    +

    Yoaňšŭl  gmèint.
    + DEC-FML/RSL-ICH-‘clown’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘child’-ABS-DEL/U/CSL/DPX
    + The pair of children are hereby turned into clowns!

    +

    Hnoasés  uzdlelọkt.
    + ADM-FML/RSL-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/N/CSL/UNI    FML-‘bird’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8
    + Be aware that this pet bird sings.

    +

    Woërariòn?
    + IRG-FML/SBQ-OPR-‘food’-DEL/M/CSL/DCT-AGC2/2
    + Will the cook prepare some meals?

    +

    Çwuavyúšk ukšüŭt.
    + CMV-IFL/RSL-OPR-‘do good’-PRX/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI
    + The clowns promised to do good.

    +

    Hlŭakya nia.
    + EXP    -IFL/RSL    -OPR-‘congratulate’    1m+ua-IND
    + We (I and the others) offer our congratulations.

    +

    Ççwa’lauralaruëèŧ  güliëèn.
    + HOR-IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-PCL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +
    +


    +
    +

    + + + + +
    5.8 LEVEL
    +

    Level corresponds roughly to what is known + as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate + degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -er and + -est seen in great-greater-greatest, or alternately with the adverbs more and most, as well as their negative counterparts less and least. The Ilaksh comparison schema is much more complex than those found in natural languages and is designed to eliminate various ambiguities that arise from those simpler schemata, as discussed below.
    +

    +

    5.8.1 Ambiguity and Under-specification in Natural Languages

    +

    The comparison schemata of natural languages tend to grossly under-specify the exact semantic nature of the comparison. A clear case of such under-specification can be seen in an English example sentence such as Jane is healthier. This sentence can mean any of the following:

    +

    (a) Jane's state of health has improved, although she is still unwell.
    +(b) Jane's state of health has improved so that now she is well (whereas before she was unwell).
    +(c) Jane's state of health is even better than it previously was (i.e., she was healthy before, but is even healthier now).
    +(d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as someone else's state of health (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).
    +(e) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, so that Jane can be considered healthy while the other is unwell.
    +(f) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, even though both can be considered healthy.

    +

    This ambiguity is not alleviated even when we specify a party to which Jane's health is being compared as in Jane is healthier than Sue, which can mean:

    +

    (a) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's although both are unwell.
    + (b) Jane's state of health is better than Sue's, so that Jane can be considered well while Sue is unwell.
    + (c) Both Jane and Sue are healthy, but Jane's state of health is even better than Sue's.
    + (d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).

    +

    This sort of ambiguity allows odd-sounding sentences such as Snow is warmer (e.g., than liquid nitrogen) to be perfectly grammatical. What is important to note about the above analysis is that the words healthier or warmer do not indicate in the actual context of usage whether a person is actually healthy or whether snow is actually warm! Rather English -er and -est (and more and most) as well as their negative counterparts (less and least) merely serve to indicate on a relative scale a relationship between two entities being compared (or where only one party is mentioned, in relationship to some unspecified standard or expectation). Additional statements are needed to clarify the actual context to determine where the entities fall on the quantitative "spectrum" or range of the particular quality or attribute pair in question, e.g., unhealthy < --- > healthy.

    +

    The comparison scheme of Ilaksh has been designed to inherently specify such relative comparison while simultaneously specifying placement within the qualitative spectrum, so that ambiguity as to whether “healthier” means the person is well or unwell is eliminated.

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    The category of Level in Ilaksh differs radically from Ithkuil. The entire concept of Level has been completely re-thought by the author and vastly expanded compared to the rather simple scheme used in Ithkuil. There is little if any correspondence between the description above and any elements seen in Ithkuil's Level category.

    +

     

    +

    5.8.2 Relative Versus Absolute Comparison

    +

    An additional aspect of Ilaksh comparison is the concept of relative comparison versus absolute comparison. This is an important concept which impacts the truth value of a statement based upon context. Specifically, relative comparison allows for statements to be true within the narrow confines of the context-at-hand, whereas absolute comparison allows for statements to be true without reference to any specific context. This can be illustrated by the following examples.

    +

    (a) Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky.
    +(b) That highway is the fastest way into town.

    +

    Both of these sentences are true in certain pragmatic contexts and not true in others. For example, while Sirius is the most luminous star as seen from Earth, this is merely due to its relative nearness to Earth (8.4 light years) as compared to most other stars. There are thousands of known stars which are larger (and inherently more luminous) than Sirius but are much further away from Earth. So Sentence (a) is true in a relative context but false in an absolute context. Similarly the highway in Sentence (b) may be the fastest way in most conditions, but if there is a traffic jam or an accident blocking the highway, or if one has access to a private helicopter, then the statement would be false. Therefore, it is only true in a narrow context determined by the pragmatics of the moment it is spoken. Ilaksh allows speakers to specify whether a comparison is to be interpreted within the context-at-hand (relative comparison) or as an absolute statement irrespective of the context-at-hand.

    +


    +5.8.3 Comparison Operators (Levels)

    +

    There are nine comparison operators for the Ilaksh verb, called Levels, which specify the comparative relationship involved, e.g., same as, more than, less than, etc. These levels are marked by a word-initial vocalic prefix to the verb, VL. Each prefix comes in two varieties, to distinguish between relative versus absolute comparison. Additionally there is an unmarked default zero-level in which no comparison is being made).

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +


    +In interpreting the meaning of the various Levels, the terms used in the formulas refer to the following X-M-(Y) model, where M represents a verb or an adjectival description, X is the "subject" of the verb, and Y is the standard being compared to.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Sue
    dances as well as /
    + dances better than /
    + dances worse than
    + etc.
    +
    +
    Mary
    OR
    Sue
    +
    is as smart
    + is smarter than
    + is less smart than
    + etc. +
    +
    +
    Mary
    X
    M
    (Y)
    X
    M
    (Y)
    +

    Note that the meaning of each Level allows for an interpretation in which there is no Y term so that the standard of comparison is a previous state of X, e.g., the difference between Sue dances better than Mary versus Sue dances better than before.
    +

    +

    Table 13: VL Level prefixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      
    VL Prefix
    Meaning
    LabelName of Level
    RELATIVE
    +
    ABSOLUTE
    		 
    EQUEQUATIVE
    a-
    ä-
    X M ’s the same as Y ( or as before) / X is as M as Y ( or as before)
    SURSURPASSIVE
    u-
    ü-
    X M ’s more than Y ( or than before) / X is more M than Y ( or than before)
    DEFDEFICIENT
    ï-
    i-
    X M ’s less than Y ( or than before) / X is less M than Y ( or than before)
    OPT OPTIMAL
    o-
    ö-
    X M ’s at its most possible / X is at its most M possible
    MIN MINIMAL
    e-
    ë-
    X M ’s at its least possible / X is at its least M possible
    SPLSUPERLATIVE
    ai-/ia-*
    au-/ue-*
    X M ’s at its most yet / X is at its most M yet
    IFRINFERIOR
    ui-/ua-*
    iu-/ie-*
    X M ’s at its least yet / X is at its least M yet
    SPESUPEREQUATIVE
    ei-/ea-*
    eu-/eo-*
    X M ’s more than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is more M than or = to Y / before
    SBESUBEQUATIVE
    oi-/oa-*
    ou-/oe-*
    X M ’s less than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is less M than or = to Y / before
    +* the alternate prefix forms for the last four Levels are used before -w- and -y- Illocution affixes, if euphonically necessary to avoid the combinations of diphthongs ending in -i or -u being followed by a -y- or -w- affix respectively. +

    +

    5.8.4 The Comparison Cases

    +

    In addition to Level, there are 24 specialized noun cases which identify the exact nature of the comparison in relation to the quantitative spectrum, range, or standard for the particular attribute, quality, or act in question. These cases are applied to the noun to which something is compared, i.e., the term Y in the above formulas. So, for example, in the Ilaksh translation of the sentence Jane is healthier than her sister, the equivalent to is healthier would be shown by a Level prefix meaning "more than" applied to a formative meaning "manifesting a state of health," while the phrase corresponding to than her sister would be the word sister marked for a case which specifies whether the other noun to which the sister is being compared (i.e., Jane) is now well, or is nevertheless still unhealthy, etc.

    +

    It is primarily through the use of these specialized comparison cases that the ambiguities discussed above in Sec. 5.6.1 are eliminated. The meaning of each case as applied to Y, in terms of the X-M-Y formula discussed above, would be:

    +

    "in comparison to Y, where X Q in terms of reference standard S"

    +

    where Q indicates the change (or lack thereof) in X over time and S indicates an external standard of comparison for M. An example of this formula in use would be where the term Q = "was previously less M than Y" and S = "although X (still) isn't very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness" applied to the sentence Jane is healthier than Sue, now disambiguated to mean that Jane, while being in a healthier stated than Sue, still isn't very healthy.

    +

    There are eight possible values for Q and three possible values for S, rendering a total of 24 possible Q + S combinations. It is these 24 possible Q + S combinations that are rendered as the Comparison cases in Ilaksh. The eight possible values for Q are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1
    was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y
    2
    was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y
    3
    is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    4
    is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    5
    is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    6
    is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    7
    was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y
    8
    where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant
    +

    The three possible values for S are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    A
    		although X (still) isn’t very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness
    B
    		where X meets/exceeds some some external standard or expectation of M-ness and Y does not
    C
    where both X and Y meet/exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y met/exceeded it
    +

    The eight values of Q combine with the three values of S to give the specific meanings of the 24 comparison cases as shown below in Table 14. The 24 comparison cases are shown by vocalic mutation of the root vowel, Series 73 through 96 (see Section 2.5):

    +

    Table 14: The 24 Comparison Cases (as per the formula: [X] [M] [in comparison to Y] where X Q in terms of reference standard S)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    Name of Case
    Mutation Series
    Value of Q
    + (change in X over time)
    +
    Value of S
    + (Comparison to external standard) +
    CMP1A
    COMPARATIVE 1A
    73
    		where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y
    although X (or X and Y) (still) isn’t/aren't very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness
    CMP2A
    COMPARATIVE 2A
    74
    		where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y
    CMP3A
    COMPARATIVE 3A
    75
    		where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP4A
    COMPARATIVE 4A
    76
    		where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP5A
    COMPARATIVE 5A
    77
    		where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP6A
    COMPARATIVE 6A
    78
    		where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP7A
    COMPARATIVE 7A
    79
    		where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y
    CMP8A
    COMPARATIVE 8A
    80
    		where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant
    CMP1B
    COMPARATIVE 1B
    81
    		where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y
    and where X (or Y) meets/exceeds some some extrenal standard or expectation of M-ness and Y (or X) does not
    CMP2B
    COMPARATIVE 2B
    82
    		where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y
    CMP3B
    COMPARATIVE 3B
    83
    		where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP4B
    COMPARATIVE 4B
    84
    		where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP5B
    COMPARATIVE 5B
    85
    		where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP6B
    COMPARATIVE 6B
    86
    		where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP7B
    COMPARATIVE 7B
    87
    		where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y
    CMP8B
    COMPARATIVE 8B
    88
    		where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant
    CMP1C
    COMPARATIVE 1C
    89
    		where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y
    and where both X and Y meet/exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y met/exceeded it
    CMP2C
    COMPARATIVE 2C
    90
    		where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y
    CMP3C
    COMPARATIVE 3C
    91
    		where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP4C
    COMPARATIVE 4C
    92
    		where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP5C
    COMPARATIVE 5C
    93
    		where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP6C
    COMPARATIVE 6C
    94
    		where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP7C
    COMPARATIVE 7C
    95
    		where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y
    CMP8C
    COMPARATIVE 8C
    96
    		where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant
    +

     

    +

    5.8.5 The COS Suffix

    +

    Since Level affixes modify a verb directly, there is still a potential for ambiguity due to the fact that Levels and the Comparison cases specify the relationship between two entities being compared, but they do not specify the particular parameter of the term M. In other words, the verb "laugh" in the SURPASSIVE Level might be best translated as "out-laugh," as in Sam out-laughed George, but we still do not know if this means the laugh was louder, longer, or "harder." Therefore, verbs marked for Levels often take the COS suffix as well, to specify the parameters of he quality or act in question. This suffix is found in the list of derivational suffixes in Chapter 7, but is shown here as well, for the sake of convenience. (See Section 2.7 for an explanation of the nine degrees and three suffix-types associated with derivational suffixes).

    +

    -V0ks  COS  Comparison Specifications

    +
      +
    1. “more”/“less” = extent/amount/volume
      2. +
    2. “harder”/“weaker” = degree of intensity or effort
      3. +
    3. “longer”/“shorter” = duration; time spent being/doing
      4. +
    4. “better”/“worse” = quality / style
      5. +
    5. “more efficiently”/“less efficiently” = efficiency / effort relative to outcome
      6. +
    6. “greater”/“poorer” = relevant outcome / bottom-line result
      7. +
    7. combo of 4, 5, and 6
      8. +
    8. combo of 1, 2, and 3
      9. +
    9. combo of 1 through 6
      10. +
    +


    + 5.8.6 Examples of Level and the Comparison Cases in Use

    +

    (Note that in the morphological interlinear analysis below, the distinction between absolute versus relative Level is indicated by a small “a” versus a small “r” attached to the label/abbreviation for the particular Level.)

    +
    +

    Uhwaxassküùg  akkiàl  aktawòil.
    + SURr-ASR-IFL-OPR-‘eyesight’-PRX/M/CSL/DPX-FLC1/6    IFL-‘woman’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘man’-CMP3A-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman’s eyesight has improved/stabilized compared to the man’s, but she still doesn’t see very well.

    +

    Ni-ul  euhnalgùl  żëuyel.
    + IFL-‘cat’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    SPQa-ADM-IFL-STA-‘sickness/illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘dog’-CMP2C-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Be aware that the cat is (now) at least as sick as the dog, if not more so, whereas previously only the dog was sick.

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology >>

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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

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    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 5: Verb Morphology

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      5.1 Mood  5.5 Version   
      5.2 Case-Frames  5.6 Aspect   
      5.3 Phase  5.7 Illocution   
      5.4 Sanction  5.8 Level   
    +

    The Ilaksh verbal formative (termed “verb” in + this chapter for simplicity’s sake) is the workhorse of the language, + inflecting for twenty-one different morphological categories. These include + the seven categories shared by all formatives and already discussed in Chapter + 3: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension, Essence, + Context, and Designation. Additionally the following + fourteen categories apply solely to verbs: Mood, Function, Illocution, Level, Case-Frame, Format, Modality, Valence, Validation, Phase, + Sanction, Version, + Aspect, and Bias. The verb can also + theoretically take any number of the over 1300 suffixes available to formatives. + Such suffixes are analyzed in Chapter + 7.

    +

    The full structure of a Ilaksh verbal formative is in two parts, + i.e., having two distinct words, these being a valence/modality adjunct + and the verb itself. In simple sentences, the valence/modality adjunct may be missing. The following extreme example of a fully inflected + Ilaksh verb illustrates all the morphological components of the two-word structure:

    +
    +

    höčoum-mūi’ň   uçweu’çrunsta’ūiđxö         LISTEN audio

    +
    + + + + + +
    +

    h.ö.č.ou.m-m.ūi.’ň

    +

    Validation: PRESUMPTIVE 2
    + Valence: DEMONSTRATIVE
    + Incorporated Stem: čō ‘make/construct’
    + Designation of Incorporated Stem: FORMAL
    + Modality: DESIDERATIVE
    + Aspect 1: REGRESSIVE
    + Bias: COINCIDENTAL

    +
    +

    u.çw.eu’.çr.u.n.st.a’ūi.đx.ö

    +

    Level: SURPASSIVE-RELATIVE
    + Illocution: COMMISSIVE
    + Designation: FORMAL +
    + Essence: REPRESENTATIVE
    + Format: AUTHORITIVE
    + Apect 2: IMMINENT
    + Phase: RECURRENT
    + Sanction: REFUTATIVE
    + Version: COMPLETIVE
    +     Function: INCHOATIVE
    + Root: stā ‘chamber; spatial enclosure’
    + Case-Frame: CONCESSIVE
    + Extension: PROXIMAL
    + Perspective: ABSTRACT
    + Configuration: COMPOSITE
    + Affiliation: COALESCENT
    + Mood: SUBJUNCTIVE
    + Context: AMALGAMATIVE +

    +
    +

    A highly stilted but approximate English translation of the + above, capturing as many of the nuances of the Ilaksh phrase as possible, would + be: ‘…despite presumably being on the verge, contrary to the + allegation, of just so happening to want to succeed in vowing to maybe return + periodically to the honorable practice of superlative architecture for others + to follow by example’

    +

    Of the 14 morphological + categories particular to verbal formatives, we will examine in this chapter eight of the ten which constitute part of the verbal formative itself (Mood, Case-Frame, Phase, Sanction, Version, Aspect, Illocution, and Level). The remaining categories specific to valence/modality adjuncts (Modality, Valence, Validation, and Bias) will be described in Chapter + 6. Additionally, the categories of Function and Format, while displayed within the formative, are closely allied with the phenomenon of stem incorporation which is displayed within the valence/modality adjunct. Therefore, Function, Format, and stem incorporation will be discussed together in Chapter 6.

    +


    +
    +

    +
    + + + + +
    5.1 MOOD
    +
    +

    Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example + moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., Go now!, Sing it for + us! ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., She would travel + if she could), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here), and hortative (indicating + exhortations, e.g., May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!).

    +

    We will see later in Section 5.7 + that in Ilaksh the functions of certain moods in Western languages + correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically + where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ilaksh, moods + simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance + is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether + the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance + (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality + of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders eight moods in Ilaksh.

    +

    The eight moods are FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE, + SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE, and ASCRIPTIVE. +(These are the same as in Ithkuil and have the same function.) They are shown in conjunction with the morphological category of Context (see Section 3.5) by a vocalic suffix. Table 10 below shows these suffixes.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +


    + Table 10: VF-suffix Indicating 4 contexts x 8 moods

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    MOOD
    +
    CONTEXT
    + (explained in Sec. 3.5)
    + ↓
    +

    + FAC

    + SUB

    + ASM

    + SPE

    + HYP

    + COU

    + IPL

    + ASC
    1 EXISTENTIAL
    (a)*
    o
    ü
    ei
    iu
    au
    io
    uo
    2 FUNCTIONAL
    ai
    i
    oi
    ë
    ia
    ua
    ie
    ue
    3 REPRESENTATIONAL
    u
    e
    ëi
    ëu
    ea
    oa
    eo
    üo
    4 AMALGAMATE
    ui
    ö
    ou
    eu
    ï
    iö
    öi
    öu
    +*The suffix -a, being the "default" suffix is optional. It usually appears when an additional syllable is phonotactically necessary or for differentiating syllabic stress.
    +
    +
    +

    The function of the eight moods is described in the sections below.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.1
    FAC
    		The Factual
    +
    +

    The FACTUAL mood signifies that the + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality + is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. + Examples:

    +

    His kids are ill. [i.e., it is known he has kids and + it is known they are ill]

    +

    We’re taking a walk later on. [i.e., it is our + intention and we have the opportunity to do so]
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.2
    SUB
    		The Subjunctive
    +
    +

    The SUBJUNCTIVE mood indicates that the + factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the + particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition + is true. Examples:

    +

    Maybe his kids are ill. [i.e., it is known that he + has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]

    +

    We may take a walk later on. [i.e., it is known that + the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose + to]
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.3
    ASM
    		The Assumptive
    +
    +

    The ASSUMPTIVE mood functions identically to the FACTUAL except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore + conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to + the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:

    +

    His kids’ll be ill OR If he has kids, they are ill. [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, + but if he does, they are certainly ill.]

    +

    We’ll take a walk later on [i.e., if we can] OR We intend to take a walk. [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.4
    SPC
    		The Speculative
    +
    +

    The SPECULATIVE mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement + itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + Compare the examples below to those above:

    +

    Maybe his kids are ill [i.e., it is unknown if he + has kids but if he does, they may be ill].

    +

    We may take a walk later on [i.e., it is unknown whether + we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether + we will choose to].
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.5
    COU
    		The Counterfactive
    +
    +

    The COUNTERFACTIVE mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific + translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with + the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

    +

    His kids would be (would have been) ill [i.e., if + he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].

    +

    We would take (would have taken) a walk later on [i.e., + it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.6
    HYP
    		The Hypothetical
    +
    +

    The HYPOTHETICAL mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is + false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if + a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject + to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the + examples below to those above.

    +

    His kids might’ve been ill [if he had kids, + but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].

    +

    We might’ve taken a walk later on [i.e., but + we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.7
    IPL
    		The Implicative
    +
    +

    The IMPLICATIVE mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between + the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect + chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below.

    +

    His kids are (must be) ill [i.e., as implied by some + other fact such as his staying home from work].

    +

    If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk + later on OR She’s wearing + a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on [i.e., + the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.8
    ASC
    		The Ascriptive
    +
    +

    The ASCRIPTIVE mood functions identically to the IMPLICATIVE immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from + the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples:

    +

    His kids may be ill [i.e., as implied by some other + fact such as his staying home from work].

    +

    If she wears a blue dress, we might be taking a walk later + on OR She’s wearing a + blue dress, so that means we might be taking a walk later on [i.e., the + dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility]. 

    +


    + 5.1.9 Examples of Mood in Use

    +

    The following examples compare the eight moods applied to the same sentence:

    +
    +

    Ūalkresk  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-(FAC)    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + His wife’s clothes are inside-out.

    +

    Uālkresko  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SUB    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + His wife’s clothes may be inside-out.

    +

    Uālkreskü  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-ASM    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + If he has a wife her clothes are inside-out.

    +

    Uālkreskei  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SPE    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + If he has a wife her clothes may be inside-out.

    +

    Uālkreskiu  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-HYP    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + If he were to have a wife her clothes would be inside-out.

    +

    Uālkreskau  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-COU    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + If he were to have a wife her clothes might be inside-out.

    +

    Ualkrēskio  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IPL    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + His wife’s clothes must be inside-out.

    +

    Ualkrēskuo  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-ASC    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + That means his wife’s clothes are inside-out.
    +

    +

     

    +
    +

    +
    + + + + +
    5.2 CASE-FRAMES
    +
    +

    Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically + embedded within other sentences, a process termed subordination. + In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause + or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ + ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ + or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by + whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or + gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated + in the following sentences:

    +
    +

    The dog that ate my hat belongs to + them.
    + I want him to stop shouting.
    + The committee voted to fire the superintendant.
    + We demand (that) you give us equal pay.
    + Although he’s a college graduate, he acts like a child.
    + This is the slot through which the letter is passed.
    + In case you’re unaware, I’ll be leaving next + month.
    + The boy walking toward us is my nephew.

    +
    +

    The Ilaksh equivalent to relative or subordinate clauses is + known as a case-frame, or simply, frame. Conceptually, + the sentence to be embedded is simply treated as a noun participant to the main + verb of a sentence and is therefore marked for case like any other noun. For + example, take the following two sentences:

    +
    +

    She and I were working together.
    + The two nations were at war.

    +
    +

    Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal + context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating + the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ + as in She and I were working together while the two nations were at war. + Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional + phrase, as in She and I were working together during the time (that) the + two nations were at war.

    +

    In Ilaksh, temporal context for a sentence may be provided + by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the CONCURSIVE (see Sec. 4.6.3). A word + such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to create a sentence corresponding to:

    +
    +

    She and I were working together during the summer.
    + She and I were working together at the time of the famine.

    +
    +

    Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ + are placed in the CONCURSIVE case, so an entire sentence + such as The two nations were at war can be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words, + Ilaksh treats the entire subordinate sentence as a noun phrase to be declined + into any required case. That is the purpose of a frame, to place sentences into + noun cases. By doing so, Ilaksh accomplishes the same task for which Western + languages use relative and subordinate conjunctions. In theory, any sentence + can be placed into any of the 96 cases and inserted into another sentence wherever + a simple noun might be placed in the sentence using that same case.

    +


    + 5.2.1 Relation and the Placement of Frames

    +

    To construct a case-frame, the second-order sentence (i.e., + the sentence to be subordinated) is placed in the main sentence at the point + where a noun declined for the required case would appear. The actual case of the second-order sentence is indicated in the verbal + formative the same way as for nominal formatives, i.e., by mutation of the + stem vowel into the appropriate mutation series, as described in Chapter 4 on Case. If inserted + into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame should + be a noun (or a personal reference adjunct – see Sec. + 8.1) and carries a special suffix, V1’ (see details in Section 7.4.13), which signifies the end of the frame if + this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside + the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main +sentence.

    +

    A case-frame usually has its verb appear + as the first element of the case frame. This is to easily recognize the beginning + of the case-frame visible via the mutation of the stem vowel to show the case (see Section 2.5 and Chapter 4). For case-frames in the OBLIQUE case where the stem vowel does not mutate, or where otherwise necessary to overtly indicate that the formative is part of a case frame, the suffix V1’ is added to the formative (details in Section 7.4.13).

    +

    In general, the perspective of the verb in + the secondary sentence operates independently from that of the main verb, however, + it is also common for the perspective of the verb in the secondary sentence + to be placed in the ABSTRACT, which has the effect of + deferring all Perspective information about the verb to the main verb, similarly to the way English subordinate + clauses using gerunds and infinitives defer all tense information to the main +verb of the sentence.
    +

    +

    5.2.2 Reinterpreting the Notion of a Relative Clause

    +

    There is no direct equivalent in Ilaksh to the relative clauses + of Western languages. Ilaksh treats such clauses the same as subordinate clauses + using case-frames as described above. However, the manner in which this is done, + while ultimately logical, is somewhat complex and confusing from a Western perspective. + Therefore, to analyze how Ilaksh reinterprets Western relative clauses into + subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative + clauses in Western languages such as English.

    +

    A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies + or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types + of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent). + The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.

    +

    RESTRICTED CLAUSE
    + (1) Lions that like chasing their tails can be seen at + any circus.
    + (2) That book (that) I just finished reading was written + by a priest.

    +

    UNRESTRICTED CLAUSE
    + (3) Lions, which like chasing their tails, can be seen + at any circus.
    + (4) That book, which I just finished reading, was written + by a priest.

    +

    In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing + their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, + not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just + finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered + by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked + about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the + speaker was referring to.

    +

    Note the difference in meaning, however, when comparing the + first two sentences to the third and fourth sentences. In the third sentence, + the speaker implies that all lions chase their tails regardless of whether they + are in the circus. In the fourth sentence, the identity of the book is already + known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts + about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author. + Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing + by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ + or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in + a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immediately before and + after the clause.

    +


    + 5.2.2.1 Restricted Clauses. Ilaksh treats the above notions + about relative clauses in a different way. We will first analyze how Ilaksh + creates equivalents to restricted relative clauses. This can best be approached + by analyzing the underlying sentences which give rise to the main and relative + clauses. Analyzing Sentence No. 2 above, it can be broken up into two discrete + sentences:

    +

    That book was written by a priest. (= A priest wrote that + book.)
    + I just finished reading that book.

    +

    In Ilaksh, the sentence which will be functioning as the + main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence + is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on + what semantic role, i.e., case (see Chapter + 4) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference + of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that + book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See Sec. + 4.1.2), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the ABSOLUTIVE subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template + ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the OBLIQUE case (See Section 4.3.1). + Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the common point of + reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of + the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have + the two sentences as:

    +
    +

    A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-H.

    +
    +

    The ‘-H’ in the second sentence + above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common + reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ilaksh inserts the + second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the + semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked + by the OBLIQUE case (see Sec. + 4.3.1).

    +
    +

    A priest wrote [OBL]. I just finish + reading that book-H.

    +
    +

    As described in Sec. 5.2.1 above , the verb + of the secondary sentence is moved to the beginning of the case-frame and takes + the relevant case marker (OBLIQUE).

    +
    +

    A priest wrote I just finished reading-OBL that book-H.

    +
    +

    Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest + literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: A priest wrote + what I just finished reading, that book. However, this is how Ilaksh translates + the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’

    +

    Two observations can be noted from the Ilaksh sentence. First + of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” + Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, + there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types + of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged + (or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence, + the exact same way that subordinate clauses are constructed in Ilaksh. Therefore, + as was previously stated, Ilaksh makes no distinction between subordinate and + relative clauses.

    +

    Similarly, the other example sentence from above, Lions + that like chasing their tails can be seen at any circus would become in + Ilaksh: At any circus one can see certain lions-H like to chase-OBL their tails. A literal + translation into English would be: At any circus one can see (that) certain + lions like chasing their tails.

    +


    + 5.2.2.2 Unrestricted Clauses. As for independent or unrestricted + clauses, as shown in example sentences (3) and (4) earlier, Ilaksh treats these + differently still. In Western languages, an unrestricted clause does not help + to identify a noun or provide a context for it, but simply adds additional information + about an already identified noun. Thus, unrestricted relative clauses serve + a wholly different cognitive-semantic purpose than restricted clauses, a fact + hidden by their nearly identical surface structures. Ilaksh acknowledges this + profound difference at the overt sentence level by not subordinating any clause + at all. Rather, the two sentences are given co-equal status as main clauses + and simply joined by a coordinating affix. Thus sentences (3) and (4) from earlier + become:

    +
    +

    One can see lions at any circus and they like chasing + their tails.
    + A priest wrote that book and I just finished reading it.

    +
    +


    + 5.2.2.3 Use of the CORRELATIVE Case In Lieu of Simple + Relative Clauses. The CORRELATIVE case (discussed in Section + 4.5.25) is used to create case-frames which are semantically equivalent to the English phrase ‘that/which/who + is/are…’ Such a case-frame would be used in conjunction with specific Functions (see Section 6.4) to convey whether the relationship of the relativized clause to the main clause is one of description, copula identification, etc.

    +


    + 5.2.3 Example of Case-Frames in Use

    +
    +

    Andmùt  žiëlùimäv  asavéwöc   ukšu’ŭs  ajgălärň  žö’äàcërb.
    + IFL/ICH-‘cry’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘article of clothing’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-ROL2/9-CAP1/3    IFL-CPT-OPR-‘know’-PCR-DEL/A/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-OGN-DEL/N/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘rule’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPP1/3     IFL-“article of clothing’-PUR-DEL/A/CSL/UNI-DEV2/1
    + The incompetent tailor cried after finding out about the clowns’ new directive on nakedness.

    +

    Ria  uleuvăst  utpu’öustūyüž.
    + ma-IND     FML/OPR-PRC/CTX/PPS-CNT-‘job/employment’-PRX/M/ASO/UNI     FML-OPR-‘travel’-CON-PRX/M/ASO/UNI-EXD1/9-CNS1/6
    + He keeps on working despite having to travel more and more.
    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    5.3 PHASE
    +
    +

    Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an + act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive + manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena + that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, + alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of + Extension, previously described in Sec. + 3.4, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative + pattern of a state, action or event. The nine phases are the CONTEXTUAL, + PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE, + and FLUCTUATIVE. These are the same as in Ithkuil. They are marked by one of nine patterns + of the Cx affix to a formative, depending on the sanction + and version of the verb (discussed in Sections 5.4 and 5.5 respectively).

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The presence of a Cx infix requires the presence of a Vc prefix, in order to able to distinguish the Cx infix from the Cr root consonant(s). Furthermore, under certain circumstances, the presence of the Cx + Vp syllable requires that the Vc prefix take an alternate form in order to be able able to discern which consonants in a formative correspond to which terms in the formula below. The specifics of these alternate Vc prefix forms and when/how to use them which will be explained in Section 6.5.2.

    +

    The values for the Cx affix are + shown in Tables 11(a) through 11(f) below.
    +

    +Tables 11(a)-(f): Cx infixes:  9 Sanction x 9 Phases x 6 versions +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    PROCESSUAL
    +
    PRC
    CTX
    Contextual
    l
    ll
    mn
    rl
    lr
    nm
    lř
    lw
    ly
    PCT
    Punctual
    t
    tt
    lt
    rt
    tr
    tl
    tř
    tw
    ty
    ITR
    Iterative
    k
    kk
    lk
    rk
    kr
    kl
    kř
    kw
    ky
    REP
    Repetitive
    p
    pp
    lp
    rp
    pr
    pl
    př
    pw
    py
    ITM
    Intermittent
    r
    rr
    ř
    řl
    řř
    řw
    řy
    rw
    ry
    RCT
    Recurrent
    f
    ff
    lf
    rf
    fr
    fl
    fř
    fw
    fy
    FRE
    Frequentative
    ŧ
    ŧŧ
    lŧ
    rŧ
    ŧr
    ŧl
    ŧř
    ŧw
    ŧy
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    x
    xx
    lx
    rx
    xr
    xl
    ňm
    xw
    ňn
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    nt
    mp
    ňk
    nd
    mb
    ňg
    nŧ
    mf
    ňx
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    COMPLETIVE
    +
    CPT
    CTX
    Contextual
    s
    ss
    ls
    rs
    sr
    sl
    sř
    sw
    sy
    PCT
    Punctual
    š
    šš
    lš
    rš
    šr
    šl
    šř
    šw
    šy
    ITR
    Iterative
    h
    hh
    lh
    rh
    hr
    hl
    ňh
    hw
    řç
    REP
    Repetitive
    v
    vv
    lv
    rv
    vr
    vl
    vř
    vw
    vy
    ITM
    Intermittent
    đ
    đđ
    lđ
    rđ
    đr
    đl
    đř
    đw
    đy
    RCT
    Recurrent
    ç
    çç
    lç
    rç
    çr
    çl
    çř
    çw
    mç
    FRE
    Frequentative
    b
    bb
    lb
    rb
    br
    bl
    bř
    bw
    by
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    d
    dd
    ld
    rd
    dr
    dl
    dř
    dw
    dy
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    g
    gg
    lg
    rg
    gr
    gl
    gř
    gw
    gy
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    INEFFECTUAL
    +
    INE
    CTX
    Contextual
    m
    mm
    lm
    rm
    mr
    ml
    mř
    mw
    my
    PCT
    Punctual
    n
    nn
    ln
    r n
    nr
    nl
    nř
    nw
    ny
    ITR
    Iterative
    ň
    ňň
    lň
    r ň
    ňr
    ňl
    ňř
    ňw
    ňç
    REP
    Repetitive
    z
    zz
    lz
    rz
    zr
    zl
    zř
    zw
    zy
    ITM
    Intermittent
    ž
    žž
    lž
    rž
    žr
    žl
    žř
    žw
    žy
    RCT
    Recurrent
    c
    cc
    lc
    rc
    cr
    cl
    cř
    cw
    cy
    FRE
    Frequentative
    č
    čč
    lč
    rč
    čr
    čl
    čř
    čw
    čy
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    ż
    żż
    lż
    rż
    żl
    żr
    żř
    żw
    ży
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    j
    jj
    lj
    rj
    jl
    jr
    jř
    jw
    jy
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    INCOMPLETIVE
    +
    INC
    CTX
    Contextual
    sk
    zg
    sx
    skl
    zgl
    skr
    zgr
    skř
    zgř
    PCT
    Punctual
    st
    zd
    sŧ
    stl
    zdl
    str
    zdr
    stř
    zdř
    ITR
    Iterative
    sp
    zb
    sf
    spl
    zbl
    spr
    zbr
    spř
    zbř
    REP
    Repetitive
    šk
    žg
    šx
    škl
    žgl
    škr
    žgr
    škř
    žgř
    ITM
    Intermittent
    št
    žd
    šŧ
    štl
    ždl
    štr
    ždr
    štř
    ždř
    RCT
    Recurrent
    šp
    žb
    šf
    špl
    žbl
    špr
    žbr
    špř
    žbř
    FRE
    Frequentative
    sm
    zm
    šm
    žm
    ms
    mš
    mz
    mž
    mv
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    sn
    zn
    šn
    žn
    ns
    nš
    nz
    nž
    nđ
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    sň
    zň
    šň
    žň
    ňs
    ňš
    ňz
    ňž
    ňv
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    POSITIVE
    +
    PST
    CTX
    Contextual
    ks
    gz
    çc
    kc
    hs
    ksm
    ksn
    ksr
    ksl
    PCT
    Punctual
    kš
    gž
    çč
    kč
    hš
    kšm
    kšn
    kšr
    kšl
    ITR
    Iterative
    ps
    bz
    fs
    pc
    vz
    psm
    psn
    psr
    psl
    REP
    Repetitive
    pš
    bž
    fš
    pč
    vž
    pšm
    pšn
    pšr
    pšl
    ITM
    Intermittent
    cm
    cn
    żm
    żn
    sv
    zv
    ftl
    xpl
    xtl
    RCT
    Recurrent
    čm
    čn
    jm
    jn
    šv
    žv
    ftr
    xpr
    xtr
    FRE
    Frequentative
    tm
    tn
    dm
    dn
    ŧm
    ŧn
    ht
    hd
    hn
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    km
    kn
    gm
    gn
    xm
    xn
    hk
    hg
    hň
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    pm
    pn
    bm
    bn
    fm
    fn
    hp
    hb
    hm
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    NAME OF
    + VERSION
    PHASE
    + LABEL
    NAME OF PHASE
    SANCTION
    1
    + PPS
    2
    + EPI
    3
    + ALG
    4
    + IPU
    5
    + RFU
    6
    + REB
    7
    + THR
    8
    + EXV
    9
    + AXM
     
    +
     
    +
    EFFECTIVE
    +
    EFC
    CTX
    Contextual
    çt
    ct
    čt
    jt
    çtl
    çtr
    ttw
    tty
    nç
    PCT
    Punctual
    çk
    ck
    čk
    jk
    çkl
    çkr
    kkw
    kky
    kç
    ITR
    Iterative
    çp
    cp
    čp
    jp
    çpl
    çpr
    ppw
    ppy
    pç
    REP
    Repetitive
    tp
    db
    ŧp
    tf
    ŧf
    tpl
    tpr
    ntl
    nt
    ITM
    Intermittent
    kp
    gb
    xp
    kf
    xf
    kpl
    kpr
    mpl
    mpr
    RCT
    Recurrent
    kt
    gd
    xt
    kŧ
    xŧ
    ktl
    ktr
    ňkl
    ňkr
    FRE
    Frequentative
    pt
    bd
    ft
    pŧ
    fŧ
    ptl
    ptr
    ndl
    ndr
    FRG
    Fragmentative
    pk
    bg
    fk
    fkl
    fkr
    pkl
    pkr
    mbl
    mb
    FLC
    Fluctuative
    tk
    dg
    ŧk
    ŧkl
    ŧkr
    tkl
    tkr
    ňgl
    ňgr
    +


    + The nine phases + are explained in the following sections. Sanction and Version are explained in Sections 5.4 and 5.5 respectively.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.1
    CTX
    		The Contextual
    +
    +

    The CONTEXTUAL is the default phase, + describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not + instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual + duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can + be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., —
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.2
    PUN
    		The Punctual
    +
    +

    The PUNCTUAL describes an act, condition, + or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as + an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between + two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It + can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.3
    ITR
    		The Iterative
    +
    +

    The ITERATIVE refers to a momentary or + instantaneous event, like the PUNCTUAL above, which repeats + itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe + light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, + the whole comprising a single CONTEXTUAL event.

    +

    Visual representation: • + • • •

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.4
    REP
    		The Repetitive
    +
    +

    The REPETITIVE refers to a relatively + brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the CONTEXTUAL phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being + honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual + representation: — — + — —
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.5
    ITM
    		The Intermittent
    +
    +

    The INTERMITTENT is similar to the ITERATIVE above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a PUNCTUAL event, however, unlike the ITERATIVE, the duration of + time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would + be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping + of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc.

    +

    Visual representation: — • — • — • — •
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.6
    RCT
    		The Recurrent
    +
    +

    The RECURRENT is to the REPETITIVE as the INTERMITTENT is to the ITERATIVE. + It indicates a slow repetition of a CONTEXTUAL event, + where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. + Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl.

    +

    Visual representation: —— ——— ——— ——— —
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.7
    FRE
    		The Frequentative
    +
    +

    The FREQUENTATIVE indicates an iterative + occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, + the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. Examples + would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short + bursts of a jackhammer.

    +

    Visual representation: ——• + • •— • • + •— • • + •— • • + •
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.8
    FRG
    		The Fragmentative
    +
    +

    The FRAGMENTATIVE indicates a random + pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event.

    +

    Visual representation: ——• + •— • • • ——• + • —• • • + • •—— • —• + •
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.9
    FLC
    		The Fluctuative
    +
    +

    The FLUCTUATIVE indicates a random pattern + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of + birds in the wild, etc.

    +

    Visual representation:—— + • • —— • — • •— ——• + • — • + • • —• + •— —— • — • •

    +

     

    +

    5.3.10 Examples of Phase in Use

    +
    +

    Uxakloskò.
    + FRM-PRC/FRG/PPS-OPR-‘rain’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SUB
    + It may be raining.

    +

    Apaččàsk  ta’ulštíën.
    + IFL-PRC/REP/PPS-OPR-‘sound’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘inscribe’-OGN-PRX/U/ASO/DCT-AGC2/7
    + The sound coming from the banks of printers keeps on steadily repeating.

    +

    Antaláršp  azdlëh.
    + IFL-PRC/FLC/PPS-OPR-‘voice’-PRX/U/VAR/AGG    IFL-‘bird’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/AGG
    + Birds are chirping, tweeting, and calling.

    +

    Epsiolřūl  aktäàl.
    + IFL-PST/ITR/PPS-TMP-ATV-‘circular motion’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘man’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The man succeeded in twirling/spinning around for a while.

    +

     

    +


    +

    +
    +
    + + + + +
    5.4 SANCTION
    +
    +

    The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related + purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener + should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance + is a neutral proposition or assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption, + a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.

    +

    There are nine sanctions: the PROPOSITIONAL, + EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE, + and AXIOMATIC. Sanction is shown by the Cx affix to formative, as shown in Table + 11 in Sec. 5.3 above, the specific affix value being dependent on the version + and phase of the verb.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The presence of a Cx infix requires the presence of a Vc prefix, in order to able to distinguish the Cx infix from the Cr root consonant(s). Furthermore, under certain circumstances, the presence of the Cx + Vp syllable requires that the Vc prefix take an alternate form in order to be able able to discern which consonants in a formative correspond to which terms in the formula below. The specifics of these alternate Vc prefix forms and when/how to use them which will be explained in Section 6.5.2.

    +

    Each sanction is explained in the sections below.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.1
    PPS
    		The Propositional
    +
    +

    The PROPOSITIONAL sanction is either + unmarked (where there is no aspectual adjunct), or marked by Grade 1 mutation + of the Cx affix. It is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents + a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a + statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. + Example of such statements would be That is a mountain, or I’m + hungry.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.2
    EPI
    		The Epistemic
    +
    +

    The EPISTEMIC sanction is marked by Grade + 2 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance as being a statement + of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention + (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human + knowledge. An example would be That mountain is Mount Fuji or The + U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.3
    ALG
    		The Allegative
    +
    +

    The ALLEGATIVE sanction is marked by Grade + 3 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + or refutation. Examples would be That mountain is beautiful or No + one in the United States goes hungry.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.4
    IPU
    		The Imputative
    +
    +

    The IMPUTATIVE sanction is marked by Grade + 4 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective + or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a + sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be He knows + how to drive [e.g., because he owns a car] or She can’t be hungry + now [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant].
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.5
    RFU
    		The Refutative
    +
    +

    The REFUTATIVE sanction is marked by Grade + 5 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic + in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically + objective fact.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.6
    REB
    		The Rebuttative
    +
    +

    The REBUTTATIVE sanction is marked by Grade + 6 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based + on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief, + or interpretation.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.7
    THR
    		The Theoretical
    +
    +

    The THEORETICAL sanction is marked by Grade + 7 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.8
    EXV
    		The Expatiative
    +
    +

    The EXPATIATIVE sanction is marked by Grade + 8 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.4.9
    AXM
    		The Axiomatic
    +
    +

    The AXIOMATIC sanction is marked by Grade + 9 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance + as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential + fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be Gravity + is ubiquitous, or Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food.

    +


    + 5.4.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use

    +
    +

    Amnemrûsk  zmöōal.
    + IFL-PRC/CTX/ALG-PRS-OPR-‘awe’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘valley’-DER-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The valley will be awe-inspiring.

    +

    Anmeulkrûsk  àgmiel.
    + IFL-PRC/CTX/REB-CNT-STA-‘sadness’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘female child ’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + On the contrary, the girl is still sad.

    +

    Uxriwöôluëŧ  wain-nya  u’rleuvaskăr  ktòal.
    + FML-‘incident’-PCR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT2/6     INF-MNO-CPC    FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-CNT-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5     IFL-‘man’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + After an incident like that, it's a fair guess the man won’t be able to work any longer.

    +

     

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    5.5 VERSION
    +

    Version refers to a six-way aspectual distinction indicating + whether the verb refers to an act, event or state which is goal- or result-oriented, + and/or whether it has been successfully actualized subsequent to one’s + initial intention. Like many Ilaksh morphological categories, version addresses + semantic distinctions which are usually rendered by lexical differentiation + (i.e., word choice) in other languages.

    +

    Version is shown by the Cx affix to a formative, in conjunction with Phase and Sanction as explained above in Sections 5.3 and 5.4. The values for Cx are shown above in Table 11 above. The six versions are PROCESSUAL, COMPLETIVE, INEFFECTUAL, INCOMPLETIVE, POSITIVE and EFFECTIVE.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The presence of a Cx infix requires the presence of a Vc prefix, in order to able to distinguish the Cx infix from the Cr root consonant(s). Furthermore, under certain circumstances, the presence of the Cx + Vp syllable requires that the Vc prefix take an alternate form in order to be able able to discern which consonants in a formative correspond to which terms in the formula below. The specifics of these alternate Vc prefix forms and when/how to use them which will be explained in Section 6.5.2.

    +


    + The six versions are explained below:
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.1
    PRC
    		The Processual
    +
    +

    The PROCESSUAL describes all acts, conditions, + or events which are ends in themselves and not goal-oriented, i.e., are not + focused on an anticipated outcome or final purpose toward which a progressive + effort is being made.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.2
    CPT
    		The Completive
    +
    +

    The COMPLETIVE describes acts, conditions, + or events which achieve, or are intended to achieve, an anticipated outcome, + i.e., which are oriented toward the achievement of some purpose, outcome, or + final state. Such a distinction is usually handled by word choice in Western + languages. The dynamism of Version can be seen in the following comparisons:

    +
    +

    PROCESSUAL → COMPLETIVE

    +

    hunt → to hunt down
    + to be losing → to lose
    + to study → to learn
    + to be winning → to win
    + to strive for → to accomplish, achieve
    + to risk → to defeat the odds; win
    + to work → to build, construct, make
    + to displace; infiltrate → infest, to take over; vanquish
    + to pour out → to drain
    + to remove (incrementally) → to eliminate
    + to increase → to maximize
    + to read → to read to the end; finish reading
    + to decrease → minimize
    + to flank → to surround
    + to enlarge → to make gigantic
    + to spread upon or over → to cover, engulf, envelop
    + to shrink → miniaturize
    + to chase → to catch up to
    + to eat → eat + all up
    + to pursue → to capture
    + to compete → to win
    + to be pregnant → to give birth
    + to throw at → to hit (with a throw)
    + to run low on → to run out of, deplete
    + to grow → to grow up
    + to use → use + up
    + to possess, hold → to keep
    + to tear/ rip → to tear/rip up or to pieces
    + to join together → to unify
    + to accelerate, speed up → to achieve maximum speed
    + to pour into → to fill (up)
    + to bleed → to bleed to death
    + to run → to + run all the way
    + to descend, go down → to get to the bottom
    + to brighten → to illuminate
    + to decelerate, slow down → to stop
    + to search for, seek → to find
    + to polish → to burnish
    + to practice → to perfect
    + to darken → to make dark
    + to ascend, rise → to reach the top
    + to explore → to discover

    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.3
    INE
    		The Ineffectual
    +

    This version, the INEFFECTUAL, and the + next, the INCOMPLETIVE, operate in parallel fashion to + the PROCESSUAL and the COMPLETIVE versions respectively but are specific to acts, events, or states initially + expressed (whether explicitly or implicitly) as unrealized intentions, attempts, + desires, needs, etc., often in conjunction with a modality affix to the verb + (see Section 6.1). Such “unrealized” + verbs are exemplified in the following sentences: I want to dance, She needs + to work, I tried to finish, She must find him, I choose to celebrate. Each + of these sentences in itself does not specify whether the action was “realized” + or not, i.e., just because I want to dance doesn’t necessarily mean that + I actually do dance; her need to work doesn’t tell us by itself whether + she in fact will work, etc.

    +

    The INEFFECTUAL version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” PROCESSUAL verb is unsuccessful. Thus the sentence I want to dance in the INEFFECTUAL would be translated as I want to dance but I’m not going to, + while the sentence I tried to eat in the INEFFECTUAL means I tried to eat but couldn’t.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.4
    INC
    		The Incompletive
    +
    +

    The INCOMPLETIVE version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” COMPLETIVE verb is unsuccessful. It functions identically to the INEFFECTUAL, + except that it refers to a verb that is result/goal-oriented, as illustrated + in the comparative chart shown above for the COMPLETIVE version. Thus, the sentence I tried to eat in the INCOMPLETIVE means I tried to eat all of it but couldn’t.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.5
    PST
    		The Positive
    +
    +

    Complementing the INEFFECTUAL, the POSITIVE version indicates an intention brought to reality. Thus the sentence I want + to dance in the POSITIVE would be translated as I + want to dance and so I’m going to, while the sentence I tried + to eat in the POSITIVE means I succeeded in eating + something.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.6
    EFC
    		The Effective
    +
    +

    Likewise, the EFFECTIVE version complements + the INCOMPLETIVE, indicating the same successful effort + implied by the POSITIVE version, only applied to goal-/result-oriented + verbs. Thus I wanted to finish in the EFFECTIVE implies that the desire was successfully carried out; I tried to eat in the EFFECTIVE means I succeeded in eating it all + up.

    +


    + 5.5.7 Examples of Version in Use

    +
    +

    Teo  fwò-ul  ilákš  ujtavépla.
    + 1M-GEN    IFL-‘male maternal cousin’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-DEL/M/COA/CST       FML-EFC/CTX/IPU-OPR-‘study’-TRM/M/CSL/UNI
    + My cousin has finally learned Ilaksh.

    +

    Compare:
    + Uräliòn  āddul.     →    Uräliòn   asāddul.
    + FML-‘prepare food’-IND-AGC2/2     IFL-‘come’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     
    +      →      FML-‘prepare food’-IND-AGC2/2        IFL-CPT/CTX/PPS-‘come’    -DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The cook is on his way.      →      The cook has arrived.

    +

    Epsiolřūl  aktäàl.
    + IFL-PST/ITR/PPS-TMP-ATV-‘circular motion’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘man’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The man succeeded in twirling/spinning around for a while.

    +

     

    +
    +


    +

    +
    + + + + +
    5.6 + ASPECT
    +
    +

    Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + (as with Perspective in Sec. + 3.3), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects, each + shown by a vocalic prefix to an aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be shown + by a vocalic suffix. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial + phrases used in English.

    +


    + 5.6.1 Aspect Infixes

    +

    Each + aspect is represented by a single vocalic form, appearing as the Vp infix to a formative. The presence of a Vp infix requires the presence of both a preceding Cx infix as well as a Vc prefix, in order to able to distinguish the Cx infix from the Cr root consonant(s). Furthermore, under certain circumstances, the presence of the Cx + Vp syllable requires that the Vc prefix take an alternate form in order to be able able to discern which consonants in a formative correspond to which terms in the formula below. The specifics of these alternate Vc prefix forms and when/how to use them which will be explained in Section 6.5.2. The values +of the Vp infix are shown in Table 12 below.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    NOTE: In Section 6.7, we will see that aspect may also be shown as a suffix to a valence/modality adjunct.

    +

     

    +

    Table + 12: Aspectual Infixes (Vp)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ASPECT    [ neutral Vp = a ]
    Vp
     
    		 
    Vp
    1
    RTR
    RETROSPECTIVE
    i
    17
    PMP
    PREEMPTIVE
    ou
    2
    PRS
    PROSPECTIVE
    e
    18
    CLM
    CLIMACTIC
    ia
    3
    HAB
    HABITUAL
    ï
    19
    PTC
    PROTRACTIVE
    ie
    4
    PRG
    PROGRESSIVE
    o
    20
    TMP
    TEMPORARY
    io
    5
    IMM
    IMMINENT
    u
    21
    MTV
    MOTIVE
    ua
    6
    PCS
    PRECESSIVE
    ä
    22
    CSQ
    CONSEQUENTIAL
    ue
    7
    REG
    REGULATIVE
    ë
    23
    SQN
    SEQUENTIAL
    uo
    8
    EXP
    EXPERIENTIAL
    ö
    24
    EPD
    EXPEDITIVE
    ië/äu
    9
    RSM
    RESUMPTIVE
    ü
    25
    DSC
    DISCLUSIVE
    uë/üa
    10
    CSS
    CESSATIVE
    ai
    26
    CCL
    CONCLUSIVE
    ea
    11
    RCS
    RECESSATIVE
    ei
    27
    CUL
    CULMINATIVE
    oa
    12
    PAU
    PAUSAL
    oi
    28
    IMD
    INTERMEDIATIVE
    äi
    13
    RGR
    REGRESSIVE
    ui
    29
    TRD
    TARDATIVE
    öu
    14
    PCL
    PRECLUSIVE
    au
    30
    TNS
    TRANSITIONAL
    öi
    15
    CNT
    CONTINUATIVE
    eu
    31
    ITC
    INTERCOMMUTATIVE
    ëi
    16
    ICS
    INCESSATIVE
    iu
    32
    CSM
    CONSUMPTIVE
    ëu
    +
    +
    +

    5.6.2 Explanation of Aspect Categories

    +

    The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below.

    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.1
    RTR
    		RETROSPECTIVE
    + This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create + various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the MONADIC, + the RETROSPECTIVE can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the UNBOUNDED, + the RETROSPECTIVE is equates with the English simple past + tense. With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + verb.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.2
    PRS
    		PROSPECTIVE
    + Like the RETROSPECTIVE above, this aspect operates in + conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense + categories. With the MONADIC, the PROSPECTIVE equates with the English future tense. With the UNBOUNDED, + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, it + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.3
    HAB
    		HABITUAL
    + When used with the MONADIC perspective, this aspect conveys + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the UNBOUNDED, the English ‘used to’ construction + offers an equivalent translation, as in She used to come see me on Wednesdays.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.4
    PRG
    		PROGRESSIVE
    + This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + in Spanish.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.5
    IMM
    		IMMINENT
    + Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in I + think Carl is about to cry.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.6
    PCS
    		PRECESSIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in We just + saw a clown in the toy store.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.7
    REG
    		REGULATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event + over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + the new bridge.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.8
    EPR
    		EXPERIENTIAL
    + Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + as in Does he ever shut up? Note the EXPERIENTIAL does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + in Ever does he seek his destiny nor as an adverb of mere emphasis + as in Was she ever tired.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.9
    RSM
    		RESUMPTIVE
    + Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously + ceased, as in The girl resumed singing, or He is starting to laugh + again.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.10
    CSS
    		CESSATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + as in They stopped dancing at midnight.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.11
    RCS
    		RECESSATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased + then resumed, as in Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy + a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.12
    PAU
    		PAUSAL
    + Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with + her friends.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.13
    RGR
    		REGRESSIVE
    + Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event + after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The REGRESSIVE should be distinguished from the RESUMPTIVE above, which + merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change + of state or situation. An example would be Mr. Yates returned to golf after + recovering from his stroke.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.14
    PCL
    		PRECLUSIVE
    + Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + etc. as in Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.15
    CNT
    		CONTINUATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.16
    ICS
    		INCESSATIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in They danced the night away or They’ve been battling + on and on since last year.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.17
    PMP
    		PREEMPTIVE
    + Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.18
    CLM
    		CLIMACTIC
    + Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.19
    PTC
    		PROTRACTIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. + If used with the CONTEXTUAL or PUNCTUAL phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the PROTRACTIVE conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: It + rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a + long time coming.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.20
    TMP
    		TEMPORARY
    + Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable + only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in This will be sufficient + for now or For the time being you’ll have to drink water.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.21
    MTV
    		MOTIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence + of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in Dad’s off hunting or They went off to cavort with the clowns.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.22
    CSQ
    		CONSEQUENTIAL
    + This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event + despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in She went + ahead and bought the furniture or I decided to go there anyway.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.23
    SQN
    		SEQUENTIAL
    + This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single + event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English + use of ‘off’ as in He's checking off each item as it is inventoried, + or The sheep died off from the disease.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.24
    EPD
    		EXPEDITIVE
    + Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English + ‘hurry (up)’ as in Hurry up and finish or They ate + in a hurry.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.25
    DSC
    		DISCLUSIVE
    + Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.26
    CCL
    		CONCLUSIVE
    + Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in I ended up crashing the car or He drank to the point where he passed out.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.27
    CUL
    		CULMINATIVE
    + Similar to the CONCLUSIVE above, but with a focus on the + eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series + of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the CONCLUSIVE aspect above: In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.28
    IMD
    		INTERMEDIATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point + along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.29
    TRD
    		TARDATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens + in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source + of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.30
    TNS
    		TRANSITIONAL
    + Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in I’m planning to take up golf.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.31
    ITC
    		INTERCOMMUTATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + as in The boy threw it back or She stared back at the men ogling + her.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    5.6.2.32CSMCONSUMPTIVE
    + Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in Mother spends her life + worrying or He’s pining away.
    +


    + 5.6.3 Examples of Aspect In Use

    +
    +

    Alianyût  lülùlt  teo.
    + IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-CLM-OPR-‘choose’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘brother’-IND-CFD1/9    1M-GEN
    + My over-confident brother made a choice once and for all.

    +

    Akkäàl  uluisét.
    + IFL-‘woman’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     FML-PRC/CTX/PPS-RGR-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI
    + The woman returned to singing.

    +

    Ççwa’lauralaruëèŧ  güliëèn.
    + HOR-IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-PCL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +

    Wain-nya  u’rleuvastăr  ktòal.
    + INF-MNO-CPC     FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-CNT-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/ASO/UNI-NA11/5     IFL-‘man’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + It's fair to say the man won't be able to work any longer.

    +
    +


    +

    + + + + +
    5.7 + ILLOCUTION
    +

    Illocution refers to what in linguistics is usually termed + types of speech acts, i.e., the general purpose of a statement such as whether + it is an assertion, a command, a declaratory pronouncement, a question, a warning, + etc. This is a category which is not generally marked within Western languages + in any consistent grammatical sense, the nearest equivalent grammatical category + usually being Mood. As was seen above in Section 5.1, Mood functions in a much narrower grammatical range than in Western languages. + When the moods of Western language actually relate to types of speech acts, + the equivalent function in Ilaksh is shown by the category of Illocution.

    +

    There are eight illocutions in Ilaksh: ASSERTIVE, DIRECTIVE, COMMISSIVE, EXPRESSIVE, DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, ADMONITIVE and HORTATIVE. + They distinguish the type of speech act being performed by the speaker, with + a specific focus on the type of commitment being made on the part of either + the speaker or the hearer to the truth or purpose of the utterance. Illocution is + marked by a consonantal prefix to the verb, Ci, which immediately precedes the Vc Designation-Essence-Format + prefix as shown in our standard morphological diagram for formatives below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +


    +The illocutions are described below.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.1
    ASR
    		The Assertive
    +
    +

    The ASSERTIVE illocution is unmarked + if the Ci element is in word-initial position. However, in cases where it is preceded by the VL Level prefix, then the ASSERTIVE is indicated by the prefix hw- as the Ci element. The ASSERTIVE is used to express propositions + which purport to describe or name some act, event, or state in the real world, + with the purpose of committing the hearer to the truth of the proposition. Thus, + an utterance in the ASSERTIVE illocution is one that can + be believed or disbelieved, and is either true or false. Such utterances would + include general statements, descriptions, and explanations.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.2
    DIR
    		The Directive
    +

    The DIRECTIVE illocution is marked by + the prefix h-. + The DIRECTIVE illocution is for the purpose of committing + the hearer to undertake a course of action represented by the proposition, where + the proposition describes a mental wish, desire, or intention on the part of + the speaker. Thus, an utterance in the DIRECTIVE is one + that is neither true nor false because it is not describing something that purports + to exist in the real world; rather, it describes an act or situation which can + potentially be made real, i.e., that can be fulfilled or carried out. Such utterances + include commands, orders, and requests and would generally be marked in Western + languages by either the imperative, optative, or subjunctive moods. The commitment + on the part of the hearer is not belief or disbelief, but rather whether to + obey, comply with, or grant.
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.3
    CMV
    		The Commissive
    +
    +

    The COMMISSIVE illocution is marked by + the prefix çw-. The COMMISSIVE illocution is similar to the DIRECTIVE above, except that the listener and the speaker are the same person, i.e., the + statement is a wish or command directed at oneself as in a promise, vow, pledge, + oath, contract, or guarantee.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.4
    EXP
    		The Expressive
    +

    The EXPRESSIVE illocution is marked by + the prefix hm-. + The EXPRESSIVE is used for various types of specialized + utterances where the truth-value of the proposition is taken for granted and + the commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of acceptance or non-acceptance. + Such utterances include welcomes, offers, congratulations, condolences, and + apologies.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.5
    DEC
    		The Declarative
    +
    +

    The DECLARATIVE illocution is marked + by the prefix y-. The DECLARATIVE is used for utterances + whose purpose is to themselves effect a change upon the real world, based upon + convention, cultural rules, law, subjective authority, or personal authority + or control of a situation. The commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of + recognition or non-recognition. Such utterances include declarations, announcements, + proclamations, and various “performative” expressions. Certain languages + mark this function of a verb using a mood known as hortative. Examples would + be: I dub thee “Clown Master”!, The king will hear all grievances + at noon each day, This court is now in session, We hereby declare this treaty + null and void!

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.6
    IRG
    		The Interrogative
    +
    +

    The INTERROGATIVE illocution is marked + by the prefix w-. The INTERROGATIVE is used for utterances corresponding to questions in other languages. Questions, + as such, do not exist in Ilaksh. All inquiries and interrogatives are treated + as a type of directive in which the speaker tells the addressee to validate + the truth of an assertion or provide missing information specified by an interrogative + affix to a formative, i.e., when using the INTERROGATIVE, + one is not asking Would you like to dance with me? Rather, one is expressing + what can only be translated either a specialized command (State whether) + you will dance with me or a specialized assertion (I inquire whether) + you will dance with me. One does not say What’s your name?, + but rather Tell me your name.

    +

    Indeed, Ilaksh has no words corresponding to the English words + ‘question’ or ‘ask,’ the nearest equivalents being derived + from the words for ‘investigation’ and ‘determine.’ + Consequently, there is no question mark used at the end of the sentence, nor + does the pitch of the voice rise as is usual with Western languages when asking + questions. The commitment on the part of the listener in regard to the INTERROGATIVE is one of compliance or non-compliance in divulging the information sought, + and the truth value of the utterance is neutral pending the reply.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.7
    ADM
    		The Admonitive
    +
    +

    The ADMONITIVE illocution is marked by + the prefix hn-. The ADMONITIVE is used for admonitions and warnings, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘(I) caution you lest…,’ ‘(I) warn you against…,’ + or ‘Be careful not to….’ The utterance is neither true nor + false because it describes only a potential act or situation which may occur + unless avoided. The commitment on the part of the hearer is to assess the degree + of likelihood of the potentiality, followed by a choice whether to heed or ignore/defy + the utterance.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.7.8
    HOR
    		The Hortative
    +
    +

    The ADMONITIVE illocution is marked by + the prefix ççw-. The HORTATIVE is used for statements that are untrue or unreal, but wished to be true or real, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘if only…’, or ‘were it that….’
    +

    +


    + 5.7.9 Examples of Illocution in Use

    +
    +

    Huđòl.
    + DIR-FML-OPR-‘water as nourishment ’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Drink some water!

    +

    Yoaňšŭl  gmèint.
    + DEC-FML/RSL-ICH-‘clown’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘child’-ABS-DEL/U/CSL/DPX
    + The pair of children are hereby turned into clowns!

    +

    Hnoasés  uzdlelọkt.
    + ADM-FML/RSL-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/N/CSL/UNI    FML-‘bird’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8
    + Be aware that this pet bird sings.

    +

    Woërariòn?
    + IRG-FML/SBQ-OPR-‘food’-DEL/M/CSL/DCT-AGC2/2
    + Will the cook prepare some meals?

    +

    Çwuavyúšk ukšüŭt.
    + CMV-IFL/RSL-OPR-‘do good’-PRX/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI
    + The clowns promised to do good.

    +

    Hlŭakya nia.
    + EXP    -IFL/RSL    -OPR-‘congratulate’    1m+ua-IND
    + We (I and the others) offer our congratulations.

    +

    Ççwa’lauralaruëèŧ  güliëèn.
    + HOR-IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-PCL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +
    +


    +
    +

    + + + + +
    5.8 LEVEL
    +

    Level corresponds roughly to what is known + as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate + degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -er and + -est seen in great-greater-greatest, or alternately with the adverbs more and most, as well as their negative counterparts less and least. The Ilaksh comparison schema is much more complex than those found in natural languages and is designed to eliminate various ambiguities that arise from those simpler schemata, as discussed below.
    +

    +

    5.8.1 Ambiguity and Under-specification in Natural Languages

    +

    The comparison schemata of natural languages tend to grossly under-specify the exact semantic nature of the comparison. A clear case of such under-specification can be seen in an English example sentence such as Jane is healthier. This sentence can mean any of the following:

    +

    (a) Jane's state of health has improved, although she is still unwell.
    +(b) Jane's state of health has improved so that now she is well (whereas before she was unwell).
    +(c) Jane's state of health is even better than it previously was (i.e., she was healthy before, but is even healthier now).
    +(d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as someone else's state of health (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).
    +(e) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, so that Jane can be considered healthy while the other is unwell.
    +(f) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, even though both can be considered healthy.

    +

    This ambiguity is not alleviated even when we specify a party to which Jane's health is being compared as in Jane is healthier than Sue, which can mean:

    +

    (a) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's although both are unwell.
    + (b) Jane's state of health is better than Sue's, so that Jane can be considered well while Sue is unwell.
    + (c) Both Jane and Sue are healthy, but Jane's state of health is even better than Sue's.
    + (d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).

    +

    This sort of ambiguity allows odd-sounding sentences such as Snow is warmer (e.g., than liquid nitrogen) to be perfectly grammatical. What is important to note about the above analysis is that the words healthier or warmer do not indicate in the actual context of usage whether a person is actually healthy or whether snow is actually warm! Rather English -er and -est (and more and most) as well as their negative counterparts (less and least) merely serve to indicate on a relative scale a relationship between two entities being compared (or where only one party is mentioned, in relationship to some unspecified standard or expectation). Additional statements are needed to clarify the actual context to determine where the entities fall on the quantitative "spectrum" or range of the particular quality or attribute pair in question, e.g., unhealthy < --- > healthy.

    +

    The comparison scheme of Ilaksh has been designed to inherently specify such relative comparison while simultaneously specifying placement within the qualitative spectrum, so that ambiguity as to whether “healthier” means the person is well or unwell is eliminated.

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    The category of Level in Ilaksh differs radically from Ithkuil. The entire concept of Level has been completely re-thought by the author and vastly expanded compared to the rather simple scheme used in Ithkuil. There is little if any correspondence between the description above and any elements seen in Ithkuil's Level category.

    +

     

    +

    5.8.2 Relative Versus Absolute Comparison

    +

    An additional aspect of Ilaksh comparison is the concept of relative comparison versus absolute comparison. This is an important concept which impacts the truth value of a statement based upon context. Specifically, relative comparison allows for statements to be true within the narrow confines of the context-at-hand, whereas absolute comparison allows for statements to be true without reference to any specific context. This can be illustrated by the following examples.

    +

    (a) Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky.
    +(b) That highway is the fastest way into town.

    +

    Both of these sentences are true in certain pragmatic contexts and not true in others. For example, while Sirius is the most luminous star as seen from Earth, this is merely due to its relative nearness to Earth (8.4 light years) as compared to most other stars. There are thousands of known stars which are larger (and inherently more luminous) than Sirius but are much further away from Earth. So Sentence (a) is true in a relative context but false in an absolute context. Similarly the highway in Sentence (b) may be the fastest way in most conditions, but if there is a traffic jam or an accident blocking the highway, or if one has access to a private helicopter, then the statement would be false. Therefore, it is only true in a narrow context determined by the pragmatics of the moment it is spoken. Ilaksh allows speakers to specify whether a comparison is to be interpreted within the context-at-hand (relative comparison) or as an absolute statement irrespective of the context-at-hand.

    +


    +5.8.3 Comparison Operators (Levels)

    +

    There are nine comparison operators for the Ilaksh verb, called Levels, which specify the comparative relationship involved, e.g., same as, more than, less than, etc. These levels are marked by a word-initial vocalic prefix to the verb, VL. Each prefix comes in two varieties, to distinguish between relative versus absolute comparison. Additionally there is an unmarked default zero-level in which no comparison is being made).

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +


    +In interpreting the meaning of the various Levels, the terms used in the formulas refer to the following X-M-(Y) model, where M represents a verb or an adjectival description, X is the "subject" of the verb, and Y is the standard being compared to.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Sue
    dances as well as /
    + dances better than /
    + dances worse than
    + etc.
    +
    +
    Mary
    OR
    Sue
    +
    is as smart
    + is smarter than
    + is less smart than
    + etc. +
    +
    +
    Mary
    X
    M
    (Y)
    X
    M
    (Y)
    +

    Note that the meaning of each Level allows for an interpretation in which there is no Y term so that the standard of comparison is a previous state of X, e.g., the difference between Sue dances better than Mary versus Sue dances better than before.
    +

    +

    Table 13: VL Level prefixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      
    VL Prefix
    Meaning
    LabelName of Level
    RELATIVE
    +
    ABSOLUTE
    		 
    EQUEQUATIVE
    a-
    ä-
    X M ’s the same as Y ( or as before) / X is as M as Y ( or as before)
    SURSURPASSIVE
    u-
    ü-
    X M ’s more than Y ( or than before) / X is more M than Y ( or than before)
    DEFDEFICIENT
    ï-
    i-
    X M ’s less than Y ( or than before) / X is less M than Y ( or than before)
    OPT OPTIMAL
    o-
    ö-
    X M ’s at its most possible / X is at its most M possible
    MIN MINIMAL
    e-
    ë-
    X M ’s at its least possible / X is at its least M possible
    SPLSUPERLATIVE
    ai-/ia-*
    au-/ue-*
    X M ’s at its most yet / X is at its most M yet
    IFRINFERIOR
    ui-/ua-*
    iu-/ie-*
    X M ’s at its least yet / X is at its least M yet
    SPESUPEREQUATIVE
    ei-/ea-*
    eu-/eo-*
    X M ’s more than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is more M than or = to Y / before
    SBESUBEQUATIVE
    oi-/oa-*
    ou-/oe-*
    X M ’s less than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is less M than or = to Y / before
    +* the alternate prefix forms for the last four Levels are used before -w- and -y- Illocution affixes, if euphonically necessary to avoid the combinations of diphthongs ending in -i or -u being followed by a -y- or -w- affix respectively. +

    +

    5.8.4 The Comparison Cases

    +

    In addition to Level, there are 24 specialized noun cases which identify the exact nature of the comparison in relation to the quantitative spectrum, range, or standard for the particular attribute, quality, or act in question. These cases are applied to the noun to which something is compared, i.e., the term Y in the above formulas. So, for example, in the Ilaksh translation of the sentence Jane is healthier than her sister, the equivalent to is healthier would be shown by a Level prefix meaning "more than" applied to a formative meaning "manifesting a state of health," while the phrase corresponding to than her sister would be the word sister marked for a case which specifies whether the other noun to which the sister is being compared (i.e., Jane) is now well, or is nevertheless still unhealthy, etc.

    +

    It is primarily through the use of these specialized comparison cases that the ambiguities discussed above in Sec. 5.6.1 are eliminated. The meaning of each case as applied to Y, in terms of the X-M-Y formula discussed above, would be:

    +

    "in comparison to Y, where X Q in terms of reference standard S"

    +

    where Q indicates the change (or lack thereof) in X over time and S indicates an external standard of comparison for M. An example of this formula in use would be where the term Q = "was previously less M than Y" and S = "although X (still) isn't very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness" applied to the sentence Jane is healthier than Sue, now disambiguated to mean that Jane, while being in a healthier stated than Sue, still isn't very healthy.

    +

    There are eight possible values for Q and three possible values for S, rendering a total of 24 possible Q + S combinations. It is these 24 possible Q + S combinations that are rendered as the Comparison cases in Ilaksh. The eight possible values for Q are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1
    was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y
    2
    was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y
    3
    is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    4
    is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    5
    is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    6
    is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    7
    was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y
    8
    where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant
    +

    The three possible values for S are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    A
    		although X (still) isn’t very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness
    B
    		where X meets/exceeds some some external standard or expectation of M-ness and Y does not
    C
    where both X and Y meet/exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y met/exceeded it
    +

    The eight values of Q combine with the three values of S to give the specific meanings of the 24 comparison cases as shown below in Table 14. The 24 comparison cases are shown by vocalic mutation of the root vowel, Series 73 through 96 (see Section 2.5):

    +

    Table 14: The 24 Comparison Cases (as per the formula: [X] [M] [in comparison to Y] where X Q in terms of reference standard S)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    Name of Case
    Mutation Series
    Value of Q
    + (change in X over time)
    +
    Value of S
    + (Comparison to external standard) +
    CMP1A
    COMPARATIVE 1A
    73
    		where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y
    although X (or X and Y) (still) isn’t/aren't very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness
    CMP2A
    COMPARATIVE 2A
    74
    		where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y
    CMP3A
    COMPARATIVE 3A
    75
    		where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP4A
    COMPARATIVE 4A
    76
    		where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP5A
    COMPARATIVE 5A
    77
    		where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP6A
    COMPARATIVE 6A
    78
    		where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP7A
    COMPARATIVE 7A
    79
    		where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y
    CMP8A
    COMPARATIVE 8A
    80
    		where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant
    CMP1B
    COMPARATIVE 1B
    81
    		where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y
    and where X (or Y) meets/exceeds some some extrenal standard or expectation of M-ness and Y (or X) does not
    CMP2B
    COMPARATIVE 2B
    82
    		where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y
    CMP3B
    COMPARATIVE 3B
    83
    		where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP4B
    COMPARATIVE 4B
    84
    		where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP5B
    COMPARATIVE 5B
    85
    		where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP6B
    COMPARATIVE 6B
    86
    		where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP7B
    COMPARATIVE 7B
    87
    		where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y
    CMP8B
    COMPARATIVE 8B
    88
    		where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant
    CMP1C
    COMPARATIVE 1C
    89
    		where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y
    and where both X and Y meet/exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y met/exceeded it
    CMP2C
    COMPARATIVE 2C
    90
    		where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y
    CMP3C
    COMPARATIVE 3C
    91
    		where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP4C
    COMPARATIVE 4C
    92
    		where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP5C
    COMPARATIVE 5C
    93
    		where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y
    CMP6C
    COMPARATIVE 6C
    94
    		where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y
    CMP7C
    COMPARATIVE 7C
    95
    		where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y
    CMP8C
    COMPARATIVE 8C
    96
    		where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant
    +

     

    +

    5.8.5 The COS Suffix

    +

    Since Level affixes modify a verb directly, there is still a potential for ambiguity due to the fact that Levels and the Comparison cases specify the relationship between two entities being compared, but they do not specify the particular parameter of the term M. In other words, the verb "laugh" in the SURPASSIVE Level might be best translated as "out-laugh," as in Sam out-laughed George, but we still do not know if this means the laugh was louder, longer, or "harder." Therefore, verbs marked for Levels often take the COS suffix as well, to specify the parameters of he quality or act in question. This suffix is found in the list of derivational suffixes in Chapter 7, but is shown here as well, for the sake of convenience. (See Section 2.7 for an explanation of the nine degrees and three suffix-types associated with derivational suffixes).

    +

    -V0ks  COS  Comparison Specifications

    +
      +
    1. “more”/“less” = extent/amount/volume
      2. +
    2. “harder”/“weaker” = degree of intensity or effort
      3. +
    3. “longer”/“shorter” = duration; time spent being/doing
      4. +
    4. “better”/“worse” = quality / style
      5. +
    5. “more efficiently”/“less efficiently” = efficiency / effort relative to outcome
      6. +
    6. “greater”/“poorer” = relevant outcome / bottom-line result
      7. +
    7. combo of 4, 5, and 6
      8. +
    8. combo of 1, 2, and 3
      9. +
    9. combo of 1 through 6
      10. +
    +


    + 5.8.6 Examples of Level and the Comparison Cases in Use

    +

    (Note that in the morphological interlinear analysis below, the distinction between absolute versus relative Level is indicated by a small “a” versus a small “r” attached to the label/abbreviation for the particular Level.)

    +
    +

    Uhwaxassküùg  akkiàl  aktawòil.
    + SURr-ASR-IFL-OPR-‘eyesight’-PRX/M/CSL/DPX-FLC1/6    IFL-‘woman’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘man’-CMP3A-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman’s eyesight has improved/stabilized compared to the man’s, but she still doesn’t see very well.

    +

    Ni-ul  euhnalgùl  żëuyel.
    + IFL-‘cat’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    SPQa-ADM-IFL-STA-‘sickness/illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘dog’-CMP2C-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Be aware that the cat is (now) at least as sick as the dog, if not more so, whereas previously only the dog was sick.

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology >>

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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

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    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      6.1 Modality  6.5 Incorporation and Format   
      6.2 Valence  6.6 Bias   
      6.3 Validation  6.7 Aspect Alternative   
      6.4 Function     
    +

    In this chapter, we examine eight additional morphological categories and processes +which apply to verbal formatives: Modality, Valence, Validation, Bias, Function, Incorporation and Format. These categories (with the exception of Function and Format) are shown within the morpho-phonological structure of a valence adjunct (also called a modality adjunct).

    +

    The structure of a valence/modality adjunct is as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))

    +  7 validations (in conj. w/ Vv)
    +

    + 14 valences
    + x 3 validations (in conj. w/ Cv)

    + 120 C-root
    + x 3 patterns
    + =incorporated root

    + 5 V-root
    + x 6 tones
    + x 3 stems
    + x 2 designations
    +

    + 30 cc-affix =
    + 29 modalities + 1 default (= no modality)

    + 32 aspects

    + 48 biases
    +


    +Example: hoixmial-lùiss

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    h
    oi
    xm
    ia
    l-l`
    ui
    ss
    PURPORTIVE validation
    + (COROLLARY valence)
    COROLLARY valence
    + (PURPORTIVE validation) +
    incorporated stem: xmìa
    ASPIRATIVE modality
    REGRESSIVE
    + aspect
    STUPEFACTIVE bias
    +

    The valence/modality adjunct appears in an Ilaksh sentence immediately before a verbal formative, or when within a case-frame, immediately after the verbal formative.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    6.1 MODALITY
    +
    +

    Modality corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., can, may, must, should, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as to want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that, etc. However, + in Ilaksh, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see Sec. + 3.8) and the Perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. + 4.3.9). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows: As we saw in Sections + 3.8 and 4.3.9, + it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the + psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in + the following sentences.

    +
    +

    1) You must come home at once.
    + 2) That girl can sing better than anybody.
    + 3) Our troops should attack at dawn.
    + 4) Mother needs you to come with her.
    + 5) The teacher requests that I dance for you.
    + 6) The man believes clowns are dangerous.

    +
    +

    Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.Because the clauses following the verbs must, can, should, + need, request, believe, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) and the REPRESENTATIVE essence (see Sec. + 3.7). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns you, girl, troops, mother, teacher, and man in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see Sec. + 4.3.9). It should be noted that not all Ilaksh modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence She + chose to move to Australia, the verb chose signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the move to Australia clause would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective but + would not be marked in the REPRESENTATIVE essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ilaksh modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.

    +

    There are 29 modalities in Ilaksh. (This is one less than in Ithkuil; Ithkuil's COMPULSIVE modality has been eliminated in Ilaksh, its function merged with the NECESSITATIVE.) Modality is marked by the CM consonantal affix to a valence adjunct. the CM affix is always a dissyllabic geminate consonant as earlier described in Section 1.2.1.1, in which the second member of the geminate conjunct carries the word stress and tone. This is the only circumstance in which such dissyllabic stressed consonantal geminates occur in Ilaskh; thus, it is by this means that Valence/Modality adjuncts can be easily distinguished from formatives. Because some browsers and/or text displays do not allow a consonant to carry a tone-stress diacritic mark, the tone-stress diacritic is written on the vowel following the CM affix, e.g., in-nù, a three-syllable word pronounced (using X-SAMPA) as [In."n=.u] with falling tone beginning on the stressed second n-sound. In cases where there is no vowel following the CM affix, the tone-stress diacritic is written on a neutral anaptyptic vowel -a following the CM affix which the speaker may pronounce or not at his/her choosing, e.g., in-ná, pronounced (using X-SAMPA) either as [In."n= ] or as [In."n=.a] with rising tone beginning on the stressed second n-sound.

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +

    Note that the tone of a valence adjunct is always determined by the tone of any incorporated stem associated with the adjunct (the Cd+Vd optional element in the above formula) as described in Section 6.5 below. Where the adjunct has no such incorporated stem, the default tone of the adjunct is falling. The tone always appears in conjunction with the stressed syllable, the syllabic consonant as described in the above paragraph. As with all Ilaksh words, the tone of the word prior to the stressed syllable is neutral mid tone (see Section 1.3.2).

    +

    Where the value of the Cv and Vv terms of such an adjunct are null (i.e., there is no Valence or Validation values marked), then the adjunct may be termed a modality adjunct. + The 29 modalities and their respective suffixes are shown in Table 15 below. The function of each modality is described in the sub-sections following the table.

    +

    Table 15: CM Modality Affixes 

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    Name
    CM-affix
     
     
    Label
    Name
    CM-affix
    --
    (no modality)
    n-n
    ITV
    Intentive
    n-nr
    DES
    Desiderative
    m-m
    ANT
    Anticipative
    m-mr
    ASP
    Aspirative
    l-l
    DSP
    Dispositive
    l-lr
    EXV
    Expectative
    ň-ň
    PRE
    Preparative
    ň-ňr
    CRD
    Credential
    n-nw
    NEC
    Necessitative
    n-nř
    REQ
    Requisitive
    m-mw
    DEC
    Decisive
    m-mř
    EXH
    Exhortative
    l-lw
    PTV
    Proclivitive
    l-lř
    OPR
    Opportunitive
    ň-ňw
    VOL
    Voluntative
    ň-ňř
    CPC
    Capacitative
    n-ny
    ACC
    Accordative
    n-nm
    PRM
    Permissive
    m-my
    INC
    Inclinative
    l-lm
    PTN
    Potential
    l-ly
    DVR
    Divertive
    ň-ňm
    CLS
    Compulsory
    ň-ňy
    DVT
    Devotive
    m-mn
    OBG
    Obligative
    m-ml
    PFT
    Preferential
    l-ln
    IMS
    Impositive
    n-nl
    IPS
    Impressional
    ň-ňn
    ADV
    Advocative
    ň-ňl
    PMS
    Promissory
    l-lň
    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.1
    DES
    		The Desiderative
    +
    +

    The DESIDERATIVE more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in The teacher wants the students to study hard. It is marked + by adding the suffix -a to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.2
    ASP
    		The Aspirative
    +
    +

    The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.3
    EPC
    		The Expectative
    +
    +

    The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in He expected her to be beautiful, + or I imagine he’s reached his destination.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.4
    CRD
    		The Credential
    +
    +

    The CREDENTIAL corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in I think she has two sons, or We believe the earth to be round. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as I think she’s pretty.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.5
    REQ
    		The Requisitive
    +
    +

    The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in I request his presence at the banquet, +or I’d like you to visit your father.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.6
    EXH
    		The Exhortative
    +
    +

    The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in I demand you return my book or Let the gates be opened!

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.7
    OPR
    		The Opportunitive
    +
    +

    The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in Can we pass by our old house when we visit town? or Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.8
    CPC
    		The Capacitative
    +
    +

    The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in Can she sing opera? or He could run + like the wind. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in He speaks French like + a native [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so].

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.9
    PRM
    		The Permissive
    +
    +

    The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs can/could/be able or may/might where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert; or Could I talk to you?

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.10
    PTN
    		The Potential
    +
    +

    The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area, or That man could fly into rages for no reason. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in It rains unpredictably in the Northwest.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.11
    CLS
    		The Compulsory
    +
    +

    The COMPULSORY corresponds to the English + modal verbs must or have to/had to in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in You must get up now, or I had to attend the ceremony.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.12
    OBG
    		The Obligative
    +
    +

    The OBLIGATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs should, ought to, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel, or It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.13
    IMS
    		The Impositive
    +
    +

    The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as be supposed to, be expected to, or be to which impose an expectation upon a party, as in You’re supposed to + smile when introduced, or He is to give a speech at the banquet.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.14
    ADV
    		The Advocative
    +
    +

    The ADVOCATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as suggest that or propose that which advocate + a position, as in I suggest you study harder or They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.15
    ITV
    		The Intentive
    +
    +

    The INTENTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as intend to, plan on or shall which + convey an intention, as in The girls plan on travelling to Europe, + or I shall see to it.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.16
    ANT
    		The Anticipative
    +
    +

    The ANTICIPATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to look forward to or to eagerly await which convey positive anticipation, as in We look forward to the clowns coming + to town.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.17
    DSP
    		The Dispositive
    +
    +

    The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English + expression to be willing to, conveying willingness as in He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.18
    PRE
    		The Preparative
    +
    +

    The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English + expressions be ready to or be prepared to, indicating readiness, + as in She’s ready to host the party, or They are prepared + to endure harsh weather.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.19
    NEC
    		The Necessitative
    +
    +

    The NECESSITATIVE corresponds to the + English expressions need to or be necessary to, indicating + necessity, as in You need to do something about those clowns in the yard, + or It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.20
    DEC
    		The Decisive
    +
    +

    The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in Peter decided to cook + breakfast or Colleen chose to visit the clowns.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.21
    PTV
    		The Proclivitive
    +
    +

    The PROCLIVITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as tend to, be apt to, or be prone to, indicating + tendency, as in The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs, or Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.22
    VOL
    		The Voluntative
    +
    +

    The VOLUNTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as “offer to” or “volunteer to,” indicating an act of offering + as in The foreman offered to put poison in my beer, or Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.23
    ACC
    		The Accordative
    +
    +

    The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English + expression agree to, as in Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.24
    INC
    		The Inclinative
    +
    +

    The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to feel like or be up for, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in He’s up for going to the shindig, + or Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.25
    DVR
    		The Divertive
    +
    +

    The DIVERTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as like to, or enjoy, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in Boys like to dream about cars, or My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.26
    DVT
    		The Devotive
    +
    +

    The DEVOTIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as be devoted to or be committed to, indicating devotion + as in Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town, + or They were devoted to rooting for the losing team.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.27
    PFT
    		The Preferential
    +
    +

    The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English + expressions such as prefer, or would rather that, indicating + preference as in He’d rather work by himself, or Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.28
    IPS
    		The Impressional
    +
    +

    The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English + expressions such as have an impression that, have a hunch that, or feel that, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic, or Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.29
    PMS
    		The Promissory
    +
    +

    The PROMISSORY corresponds to English + expressions such as promise, or swear that, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in She promised that her son would visit my daughter, + or Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient.

    +

     

    +

    6.1.30 Examples of Modality in Use

    +
    +

    Rü  n-nwà  aktlàc  utputānukt.
    + ma/ACT    CRD    IFL-MNF-‘woman’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI    FML-‘travel’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI-AGC1/5-DEF1/9
    + She thinks the travelers are women.

    +

    Äđü  iň-ňmà  atác.
    + CSL/DPX-ua-ACT    RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
    + The two of them like writing to each other.

    +

    El-lnà  alairàpt  àxmoel  gmèh.
    + PRL-PFT    IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-CSS-OPR-‘eat/drink food’-PRX/A/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘mother’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘child’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/AGG
    +     Mother prefers that the children stop eating together.

    +

     

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    6.2 VALENCE
    +

    In Ilaksh, the term Valence is used to refer + to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given + verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by + another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, + or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs + of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” + verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ilaksh explicitly + shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate + the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1a) I found an old man.→1b) I found an empty can.
    2a) I threw the ball at Sam.→2b) I threw the ball at the window.
    3a) I performed in front of her.→3b) I performed in front of the wall.
    +

    Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate + object of the verb (an old man, Sam, and her), while the second +member of each pair has an inanimate object (an empty can, the window, and the wall). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1c) I met an old man.→1d) * I met an empty can.
    2c) I threw Sam the ball.→2d) * I threw the window the ball.
    3c) I entertained her.→3d) * I entertained the wall.
    +

    The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these + pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why?The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except + that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been + replaced by the semantically similar meet, throw, and entertain. + Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears + unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” + i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, + whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that + the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even + being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without the old man also + meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if + I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected to participate by + catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re + asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating + in the situation by observing me. The participatory relationship involving the second party of + a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship + (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb + ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship + as in the sentence I met the old man (i.e., and so he met me) or in + verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We + love each other. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in I + played along with him (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship + as in I threw Sam the ball (i.e., and so he caught it).Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is + the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ilaksh into + the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely + explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ + ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly + specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as find/meet, + throw at/throw, perform/entertain, etc. In Ilaksh, co-activity is explicitly shown morphologically, + and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are + systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus + co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monoactively +as well as co-actively.

    +

    There are fourteen valences in Ilaksh: the MONOACTIVE, + PARALLEL, COROLLARY, RECIPROCAL, COMPLEMENTARY, NONRELATIONAL, DUPLICATIVE, + DEMONSTRATIVE, RESISTIVE, IMITATIVE, CONTINGENT, PARTICIPATIVE, INDICATIVE, + and MUTUAL. Valence is shown by the vocalic Vv valence prefix to a valence/modality adjunct. There are two variations for each Vv value; the choice of which of the two varations to use is dependent on the value of the Cv Validation prefix explained later in Section 6.3.

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +


    + Table + 16: Vv Valence Prefixes
    + (The two variations work in conjunction with Cv Validation prefix explained later in Section 6.3)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Label
    Valence name
    Var 1
    		Var 2
    1
    MNO
    Monoactive
    a
    ai
    2
    PRL
    Parallel
    e
    ei
    3
    CRO
    Corollary
    o
    oi
    4
    RCP
    Reciprocal
    i
    iu
    5
    CPL
    Complementary
    u
    ui
    6
    NNR
    Nonrelational
    ä
    au
    7
    DUP
    Duplicative
    ë
    eu
    8
    DEM
    Demonstrative
    ö
    ou
    9
    RES
    Resistive
    ü
    ëu
    10
    IMT
    Imitative
    ia
    ua
    11
    CNG
    Contingent
    ie
    ue
    12
    PTI
    Participative
    io
    uo
    13
    IDC
    Indicative
    iö
    uö
    14
    MUT
    Mutual
    ea
    oa
    +


    + The fourteen valences are explained as follows:
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.1
    MNO
    		The Monoactive
    +
    +

    The MONOACTIVE valence is the default + valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second + party is implied.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.2
    PRL
    		The Parallel
    +
    +

    The PARALLEL valence indicates that a + second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children all sang + together, We both went jogging on the parkway.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.3
    CRO
    		The Corollary
    +
    +

    The COROLLARY valence is similar to the PARALLEL, except that the second party engages in related + activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children played in + the yard (i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or The + band played my favorite song (implying that not everyone in the band was + playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed + to playing an instrument).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.4
    RCP
    		The Reciprocal
    +
    +

    The RECIPROCAL valence indicates identical + activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial + phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in They + looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.5
    CPL
    		The Complementary
    +
    +

    The COMPLEMENTARY valence indicates that + the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. + By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the + first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., + the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences + such as The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, + The clown read the children a story, where ‘played catch’ implies + the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the + woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, and ‘read’ + implies a reader and an audience.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.6
    NNR
    		The Nonrelational
    +
    +

    The NONRELATIONAL valence indicates that + a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., + an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify + this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause + such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in He shaved + while she did something else. The way an Ilaksh sentence would utilize + this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, + ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one + thing while the other did something else.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.7
    DUP
    		The Duplicative
    +
    +

    The DUPLICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the + sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, + then you draw the same picture), They both read that book (i.e., first + one, then the other), I bought a new car (i.e., and now someone else + is buying a new car, too).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.8
    DEM
    		The Demonstrative
    +
    +

    The DEMONSTRATIVE valence indicates that + the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what + to do. Thus an Ilaksh sentence constructed as We played chess with + the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I + showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They + fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.9
    RES
    		The Resistive
    +
    +

    The RESISTIVE valence indicates that + the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity + of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the + adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases + such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as We took the + children to see the clowns anyway (i.e., they didn’t want to go), They fed me liver just the same (i.e., I can’t stand liver), Nevertheless, he told us the story (i.e., despite our not wanting to + hear it).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.10
    IMT
    		The Imitative
    +
    +

    The IMITATIVE valence indicates that + the second party mimics, imitates, or attempts to duplicate the activity of + the first party. The Ilaksh sentence The clown juggled three balls for + the child in the IMITATIVE valence implies that the + child attempted to juggle the balls as well.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.11
    CNG
    		The Contingent
    +
    +

    The CONTINGENT valence indicates that + the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, + the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ilaksh sentence I started the campfire for my friend in the CONTINGENT implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked + the food.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.12
    PTI
    		The Participative
    +
    +

    The PARTICIPATIVE valence indicates that + the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable + by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ilaksh sentence They raced in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They + each took part in the race.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.13
    IDC
    		The Indicative
    +
    +

    The INDICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s + activity. Thus the sentence I looked at her in the INDICATIVE would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ + while the sentence I spoke to them would mean ‘They gleaned what + I really meant from my words.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.14
    MUT
    		The Mutual
    +
    +

    The MUTUAL valence indicates that both + parties alternate performing an activity, as in She and I take turns cleaning or They both alternate teaching the beginning and advanced classes.

    +


    +
    +6.2.15 Examples of Valence in Use

    +
    +

    Un-nà  uvéstra  tu  guiliënìk  ilákš.
    + CPL    FML-OPR-‘study’-GRD/M/CSL/UNI    1M-EFF    IFL-‘illness’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-SSD1/1    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/CST
    + I’m teaching the nurse to speak Ilaksh.

    +

    In-nà  alpçulámz  kiàll.
    + RCP    IFL-STA-‘smile’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MOT1/5    IFL-‘person’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/DPX
    + The couple can’t help smiling at each other.

    +

    Iön-nà  xtàl  axmëèl  ukšŭl.
    + IDC    IFL-OPR-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘father’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The clown gets the meaning of father’s look.

    +

    Äđü  iň-ňmà  atác.
    + CSL/DPX-ma-ACT    RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
    + The two of them like writing to each other.

    +

    El-lnà  alairàpt  àxmoel  gmèh.
    + PRL-PFT    IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-CSS-OPR-‘eat/drink food’-PRX/A/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘mother’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘child’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/AGG
    +     Mother prefers that the children stop eating together.

    +
    +


    +

    + + + + +
    6.3 VALIDATION
    +

    Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ilaksh. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. Validation is another of the few areas where Ilaksh morphology differs from that of Ithkuil, in that Ithkuil's nine validations have been expanded to fourteen in Ilaksh. Of these 14 validations, five refer to non-hearsay types of evidence, while nine refer to hearsay situations. These nine hearsay categories are distinguished by a two-fold matrix of whether the source of the hearsay is considered by the speaker to be trustworthy and whether the statement/information is potentially verifiable. The exactitude of Ilaksh evidential categories is impossible to capture in English translation except through cumbersome paraphrase, but can be approximated in a rough way using phrases such as reportedly, presumably, supposedly, purportedly, allegedly, rumour has it, I have a feeling that, etc.

    +

    The 14 validations are shown by one of seven consonantal Cv prefixes (including a null prefix, i.e., the absence of a prefix) combined with one of two variations in the Vv valence affix described above in Section 6.2.

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +


    +The values for these prefixes are shown in Table 17 below as well as the meaning (description of evidential basis) of each validation.
    +

    + + Table 17(a) and (b): Cv Validation Prefixes With Vv Variants
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Label
    Name
    Cv
    Vv
    + variant
    Evidential Basis
    1
    CNF
    		CONFIRMATIVE
    —
    1
    		direct observation/knowledge and verifiable by others
    2
    AFM
    		AFFIRMATIVE
    —
    2
    		direct observation/knowledge but unknown verifiability by others
    3
    RPT
    		REPORTIVE
    w-
    1
    		direct observation/knowledge but unverifiable by others
    4
    INF
    		INFERENTIAL
    w-
    2
    inference
    5
    ITU
    		INTUITIVE
    y-
    1
    intuition/feeling
    +
    +Hearsay Categories +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Label
    Name
    Cv
    Vv
    + variant
    Source
    + Trustworthy?
    Verifiable? +
    +
    6
    PSM
    PRESUMPTIVE
    y-
    2
    Yes
    Yes
    7
    PSM2
    PRESUMPTIVE 2
    h-
    1
    Yes
    Unknown
    8
    PPT
    		PURPORTIVE
    h-
    2
    Yes
    No
    9
    PPT2
    		PURPORTIVE 2
    hw-
    1
    Unknown
    Yes
    10
    CJT
    CONJECTURAL
    hw-
    2
    Unknown
    Unknown
    11
    DUB
    DUBITATIVE
    hm-
    1
    Unknown
    No
    12
    TEN
    TENTATIVE
    hm-
    2
    No
    Yes
    13
    PUT
    PUTATIVE
    hn-
    1
    No
    Unknown
    14
    IPB
    IMPROBABLE
    hn-
    2
    No
    No
    +


    +
    + 6.3.1 Examples of Validation in Use

    +
    +

    Yuin-nà  uvéstra  ru  guiliënìk  ilákš.
    + PSM-CPL    FML-OPR-‘study’-GRD/M/CSL/UNI    ma-EFF    IFL-‘illness’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-SSD1/1    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/CST
    + He's presumably teaching the nurse to speak Ilaksh.

    +

    Hiun-nà  alpçulámz  kiàll.
    + PPT-RCP    IFL-STA-‘smile’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MOT1/5    IFL-‘person’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/DPX
    + Purportedly, the couple can’t help smiling at each other.

    +

    Äđü  hmiň-ňmà  atác.
    + CSL/DPX-ma-ACT    DUB-RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
    + Supposedly the two of them like writing to each other but who knows if it’s true or not.

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + +
    6.4 FUNCTION
    +

    Function refers to the general relationship a verb has to its noun participants based on whether the verb represents a tangible/physical act, an existential or psychological state, a subjective description, a statement of identification, inherent motion-in-place, a statement of location or position in space, or a transformation from one state to another. In this manner, a given verb can manifest different interpretations without the need for relexification or paraphrase. This addresses a lexico-semantic flaw in languages such as English where new verbs sometimes arise directly from nouns but the new verbal meaning can't be predicted until the verb is used in context. For example, imagine + an English speaker using a new verb form such as ‘to apple,’ as + in Let’s ‘apple’ today. Would this mean to pick + apple?, to be an apple?, to grow an apple?, to look like an apple?, to turn something into an apple? Without + a standardized system for the lexico-semantic function of verbs, the meaning of such a form could only be + learned from hearing others using it in context.

    +

    Through the morphological category of function, Ilaksh provides such a standardized system, i.e., eight ways by which to interpret such verbal meaning. This is very important since all formatives are capable of both nominal (noun) and verbal meanings. Thus, by means of the different functions, the stem xtà- ‘eye’ can be made to have verbal meanings as diverse as to be an eye, to be like an eye, to turn into an eye, to cause an eyeball to move (in place), to be in an eye-like state, to be positioned where the eye is situated, and to move an eye from one place to another. We will see later in Section 6.5 that these eight semantic interpretations can be infinitely expanded by means of stem incorporation and the category of Format.

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    In Ithkuil, this concept of Function was called Conflation and worked in conjunction with two other categories called Derivation and Format. However, in Ilaksh, the notion of Derivation has been abandoned in favor of allowing any formative stem to be incorporated directly into another stem, a process which will be described at length in Section 6.5. As a result, the notion of Conflation from Ithkuil has been decoupled from the concept of Format. Because of this change, the concept has been renamed Function and is described in this section on its own.

    +

    Function is shown by the Cm modification of the consonantal portion of the verbal stem within the formative itself, which usually means the adding a consonantal prefix + to the stem consonant; however the exact phonological manifestation of each Cm modification is dependent on the specific stem consonant or consonant cluster.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The specific Cm modifications are described below in Section 6.4.9 . The eight Functions are the OPERATIVE, STATIVE, MANIFESTIVE, INCHOATIVE, DESCRIPTIVE, ACTIVE, POSITIONAL and TRANSLATIVE . They are described in the following sections.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.1
    OPR
    		The Operative
    +
    +

    OPERATIVE function is unmarked, i.e., there is no change to the stem consonant or consonant cluster. The OPERATIVE indicates that the verb refers to a tangible or physical act or cause-and-effect event: to perform the action + of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.2
    STA
    		The Stative
    +
    +

    The STATIVE function is usually marked by prefixing or suffixing an -l- to the stem consonant, although the specific pattern is dependent on the stem consonant itself, as shown in Table 18 below. The STATIVE indicates a stative manifestation, + i.e. to be in a (temporary) state. It does NOT mean “be” in the + sense of copula identification as in “I am John”

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3
    MNF
    		The Manifestive
    +
    +

    MANIFESTIVE function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -r- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant; see Table 18 below for details. The MANIFESTIVE indicates that the verb represents a manifestion or naming of the identity of a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the “be” + copula of identification in Western languages.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.4
    ICH
    		The Inchoative
    +
    +

    INCHOATIVE function is marked by prefixing a homologous nasal to the stem consonant or consonant cluster (i.e., a nasal pronounced in the same place of articulation as the stem consonant or first consonant of the stem's consonant cluster), although the specific pattern is dependent on the particular stem consonant or consonant cluster; see Table 18 below for specifics. The INCHOATIVE indicates that the verb refers to a transformation from + one state to another or (trans-)formation of an identity.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.5
    DSC
    		The Descriptive
    +
    +

    DESCRIPTIVE function is marked by a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The DESCRIPTIVE indicates descriptive manifestation, + i.e., to appear or manifest in the manner of. This sense is the nearest + Ilaksh equivalent to English adjectives.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.6
    ATV
    		The Active
    +
    +

    ACTIVE function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -l- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant (see Table 18 below for details) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The ACTIVE indicates action or motion in situ, i.e., action performed in place or movement in place (as in shaking, + spinning, wagging, wiggling, jumping up and down, etc.).
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.7
    PSN
    		The Positional
    +
    +

    POSITIONAL function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -r- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant (see Table 18 below for details) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The POSITIONAL indicates that the verb refers to a position or location, + i.e. to be situated in a location/position in space.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.8
    TNV
    		The Translative
    +
    +

    TRANSLATIVE function is generally marked by prefixing a homologous nasal to the stem consonant or consonant cluster (i.e., a nasal pronounced in the same place of articulation as the stem consonant or first consonant of the stem's consonant cluster), although the specific pattern is dependent on the particular stem consonant or consonant cluster (see Table 18 below for specifics) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The TRANSLATIVE indicates that the verb indicates a change in position or location is taking place, + i.e. to move or be moved from one location/position in space to another.

    +

     

    +

    6.4.9 Values of the Cm Function Affixes/Modifications and Alternation of the Vc Affix

    +

    The specific values for the stem-consonant modifications associated with Function are shown in Table 18 below. There are several different patterns of Cm prefixes and/or modification of the Cr stem consonant or consonant cluster. Note that the OPERATIVE function is shown by a zero-form, i.e., it is unmarked, the Function being shown simply by the presence of the default Cr stem consonant or consonant cluster. Also note that the last four of the Functions (the DESCRIPTIVE, ACTIVE, POSITIONAL and TRANSLATIVE) are shown using the same prefix forms as the first four, with the addition of a modification of the value of the verb's Vc Affix to its secondary Form (see Sections 3.6 and 6.5.2 below).

    +


    + Tables 18(a)-(f): Function Prefixes + for Each Cr Stem Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + *Asterisked Functions are indicated by addition of alternation of Vc affix to secondary form (see Sec. 6.5.2)

    +

    (a) Standard pattern: ( )-, l-, r-, and Homologous Nasal prefixed to the stem consonant (Cr) element, illustrated below by Cr elements p, t, and kt. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    p
    lp
    rp
    mp
    t
    lt
    rt
    nt
    kt
    lkt
    rkt
    ňkt
    +


    +(b)     Pattern: ( )-, l-, r-, and homologous nasal prefixed to the stem consonant (Cr) element but with deletion of the initial stem consonant p- or k- following the nasal prefix due to assimilation with the nasal. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: pt, pk, ptl, ptr, ptř, pŧ, pŧl, pŧr, kŧ, kŧl, kŧr, ps, pš, ks, kš, psr, pšr, ksr, kšr, psl, pšl, ksl, kšl, pst, pšt, kst, kšt, psk pšk, ksp, kšp, bz, bž, gz, gž, bzg, bžg, gzb, gžb,gzd, and gžd. Four of these elements are illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    pt
    lpt
    rpt
    mt
    ptr
    lptr
    rptr
    mtr
    ksr
    lksr
    rksr
    ňsr
    gz
    lgz
    rgz
    ňz
    +


    +c) Pattern: -(), -l, -r, and -w are added as suffixes to the Cr element. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: pp, tt, kk, bb, dd, gg, ff, ŧŧ, xx, vv, đđ, ss, šš, zz, žž, mm, ňň, žž, bg, and gd. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    pp
    ppl
    ppr
    ppw
    gd
    gdl
    gdr
    gdw
    +


    +d) Same as standard pattern (a) above, except that a geminated consonant within the Cr element is simplified to a non-geminate when taking the -l, -r, and nasal prefixes. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: ppy, tty, kky, bby, ddy, ggy, ffy, ŧŧy, xxy, vvy, and đđy. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    ppy
    lpy
    rpy
    mpy
    xxy
    lxy
    rxy
    ňxy
    +


    + e)     Same as standard pattern (a) above, except that a -w suffix is substituted for the nasal prefix in the INCHOATIVE and TRANSLATIVE functions. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: m, n, ň, c, č, ż, j, ck, čk, gż, jg, cp, čp, ct, čt, vm, vn, đm, đn, pf, bv, dv,and gv. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    m
    lm
    rm
    mw
    gv
    lgv
    rgv
    gvw
    +


    + f) The following Cr elements are individual in their patterning for each Function:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    r
    lr
    hh
    řs
    l
    rw
    rl
    řt
    rr
    ňw
    hr
    řš
    ll
    řy
    hl
    řth
    ry
    xw
    xv
    řç
    ly
    lw
    rly
    řd
    ř
    lř
    řw
    řk
    rry
    çř
    řřw
    řm
    lly
    llw
    rrw
    řn
    řř
    řl
    řřy
    řh
    my
    pw
    bw
    mw
    ny
    tw
    dw
    nw
    cc
    pc
    fc
    cw
    čč
    pč
    fč
    čw
    ddz
    thc
    bdz
    dzw
    jj
    thč
    bj
    jw
    bd
    lbd
    rbd
    md
    bdh
    lbdh
    rbdh
    mdh
    gdh
    lgdh
    rgdh
    ňdh
    db
    ldb
    rdb
    nb
    cm
    lcm
    rcm
    smw
    dg
    ldg
    rdg
    mg
    cl
    lcl
    rcl
    nsw
    čl
    čl
    čl
    nšw
    dzl
    ldzl
    rdzl
    nzw
    jl
    ljl
    rjl
    nžw
    cř
    lcř
    rcř
    ssw
    čř
    lčř
    rčř
    ššw
    dzř
    ldzř
    rdzř
    zzw
    jř
    ljř
    rjř
    žžw
    cr
    lcr
    rcr
    sw
    čr
    lčr
    rčr
    šw
    dzr
    ldzr
    rdzr
    zw
    jr
    ljr
    rjr
    žw
    mmy
    vw
    smy
    zmy
    nny
    dhw
    sny
    zny
    ml
    fw
    psw
    spw
    nl
    thw
    ksw
    stw
    mr
    kw
    pšw
    špw
    nr
    gw
    kšw
    štw
    ňl
    kc
    xc
    ňř
    ňr
    kč
    xč
    gj
    mř
    sfw
    šfw
    řņ
    nř
    skw
    škw
    řg
    +
    +

    All remaining Cr elements not referenced in the tables above follow the standard pattern (a).

    +

     

    +

    6.4.10 Examples of Function

    +

    Here follow examples of the eight functions applied to the same stem urà ‘prepare(d) food’:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    OPROPERATIVEurà   ‘prepare(d)/cook(ed) food’
    STASTATIVEulrà   ‘to be in a state of preparing/cooking food’
    MNFMANIFESTIVEuhhà    ‘to be prepared/cooked food’
    ICHINCHOATIVEuřsà   ‘to become/turn into prepared/cooked food’
    DSPDESCRIPTIVEärà    ‘to be like prepared/cooked food’
    ATVACTIVEälrà   ‘prepared/cooked food moving around’ [e.g., in the pan or on the plate]
    PSNPOSITIONALähhà    ‘to be situated at or placed with the prepared/cooked food’
    TNVTRANSLATIVEäřsà   ‘to move the prepared/cooked food’[e.g., from one place to another]
    +
    +

    Additional examples of Function:

    +
    +

    Ūalkresk  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + His wife’s clothes are inside-out.

    +

    Epsiolřūl  aktäàl.
    + IFL-PST/ITR/PPS-TMP-ATV-‘circular motion’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘man’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The man succeeded in twirling/spinning around for a while.

    +

    Yoaňšŭl  gmèint.
    + DEC-FML/RSL-ICH-‘clown’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘child’-ABS-DEL/U/CSL/DPX
    + The pair of children are hereby turned into clowns!

    +

    Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
    + IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

    +

    Ervrekf īfš  nrūoilüb  zmayüūlavz.
    + IFL-PSN-‘pathway’-PRX/N/CSL/UNI-DCS1/1    IFL-‘oblique verticality’-FUN-EXN1/6     IFL-‘valley’-NAV-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5
    + The path winds steeply through the canyon.

    +

     

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    6.5 INCORPORATION AND FORMAT
    +

    Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings + into a single verb, a process termed conflation. This is illustrated + in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    1. He bicycled south. = He traveled south by bicycle.
    + 2. She dolled herself up. = She made herself look as pretty as a + doll.
    + 3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the + books on the shelf/shelves.
    + 4. Slide me a beer. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the + bar).

    +
    +

    The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry + inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and + giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random + and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English to bicycle in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to + make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the + verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but + rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means + ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ + or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first + three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does slide in sentence (4).

    +

    As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” + way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, + placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary + sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our + four sentences above as follows:

    +
    +

    He [1: + (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle]
    + = He bicycled south.

    +

    She [1: + (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll]
    + = She dolled herself up.

    +

    They [1: + (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves]
    + = They’re shelving the books.

    +

    [1: (GIVE+imperative)] + a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me
    + = Slide me a beer.

    +
    +

    Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown + by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb + and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English + must learn that to hand means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, + but to shoulder does not mean to GIVE by MEANS of + one’s shoulder.

    +

    Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity + for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack + of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use + when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form.

    +

    Ilaksh systemizes verb conflation into a productive + scheme, in which the primary verb can convey any of eight overt senses, called formats, which in turn combine with any secondary verbal stem to convey the covert sense. The secondary verbal stem is incorporated directly into a valence/modality adjunct as an affix immediately preceding the CM modality element and following the Vv valence affix if present. This incorporated stem is labeled as morphological terms Cd and Vd, that is, the Stem Consonant + Stem vowel of the incorporated stem. As for the tone of the incorporated stem, it becomes the tone for the entire adjunct, to be pronounced as usual beginning with the stressed syllable, i.e., the CM syllabic consonant. (NOTE: For those valence/modality adjuncts which do not contain a Cd + Vd incorporated stem, the default tone of the adjunct is falling tone.)

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +

    In addition to the tone of the incorporated stem's tone, we know from Chapter 2 that each Consonant+Vowel root in Ilaksh falls into one of three Patterns (Pattern 1 being the three holistic stems, and Patterns 2 and 3 being the six complementary stems). While the three Patterns can be shown by mutation of the Cd consonant, a way must be found to indicate which of three stems per pattern is intended, as well as the Designation of the stem (i.e., FORMAL versus INFORMAL). This is accomplished by mutating the Vd vowel element, as shown in Table 19 below.

    +Table 19: Vd Mutation Series
    +     + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Stem Vowel —>
    a
    e
    i
    o
    u
    Informal
    + Designation
    Stem 1
    a
    e
    i
    o
    u
    Stem 2
    ä
    ë
    ï
    ö
    ü
    Stem 3
    ai
    ei
    ëi
    oi
    ui
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Formal Designation
    Stem 1
    au
    eu
    iu
    ou
    ëu
    Stem 2
    ia
    ie
    ië
    io
    i-u
    Stem 3
    u
    ue
    u-i
    uo
    uë
    +

     

    +

    6.5.1 Examples of Stem Incorporation

    +

    Here are some examples of incorporation using the stems xtā- ‘run’, zdā- ‘keep in holding area; contain’, ammyû- ‘sleep’, úse- ‘sing a song’, açrà- ‘ingest/consume’, and admù- ‘cry’ :

    +
    +

    Akkoàl  xtam-mā  zlul.
    + IFL-‘woman’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-DES    IFL/SCH-OPR-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman wants to run like a gazelle.

    +

    Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
    + IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

    +

    Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
    + IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
    + Father went off clam-hunting.

    +

    Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üúsel  gmìel.
    + IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

    +

    Çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt ukšüŭl  bler.
    + ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRT-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
    + The clown had to buy some clams and consume them.

    +

    Axmièl  seun-ná  a-ildmùl.
    + IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘sing a song’-FML     IFL/SBQ-STA-‘cry’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Father is crying because of the song.

    +

    Àxmäula  axmièl  dmün-nà  úisel.
    + IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘cry’-IFL    FML/ISR-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Mother makes father cry by singing.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    Ithkuil provides for a process called Derivation in which the eight formats which convey the sense of the primary verb combine with the seven conflations plus any of nearly 240 derivative conflations to yield over 2000 possible semantic combinations. While the category of Format is retained in Ilaksh, the process of Derivation has been eliminated and replaced by the process of Incorporation, allowing a theoretically unlimited number of semantic conflations for verbs.

    +

     

    +

    6.5.2 Format

    +

    As described above, the primary stem of a conflated verb in English can convey different senses such as means, manner, or location, the specific sense being learnable only through actual usage and context. In Ilaksh, this sense is overtly identified by the format of the verb. Format is shown as part of the Vc prefix which also shows the categories of Designation and Essence (see Sections 3.6 and 3.7).

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    Table 20 below shows the values of Vc. We have previously seen (in Secs. 3.6, and 3.7) that each of the Vc affixes has a secondary form (used in conjunction with four of the eight verbal Functions, as explained in Sec. 6.4.9 above). However, in addition to these secondary forms, all Vc affixes also have an alternate form used to indicate the presence of a Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix. These alternate forms are necessary in order to disambiguate which consonants in a complex formative belong to the formative stem from those belonging to affixes. By providing an alternate form, the reader of a complex Ilaksh formative can know that the syllable following the Vc affix is, in fact, a Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix and not the Cr+Vr formative stem.

    +


    + Tables 20(a) and (b): Vc Affixes:  Designation/Essence/Format Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    +
    Designation

    +
    Essence

    +
     
    FORMAT
    SCH
    ISR
    ATH
    PRT
    RSL
    SBQ
    CCM
    OBJ
     
    +
    INFORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    (a)
    ai
    au
    ia
    ua
    a-i
    a-u
    ao
    2ndary form
    e
    ei
    eu
    ie
    ue
    e-i
    e-u
    eo
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    i
    ï
    iu
    ea
    u-i
    eë
    ae
    aö
    2ndary form
    o
    oi
    ou
    io
    uo
    o-i
    o-u
    o-ü
     
    +
    FORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    u
    ui
    ü
    i-u
    oa
    oë
    oe
    öa
    2ndary form
    ä
    äi
    äu
    iä
    uä
    eö
    üo
    ä-i
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    ö
    öi
    öu
    iö
    uö
    ö-i
    ö-u
    ä-u
    2ndary form
    ë
    ëi
    ëu
    ië
    uë
    ë-i
    ë-u
    äo
    +

    The alternate versions of these affixes, used to indicate the presence of Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infixes, are given below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    +
    Designation

    +
    Essence

    +
     
    FORMAT
    SCH
    ISR
    ATH
    PRT
    RSL
    SBQ
    CCM
    OBJ
     
    +
    INFORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    a’
    ai’
    au’
    i’a
    u’a
    a’i
    a’u
    a’o
    2ndary form
    e’
    ei’
    eu’
    i’e
    u’e
    e’i
    e’u
    e’o
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    i’
    ï’
    iu’
    e’a
    u’i
    e’ë
    a’e
    a’ö
    2ndary form
    o’
    oi’
    ou’
    i’o
    u’o
    o’i
    o’u
    o’ü
     
    +
    FORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    u’
    ui’
    ü’
    i’u
    o’a
    o’ë
    o’e
    ö’a
    2ndary form
    ä’
    äi’
    äu’
    i’ä
    u’ä
    e’ö
    ü’o
    ä’i
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    ö’
    öi’
    öu’
    i’ö
    u’ö
    ö’i
    ö’u
    ä’u
    2ndary form
    ë’
    ëi’
    ëu’
    i’ë
    u’ë
    ë’i
    ë’u
    ä’o
    +
    + + + + +
    IMPORTANT NOTE: The above alternate versions of the Vc affix are used if the formative conatins a Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix and only if the formative Cr+Vr stem + Ca affix are followed by one or more of the consonant-based suffixes from Chapter 7. Otherwise, the reader/listener can assume that the last consonant or consonant cluster in an Ilaksh formative is the Ca affix and that the penultimate (second-to-last) consonant or consonantal cluster is the Cr stem consonantal form. In this way, it is always possible to discern exactly which consonants in an Ilaksh formative correspond to the terms of the ((VL +) Ci + Vc (+ Cx + Vp) +) (Cm +) Cr + Vr + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ VF (+ Cb)) [+ tone][+ stress] morphological formula.
    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.1
    SCH
    		The Schematic
    + The SCHEMATIC function indicates that the + verb specifies the manner of the conflated primary sense, e.g., I’m + speeding through the book = reading speedily; Clouds blanketed + the city = cover like a blanket
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.2
    ISR
    		The Instrumentative
    + The INSTRUMENTATIVE function Indicates the means, + cause, or instrument of causation of the conflated primary sense, e.g., I clubbed him = I hit him with a club; She drove him there = She transported him there by driving
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.3
    ATH
    		The Authoritive
    + The AUTHORITIVE function indicates that the + verb specifies the indirect/enabling cause or circumstance which gives rise + to the conflated primary sense, e.g., He sang her cares away = + his singing allowed her to forget her cares
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.4
    PRT
    		The Precurrent
    + The PRECURRENT function indicates that the + verb specifies an initial event immediately preceding or continuing on into + the conflated sense, where the overt sense is not the cause of the conflated + sense, i.e., the conflated sense would have occurred anyway, e.g., I + bought some lunch (conflated sense: EAT)
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.5
    RSL
    		The Resultative
    + The RESULTATIVE function indicates that the + verb specifies the concurrent result of the conflated sense, i.e., an event + which occurs in conjunction with the conflated sense but is also caused + by it, e.g., The plane crashed into the water (conflated sense: + FLY)
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.6
    SBQ
    		The Subsequent
    + The SUBSEQUENT function indicates that the + verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect result or purpose (not the + concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., I’ll look in + on the stew (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen])
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.7
    CCM
    		The Concommitant
    + The CONCOMMITANT function indicates that the + verb specifies an incidental simultaneous event having no causal relationship, + e.g., She wore jeans to church (conflated sense: GO); He sweated + through her recital (Conflated sense: LISTEN)
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.8
    OBJ
    		The Objective
    + The OBJECTIVE function indicates that the + verb specifies the Patient (see Sec. + 4.1.1) of the underlying conflated sense, e.g., She dusted + the table (conflated sense: REMOVE); They fish that river each + spring (conflated sense: GATHER/COLLECT)
    +


    + 6.5.3 Examples of Format in Use

    +

    These are the same examples from Section 6.5.1 above on Incorporation, now highlighting the different formats used:

    +
    +

    Akkoàl  xtam-mā  zlul.
    + IFL-‘woman’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-DES    IFL/SCH-OPR-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman wants to run like a gazelle.

    +

    Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
    + IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

    +

    Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
    + IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
    + Father went off clam-hunting.

    +

    Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üúsel  gmìel.
    + IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

    +

    Çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt ukšüŭl  bler.
    + ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRT-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
    + The clown had to buy some clams and consume them.

    +

    Axmiè  seun-ná  a-ildmùl.
    + IFL-father-AFF     ‘sing a song’-FML     IFL/SBQ-STA-‘cry’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Father is crying because of the song.

    +

    Àxmäula  axmièl  dmün-nà  úisel.
    + IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘cry’-IFL    FML/ISR-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Mother makes father cry by singing.

    +
    +


    +

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + +
    6.6 BIAS
    +
    +

    Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which + often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation + (previously discussed in Sec. 6.1), often triggering a + translation change as well.

    +


    + 6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage

    +

    Bias is shown in any one of two ways:

    +
      +
    1. +
      If a valence/modality adjunct is present, then as a word-final consonantal suffix to to the adjunct, e.g., illûi’ss
      +
      +
      2. +
    2. +
      If no valence/modality adjunct is present, then as a word-final consonantal suffix to formative with a glottal stop being infixed between the suffix and the VF mood/context suffix, + e.g., uprexalo’ss
      +
      3. +
    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    (NOTE: We will also see in Section 8.1.2 that a Cb Bias affix may be associated with a Form 3 single-referent personal reference adjunct.)

    +

    These Cb affix forms are shown in Table 21 + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms +described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.

    +


    + Table 21: Morpho-Phonological +Markers for Bias

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    LABEL
    NAME OF BIAS
    Cb AFFIX →
    + Cb INTENSIVE AFFIX
    1
    ASU
    		ASSURATIVEn → nn
    2
    HPB
    		HYPERBOLICm → mm
    3
    COI
    		COINCIDENTALň → ňň
    4
    ACP
    		ACCEPTIVEh → hh
    5
    RAC
    		REACTIVEç → çç
    6
    STU
    		STUPEFACTIVEs → ss
    7
    CTV
    		CONTEMPLATIVEz → zz
    8
    DPV
    		DESPERATIVEš → šš
    9
    RVL
    		REVELATIVEl → ll
    10
    GRA
    		GRATIFICATIVEr → rr
    11
    SOL
    		SOLICITIVEř → řř
    12
    SEL
    		SELECTIVEŧ  → ŧŧ
    13
    IRO
    		IRONICđ → đđ
    14
    EXA
    		EXASPERATIVEbz → bzz
    15
    LTL
    		LITERALgž → g žž
    16
    CRR
    		CORRECTIVEx → xx
    17
    EUP
    		EUPHEMISTICgz → gzz
    18
    SKP
    		SKEPTICALks → kss
    19
    CYN
    		CYNICALž → žž
    20
    CTP
    		CONTEMPTIVEkš → kšš
    21
    DSN
    		DISMISSIVEpç → pçç
    22
    IDG
    		INDIGNATIVEpš → pšš
    23
    SGS
    		SUGGESTIVEps → pss
    24
    PPV
    		PROPOSITIVEbž → bžž
    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.1
    ASU
    		ASSURATIVE
    + This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by I told you so! or You see?!
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.2
    HPB
    		HYPERBOLIC
    + This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in I + so don’t care! or That is totally not what I wanted. The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.3
    COI
    		COINCIDENTAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in I happened to run into Jane or It + just so happens that I’m busy. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.4
    ACP
    		ACCEPTIVE
    + This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.5
    RAC
    		REACTIVE
    + This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.6
    STU
    		STUPEFACTIVE
    + This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.7
    CTV
    		CONTEMPLATIVE
    + This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.8
    DPV
    		DESPERATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.9
    RVL
    		REVELATIVE
    + This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.10
    GRA
    		GRATIFICATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.11
    SOL
    		SOLICITIVE
    + This bias expresses the Ilaksh equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence So dance already!
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.12
    SEL
    		SELECTIVE
    + This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.13
    IRO
    		IRONIC
    + This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.14
    EXA
    		EXASPERATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.15
    LTL
    		LITERAL
    + This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.16
    CRR
    		CORRECTIVE
    + This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.17
    EUP
    		EUPHEMISTIC
    + This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.18
    SKP
    		SKEPTICAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.19
    CYN
    		CYNICAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.20
    CTP
    		CONTEMPTIVE
    + This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.21
    DSM
    		DISMISSIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.22
    IDG
    		INDIGNATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.23
    SGS
    		SUGGESTIVE
    + This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.24
    PPV
    		PROPOSITIVE
    + This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences How about going for a stroll?, We + could meet behind the barn if you want, or You can sit on my lap. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’
    +


    + 6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use

    +
    +

    Ūalkresk  zìhh  ùdvüöla’nn.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FAC-ASU+
    + You see?! I told you his wife’s clothes are inside-out!

    +

    Uxakloskò’ňň.
    + FRM-PRC/FRG/PPS-OPR-‘rain’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SUB-COI
    + It may just so happen to be raining.

    +

    Wain-nyàx  u’rleuvaskăr  kü.
    + INF-MNO-CPC-CRR    FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-CNT-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5     2m-ACT
    + What I mean to say is that I don't think you'll be able to work any longer.

    +

    Xasskügà’pss  akkiàl.
    + IFL-OPR-‘eyesight’-PRX/M/CSL/DPX-FLC1/6-FAC-SGS+    IFL-‘woman’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Let's assume for the sake of argument that the woman’s eyesight is improving.

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    6.7 ASPECT ALTERNATIVE
    +
    +

    The category of Aspect was introduced and discussed in Section 5.6, where it was described that Aspect is normally presented as the Vp infix to a formative, placed immediately following the Cx Phase/Sanction/Version affix. As an alternative, however, Aspect may be conveyed by suffixing Vp infix to a valence/modality adjunct immediately following the CM modality affix.

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +

    Examples:

    +
    +

    Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
    + IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
    + Father went off clam-hunting.

    +

    Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üsél  gmìel.
    + IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

    +

    Wain-nyeu  u’rlavastăr  ktòal.
    + INF-MNO-CPC-CNT     FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/ASO/UNI-NA11/5     IFL-‘man’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + It's fair to say the man won't be able to work any longer.

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 7: Suffixes >>

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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      6.1 Modality  6.5 Incorporation and Format   
      6.2 Valence  6.6 Bias   
      6.3 Validation  6.7 Aspect Alternative   
      6.4 Function     
    +

    In this chapter, we examine eight additional morphological categories and processes +which apply to verbal formatives: Modality, Valence, Validation, Bias, Function, Incorporation and Format. These categories (with the exception of Function and Format) are shown within the morpho-phonological structure of a valence adjunct (also called a modality adjunct).

    +

    The structure of a valence/modality adjunct is as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))

    +  7 validations (in conj. w/ Vv)
    +

    + 14 valences
    + x 3 validations (in conj. w/ Cv)

    + 120 C-root
    + x 3 patterns
    + =incorporated root

    + 5 V-root
    + x 6 tones
    + x 3 stems
    + x 2 designations
    +

    + 30 cc-affix =
    + 29 modalities + 1 default (= no modality)

    + 32 aspects

    + 48 biases
    +


    +Example: hoixmial-lùiss

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    h
    oi
    xm
    ia
    l-l`
    ui
    ss
    PURPORTIVE validation
    + (COROLLARY valence)
    COROLLARY valence
    + (PURPORTIVE validation) +
    incorporated stem: xmìa
    ASPIRATIVE modality
    REGRESSIVE
    + aspect
    STUPEFACTIVE bias
    +

    The valence/modality adjunct appears in an Ilaksh sentence immediately before a verbal formative, or when within a case-frame, immediately after the verbal formative.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    6.1 MODALITY
    +
    +

    Modality corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., can, may, must, should, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as to want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that, etc. However, + in Ilaksh, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see Sec. + 3.8) and the Perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. + 4.3.9). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows: As we saw in Sections + 3.8 and 4.3.9, + it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the + psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in + the following sentences.

    +
    +

    1) You must come home at once.
    + 2) That girl can sing better than anybody.
    + 3) Our troops should attack at dawn.
    + 4) Mother needs you to come with her.
    + 5) The teacher requests that I dance for you.
    + 6) The man believes clowns are dangerous.

    +
    +

    Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.Because the clauses following the verbs must, can, should, + need, request, believe, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) and the REPRESENTATIVE essence (see Sec. + 3.7). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns you, girl, troops, mother, teacher, and man in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see Sec. + 4.3.9). It should be noted that not all Ilaksh modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence She + chose to move to Australia, the verb chose signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the move to Australia clause would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective but + would not be marked in the REPRESENTATIVE essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ilaksh modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.

    +

    There are 29 modalities in Ilaksh. (This is one less than in Ithkuil; Ithkuil's COMPULSIVE modality has been eliminated in Ilaksh, its function merged with the NECESSITATIVE.) Modality is marked by the CM consonantal affix to a valence adjunct. the CM affix is always a dissyllabic geminate consonant as earlier described in Section 1.2.1.1, in which the second member of the geminate conjunct carries the word stress and tone. This is the only circumstance in which such dissyllabic stressed consonantal geminates occur in Ilaskh; thus, it is by this means that Valence/Modality adjuncts can be easily distinguished from formatives. Because some browsers and/or text displays do not allow a consonant to carry a tone-stress diacritic mark, the tone-stress diacritic is written on the vowel following the CM affix, e.g., in-nù, a three-syllable word pronounced (using X-SAMPA) as [In."n=.u] with falling tone beginning on the stressed second n-sound. In cases where there is no vowel following the CM affix, the tone-stress diacritic is written on a neutral anaptyptic vowel -a following the CM affix which the speaker may pronounce or not at his/her choosing, e.g., in-ná, pronounced (using X-SAMPA) either as [In."n= ] or as [In."n=.a] with rising tone beginning on the stressed second n-sound.

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +

    Note that the tone of a valence adjunct is always determined by the tone of any incorporated stem associated with the adjunct (the Cd+Vd optional element in the above formula) as described in Section 6.5 below. Where the adjunct has no such incorporated stem, the default tone of the adjunct is falling. The tone always appears in conjunction with the stressed syllable, the syllabic consonant as described in the above paragraph. As with all Ilaksh words, the tone of the word prior to the stressed syllable is neutral mid tone (see Section 1.3.2).

    +

    Where the value of the Cv and Vv terms of such an adjunct are null (i.e., there is no Valence or Validation values marked), then the adjunct may be termed a modality adjunct. + The 29 modalities and their respective suffixes are shown in Table 15 below. The function of each modality is described in the sub-sections following the table.

    +

    Table 15: CM Modality Affixes 

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    Name
    CM-affix
     
     
    Label
    Name
    CM-affix
    --
    (no modality)
    n-n
    ITV
    Intentive
    n-nr
    DES
    Desiderative
    m-m
    ANT
    Anticipative
    m-mr
    ASP
    Aspirative
    l-l
    DSP
    Dispositive
    l-lr
    EXV
    Expectative
    ň-ň
    PRE
    Preparative
    ň-ňr
    CRD
    Credential
    n-nw
    NEC
    Necessitative
    n-nř
    REQ
    Requisitive
    m-mw
    DEC
    Decisive
    m-mř
    EXH
    Exhortative
    l-lw
    PTV
    Proclivitive
    l-lř
    OPR
    Opportunitive
    ň-ňw
    VOL
    Voluntative
    ň-ňř
    CPC
    Capacitative
    n-ny
    ACC
    Accordative
    n-nm
    PRM
    Permissive
    m-my
    INC
    Inclinative
    l-lm
    PTN
    Potential
    l-ly
    DVR
    Divertive
    ň-ňm
    CLS
    Compulsory
    ň-ňy
    DVT
    Devotive
    m-mn
    OBG
    Obligative
    m-ml
    PFT
    Preferential
    l-ln
    IMS
    Impositive
    n-nl
    IPS
    Impressional
    ň-ňn
    ADV
    Advocative
    ň-ňl
    PMS
    Promissory
    l-lň
    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.1
    DES
    		The Desiderative
    +
    +

    The DESIDERATIVE more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in The teacher wants the students to study hard. It is marked + by adding the suffix -a to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.2
    ASP
    		The Aspirative
    +
    +

    The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.3
    EPC
    		The Expectative
    +
    +

    The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in He expected her to be beautiful, + or I imagine he’s reached his destination.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.4
    CRD
    		The Credential
    +
    +

    The CREDENTIAL corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in I think she has two sons, or We believe the earth to be round. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as I think she’s pretty.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.5
    REQ
    		The Requisitive
    +
    +

    The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in I request his presence at the banquet, +or I’d like you to visit your father.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.6
    EXH
    		The Exhortative
    +
    +

    The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in I demand you return my book or Let the gates be opened!

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.7
    OPR
    		The Opportunitive
    +
    +

    The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in Can we pass by our old house when we visit town? or Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.8
    CPC
    		The Capacitative
    +
    +

    The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in Can she sing opera? or He could run + like the wind. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in He speaks French like + a native [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so].

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.9
    PRM
    		The Permissive
    +
    +

    The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs can/could/be able or may/might where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert; or Could I talk to you?

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.10
    PTN
    		The Potential
    +
    +

    The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area, or That man could fly into rages for no reason. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in It rains unpredictably in the Northwest.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.11
    CLS
    		The Compulsory
    +
    +

    The COMPULSORY corresponds to the English + modal verbs must or have to/had to in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in You must get up now, or I had to attend the ceremony.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.12
    OBG
    		The Obligative
    +
    +

    The OBLIGATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs should, ought to, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel, or It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.13
    IMS
    		The Impositive
    +
    +

    The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as be supposed to, be expected to, or be to which impose an expectation upon a party, as in You’re supposed to + smile when introduced, or He is to give a speech at the banquet.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.14
    ADV
    		The Advocative
    +
    +

    The ADVOCATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as suggest that or propose that which advocate + a position, as in I suggest you study harder or They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.15
    ITV
    		The Intentive
    +
    +

    The INTENTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as intend to, plan on or shall which + convey an intention, as in The girls plan on travelling to Europe, + or I shall see to it.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.16
    ANT
    		The Anticipative
    +
    +

    The ANTICIPATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to look forward to or to eagerly await which convey positive anticipation, as in We look forward to the clowns coming + to town.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.17
    DSP
    		The Dispositive
    +
    +

    The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English + expression to be willing to, conveying willingness as in He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.18
    PRE
    		The Preparative
    +
    +

    The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English + expressions be ready to or be prepared to, indicating readiness, + as in She’s ready to host the party, or They are prepared + to endure harsh weather.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.19
    NEC
    		The Necessitative
    +
    +

    The NECESSITATIVE corresponds to the + English expressions need to or be necessary to, indicating + necessity, as in You need to do something about those clowns in the yard, + or It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.20
    DEC
    		The Decisive
    +
    +

    The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in Peter decided to cook + breakfast or Colleen chose to visit the clowns.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.21
    PTV
    		The Proclivitive
    +
    +

    The PROCLIVITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as tend to, be apt to, or be prone to, indicating + tendency, as in The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs, or Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.22
    VOL
    		The Voluntative
    +
    +

    The VOLUNTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as “offer to” or “volunteer to,” indicating an act of offering + as in The foreman offered to put poison in my beer, or Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.23
    ACC
    		The Accordative
    +
    +

    The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English + expression agree to, as in Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.24
    INC
    		The Inclinative
    +
    +

    The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to feel like or be up for, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in He’s up for going to the shindig, + or Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.25
    DVR
    		The Divertive
    +
    +

    The DIVERTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as like to, or enjoy, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in Boys like to dream about cars, or My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.26
    DVT
    		The Devotive
    +
    +

    The DEVOTIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as be devoted to or be committed to, indicating devotion + as in Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town, + or They were devoted to rooting for the losing team.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.27
    PFT
    		The Preferential
    +
    +

    The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English + expressions such as prefer, or would rather that, indicating + preference as in He’d rather work by himself, or Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.28
    IPS
    		The Impressional
    +
    +

    The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English + expressions such as have an impression that, have a hunch that, or feel that, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic, or Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.29
    PMS
    		The Promissory
    +
    +

    The PROMISSORY corresponds to English + expressions such as promise, or swear that, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in She promised that her son would visit my daughter, + or Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient.

    +

     

    +

    6.1.30 Examples of Modality in Use

    +
    +

    Rü  n-nwà  aktlàc  utputānukt.
    + ma/ACT    CRD    IFL-MNF-‘woman’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI    FML-‘travel’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI-AGC1/5-DEF1/9
    + She thinks the travelers are women.

    +

    Äđü  iň-ňmà  atác.
    + CSL/DPX-ua-ACT    RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
    + The two of them like writing to each other.

    +

    El-lnà  alairàpt  àxmoel  gmèh.
    + PRL-PFT    IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-CSS-OPR-‘eat/drink food’-PRX/A/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘mother’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘child’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/AGG
    +     Mother prefers that the children stop eating together.

    +

     

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    6.2 VALENCE
    +

    In Ilaksh, the term Valence is used to refer + to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given + verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by + another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, + or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs + of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” + verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ilaksh explicitly + shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate + the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1a) I found an old man.→1b) I found an empty can.
    2a) I threw the ball at Sam.→2b) I threw the ball at the window.
    3a) I performed in front of her.→3b) I performed in front of the wall.
    +

    Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate + object of the verb (an old man, Sam, and her), while the second +member of each pair has an inanimate object (an empty can, the window, and the wall). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1c) I met an old man.→1d) * I met an empty can.
    2c) I threw Sam the ball.→2d) * I threw the window the ball.
    3c) I entertained her.→3d) * I entertained the wall.
    +

    The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these + pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why?The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except + that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been + replaced by the semantically similar meet, throw, and entertain. + Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears + unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” + i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, + whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that + the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even + being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without the old man also + meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if + I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected to participate by + catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re + asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating + in the situation by observing me. The participatory relationship involving the second party of + a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship + (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb + ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship + as in the sentence I met the old man (i.e., and so he met me) or in + verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We + love each other. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in I + played along with him (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship + as in I threw Sam the ball (i.e., and so he caught it).Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is + the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ilaksh into + the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely + explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ + ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly + specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as find/meet, + throw at/throw, perform/entertain, etc. In Ilaksh, co-activity is explicitly shown morphologically, + and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are + systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus + co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monoactively +as well as co-actively.

    +

    There are fourteen valences in Ilaksh: the MONOACTIVE, + PARALLEL, COROLLARY, RECIPROCAL, COMPLEMENTARY, NONRELATIONAL, DUPLICATIVE, + DEMONSTRATIVE, RESISTIVE, IMITATIVE, CONTINGENT, PARTICIPATIVE, INDICATIVE, + and MUTUAL. Valence is shown by the vocalic Vv valence prefix to a valence/modality adjunct. There are two variations for each Vv value; the choice of which of the two varations to use is dependent on the value of the Cv Validation prefix explained later in Section 6.3.

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +


    + Table + 16: Vv Valence Prefixes
    + (The two variations work in conjunction with Cv Validation prefix explained later in Section 6.3)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Label
    Valence name
    Var 1
    		Var 2
    1
    MNO
    Monoactive
    a
    ai
    2
    PRL
    Parallel
    e
    ei
    3
    CRO
    Corollary
    o
    oi
    4
    RCP
    Reciprocal
    i
    iu
    5
    CPL
    Complementary
    u
    ui
    6
    NNR
    Nonrelational
    ä
    au
    7
    DUP
    Duplicative
    ë
    eu
    8
    DEM
    Demonstrative
    ö
    ou
    9
    RES
    Resistive
    ü
    ëu
    10
    IMT
    Imitative
    ia
    ua
    11
    CNG
    Contingent
    ie
    ue
    12
    PTI
    Participative
    io
    uo
    13
    IDC
    Indicative
    iö
    uö
    14
    MUT
    Mutual
    ea
    oa
    +


    + The fourteen valences are explained as follows:
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.1
    MNO
    		The Monoactive
    +
    +

    The MONOACTIVE valence is the default + valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second + party is implied.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.2
    PRL
    		The Parallel
    +
    +

    The PARALLEL valence indicates that a + second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children all sang + together, We both went jogging on the parkway.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.3
    CRO
    		The Corollary
    +
    +

    The COROLLARY valence is similar to the PARALLEL, except that the second party engages in related + activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children played in + the yard (i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or The + band played my favorite song (implying that not everyone in the band was + playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed + to playing an instrument).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.4
    RCP
    		The Reciprocal
    +
    +

    The RECIPROCAL valence indicates identical + activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial + phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in They + looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.5
    CPL
    		The Complementary
    +
    +

    The COMPLEMENTARY valence indicates that + the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. + By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the + first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., + the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences + such as The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, + The clown read the children a story, where ‘played catch’ implies + the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the + woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, and ‘read’ + implies a reader and an audience.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.6
    NNR
    		The Nonrelational
    +
    +

    The NONRELATIONAL valence indicates that + a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., + an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify + this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause + such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in He shaved + while she did something else. The way an Ilaksh sentence would utilize + this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, + ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one + thing while the other did something else.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.7
    DUP
    		The Duplicative
    +
    +

    The DUPLICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the + sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, + then you draw the same picture), They both read that book (i.e., first + one, then the other), I bought a new car (i.e., and now someone else + is buying a new car, too).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.8
    DEM
    		The Demonstrative
    +
    +

    The DEMONSTRATIVE valence indicates that + the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what + to do. Thus an Ilaksh sentence constructed as We played chess with + the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I + showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They + fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.9
    RES
    		The Resistive
    +
    +

    The RESISTIVE valence indicates that + the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity + of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the + adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases + such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as We took the + children to see the clowns anyway (i.e., they didn’t want to go), They fed me liver just the same (i.e., I can’t stand liver), Nevertheless, he told us the story (i.e., despite our not wanting to + hear it).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.10
    IMT
    		The Imitative
    +
    +

    The IMITATIVE valence indicates that + the second party mimics, imitates, or attempts to duplicate the activity of + the first party. The Ilaksh sentence The clown juggled three balls for + the child in the IMITATIVE valence implies that the + child attempted to juggle the balls as well.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.11
    CNG
    		The Contingent
    +
    +

    The CONTINGENT valence indicates that + the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, + the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ilaksh sentence I started the campfire for my friend in the CONTINGENT implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked + the food.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.12
    PTI
    		The Participative
    +
    +

    The PARTICIPATIVE valence indicates that + the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable + by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ilaksh sentence They raced in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They + each took part in the race.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.13
    IDC
    		The Indicative
    +
    +

    The INDICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s + activity. Thus the sentence I looked at her in the INDICATIVE would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ + while the sentence I spoke to them would mean ‘They gleaned what + I really meant from my words.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.14
    MUT
    		The Mutual
    +
    +

    The MUTUAL valence indicates that both + parties alternate performing an activity, as in She and I take turns cleaning or They both alternate teaching the beginning and advanced classes.

    +


    +
    +6.2.15 Examples of Valence in Use

    +
    +

    Un-nà  uvéstra  tu  guiliënìk  ilákš.
    + CPL    FML-OPR-‘study’-GRD/M/CSL/UNI    1M-EFF    IFL-‘illness’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-SSD1/1    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/CST
    + I’m teaching the nurse to speak Ilaksh.

    +

    In-nà  alpçulámz  kiàll.
    + RCP    IFL-STA-‘smile’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MOT1/5    IFL-‘person’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/DPX
    + The couple can’t help smiling at each other.

    +

    Iön-nà  xtàl  axmëèl  ukšŭl.
    + IDC    IFL-OPR-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘father’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The clown gets the meaning of father’s look.

    +

    Äđü  iň-ňmà  atác.
    + CSL/DPX-ma-ACT    RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
    + The two of them like writing to each other.

    +

    El-lnà  alairàpt  àxmoel  gmèh.
    + PRL-PFT    IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-CSS-OPR-‘eat/drink food’-PRX/A/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘mother’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘child’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/AGG
    +     Mother prefers that the children stop eating together.

    +
    +


    +

    + + + + +
    6.3 VALIDATION
    +

    Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ilaksh. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. Validation is another of the few areas where Ilaksh morphology differs from that of Ithkuil, in that Ithkuil's nine validations have been expanded to fourteen in Ilaksh. Of these 14 validations, five refer to non-hearsay types of evidence, while nine refer to hearsay situations. These nine hearsay categories are distinguished by a two-fold matrix of whether the source of the hearsay is considered by the speaker to be trustworthy and whether the statement/information is potentially verifiable. The exactitude of Ilaksh evidential categories is impossible to capture in English translation except through cumbersome paraphrase, but can be approximated in a rough way using phrases such as reportedly, presumably, supposedly, purportedly, allegedly, rumour has it, I have a feeling that, etc.

    +

    The 14 validations are shown by one of seven consonantal Cv prefixes (including a null prefix, i.e., the absence of a prefix) combined with one of two variations in the Vv valence affix described above in Section 6.2.

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +


    +The values for these prefixes are shown in Table 17 below as well as the meaning (description of evidential basis) of each validation.
    +

    + + Table 17(a) and (b): Cv Validation Prefixes With Vv Variants
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Label
    Name
    Cv
    Vv
    + variant
    Evidential Basis
    1
    CNF
    		CONFIRMATIVE
    —
    1
    		direct observation/knowledge and verifiable by others
    2
    AFM
    		AFFIRMATIVE
    —
    2
    		direct observation/knowledge but unknown verifiability by others
    3
    RPT
    		REPORTIVE
    w-
    1
    		direct observation/knowledge but unverifiable by others
    4
    INF
    		INFERENTIAL
    w-
    2
    inference
    5
    ITU
    		INTUITIVE
    y-
    1
    intuition/feeling
    +
    +Hearsay Categories +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Label
    Name
    Cv
    Vv
    + variant
    Source
    + Trustworthy?
    Verifiable? +
    +
    6
    PSM
    PRESUMPTIVE
    y-
    2
    Yes
    Yes
    7
    PSM2
    PRESUMPTIVE 2
    h-
    1
    Yes
    Unknown
    8
    PPT
    		PURPORTIVE
    h-
    2
    Yes
    No
    9
    PPT2
    		PURPORTIVE 2
    hw-
    1
    Unknown
    Yes
    10
    CJT
    CONJECTURAL
    hw-
    2
    Unknown
    Unknown
    11
    DUB
    DUBITATIVE
    hm-
    1
    Unknown
    No
    12
    TEN
    TENTATIVE
    hm-
    2
    No
    Yes
    13
    PUT
    PUTATIVE
    hn-
    1
    No
    Unknown
    14
    IPB
    IMPROBABLE
    hn-
    2
    No
    No
    +


    +
    + 6.3.1 Examples of Validation in Use

    +
    +

    Yuin-nà  uvéstra  ru  guiliënìk  ilákš.
    + PSM-CPL    FML-OPR-‘study’-GRD/M/CSL/UNI    ma-EFF    IFL-‘illness’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-SSD1/1    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/CST
    + He's presumably teaching the nurse to speak Ilaksh.

    +

    Hiun-nà  alpçulámz  kiàll.
    + PPT-RCP    IFL-STA-‘smile’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MOT1/5    IFL-‘person’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/DPX
    + Purportedly, the couple can’t help smiling at each other.

    +

    Äđü  hmiň-ňmà  atác.
    + CSL/DPX-ma-ACT    DUB-RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
    + Supposedly the two of them like writing to each other but who knows if it’s true or not.

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + +
    6.4 FUNCTION
    +

    Function refers to the general relationship a verb has to its noun participants based on whether the verb represents a tangible/physical act, an existential or psychological state, a subjective description, a statement of identification, inherent motion-in-place, a statement of location or position in space, or a transformation from one state to another. In this manner, a given verb can manifest different interpretations without the need for relexification or paraphrase. This addresses a lexico-semantic flaw in languages such as English where new verbs sometimes arise directly from nouns but the new verbal meaning can't be predicted until the verb is used in context. For example, imagine + an English speaker using a new verb form such as ‘to apple,’ as + in Let’s ‘apple’ today. Would this mean to pick + apple?, to be an apple?, to grow an apple?, to look like an apple?, to turn something into an apple? Without + a standardized system for the lexico-semantic function of verbs, the meaning of such a form could only be + learned from hearing others using it in context.

    +

    Through the morphological category of function, Ilaksh provides such a standardized system, i.e., eight ways by which to interpret such verbal meaning. This is very important since all formatives are capable of both nominal (noun) and verbal meanings. Thus, by means of the different functions, the stem xtà- ‘eye’ can be made to have verbal meanings as diverse as to be an eye, to be like an eye, to turn into an eye, to cause an eyeball to move (in place), to be in an eye-like state, to be positioned where the eye is situated, and to move an eye from one place to another. We will see later in Section 6.5 that these eight semantic interpretations can be infinitely expanded by means of stem incorporation and the category of Format.

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    In Ithkuil, this concept of Function was called Conflation and worked in conjunction with two other categories called Derivation and Format. However, in Ilaksh, the notion of Derivation has been abandoned in favor of allowing any formative stem to be incorporated directly into another stem, a process which will be described at length in Section 6.5. As a result, the notion of Conflation from Ithkuil has been decoupled from the concept of Format. Because of this change, the concept has been renamed Function and is described in this section on its own.

    +

    Function is shown by the Cm modification of the consonantal portion of the verbal stem within the formative itself, which usually means the adding a consonantal prefix + to the stem consonant; however the exact phonological manifestation of each Cm modification is dependent on the specific stem consonant or consonant cluster.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    The specific Cm modifications are described below in Section 6.4.9 . The eight Functions are the OPERATIVE, STATIVE, MANIFESTIVE, INCHOATIVE, DESCRIPTIVE, ACTIVE, POSITIONAL and TRANSLATIVE . They are described in the following sections.

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.1
    OPR
    		The Operative
    +
    +

    OPERATIVE function is unmarked, i.e., there is no change to the stem consonant or consonant cluster. The OPERATIVE indicates that the verb refers to a tangible or physical act or cause-and-effect event: to perform the action + of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.2
    STA
    		The Stative
    +
    +

    The STATIVE function is usually marked by prefixing or suffixing an -l- to the stem consonant, although the specific pattern is dependent on the stem consonant itself, as shown in Table 18 below. The STATIVE indicates a stative manifestation, + i.e. to be in a (temporary) state. It does NOT mean “be” in the + sense of copula identification as in “I am John”

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3
    MNF
    		The Manifestive
    +
    +

    MANIFESTIVE function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -r- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant; see Table 18 below for details. The MANIFESTIVE indicates that the verb represents a manifestion or naming of the identity of a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the “be” + copula of identification in Western languages.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.4
    ICH
    		The Inchoative
    +
    +

    INCHOATIVE function is marked by prefixing a homologous nasal to the stem consonant or consonant cluster (i.e., a nasal pronounced in the same place of articulation as the stem consonant or first consonant of the stem's consonant cluster), although the specific pattern is dependent on the particular stem consonant or consonant cluster; see Table 18 below for specifics. The INCHOATIVE indicates that the verb refers to a transformation from + one state to another or (trans-)formation of an identity.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.5
    DSC
    		The Descriptive
    +
    +

    DESCRIPTIVE function is marked by a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The DESCRIPTIVE indicates descriptive manifestation, + i.e., to appear or manifest in the manner of. This sense is the nearest + Ilaksh equivalent to English adjectives.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.6
    ATV
    		The Active
    +
    +

    ACTIVE function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -l- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant (see Table 18 below for details) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The ACTIVE indicates action or motion in situ, i.e., action performed in place or movement in place (as in shaking, + spinning, wagging, wiggling, jumping up and down, etc.).
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.7
    PSN
    		The Positional
    +
    +

    POSITIONAL function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -r- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant (see Table 18 below for details) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The POSITIONAL indicates that the verb refers to a position or location, + i.e. to be situated in a location/position in space.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.8
    TNV
    		The Translative
    +
    +

    TRANSLATIVE function is generally marked by prefixing a homologous nasal to the stem consonant or consonant cluster (i.e., a nasal pronounced in the same place of articulation as the stem consonant or first consonant of the stem's consonant cluster), although the specific pattern is dependent on the particular stem consonant or consonant cluster (see Table 18 below for specifics) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The TRANSLATIVE indicates that the verb indicates a change in position or location is taking place, + i.e. to move or be moved from one location/position in space to another.

    +

     

    +

    6.4.9 Values of the Cm Function Affixes/Modifications and Alternation of the Vc Affix

    +

    The specific values for the stem-consonant modifications associated with Function are shown in Table 18 below. There are several different patterns of Cm prefixes and/or modification of the Cr stem consonant or consonant cluster. Note that the OPERATIVE function is shown by a zero-form, i.e., it is unmarked, the Function being shown simply by the presence of the default Cr stem consonant or consonant cluster. Also note that the last four of the Functions (the DESCRIPTIVE, ACTIVE, POSITIONAL and TRANSLATIVE) are shown using the same prefix forms as the first four, with the addition of a modification of the value of the verb's Vc Affix to its secondary Form (see Sections 3.6 and 6.5.2 below).

    +


    + Tables 18(a)-(f): Function Prefixes + for Each Cr Stem Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + *Asterisked Functions are indicated by addition of alternation of Vc affix to secondary form (see Sec. 6.5.2)

    +

    (a) Standard pattern: ( )-, l-, r-, and Homologous Nasal prefixed to the stem consonant (Cr) element, illustrated below by Cr elements p, t, and kt. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    p
    lp
    rp
    mp
    t
    lt
    rt
    nt
    kt
    lkt
    rkt
    ňkt
    +


    +(b)     Pattern: ( )-, l-, r-, and homologous nasal prefixed to the stem consonant (Cr) element but with deletion of the initial stem consonant p- or k- following the nasal prefix due to assimilation with the nasal. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: pt, pk, ptl, ptr, ptř, pŧ, pŧl, pŧr, kŧ, kŧl, kŧr, ps, pš, ks, kš, psr, pšr, ksr, kšr, psl, pšl, ksl, kšl, pst, pšt, kst, kšt, psk pšk, ksp, kšp, bz, bž, gz, gž, bzg, bžg, gzb, gžb,gzd, and gžd. Four of these elements are illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    pt
    lpt
    rpt
    mt
    ptr
    lptr
    rptr
    mtr
    ksr
    lksr
    rksr
    ňsr
    gz
    lgz
    rgz
    ňz
    +


    +c) Pattern: -(), -l, -r, and -w are added as suffixes to the Cr element. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: pp, tt, kk, bb, dd, gg, ff, ŧŧ, xx, vv, đđ, ss, šš, zz, žž, mm, ňň, žž, bg, and gd. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    pp
    ppl
    ppr
    ppw
    gd
    gdl
    gdr
    gdw
    +


    +d) Same as standard pattern (a) above, except that a geminated consonant within the Cr element is simplified to a non-geminate when taking the -l, -r, and nasal prefixes. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: ppy, tty, kky, bby, ddy, ggy, ffy, ŧŧy, xxy, vvy, and đđy. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    ppy
    lpy
    rpy
    mpy
    xxy
    lxy
    rxy
    ňxy
    +


    + e)     Same as standard pattern (a) above, except that a -w suffix is substituted for the nasal prefix in the INCHOATIVE and TRANSLATIVE functions. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: m, n, ň, c, č, ż, j, ck, čk, gż, jg, cp, čp, ct, čt, vm, vn, đm, đn, pf, bv, dv,and gv. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    m
    lm
    rm
    mw
    gv
    lgv
    rgv
    gvw
    +


    + f) The following Cr elements are individual in their patterning for each Function:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
    + (OPR/DSP* Function )

    + STA/ATV    *

    + MNF/PSN    *

    + ICH/TNV*
    r
    lr
    hh
    řs
    l
    rw
    rl
    řt
    rr
    ňw
    hr
    řš
    ll
    řy
    hl
    řth
    ry
    xw
    xv
    řç
    ly
    lw
    rly
    řd
    ř
    lř
    řw
    řk
    rry
    çř
    řřw
    řm
    lly
    llw
    rrw
    řn
    řř
    řl
    řřy
    řh
    my
    pw
    bw
    mw
    ny
    tw
    dw
    nw
    cc
    pc
    fc
    cw
    čč
    pč
    fč
    čw
    ddz
    thc
    bdz
    dzw
    jj
    thč
    bj
    jw
    bd
    lbd
    rbd
    md
    bdh
    lbdh
    rbdh
    mdh
    gdh
    lgdh
    rgdh
    ňdh
    db
    ldb
    rdb
    nb
    cm
    lcm
    rcm
    smw
    dg
    ldg
    rdg
    mg
    cl
    lcl
    rcl
    nsw
    čl
    čl
    čl
    nšw
    dzl
    ldzl
    rdzl
    nzw
    jl
    ljl
    rjl
    nžw
    cř
    lcř
    rcř
    ssw
    čř
    lčř
    rčř
    ššw
    dzř
    ldzř
    rdzř
    zzw
    jř
    ljř
    rjř
    žžw
    cr
    lcr
    rcr
    sw
    čr
    lčr
    rčr
    šw
    dzr
    ldzr
    rdzr
    zw
    jr
    ljr
    rjr
    žw
    mmy
    vw
    smy
    zmy
    nny
    dhw
    sny
    zny
    ml
    fw
    psw
    spw
    nl
    thw
    ksw
    stw
    mr
    kw
    pšw
    špw
    nr
    gw
    kšw
    štw
    ňl
    kc
    xc
    ňř
    ňr
    kč
    xč
    gj
    mř
    sfw
    šfw
    řņ
    nř
    skw
    škw
    řg
    +
    +

    All remaining Cr elements not referenced in the tables above follow the standard pattern (a).

    +

     

    +

    6.4.10 Examples of Function

    +

    Here follow examples of the eight functions applied to the same stem urà ‘prepare(d) food’:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    OPROPERATIVEurà   ‘prepare(d)/cook(ed) food’
    STASTATIVEulrà   ‘to be in a state of preparing/cooking food’
    MNFMANIFESTIVEuhhà    ‘to be prepared/cooked food’
    ICHINCHOATIVEuřsà   ‘to become/turn into prepared/cooked food’
    DSPDESCRIPTIVEärà    ‘to be like prepared/cooked food’
    ATVACTIVEälrà   ‘prepared/cooked food moving around’ [e.g., in the pan or on the plate]
    PSNPOSITIONALähhà    ‘to be situated at or placed with the prepared/cooked food’
    TNVTRANSLATIVEäřsà   ‘to move the prepared/cooked food’[e.g., from one place to another]
    +
    +

    Additional examples of Function:

    +
    +

    Ūalkresk  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + His wife’s clothes are inside-out.

    +

    Epsiolřūl  aktäàl.
    + IFL-PST/ITR/PPS-TMP-ATV-‘circular motion’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘man’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The man succeeded in twirling/spinning around for a while.

    +

    Yoaňšŭl  gmèint.
    + DEC-FML/RSL-ICH-‘clown’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘child’-ABS-DEL/U/CSL/DPX
    + The pair of children are hereby turned into clowns!

    +

    Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
    + IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

    +

    Ervrekf īfš  nrūoilüb  zmayüūlavz.
    + IFL-PSN-‘pathway’-PRX/N/CSL/UNI-DCS1/1    IFL-‘oblique verticality’-FUN-EXN1/6     IFL-‘valley’-NAV-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5
    + The path winds steeply through the canyon.

    +

     

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    6.5 INCORPORATION AND FORMAT
    +

    Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings + into a single verb, a process termed conflation. This is illustrated + in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    1. He bicycled south. = He traveled south by bicycle.
    + 2. She dolled herself up. = She made herself look as pretty as a + doll.
    + 3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the + books on the shelf/shelves.
    + 4. Slide me a beer. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the + bar).

    +
    +

    The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry + inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and + giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random + and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English to bicycle in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to + make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the + verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but + rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means + ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ + or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first + three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does slide in sentence (4).

    +

    As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” + way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, + placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary + sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our + four sentences above as follows:

    +
    +

    He [1: + (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle]
    + = He bicycled south.

    +

    She [1: + (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll]
    + = She dolled herself up.

    +

    They [1: + (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves]
    + = They’re shelving the books.

    +

    [1: (GIVE+imperative)] + a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me
    + = Slide me a beer.

    +
    +

    Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown + by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb + and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English + must learn that to hand means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, + but to shoulder does not mean to GIVE by MEANS of + one’s shoulder.

    +

    Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity + for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack + of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use + when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form.

    +

    Ilaksh systemizes verb conflation into a productive + scheme, in which the primary verb can convey any of eight overt senses, called formats, which in turn combine with any secondary verbal stem to convey the covert sense. The secondary verbal stem is incorporated directly into a valence/modality adjunct as an affix immediately preceding the CM modality element and following the Vv valence affix if present. This incorporated stem is labeled as morphological terms Cd and Vd, that is, the Stem Consonant + Stem vowel of the incorporated stem. As for the tone of the incorporated stem, it becomes the tone for the entire adjunct, to be pronounced as usual beginning with the stressed syllable, i.e., the CM syllabic consonant. (NOTE: For those valence/modality adjuncts which do not contain a Cd + Vd incorporated stem, the default tone of the adjunct is falling tone.)

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +

    In addition to the tone of the incorporated stem's tone, we know from Chapter 2 that each Consonant+Vowel root in Ilaksh falls into one of three Patterns (Pattern 1 being the three holistic stems, and Patterns 2 and 3 being the six complementary stems). While the three Patterns can be shown by mutation of the Cd consonant, a way must be found to indicate which of three stems per pattern is intended, as well as the Designation of the stem (i.e., FORMAL versus INFORMAL). This is accomplished by mutating the Vd vowel element, as shown in Table 19 below.

    +Table 19: Vd Mutation Series
    +     + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Stem Vowel —>
    a
    e
    i
    o
    u
    Informal
    + Designation
    Stem 1
    a
    e
    i
    o
    u
    Stem 2
    ä
    ë
    ï
    ö
    ü
    Stem 3
    ai
    ei
    ëi
    oi
    ui
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Formal Designation
    Stem 1
    au
    eu
    iu
    ou
    ëu
    Stem 2
    ia
    ie
    ië
    io
    i-u
    Stem 3
    u
    ue
    u-i
    uo
    uë
    +

     

    +

    6.5.1 Examples of Stem Incorporation

    +

    Here are some examples of incorporation using the stems xtā- ‘run’, zdā- ‘keep in holding area; contain’, ammyû- ‘sleep’, úse- ‘sing a song’, açrà- ‘ingest/consume’, and admù- ‘cry’ :

    +
    +

    Akkoàl  xtam-mā  zlul.
    + IFL-‘woman’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-DES    IFL/SCH-OPR-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman wants to run like a gazelle.

    +

    Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
    + IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

    +

    Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
    + IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
    + Father went off clam-hunting.

    +

    Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üúsel  gmìel.
    + IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

    +

    Çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt ukšüŭl  bler.
    + ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRT-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
    + The clown had to buy some clams and consume them.

    +

    Axmièl  seun-ná  a-ildmùl.
    + IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘sing a song’-FML     IFL/SBQ-STA-‘cry’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Father is crying because of the song.

    +

    Àxmäula  axmièl  dmün-nà  úisel.
    + IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘cry’-IFL    FML/ISR-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Mother makes father cry by singing.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    Ithkuil provides for a process called Derivation in which the eight formats which convey the sense of the primary verb combine with the seven conflations plus any of nearly 240 derivative conflations to yield over 2000 possible semantic combinations. While the category of Format is retained in Ilaksh, the process of Derivation has been eliminated and replaced by the process of Incorporation, allowing a theoretically unlimited number of semantic conflations for verbs.

    +

     

    +

    6.5.2 Format

    +

    As described above, the primary stem of a conflated verb in English can convey different senses such as means, manner, or location, the specific sense being learnable only through actual usage and context. In Ilaksh, this sense is overtly identified by the format of the verb. Format is shown as part of the Vc prefix which also shows the categories of Designation and Essence (see Sections 3.6 and 3.7).

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    Table 20 below shows the values of Vc. We have previously seen (in Secs. 3.6, and 3.7) that each of the Vc affixes has a secondary form (used in conjunction with four of the eight verbal Functions, as explained in Sec. 6.4.9 above). However, in addition to these secondary forms, all Vc affixes also have an alternate form used to indicate the presence of a Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix. These alternate forms are necessary in order to disambiguate which consonants in a complex formative belong to the formative stem from those belonging to affixes. By providing an alternate form, the reader of a complex Ilaksh formative can know that the syllable following the Vc affix is, in fact, a Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix and not the Cr+Vr formative stem.

    +


    + Tables 20(a) and (b): Vc Affixes:  Designation/Essence/Format Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    +
    Designation

    +
    Essence

    +
     
    FORMAT
    SCH
    ISR
    ATH
    PRT
    RSL
    SBQ
    CCM
    OBJ
     
    +
    INFORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    (a)
    ai
    au
    ia
    ua
    a-i
    a-u
    ao
    2ndary form
    e
    ei
    eu
    ie
    ue
    e-i
    e-u
    eo
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    i
    ï
    iu
    ea
    u-i
    eë
    ae
    aö
    2ndary form
    o
    oi
    ou
    io
    uo
    o-i
    o-u
    o-ü
     
    +
    FORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    u
    ui
    ü
    i-u
    oa
    oë
    oe
    öa
    2ndary form
    ä
    äi
    äu
    iä
    uä
    eö
    üo
    ä-i
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    ö
    öi
    öu
    iö
    uö
    ö-i
    ö-u
    ä-u
    2ndary form
    ë
    ëi
    ëu
    ië
    uë
    ë-i
    ë-u
    äo
    +

    The alternate versions of these affixes, used to indicate the presence of Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infixes, are given below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    +
    Designation

    +
    Essence

    +
     
    FORMAT
    SCH
    ISR
    ATH
    PRT
    RSL
    SBQ
    CCM
    OBJ
     
    +
    INFORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    a’
    ai’
    au’
    i’a
    u’a
    a’i
    a’u
    a’o
    2ndary form
    e’
    ei’
    eu’
    i’e
    u’e
    e’i
    e’u
    e’o
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    i’
    ï’
    iu’
    e’a
    u’i
    e’ë
    a’e
    a’ö
    2ndary form
    o’
    oi’
    ou’
    i’o
    u’o
    o’i
    o’u
    o’ü
     
    +
    FORMAL

    + NORMAL
    primary form
    u’
    ui’
    ü’
    i’u
    o’a
    o’ë
    o’e
    ö’a
    2ndary form
    ä’
    äi’
    äu’
    i’ä
    u’ä
    e’ö
    ü’o
    ä’i
    REPRESENTATIVE
    primary form
    ö’
    öi’
    öu’
    i’ö
    u’ö
    ö’i
    ö’u
    ä’u
    2ndary form
    ë’
    ëi’
    ëu’
    i’ë
    u’ë
    ë’i
    ë’u
    ä’o
    +
    + + + + +
    IMPORTANT NOTE: The above alternate versions of the Vc affix are used if the formative conatins a Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix and only if the formative Cr+Vr stem + Ca affix are followed by one or more of the consonant-based suffixes from Chapter 7. Otherwise, the reader/listener can assume that the last consonant or consonant cluster in an Ilaksh formative is the Ca affix and that the penultimate (second-to-last) consonant or consonantal cluster is the Cr stem consonantal form. In this way, it is always possible to discern exactly which consonants in an Ilaksh formative correspond to the terms of the ((VL +) Ci + Vc (+ Cx + Vp) +) (Cm +) Cr + Vr + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ VF (+ Cb)) [+ tone][+ stress] morphological formula.
    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.1
    SCH
    		The Schematic
    + The SCHEMATIC function indicates that the + verb specifies the manner of the conflated primary sense, e.g., I’m + speeding through the book = reading speedily; Clouds blanketed + the city = cover like a blanket
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.2
    ISR
    		The Instrumentative
    + The INSTRUMENTATIVE function Indicates the means, + cause, or instrument of causation of the conflated primary sense, e.g., I clubbed him = I hit him with a club; She drove him there = She transported him there by driving
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.3
    ATH
    		The Authoritive
    + The AUTHORITIVE function indicates that the + verb specifies the indirect/enabling cause or circumstance which gives rise + to the conflated primary sense, e.g., He sang her cares away = + his singing allowed her to forget her cares
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.4
    PRT
    		The Precurrent
    + The PRECURRENT function indicates that the + verb specifies an initial event immediately preceding or continuing on into + the conflated sense, where the overt sense is not the cause of the conflated + sense, i.e., the conflated sense would have occurred anyway, e.g., I + bought some lunch (conflated sense: EAT)
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.5
    RSL
    		The Resultative
    + The RESULTATIVE function indicates that the + verb specifies the concurrent result of the conflated sense, i.e., an event + which occurs in conjunction with the conflated sense but is also caused + by it, e.g., The plane crashed into the water (conflated sense: + FLY)
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.6
    SBQ
    		The Subsequent
    + The SUBSEQUENT function indicates that the + verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect result or purpose (not the + concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., I’ll look in + on the stew (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen])
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.7
    CCM
    		The Concommitant
    + The CONCOMMITANT function indicates that the + verb specifies an incidental simultaneous event having no causal relationship, + e.g., She wore jeans to church (conflated sense: GO); He sweated + through her recital (Conflated sense: LISTEN)
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2.8
    OBJ
    		The Objective
    + The OBJECTIVE function indicates that the + verb specifies the Patient (see Sec. + 4.1.1) of the underlying conflated sense, e.g., She dusted + the table (conflated sense: REMOVE); They fish that river each + spring (conflated sense: GATHER/COLLECT)
    +


    + 6.5.3 Examples of Format in Use

    +

    These are the same examples from Section 6.5.1 above on Incorporation, now highlighting the different formats used:

    +
    +

    Akkoàl  xtam-mā  zlul.
    + IFL-‘woman’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-DES    IFL/SCH-OPR-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman wants to run like a gazelle.

    +

    Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
    + IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

    +

    Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
    + IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
    + Father went off clam-hunting.

    +

    Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üúsel  gmìel.
    + IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

    +

    Çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt ukšüŭl  bler.
    + ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRT-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
    + The clown had to buy some clams and consume them.

    +

    Axmiè  seun-ná  a-ildmùl.
    + IFL-father-AFF     ‘sing a song’-FML     IFL/SBQ-STA-‘cry’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Father is crying because of the song.

    +

    Àxmäula  axmièl  dmün-nà  úisel.
    + IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘cry’-IFL    FML/ISR-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Mother makes father cry by singing.

    +
    +


    +

    +


    +

    +
    + + + + +
    6.6 BIAS
    +
    +

    Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which + often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation + (previously discussed in Sec. 6.1), often triggering a + translation change as well.

    +


    + 6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage

    +

    Bias is shown in any one of two ways:

    +
      +
    1. +
      If a valence/modality adjunct is present, then as a word-final consonantal suffix to to the adjunct, e.g., illûi’ss
      +
      +
      2. +
    2. +
      If no valence/modality adjunct is present, then as a word-final consonantal suffix to formative with a glottal stop being infixed between the suffix and the VF mood/context suffix, + e.g., uprexalo’ss
      +
      3. +
    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((VL)
    Ci
    Vc
    (Cx
    Vp))
    (Cm)
    Cr
    Vr
    Ca
    (VxC)
    (VF
    (’Cb))
    [stress]
    +

    (NOTE: We will also see in Section 8.1.2 that a Cb Bias affix may be associated with a Form 3 single-referent personal reference adjunct.)

    +

    These Cb affix forms are shown in Table 21 + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms +described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.

    +


    + Table 21: Morpho-Phonological +Markers for Bias

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    LABEL
    NAME OF BIAS
    Cb AFFIX →
    + Cb INTENSIVE AFFIX
    1
    ASU
    		ASSURATIVEn → nn
    2
    HPB
    		HYPERBOLICm → mm
    3
    COI
    		COINCIDENTALň → ňň
    4
    ACP
    		ACCEPTIVEh → hh
    5
    RAC
    		REACTIVEç → çç
    6
    STU
    		STUPEFACTIVEs → ss
    7
    CTV
    		CONTEMPLATIVEz → zz
    8
    DPV
    		DESPERATIVEš → šš
    9
    RVL
    		REVELATIVEl → ll
    10
    GRA
    		GRATIFICATIVEr → rr
    11
    SOL
    		SOLICITIVEř → řř
    12
    SEL
    		SELECTIVEŧ  → ŧŧ
    13
    IRO
    		IRONICđ → đđ
    14
    EXA
    		EXASPERATIVEbz → bzz
    15
    LTL
    		LITERALgž → g žž
    16
    CRR
    		CORRECTIVEx → xx
    17
    EUP
    		EUPHEMISTICgz → gzz
    18
    SKP
    		SKEPTICALks → kss
    19
    CYN
    		CYNICALž → žž
    20
    CTP
    		CONTEMPTIVEkš → kšš
    21
    DSN
    		DISMISSIVEpç → pçç
    22
    IDG
    		INDIGNATIVEpš → pšš
    23
    SGS
    		SUGGESTIVEps → pss
    24
    PPV
    		PROPOSITIVEbž → bžž
    +


    +

    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.1
    ASU
    		ASSURATIVE
    + This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by I told you so! or You see?!
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.2
    HPB
    		HYPERBOLIC
    + This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in I + so don’t care! or That is totally not what I wanted. The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.3
    COI
    		COINCIDENTAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in I happened to run into Jane or It + just so happens that I’m busy. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.4
    ACP
    		ACCEPTIVE
    + This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.5
    RAC
    		REACTIVE
    + This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.6
    STU
    		STUPEFACTIVE
    + This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.7
    CTV
    		CONTEMPLATIVE
    + This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.8
    DPV
    		DESPERATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.9
    RVL
    		REVELATIVE
    + This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.10
    GRA
    		GRATIFICATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.11
    SOL
    		SOLICITIVE
    + This bias expresses the Ilaksh equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence So dance already!
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.12
    SEL
    		SELECTIVE
    + This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.13
    IRO
    		IRONIC
    + This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.14
    EXA
    		EXASPERATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.15
    LTL
    		LITERAL
    + This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.16
    CRR
    		CORRECTIVE
    + This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.17
    EUP
    		EUPHEMISTIC
    + This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.18
    SKP
    		SKEPTICAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.19
    CYN
    		CYNICAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.20
    CTP
    		CONTEMPTIVE
    + This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.21
    DSM
    		DISMISSIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.22
    IDG
    		INDIGNATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.23
    SGS
    		SUGGESTIVE
    + This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’
    +
    + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.24
    PPV
    		PROPOSITIVE
    + This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences How about going for a stroll?, We + could meet behind the barn if you want, or You can sit on my lap. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’
    +


    + 6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use

    +
    +

    Ūalkresk  zìhh  ùdvüöla’nn.
    + IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FAC-ASU+
    + You see?! I told you his wife’s clothes are inside-out!

    +

    Uxakloskò’ňň.
    + FRM-PRC/FRG/PPS-OPR-‘rain’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SUB-COI
    + It may just so happen to be raining.

    +

    Wain-nyàx  u’rleuvaskăr  kü.
    + INF-MNO-CPC-CRR    FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-CNT-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5     2m-ACT
    + What I mean to say is that I don't think you'll be able to work any longer.

    +

    Xasskügà’pss  akkiàl.
    + IFL-OPR-‘eyesight’-PRX/M/CSL/DPX-FLC1/6-FAC-SGS+    IFL-‘woman’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Let's assume for the sake of argument that the woman’s eyesight is improving.

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    6.7 ASPECT ALTERNATIVE
    +
    +

    The category of Aspect was introduced and discussed in Section 5.6, where it was described that Aspect is normally presented as the Vp infix to a formative, placed immediately following the Cx Phase/Sanction/Version affix. As an alternative, however, Aspect may be conveyed by suffixing Vp infix to a valence/modality adjunct immediately following the CM modality affix.

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    ((Cv)
    +
    Vv)
    (Cd
    Vd)
    CM
    (Vp
    (Cb))
    +

    Examples:

    +
    +

    Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
    + IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
    + Father went off clam-hunting.

    +

    Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üsél  gmìel.
    + IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

    +

    Wain-nyeu  u’rlavastăr  ktòal.
    + INF-MNO-CPC-CNT     FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/ASO/UNI-NA11/5     IFL-‘man’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + It's fair to say the man won't be able to work any longer.

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 7: Suffixes >>

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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
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    ©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_7.html b/2004-en/Chapter_7.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..794063a --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_7.html @@ -0,0 +1,6656 @@ + + + + +Chapter 7 + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 7: Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      7.1 Suffix-Types  7.3 The Five Suffix Classes  
      7.2 Multiple Suffixation  7.4 List of Suffixes 
    +

    All Ilaksh formatives are capable of taking various consonant-based + suffixes. Like suffixes in other languages, these are used to modify the stem + in a variety of ways and to derive new concepts. The morpho-phonological structure of suffixes (how they are + formed from consonants and vowels) has already been briefly discussed in Section + 2.7. This chapter will describe the actual function of the particular suffixes + themselves.

    +

    There are 154 different consonantal suffix categories, each + of which divides into the nine degrees previously discussed in Section + 2.7.2 giving a total of 1314 distinct suffixes. As described in that section, + each degree of a suffix has a distinct meaning, often representing a point along + a continuum in terms of how much or how little the underlying semantic sense + of the suffix category is being manifested by the particular formative.

    +

    It is important to remember that, since all morpho-semantic + stems are both nominal and verbal in meaning, all suffixes to a stem have both + a nominal and a verbal meaning. Therefore, the choice whether to translate the + suffixes below into their nominal or verbal meaning is entirely dependent on + the morpho-syntactical structure of the word within the context of its use in + a phrase or sentence as a whole.

    +

    We have seen in Section + 2.7 that consonantal suffixes fall into three suffix-types, each having nine + degrees. It is the combination of suffix-type and degree which determines the + vowel infix which accompanies each consonantal suffix. For example, the suffix + -nt of Type 1 takes the following forms for its nine degrees: -int, -ent, -änt, -önt, (a)nt, + -ünt, -ïnt, -ont, -unt. Compare this to the same suffix -nt of Type 2, whose nine forms are: -ënt, + -iont, -ient, -uent, -iant, -uënt, -iënt, -oant, -uant; and + the suffix -nt of Type 3, whose nine forms are: -iunt, -eint, -aunt, + -eunt, -aint, -ount, -ëint, -oint, -uint. + These vowel infixes for suffixes are shown in Table 22 below (this table already + appeared in Chapter 2 as Table 9; it is repeated here for convenience).
    +

    +

    Table 22: +Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Suffix Type

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Suffix + Type 1: -V1C
    Suffix + Type 2: -V2C
    Suffix + Type 3: -V3C
    Degree + 1
    -iC
    -ëC
    -iuC
    Degree + 2
    -eC
    -ëuC /-ioC
    -eiC
    Degree + 3
    -äC
    -ieC
    -auC /-eaC
    Degree + 4
    -öC
    -ueC
    -euC
    Degree + 5
    -(a)C
    -iaC
    -aiC
    Degree + 6
    -üC
    -uëC
    -uoC
    Degree + 7
    -ïC
    -iëC
    -ëiC
    Degree + 8
    -oC
    -oaC
    -oiC
    Degree + 9
    -uC
    -uaC / -uiC
    -ouC
    +

    NOTE: For convenience’ sake, when referring to a particular + suffix of specific type and degree, we will use the notation in the paragraph + above, followed by a slash and a number indicating the degree. Thus, the suffix + -nt of Type 1 and 4th degree will be written -V1nt/4, + while the suffix -r of Type 3 and 8th degree would be written -V3r/8, and so forth.

    + + + + +

    TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    As part of the redesigned morpho-phonology, Ilaksh circumstantial/derivational suffixes cannot optionally appear as prefixes as in Ithkuil. Also, the optional “reversed” form of suffixes found in Ithkuil does not exist in Ilaksh. Other than these distinctions, these suffixes operate the same in Ilaksh as in Ithkuil.
    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    7.1 SUFFIX-TYPES
    +
    +
    +

    The meaning and usage of each suffix by type is particular to + each individual suffix. For example, some suffixes of Type 1 have a completely + different meaning than their Type 2 or Type 3 counterparts, while other suffixes + can be used as both Type 1 or Type 2 with the suffix having the same meaning + but conveying a different effect on the overall connotation of the word to which + they are suffixed. Still other suffixes retain their meaning across all three + suffix types but again convey a different overall connotation on the words to + which they are suffixed.

    +

    For example, the Type 1 suffix -eŧ, + i.e., -V1ŧ/2, means ‘hardly any + (of)…’ as in the word kàleŧ ‘hardly + any persons,’ while its Type 2 counterpart -ioŧ, i.e., -V2ŧ/2, + has the completely different meaning of ‘somewhat like/sort of like…’ + as in kalìoŧ‘sort of like some persons.’ + Compare this, however, to the Type 1 suffix -up, + i.e., -V1p/9, and its Type 2 counterpart + -uip , i.e., -V2p/9, + which both mean ‘exactly similar to…/identical…,’ the + difference in usage being that the Type 1 suffix conveys merely a circumstantial + or incidental similarity, while the Type 2 suffix implies that the similarity + is an integral aspect of the word. In English, such a distinction would most + likely be conveyed by using a different word. For example, note the difference + when we add these two suffixes to the Ilaksh word kàl ‘person’: kàlup means ‘identical-looking person,’ whereas kàluip means ‘twin.’ In this way, we can say + that the suffix -Vp with Type 1 vocalic infixes conveys a circumstantial + application of its meaning to a stem, while with Type 2 vocalic infixes, it + conveys a derivational application of its meaning (i.e., wholly new concepts + or words are derived from the stem).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    7.2 MULTIPLE SUFFIXATION
    +
    +

    Ilaksh allows for a formative to take multiple Vx-C suffixes. The rules for ordering these suffixes and the special instance of one suffix modifying another are explained below.

    +


    +7.21 Ordering of Suffixes and Suffixes Modifying Other Suffixes

    +

    When adding two or more suffixes to a stem, the suffixes generally + can be added to the stem in any order desired, with the exception of suffixes + which modify an adjacent suffix. The latter type of suffix is described as follows.

    +

    In addition to the patterns of suffix usage described in Section 7.1 above, + there is another class of suffixes which not only can be used to distinguish + a circumstantial versus derivational aspect like -Vp above, + but can also be used to modify an adjacent suffix rather than the stem. This + is somewhat analogous to the way that adverbs can be used to modify descriptive + adjectives in English. For example, in the phrase suddenly blue sky, + it is the blueness that is sudden, not the sky. In Ilaksh, certain suffixes + can be used to modify another suffix (usually the one following, unless there + are only two suffixes on the stem, in which case the suffix order is irrelevant); + this is done by using Type 3 vocalic infixes. For example, the suffix -Vd/5, + which means ‘enough / sufficient(ly),’ can be used both circumstantially + (using Type 1 infixes) and derivationally (using Type 2 infixes) to modify a + stem, or can be used to modify only the adjacent suffix (using Type 3 infixes). + Such suffixes must immediately precede + the suffix they are modifying, unless they are in word-final position, in which + case they modify the immediately preceding suffix. This is illustrated below:

    +

    kàlad: ‘a + sufficient person’ (i.e., one able to perform the task at hand)
    + kàliad: ‘a recruit’ + (i.e., one able to meet performance or entry requirements)
    + kalàidüx: +‘a sufficiently large person’ (where suffix -V1x/6 = ‘large’)

    +

     

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    Ithkuil allows for a specialized class of personal reference suffixes of Type 3 which are essentially shortcuts for single-referent personal reference adjuncts in certain noun cases (see Section 8.1 for an explanation of personal reference adjuncts). Such shortcut suffixes do not exist in Ilaksh, the equivalent being to utilize the full personal-reference adjunct.
    +

    +


    +
    +

    +
    + + + + +
    7.3 THE FIVE SUFFIX CLASSES
    +
    +

    All in all, there are five different patterns in which the + meanings/functions of suffixes are distributed. There are those like -ej and -êj above where the Type 1 meaning/function is completely + different than that of Type 2. We will label these classes of suffixes V1C suffixes and V2C suffixes respectively, + as they represent two totally independent suffixes.

    +

    Additionally there are those like -up and + -uip which are essentially a single suffix with one meaning/function + that alternates between Type 1 and Type 2 infixes to distinguish a circumstantial + versus a derivational aspect in the stem to which they are suffixed. We will + label such suffixes V0C suffixes.

    +

    Then there are suffixes like -(a)d/-iad/-aid shown above which alternate the circumstantial/derivational distinction using + Type 1 versus Type 2 infixes, but then go a step further by using Type 3 vocalic + infixes to indicate modification of an adjacent suffix; we will label these V3C suffixes.

    +

    Lastly there is a class of suffixes labeled VSC suffixes; this class of suffix operates like a V1C suffix (i.e., an independent suffix which modifies the stem circumstantially, + but not derivationally) but then also uses Type 2 infixes to apply the same + meaning to the adjacent suffix, similarly to the use of Type 3 infixes for V3C suffixes.

    +

    These five classes of suffixes are summarized below:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    V1C
    Takes Type 1 vocalic infixes only. + Can be either circumstantial or derivational in meaning (but not both), + depending on the particular suffix.
    V2C
    Takes Type 2 vocalic infixes only. Can be either + circumstantial or derivational in meaning (but not both), depending + on the particular suffix.
    V0C
    Takes both Type 1 and Type 2 vocalic infixes. Use + of Type 1 infix means suffix applies circumstantially to the particular + instance of the stem; use of Type 2 infix means the suffix is derivational + and generates an emergent concept for the stem constituting a new semantic + whole.
    VSC
    Takes both Type 1 and Type 2 vocalic infixes, but + use is circumstantial only, not derivational. Use of Type 1 infix means + suffix aplies the stem; use of Type 2 infix means the suffix applies to + the adjacent suffix only.
    V3C
    Same as V0C suffixes where Type 1 infix operates circumstantially and Type 2 infix + operates derivationally; but also takes Type 3 vocalic infixes which + function to modify an adjacent suffix (as with VSC suffixes when using Type 2 infixes)
    +
    +


    +
    +

    +
    + + + + +
    7.4 LIST OF SUFFIXES
    +
    +

    The 154 suffix categories are given in the sections which follow. + Each suffix indicates which of the five classes of suffixes it belongs (V1C, + V2C, V0C, VSC, or V3C), + the consonant-form associated with it, its overall function, its three-letter + label used in morphological analysis, and the meaning or translation of each + of its nine degrees. For most degrees, a nominal and verbal meaning is given.

    +


    + 7.4.1 Demonstrative Suffixes

    +

    These suffixes correspond to various determiners and modifying + adjectives in English having to do with denoting or identifying a noun within + a larger context or discourse.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1kt
    DEF
    		Degree Of Definiteness
    Degree 1any (number + of) [random selection - NOT quantitative/partitive “any”]; in + any manner
    Degree 2almost + any; in almost any (number of) way(s)
    Degree 3some X + or other; in some way or other
    Degree 4some certain + X ; in some certain way [identity unknown]
    Degree 5this X + or that; a certain X or more; in this way or that [identity almost known + – choices limited]
    Degree 6a certain + / a particular; in a certain or particular way [identity ascertainable]
    Degree 7presumably + this/that; apparently this X ; in that way presumably [tentatively identified]
    Degree 8 this/that/said; + in said manner/(in) that way [identity known]
    Degree 9at hand/under + discussion/this one now/instant; in this manner [identity = present context]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2kt
    DSR
    		Degree Of Discretion
    Degree 1announced/advertised/heralded; + w/ public disclosure
    Degree 2open & + well-known; with full public knowledge
    Degree 3open/public; + for all to see/publicly/openly
    Degree 4shown, + open, or available by request/ by request
    Degree 5semi-public(ly), + exclusive(ly)
    Degree 6own/personal; + personally
    Degree 7own private; + privately
    Degree 8 secret; + secretly
    Degree 9confidential/classified
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1ŧ
    INL
    		Degree Of Inclusion
    Degree 1not a(ny), + not one, no X whatsoever, none of X; in no such manner
    Degree 2hardly + any, barely any X; in hardly any such manner
    Degree 3some few/a + few certain … ; in a few certain ways
    Degree 4some (of)/certain + . . .; in certain ways
    Degree 5several + / more than a few / various / in various ways / in several different ways
    Degree 6a significant + portion of/a fair number of; in a fair number of ways
    Degree 7most/in + most ways
    Degree 8 almost + every; in almost every way
    Degree 9each/every; + in each way
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2ŧ
    EXT
    		Exactness of Identity / Identity As a Referent Or Standard
    Degree 1nothing + like that X; nothing like that ; in no way similar
    Degree 2somewhat + like that X; somewhat so
    Degree 3nearly + or almost that X; nearly or almost so
    Degree 4just about + . . . / for all intents and purposes
    Degree 5kind of + / type of / this sort of; typically
    Degree 6such (a); + in such a manner
    Degree 7clear (case + of); clearly / certainly / indeed[in negative sentences = no way / at all]
    Degree 8 just like + that; just so, thus(ly)
    Degree 9the exact + X / the very (one); exactly thus / exactly so
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ņs
    FAM
    		Degree Of Familiarity
    Degree 1unknowable + / alien; unable to even try X-ing
    Degree 2totally + unfamiliar; totally unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 3unfamiliar; + unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 4somewhat + unfamiliar; somewhat unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 5only just + (recently) familiar; only just recently familiar to X-ing
    Degree 6somewhat + familiar; somewhat accustomed to X-ing
    Degree 7familiar/known; + accustomed to X-ing
    Degree 8 well-known + / utterly familiar with / ingrained; inherently accustomed or used to X-ing
    Degree 9intimate + with; intimately involved with / intimately accustomed to
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0p
    SIM
    		Degree Of Similarity
    Degree 1opposite; + as different as possible / at the other extreme
    Degree 2completely + different/dissimilar; in a totally different or dissimilar way
    Degree 3rather + different / barely similar / almost completely different or dissimilar; + in an almost completely different way
    Degree 4other [=different]; + in another [=different] way
    Degree 5somewhat + different, only superficially similar; somewhat differently
    Degree 6similar + in the ways that count/similar down deep, some sort of X; similarly at deep + level
    Degree 7(somewhat) + similar, only superficially different, sort of like, something like, X-like; + similarly
    Degree 8 very similar; + very similarly
    Degree 9[exactly + the] same, indistinguishable from; in the [exactly] same way
    +

     

    +

    7.4.2 Deictic Suffixes

    +

    Deictic suffixes refer to the grammatical process of deixis, + the act of pointing to or pointing out. The suffixes correspond to the different + variants of the concepts of ‘here’ and ‘there.’ In Ilaksh, + distinctions are made in these suffixes as to whether a referent is near the + speaker, near the listener, distant from both, whether it is observable or accessible, + and in some case, whether it is alienable or inalienable (i.e., whether the + entity can be separated from the associated person).
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1rf
    DEX
    		Deixis Categories
    Degree 1yonder + / way over there somewhere / a long way away (not near anyone) [inaccessible + or unobservable]
    Degree 2over there + somewhere (by third party) [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 3there somewhere + (by listener) [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 4here somewhere + (by speaker] [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 5here (by + speaker and accessible]
    Degree 6here with + us (by speaker and listener and accessible]
    Degree 7there [by + listener and accessible]
    Degree 8 there (by + third party, but accessible to speaker and listener)
    Degree 9yonder + / way over there [not near any party but accessible]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2rf
    DXX
    		More Deixis Categories
    Degree 1spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [inaccessible]
    Degree 2spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [inaccessible]
    Degree 3spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over the place / here + and there [inaccessible]
    Degree 4spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over / here & there + [observable but inaccessible]
    Degree 5spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [inalienable]
    Degree 6spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [alienable]
    Degree 7spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker/all over the place / here + and there [accessible]
    Degree 8 spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [accessible]
    Degree 9spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [accessible]
    +

     

    +

    7.4.3 Sequential Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1nn
    SEQ
    		Numerical Sequence
    Degree 1first / + initial; first(ly) / first of all
    Degree 2second; + secondly
    Degree 3third; + thirdly
    Degree 4still near + the beginning / not yet halfway
    Degree 5the middle + one, in between (sequentially)/ just about halfway there
    Degree 6nearing + the end
    Degree 7third from + last; antepenultimately
    Degree 8 next to + last; penultimately
    Degree 9last / + final; last(ly) / finally (in terms of sequence)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2nn
    SQT
    		Sequence Relative to Present Context
    Degree 1immediately + beforehand / first
    Degree 2one before + preceding
    Degree 3the former; + primarily
    Degree 4two before + preceding
    Degree 5current/at + hand; now/currently / at the moment [in sequence of events]
    Degree 6second + one after next
    Degree 7the latter; + secondarily
    Degree 8 one after + next
    Degree 9next / + following; then / next
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rç
    SQC
    		Sequence of Cause and Effect
    Degree 1originating; + originally / in the first place / initially / at the outset
    Degree 2preliminary; + preliminarily
    Degree 3preparatory + / in preparation for / getting ready to
    Degree 4awaited; + waiting to/ waiting for [focus on imminency or sequential position, NOT + on anticipation]
    Degree 5precursor + to; but just beforehand
    Degree 6based on + the preceding and setting the stage for what follows
    Degree 7eventual + / at last; at last / finally (result)
    Degree 8 following + /...which follows; then subsequent to that / following that...
    Degree 9subsequent + / consequent; then / so / thus / therefore
    +

     

    +

    7.4.4 Coordinative Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1w
    +     or -V1rđ
    COO
    		Adjunctive Coordination
    Degree 1in conjunction + with / combined with / including X
    Degree 2and / also + / additionally/ furthermore/ moreover/ what’s more
    Degree 3 . . . + and so forth / and so on / and all that/ and whatever else
    Degree 4and at + the same time / and simultaneously
    Degree 5and [all + in a series]
    Degree 6or [potentially + inclusive] = and/or
    Degree 7either + . . . or [exclusive or] / or else
    Degree 8 . . . or + something else / or whatever / or whatever else
    Degree 9either + . . . or [exclusive or in a series]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1rr
    CTR
    		Contrastive Coordination
    Degree 1still / + nevertheless / however — (despite seemingly inherent conflict or contradiction)
    Degree 2besides + / not just . . . but also / in addition to X… also
    Degree 3even / + or even / … still [e.g., thicker still]
    Degree 4or [= otherwise]
    Degree 5as opposed + to / but not
    Degree 6but [qualifying]
    Degree 7however + / on the other hand — (simple difference in expected outcome, no inherent + conflict)
    Degree 8 but (rather) + [= substitute]
    Degree 9just in + case / should the need arise
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2rr
    DST
    		Distributive Coordination
    Degree 1applying + to each equally [unfairly]
    Degree 2applied + selectively by decision/preference [unfairly]
    Degree 3respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [unfairly]
    Degree 4selectively + at random [unfairly]
    Degree 5respectively + [= applied in the sequentially spoken order]
    Degree 6selectively + at random [fairly]
    Degree 7respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [fairly]
    Degree 8 applied + selectively by decision/calculation [fairly]
    Degree 9applying + to each equally [fairly]
    +

    +

    7.4.5 Temporal Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0kŧ
    TPI
    		Impact or Duration Over Time
    Degree 1immediate + / at this instant / for this moment; momentary
    Degree 2temporary + / for right now / for the moment; temporarily / in the meantime [duration + of context. recent]
    Degree 3short term/for + now; in the short term/for now/ / for the immediate future [hours to days]
    Degree 4for the + meantime / for the meanwhile [days to weeks to months]
    Degree 5for a while + / for some time to come [months to several years]
    Degree 6for the + foreseeable future [years to decades]
    Degree 7long term/in + the long run; over the course of time [over the course of a lifetime, decades + to centuries]
    Degree 8 through + the ages / over the course of the ages [centuries to millenia]; permanent
    Degree 9ever-present + / eternal / constant / incessant / neverending; from now on / eternally + / all the time / for all time
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ll
    FRQ
    		Degree Of Frequency
    Degree 1never
    Degree 2rare / + hardly ever / once in a great while; rarely / almost unheard of
    Degree 3infrequent; + seldom / infrequently
    Degree 4now and + then / from time to time / off and on / every so often / now and again occasionally + / sometimes
    Degree 5frequent; + frequently / often
    Degree 6usual; + usually / customarily / generally
    Degree 7almost + always / rarely fail to / routinely
    Degree 8 ever-faithful + / unwavering; always / every time / without fail / like clockwork / never + fail to
    Degree 9constant + / continuous; constantly / continuously / all the time
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1z
    TPR
    		Temporal Placement/Reaction/Viewpoint
    Degree 1wistfully + looking back / in the (good) old days [with longing]
    Degree 2in hindsight + / looking back
    Degree 3upon further + consideration/upon reflection
    Degree 4initial; + at first/initially / at first blush / at first glance
    Degree 5now that + the moment has come / now that the time is here / now that the deed or event + is at hand
    Degree 6any moment + now; on the verge of; just about to
    Degree 7imminent(ly) + ; very soon
    Degree 8 soon [w/ + anticipation]
    Degree 9someday. + . . / one day [with longing]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rň
    TPP
    		Temporal Position Relative to Present
    Degree 1in the + remote past, once upon a time
    Degree 2past/former/previous; + once [e.g., I was young once], a long time ago
    Degree 3recent; + recently
    Degree 4. . . just + past / just (happened)
    Degree 5present/current/present + day; now / at present / presently / currently
    Degree 6imminent; + just about to / about to / on the verge of
    Degree 7forthcoming + / soon to arrive; soon
    Degree 8 future + / -- to be / --to come / eventual(ly); someday...
    Degree 9in the + remote future / far in the future / long after we’re gone
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0pŧ
    ATC
    		Degree Of Anticipation
    Degree 1long-awaited + / long looked for
    Degree 2eagerly + awaited; can’t wait for / dying to
    Degree 3anticipated + / awaited; in anticipation of / look forward to
    Degree 4up for + / up to
    Degree 5await / + wait to / wait for / waiting to
    Degree 6ambivalent + about ; could take or leave it
    Degree 7not looking + forward to
    Degree 8 dreaded; + dread X-ing
    Degree 9long-dreaded; + dread the day when
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2z
    LAT
    		Degree Of Lateness/Earliness
    Degree 1way too + early / way too soon
    Degree 2too early + / too soon
    Degree 3a little + early / a bit soon
    Degree 4almost + late / not a moment too soon
    Degree 5just in + time / sharp / on the dot
    Degree 6a little + late
    Degree 7late
    Degree 8 too late
    Degree 9way too + late
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3nt
    ITN
    		Degree Of Iteration
    Degree 1just once + / once only
    Degree 2again / + once more / one more time / re-
    Degree 3again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on habit, not periodicity]
    Degree 4again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on periodicity, not habit]
    Degree 5irregular, + unpredictable ; at irregular or unpredictable intervals
    Degree 6[cyclic] + return of... / ...once again; return to / …back again [e.g., summer’s + back]
    Degree 7intermittent; + intermittently / at regular intervals
    Degree 8 repetitive + / repeating; repeatedly
    Degree 9constantly + cycling or repeating / continuously or perpetually repeating / constant, + eternal, perpetual repetition of
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ň
    RPN
    		Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set + Members
    Degree 1slow-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    Degree 2slow-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 3slow-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 4mid-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 5mid-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    Degree 6mid-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 7fast-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 8 fast-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 9fast-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    +

     

    +

    7.4.6 Quantifying Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSlz
    DGR
    		Exactness of Degree
    Degree 1unknowable + degree or amount of
    Degree 2unknown + degree or amount of
    Degree 3almost + impossible to determine degree of
    Degree 4nowhere + near the desired degree of
    Degree 5hard to + pinpoint / hard to determine / difficult to determine
    Degree 6fluctuating, + ever-changing (amount of); to changing/fluctuating degree or extent of
    Degree 7vaguely + around / vaguely in the range of / somewhere around / loosely in the vicinity + of
    Degree 8 approximate(ly) + / somewhere around / just about; or something like that / …or so
    Degree 9exact/specific; + exactly / specifically / on the dot / sharp / to the letter
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1ss
    PTW
    		Contiguous Portion of the Whole
    Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
    Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
    Degree 3few / a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
    Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
    Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
    Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite; a lot / very much / to + a large extent
    Degree 7a whole + lot of / a verly large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
    Degree 8 most of + / mostly
    Degree 9 every + / all (of)/whole; entirely/in its entirety
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2ss
    PTT
    		Non-Contiguous (i.e., Intermixed) Portion of the Whole
    Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
    Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
    Degree 3 few/a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
    Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
    Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
    Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite /; a lot / very much / + to a large extent
    Degree 7a whole + lot of / a very large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
    Degree 8 most of + / mostly
    Degree 9every / + all (of) / whole; entirely / in its entirety
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -Vomt
    CNM
    		Type of Container/Packaging/Conveyance/Holder
    Degree 1jar/pot + of X [storage + containment]
    Degree 2dispensor-type + container/package, e.g., tube, barrel, bottle for multiple use
    Degree 3can/tin/bottle/sealed + pouch [= storage + packaging + protection/preservation]
    Degree 4carton/box/basket + [= temporary containment]
    Degree 5natural + or generic mass containment/packaging/holder (e.g., a loaf of bread, a lump + of clay)
    Degree 6satchel, + pack of [= for personal conveyance/moving]
    Degree 7pile of, + load of [= in context of conveyance/moving or bulk storage]
    Degree 8 X-ful of + [+ Partitive], e.g., a roomful of clowns, a skyful of clouds, a treeful + of leaves, a spoonful
    Degree 9embodiment/manifestation + of abstract essence, e.g., a life form [= an embodiment of life]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3d
    SUF
    		Degree Of Sufficiency
    Degree 1none at + all; not…at all
    Degree 2way too + little / woefully insufficient / way too few; not...anywhere enough / totally + under-[+verb]
    Degree 3not enough + / insufficient / too few; not...enough / insufficiently / under-[+verb]
    Degree 4not quite + enough / slightly insufficient; not...quite enough / a bit insufficiently + / slightly under-[+verb]
    Degree 5enough + (of) / sufficient; enough / sufficiently
    Degree 6a little + too / a little too much; a little too much / slightly over- [+verb]
    Degree 7too / toomuch; + too much / too many / over- [+verb]
    Degree 8 way too + / way too much; way too much / totally over- [+verb]
    Degree 9inundated + with; to the exclusion of all else / to the point that X overwhelms or takes + over
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3b
    EXN
    		Degree or Extent
    Degree 1none (at + all); to no extent at all
    Degree 2tiniest + part of / a bit of; to smallest extent / hardly / barely
    Degree 3only a + part of / only some of; to some extent / partially / partly / somewhat
    Degree 4less than + usual / below normal; less so than usual/ to a lesser degree or extent than + usual
    Degree 5the normal, + expected or usual amount (of)
    Degree 6more than + usual / above normal; more so than usual; to a greater degree or extent + than normal
    Degree 7way more + than usual / way above normal or expected; to a much greater degree or extent + than normal
    Degree 8 almost + as much as possible / near(ly) maximum
    Degree 9total, + -ful; to greatest extent / maximum / maximal; maximally / at full capacity, + e.g., She bought out the store.
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSy/rg
    EXD
    		Dynamically Changing Degree or Extent
    Degree 1less and + less / fewer and fewer / ongoing decrease in; decreasingly
    Degree 2a lot fewer + / a lot less (of); a lot less
    Degree 3fewer / + less (of); less
    Degree 4a little + less (of) / a bit less (of); a little less / a bit less
    Degree 5a fluctuating + amount or degree of; to a fluctuating degree or extent
    Degree 6a little + more (of) / a bit more (of); a little more / a bit more
    Degree 7more (of); + more
    Degree 8 a lot more + (of); a lot more
    Degree 9more and + more / continuing increase in / increasingly more / ever-increasing
    +

    This suffix is used with all vector-like or gradient concepts. When used with + the COMPLETIVE version, degrees 1 and 9 imply attainment + of a change in state, e.g., sleepiness → sleep.

    +


    + 7.4.7 Modulative Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -Vons
    RCO
    		Recoil in place (spring back; snap back; fall back into place)
    -Vonž
    TFI
    		Back & forth; to & fro in place (e.g., pendulum, wagging tail)
    -Vonš
    TFV
    		Back & forth over linear vector (e.g., snake-like; zig-zag)
    -Vonz
    CRI
    		Cycle or circular motion in place (spin, revolve)
    -Vonŧ
    CRV
    		Cycle or circular motion over linear vector (e.g., train wheels, bike + wheels)
    -Voňň
    MDL
    		Random pattern of modulation (unpredictable/irregular movement pattern)
    +

    These suffixes operate in conjunction with Phase (see + Sec. 5.3) to describe contexts involving recoil, spring motion, oscillative, + cyclic, reflective or vibrative motion, using the following degrees:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1not enough
    Degree 2hardly + at all
    Degree 3to a small + degree
    Degree 4to a less + than normal degree
    Degree 5to the + normal / standard / usual degree
    Degree 6to a greater + than normal degree
    Degree 7to a large + degree
    Degree 8 to a very + large degree
    Degree 9too much + / overly
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3g
    FLC
    		Degree of Fluctuation/Stability
    Degree 1inherently + and consistently unstable and random to a high degree
    Degree 2highly + variable/random fluctuation or instability
    Degree 3moderately + variable/random fluctuation or instability
    Degree 4increasing + fluctuation or destabilization in pattern
    Degree 5tending + toward fluctuations and periods of instability
    Degree 6decreasing + fluctuation or instability in pattern = increasing stability
    Degree 7moderately + stable and lacking in fluctuations
    Degree 8 complete + lack of fluctuation or instability; highly stable
    Degree 9inherently + and consistently stable
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSf
    ICR
    		Increase
    -VSftDCRDecrease
    -VShtICDIncrease then Decrease
    -VSkfDCIDecrease then Increase
    -VStyIDRRandom/Varying Increases and Decreases 
    +

    Used with the following degrees, the above five suffixes operate to expand Phase + into showing increases or decreases (or wavering) of intensity of an action + during its duration.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1so slowly + as to seem immovable
    Degree 2very slowly
    Degree 3slowly
    Degree 4somewhat slower than + normal
    Degree 5normal/usual/standard + speed
    Degree 6somewhat faster than + normal
    Degree 7fast/quickly
    Degree 8 very rapidly
    Degree 9so rapidly as to be + unable to follow
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0fs
    MVT
    		Degree of Stillness/Movement
    Degree 1unmovable + – integrated
    Degree 2unmovable + due to mass
    Degree 3not easily + moved
    Degree 4inclined + to stillness
    Degree 5holding + still
    Degree 6moving + around slightly, stirring
    Degree 7moving + around in one place
    Degree 8 moving + around, agitated
    Degree 9highly agitated, unable to keep still
    +


    +
    +
    +     7.4.8 Qualifying Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0x
    SIZ
    		Degree of Size
    Degree 1too small
    Degree 2very small/ + very little/ miniscule/ tiny/ itty-bitty;in a very small manner; barely/hardly
    Degree 3small/little
    Degree 4a little + on the small size / undersized / petite
    Degree 5a little + on the large size / oversized / jumbo
    Degree 6big/large; + in a large manner
    Degree 7very big/very + large; in a very large manner
    Degree 8 enormous(ly) + / huge(ly) / humoungous(ly) / gigantic(ally)
    Degree 9too big + / too large / too huge; in too large a manner
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0xw/vz
    SCO
    		Dynamic Change of Size
    Degree 1smallest + single manifestation of / particle of
    Degree 2runaway + shrinkage of / rapid disappearance or diminishment of
    Degree 3solitary + / only / sole / lone / unaccompanied; alone / by -self / on his own / unaccompanied + / solely
    Degree 4decreasing + / de-escalating / shrinking
    Degree 5compact/concentrated; + in efficient or compact way [e.g., canyon → gorge]
    Degree 6expanded/enhanced; + in expanded or enhanced way [e.g., canyon → rift valley]
    Degree 7growing, + increasing, escalating
    Degree 8 runaway + / runaway growth, increase or expansion of
    Degree 9synergistic + expansion e.g., hit (+ RCP valence) → fight
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0h
    AFT
    		Degree of Affect
    Degree 1cute/darling + / in a cute or darling manner
    Degree 2too cute + / schmaltzy / in a maudlin way
    Degree 3kitschy + / quaint(ly)
    Degree 4dear, endearing(ly)
    Degree 5lovely + / elegant
    Degree 6esteemed
    Degree 7imperious + / royal / most high / most excellent / revered
    Degree 8 too grand + / too imperious
    Degree 9great / + grand; in a great / grand / grandiose manner
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0č
    QUA
    		Degree of Quality, Effectiveness or Adequacy
    Degree 1too poor(ly); + too badly
    Degree 2very bad(ly) + / very poor(ly) / very inadequate(ly) / intolerable / intolerably / terrible + / terribly
    Degree 3bad / poor + / inadequate; badly / poorly / inadequately / wanting / lacking
    Degree 4not-so-good + / could be better; somewhat poor(ly) or bad(ly) / somewhat wanting or lacking + / below average
    Degree 5not-so-bad + / average; could be worse; so-so / somewhat well / OK, I guess / adequate(ly) + / acceptably
    Degree 6good/effective; + well/effectively/ more than adequate / above-average
    Degree 7very good + / very effective(ly) / very well
    Degree 8 excellent(ly) + / superb(ly) / outstanding(ly)
    Degree 9astounding(ly) + / amazing(ly) great or well / unbelievably excellent / absolutely superb(ly) + / unsurpassable(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0c
    UNQ
    		Degree of Specialness or Uniqueness
    Degree 1vulgar, + trashy, too cheap / in a vulgar or trashy manner
    Degree 2cheap, + tasteless, gaudy, gauche / in a cheap, gaudy, gauche or tasteless manner
    Degree 3run of + the mill / unexceptional / average / commonplace / ordinary; in a commonplace + or unexceptional manner
    Degree 4somewhat + ordinary / somewhat common(place)
    Degree 5somewhat + special / somewhat out of the ordinary / interesting(ly) / intriguing(ly) + / eye-catching / appealing(ly)
    Degree 6special; + epecially
    Degree 7extraordinary + / highly unusual; extraordinarily
    Degree 8 (one and) + only/unique; in the only way / uniquely / unparallelled
    Degree 9marvelous + / wonderful / wondrous / awesome / awe-inspiring
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0tf
    CNQ
    		Degree of Consequentiality, Finality or Irrevocability
    Degree 1inconsequential/sham/having + no effect; like it didn’t even happen/with no effect
    Degree 2relatively + inconsequential / having little effect / easily reversible or undone / to + little effect / minor / to minor degree
    Degree 3somewhat + inconsequential/having only some effect/reparable/reversible/to some effect + / somewhat minor
    Degree 4not so + minor / somwhat significant degree / reversible with effort / having a somewhat + significant impact or effect
    Degree 5consequential + / having a fair effect / reversible only with concerted effort / to good + effect
    Degree 6Overall + / signifcant degree of; all in all / for the most part/to great effect / + on the whole
    Degree 7virtually + total/near total; nearly for good/almost completely
    Degree 8 utter / + complete / total; altogether / completely / for good / utterly / irrevocably + for all intents and purposes
    Degree 9for all + time / forever / finally
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ky
    NTR
    		Degree of Notoriety, Acceptance, Respect, Honor
    Degree 1pariah-like + / ostracized; in an alienating or self-ostracizing manner
    Degree 2infamous; + infamously
    Degree 3frowned-upon + / disapproved ; in a manner guaranteed to arouse disapproval
    Degree 4tolerated; + in a tolerated manner
    Degree 5common + / customary / expected / accepted; in an common, customary, expected, or + accepted manner
    Degree 6notorious(ly)
    Degree 7well-known + / well-liked / well thought of; in a totally appropriate way / in a manner + befitting a gentleman or lady
    Degree 8 respected + / honored; respectfully / honorably
    Degree 9highly + praised / highly honored / highly esteemed / highly respected / most excellent + / most honorable
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0gy
    APR
    		Degree of Contextual Appropriateness
    Degree 1contemptable(-ly) + / utterly inappropriate(ly)
    Degree 2scandalous(ly) + / trashy(-ly) / inappropriate(ly)
    Degree 3 ill-mannered + / boorish(ly) / improper(ly) / tasteless(ly)
    Degree 4eyebrow-raising + / questionable(-ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + improper(ly) / unorthodox(ically)
    Degree 6acceptable(-ly) + / adequate(ly)
    Degree 7appropriate(ly) + / proper(ly) / correct(ly)
    Degree 8 utterly + appropriate(ly), very proper(ly); strictly correct(ly)
    Degree 9stuffy + / orthodox / old-fashioned; utterly predictable(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0dz
    HRC
    		Position on Social, Occupational, or (Para-) Military Hierarchy
    Degree 1bottom + rung / the “dregs”
    Degree 2rank & + file
    Degree 3lower echeleon
    Degree 4lower-mid
    Degree 5mid-level
    Degree 6upper mid
    Degree 7upper echeleon
    Degree 8 senior
    Degree 9head / + chief / top / executive
    +

    This suffix, for example, would be used to distinguish the names of the various + ranks within a military or paramilitary organization such as private, corporal, + sergeant, lieutenant, etc. all the way up to general and supreme + commander.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0sp
    FRM
    		Degree of Formality
    Degree 1too casual + / overly casual
    Degree 2very casual
    Degree 3casual
    Degree 4somewhat + casual
    Degree 5neither + casual nor formal
    Degree 6somewhat + formal
    Degree 7formal
    Degree 8 very formal
    Degree 9too formal + / overly formal
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0j
    TYP
    		Degree of Typicalness
    Degree 1unique + / never-before-seen / one of a kind / shocking
    Degree 2original + / avante-garde; surprising(ly) / innovative(ly)
    Degree 3atypical(ly) + / unusual(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + atypical(ly) or unusual(ly)
    Degree 5garden + variety / run-of-the-mill / typical(ly)
    Degree 6expected + / common; in a commonplace manner
    Degree 7disappointingly + typical; very typically
    Degree 8 unoriginal + / mundane; in an uninspired way
    Degree 9stereotyped + / stereotypical(ly)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0zz
    PTY
    		Degree of Prototypicalness
    Degree 1very dissimilar + to prototype, very atypical member, closer to members of different set
    Degree 2dissimilar + to prototype, atypical member
    Degree 3having + noticeable dissimilarities from prototype
    Degree 4somewhat + dissimilar to prototype
    Degree 5having + unknown degree of closeness or similarity to prototype
    Degree 6adequately + similar to prototype
    Degree 7as close + to prototype as is typically found
    Degree 8 as close + to prototype as possible
    Degree 9prototype/archetype/model
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0žž
    ITG
    		Degree of Intelligence Manifested
    Degree 1dumb / + stupid / assinine; idiotic(ally) / moronic(ally)
    Degree 2foolhearty + / foolish(ly)
    Degree 3ill-conceived(ly) + / (in a) poorly thought out (way)
    Degree 4naïve(ly) + / simplistic(ally)
    Degree 5well-intentioned + but ill-conceived / reckless(ly); risky
    Degree 6well-reasoned + / intelligent(ly)
    Degree 7innovative(ly) + / daring [based on analysis and judgement]
    Degree 8 ingenious + / brilliant
    Degree 9wise(ly); + [V2c’ = ‘philosophical(ly)]
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0šp
    MDN
    		Degree of Age or Modernity
    Degree 1prehistoric + / proto-
    Degree 2ancient
    Degree 3old (first) + / archaic
    Degree 4classic(al)
    Degree 5old-fashioned; + in the old-fashioned way
    Degree 6“yesteryear”; + in the era just passed; in the previous zeitgeist
    Degree 7modern, + contemporary, present-day
    Degree 8 innovative + / trailblazing; innovatively, trailblazingly, cutting-edge
    Degree 9avant-garde
    +

     

    +

    7.4.9 Modifying Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSr
    NA1
    		Negation/affirmation of all morphological components
    -VSl
    NA2
    		Negation/affirmation of stem + affixes but not adjunct information
    -VSř
    NA3
    		Negation/affirmation of all morphological components except Modality
    -VSřř
    NA4
    		Negation/affirmation of all but aspectual or Modality information
    +

    The above four suffixes are used to affirm or negate a formative. Because much + of the information associated with an Ilaksh formative is carried in adjuncts, + the above suffixes are used to indicate exactly which morpho-semantic information + is being affirmed or negated. For example, in English the sentences I don’t + want to stop eating, I want to not stop eating, and I want to stop not eating mean different things. The above four suffixes are used with the following degrees.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1on + the contrary…most cerainly does NOT/is NOT [absolute negation]; no + X whatsoever; absolutely not = emphatic negation/denial
    Degree 2on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [absolute negation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 3on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [relative negation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 4no; not + [absolute negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (because I’m + not in the race)
    Degree 5no; not + [relative negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (although I am in + the race)
    Degree 6almost + / near(ly)
    Degree 7hardly + / barely
    Degree 8 …does + (too) / is (too) [= simple affirmation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 9…is + indeed / does indeed / most certainly is / most certainly does [emphatic + affirmation]
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rb
    DEV
    		Degree of Development
    Degree 1reversal + or undoing of process = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
    Degree 2reversal/undoing + of process in large chunks = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
    Degree 3reversal + little by little / a little at a time = entropic change in / slowly falling + apart / unravelling
    Degree 4moribund + / stagnant; in a moribund or stagnant manner
    Degree 5well-maintained + / well-kept / “healthy”; keep X going / maintain X-ing
    Degree 6one by + one / one at a time / one after another
    Degree 7little + by little / a little at a time / bit by bit / a piece at a time
    Degree 8 by leaps + and bounds / in large amounts at a time
    Degree 9complete + achievement now irreversible / set in stone
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3pt
    REA
    		Degree of Genuineness or Veracity
    Degree 1real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed [affirmation + contrary to suggestion otherwise]
    Degree 2real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed
    Degree 3apparent + / seeming / looks like a; apparently / appears to have / seems to have
    Degree 4suspicious-looking + / ”fishy” seeming; presumably /allegedly / gives the appearance + of having
    Degree 5ersatz + / facsimile; as an equivalent to
    Degree 6substitute + / replacement / proxy / fill-in / placeholder; as a substitue or proxy for
    Degree 7fake / + pretend / mock; pretend to, fake X-ing
    Degree 8 imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing
    Degree 9imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing [contrary to suggestion + otherwise]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3rk
    SCS
    		Degree of Success versus Failure
    Degree 1total failure + in; completely fail to
    Degree 2failed, + would-be; unsuccessfully, fail to
    Degree 3= INEFFECTUAL + or INCOMPLETIVE version (see Sec. 5.3)
    Degree 4certain + to be a failed / certain to fail in
    Degree 5marginally + successful(ly) / barely, hardly [in terms of adequacy or success]
    Degree 6certain + to be a successful ; certain to succeed in
    Degree 7= POSITIVE + or EFFECTIVE version (see Sec. 5.3)
    Degree 8 successful(-ly + completed); successfully
    Degree 9overwhelmingly + successful(ly)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1v
    CAP
    		Degree of Potential or Capability
    Degree 1utterly + incapable / completely lacking in all necessary abilities or capacities
    Degree 2underqualified; + almost totally lacking in necessary abilities or capacities
    Degree 3lacking + in certain key capabilities; mostly inadequate to task
    Degree 4possible + but less than likely due to underdeveloped capabilities
    Degree 5unknown + if capable or not
    Degree 6somewhat + capable / has possible potential to perform
    Degree 7sufficiently + capable / adequate potential to perform
    Degree 8 fully capable; + well within abilities
    Degree 9overly + qualified; more capable than necessary or required
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2v + *
    PRB
    		Degree of Probability or Likelihood
    + * This suffix takes a -V3 suffix form to apply its meaning + to an adjacent suffix only.
    Degree 1impossible + / hopeless / lost cause
    Degree 2almost + no chance of / virtually impossible
    Degree 3highly + unlikely
    Degree 4unlikely + / improbable(ly)
    Degree 5possible; + possibly
    Degree 6hopeful(ly)
    Degree 7probable; + probably
    Degree 8 highly + probable / highly likely / certain to be a. . . certain to
    Degree 9forgone + conclusion that / in the can / done deal
    +

     

    +

    7.4.10 Adverbial Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0lŧ
    STR
    		Degree of Physical Strength Possible or Used
    Degree 1barely + / hardly / very weak(ly)
    Degree 2weak(ly) + / to small degree
    Degree 3soft(ly) + / guarded(ly)
    Degree 4measured(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + strong(ly) / somewhat powerful(ly)
    Degree 6adequately + strong; with adequate strength
    Degree 7strong(ly) + / powerful(ly)
    Degree 8 very strong(ly) + / very powerful(ly)
    Degree 9with maximum + power
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3kç
    FRC
    		Degree of Physical Force Exerted
    Degree 1too light(ly) + / too soft(ly) / too delicate(ly)
    Degree 2light as + a feather/ baby soft; extremely delicately or lightly or softly
    Degree 3light/soft/hardly + a; softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
    Degree 4somewhat + on the light or soft side; somewhat softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
    Degree 5neither + soft(ly) nor forceful(ly); with the right touch
    Degree 6somewhat + violent(ly) / somewhat forceful(ly)
    Degree 7violent/forceful + / rough; violently / with force / roughly
    Degree 8 very violent(ly) + / very forceful(ly) / very rough(ly)
    Degree 9too violent(ly) + / too forceful(ly) / too rough(ly)
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3sk
    ITY
    		Degree of Speed (i.e., Intensity of Movement or Change)
    Degree 1too slow(ly)
    Degree 2very slow(ly)
    Degree 3slow(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
    Degree 5at just + the right speed or intensity
    Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
    Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0st
    SPD
    		Degree of Speed (i.e., Velocity = Distance Over Time)
    Degree 1too slow(ly)
    Degree 2very slow(ly)
    Degree 3slow(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
    Degree 5at just + the right speed
    Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
    Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly)/; at fast pace
    Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0lt
    CFD
    		Degree of Forthrightness, Confidence or Humility
    Degree 1

    too + meek(ly) / too submissive(ly) / too obedient(ly) / too docile(ly)

    Degree 2very meek(ly) + / very submissive(ly) / very obedient(ly) / very docile(ly)
    Degree 3meek(ly) + / submissive(ly) / obedient(ly) / docile(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + meek(ly) / somewhat submissive(ly) / somewhat obedient(ly) / somewhat docile(ly)
    Degree 5properly + humble / properly forthright ; with proper degree of humility or forthrightness
    Degree 6somewhat + confident(ly) / somewhat strong(ly) / somewhat definite(ly) / somewhat definitive(ly) + or authoritative(ly)
    Degree 7confident(ly) + /strong(ly) / definite(ly)/ definitive(ly) / authoritative(ly)
    Degree 8 very confident(ly) + / very strong(ly) / very definite(ly) / very definitive(ly) / very authoritative(ly)
    Degree 9over-confident(ly) + / too strong(ly) / too definite(ly) / too definitive(ly) / too authoritative(ly)
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0đ
    EFI
    		Degree of Efficiency or Efficacy
    Degree 1destructively + wasteful / disastrous(ly) / accomplishing the opposite of intention / making + things worse
    Degree 2very wasteful + / accomplishing nothing / making a mess of it
    Degree 3wasteful + / accomplishing little
    Degree 4somewhat + wasteful / accomplishing somewhat less than expected
    Degree 5adequate(ly) + [in terms of efficiency]
    Degree 6rather + efficient(ly) / fairly efficient(ly) / accomplishing somewhat more than + expected
    Degree 7efficient(ly) + / with little or no waste(d effort)
    Degree 8 extremely + efficient(ly) / with no waste(d effort) whatsoever
    Degree 9a synergy + of… / sum beyond total of parts / a synergistic composite of ; to + X synergistically
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3rw/gž
    ERR
    		Degree of Correctness versus Error
    Degree 1totally + wrong / totally mis- or mal-; totally in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
    Degree 2wrong/incorrect(ly) + / mis- / mal- ; in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
    Degree 3fairly + wrong / fairly incorrect(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + wrong / more wrong than right
    Degree 5so-so; + barely adequate(ly) / barely correct(ly)
    Degree 6somewhat + right / more right than wrong
    Degree 7fairly + right / fairly correct(ly)
    Degree 8 right / + correctly
    Degree 9totally + right / totally correct(ly) / totally well-X’d
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ç
    MAT
    		Degree of Maturation
    Degree 1undeveloped + / immature(ly) / seed / embryo
    Degree 2under-developed + / newborn [stage, not age] / seedling / baby
    Degree 3growing + / budding / youthful / young
    Degree 4maturing + / developing / getting stronger or bigger or more complex or sophisticated
    Degree 5fully developed + / fully mature(d) / robust / ripe
    Degree 6overly + developed / overripe / showing signs of wear and tear / stressed / under + stress / fatigued
    Degree 7declining/fading; + trail off/fade / getting softer or weaker / faded / decrepit / has-been + / past one’s prime
    Degree 8 disintegrating + / utterly deteriorated / beyond repair or rehabilitation / irreparable / + dying
    Degree 9dead / + defunct / disintegrated
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ňz
    SBT
    		Degree of Subtlety
    Degree 1too subtle(ly)
    Degree 2very subtle(ly)
    Degree 3subtle(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + subtle(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + unsubtle(ly)
    Degree 6unsubtle(ly) + / lumbering(ly) rather obvious/ fairly blatant / belabored ; belabor / lumber + along X-ing
    Degree 7obvious(ly) + / blatant(ly) / exaggerated(ly)
    Degree 8 very obvious(ly) + / very blatant(ly)
    Degree 9over-the-top + / in-your-face / to obvious(ly) / too blatant(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1kš
    DRC
    		Degree of Directness
    Degree 1too indirect(ly)
    Degree 2very indirect(ly)
    Degree 3indirect(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + indirect(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + direct(ly)
    Degree 6fairly + direct(ly) / rather direct(ly)
    Degree 7direct(ly) + / straightforward
    Degree 8 very direct(ly) + / very straightforward
    Degree 9too direct(ly) + / painfully straightforward
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mš
    SUD
    		Degree of Suddenness
    Degree 1too slow(ly) + in happening, too long in X-ing, overdue, delayed
    Degree 2very slow(ly) + in happening or developing
    Degree 3slow(ly) + ; long in developing or happening
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly) ; somewhat long in developing or happening
    Degree 5taking + just the right amount of time to develop or occur
    Degree 6somewhat + immediate / somewhat sudden; somewhat imediately / somewhat suddenly
    Degree 7immediate + / sudden; imediately / suddenly
    Degree 8 very immediate + / very sudden; very imediately / very suddenly
    Degree 9too immediate + / too sudden; too imediately / too suddenly
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0pç
    PCN
    		Degree of Care, Precision or Scrutiny
    Degree 1utterly + sloppy(ily) / totally careless(ly)
    Degree 2 very sloppy(ily) + / very careless(ly)
    Degree 3 sloppy(ily) + / careless(ly) / with poor attention to detail
    Degree 4somewhat + sloppy(ily) / somewhat careless(ly)
    Degree 5less than + careful(ly) / with only some degree of care
    Degree 6somewhat + careful(ly) / fairly precise(ly)
    Degree 7precise(ly) + / careful(ly) / detailed
    Degree 8 extremely + precise(ly) / with great care or precision or scrutiny / meticulous(ly)
    Degree 9overly + precise(ly) / ‘nit-picky’ / with too much scrutiny / overly + meticulous(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2kš
    CNC
    		Degree of Concern or Consideration
    Degree 1…the + hell…! / what the hell . . . / . . . who cares
    Degree 2self-centered(ly) + / without thought or concern for others
    Degree 3at the + very least / at the least level of concern required
    Degree 4 without + concern / indifferent(ly) / without consideration / unconcerned(ly) / thoughtless(ly)
    Degree 5reluctant(ly)
    Degree 6at best + / with the most concern one can muster
    Degree 7concerned(ly) + / with concern / with consideration for others
    Degree 8 very concerned(ly) + / highly concerned(ly) / with great concern or consideration for others
    Degree 9overly + concerned(ly) / worrisome(ly) / with too much concern or consideration for + others / altruistically
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0lk
    SPH
    		Degree of Sophistication
    Degree 1too crude(ly) + / too primitive(ly)
    Degree 2very crude(ly) + / very primitive(ly)
    Degree 3crude(ly) + / primitive(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + crude(ly) / somewhat primitive(ly)
    Degree 5with expected/normal + degree or level of sophistication
    Degree 6somewhat + sophisticated or refined
    Degree 7 sophisticated + or refined
    Degree 8 very sophisticated + or refined
    Degree 9too sophisticated + or refined
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0çt
    CVT
    		Degree of Covertness versus Overtness
    Degree 1too secretive(ly) + / overly covert(ly)
    Degree 2very secretive(ly) + / highly covert(ly) / hidden / well behind the scenes
    Degree 3secretive(ly) + / covert(ly) / behind the scenes / between the lines / under the table / + “back-room”
    Degree 4somewhat + secretive(ly) / somewhat covert(ly)
    Degree 5not too + secretive(ly) / not so open(ly)
    Degree 6somewhat + open(ly) / somewhat “up front”
    Degree 7open(ly) + / overt(ly) / “up front” / out in the open / honest / forthcoming(ly)
    Degree 8 very open(ly) + / very overt(ly) / very “up front” / flaunting(ly) / brutally + honest
    Degree 9too open(ly) + / too overt(ly) / overly flaunting(ly) / vulgar(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0lp
    EFT
    		Degree of Effort
    Degree 1too difficult + / overly difficult
    Degree 2very difficult + / so difficult
    Degree 3strained + / difficult; strain to / with difficulty / struggle to / to work at X-ing + / to X hard
    Degree 4somewhat + difficult / not that easy
    Degree 5neither + easy nor difficult
    Degree 6somewhat + easy; not so difficult
    Degree 7 easy / + certain / unhindered / with ease / without resistance / effortlessly
    Degree 8 very easy + / so easy
    Degree 9too easy + / overly easy
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0pw/ňž
    DSG
    		Degree of Design or Purposefulness
    Degree 1purposeless(ly) + /random(ly) / utterly unorganized / chaotic(ally)
    Degree 2haphazard(ly) + / without plan or guidance/ disorganized(ly) / poorly planned
    Degree 3 fairly + haphazard(ly) / not well-planned / not well-organized
    Degree 4somewhat + haphazard(ly) / somewhat disorganized
    Degree 5slightly + disorganized / less than well-planned
    Degree 6somewhat + organized / somewhat well-planned
    Degree 7organized(ly) + / purposeful(ly) / well-planned
    Degree 8 very organized + / very structured
    Degree 9too organized + / overly structured / “anal(ly)”
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3fš
    DCS
    		Degree of Decisiveness, Commitment or Emphasis
    Degree 1indecisive + / meandering; indecisively / first one way then another
    Degree 2wishy washy + / flaky
    Degree 3some sort + of / some kind of / sort of (like) / ”kind of”; in a way / halfway + / does and doesn’t
    Degree 4apparent(ly); + seeming(ly)
    Degree 5mere(ly) + / only (a); merely / only
    Degree 6deliberate + / decisive; deliberately / decisively / purposefully
    Degree 7a real + / certainly a ; really / certainly [emphasis, not genuineness or veracity]
    Degree 8 the (one); + in the only way that counts
    Degree 9what (a) + ...!; how . . .! ; Boy! Did (does) X ever …
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3št
    CTN
    		Degree of Contrariness to Expectation(s) or Shift in Subject
    Degree 1but X would… + / if things were otherwise X WOULD… / on the contrary, X WOULD [affirmation + of hypothetical contrary to statement/suggestion otherwise
    Degree 2but / X + DOES/IS . . . / on the contrary … [affirmation of fact contrary to + suggestion or statement otherwise]
    Degree 3like it + or not…/ well, as much as we didn’t want to think it would happen...
    Degree 4against + expectation or belief ‘… after all’ ‘well, what + do you know…X!’
    Degree 5a genuine + / real / true ; really do, [contrary to expectation]
    Degree 6as a matter + of fact
    Degree 7‘at + least/at any rate’
    Degree 8 ‘by + the way/ just to mention’
    Degree 9not to + change the subject but…/ sorry to change the subject, but…/ + I don’t mean to change the subject, but…
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3rt
    PHY
    		Degree of Physical Control
    Degree 1uncontrolled/helpless(ly) + ; without control/ out of control
    Degree 2almost + completely out of control / almost totally helpless
    Degree 3losing + control / losing the ability to…
    Degree 4insufficiently + trained in...
    Degree 5amateur(ishly) + / superficially able to…
    Degree 6learn(ing) + to… / begin(ning) to be able to…
    Degree 7w/ growing + proficiency or expertise (in)
    Degree 8 proficient(ly)
    Degree 9in full + control / expert(ly)
    +

    +

    7.4.11 Modality Suffixes

    +

    Many of these correspond to the modality suffixes used in valence/modality adjuncts (see Chapter 6). The nine degrees associated with each + suffix allow a speaker control over the extent to which the modality category + should apply to the utterance. These suffix forms function, then, as an alternative + to adjunct forms for greater nuance in the applicability of the modality category + and to apply them to nouns. The nine degrees of each suffix are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1not at + all
    Degree 2to too + little a degree; to an insufficient degree
    Degree 3hardly + at all
    Degree 4to a small + degree
    Degree 5to a fair + degree/somewhat
    Degree 6fairly + much/more so than not
    Degree 7very much + so / decidedly so / to a great degree
    Degree 8 too much + so / to too great a degree
    Degree 9to the + exclusion of all else / without consideration for anything else
    +

    The specific modality suffixes are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3bb
    		resigned to
    -V3dd devoted; committed to / devoted to
    -V3čč desired / sought-after; want to
    -V3ŧŧ attempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt to
    -V3çç  capable, able; can / able to / capable of
    -V3cc knowledgeable; can = know how to / familiar with
    -V3ff mandatory; must / have to
    -V3xx required; should / be to
    -V3by expected; be supposed to
    -V3hh intended; mean to / intend to / shall
    -V3gg chosen, selected; choose to / elect to
    -V3hš …on impulse; feel like X-ing
    -V3dy  promised; promise to
    -V3dw well-liked; like (to)
    -V3bw feared; fear (to)
    -V3hs willing; willing to
    -V3vw prepared / ready; prepared to/ready to
    -V3mf necessary / needed; need to
    -V3ňx Daring; dare to
    -V3fy decided-upon; decide to
    -V3pf offered/offer of; offer to
    -V3mb aided / assisted; help to / aid in X-ing
    -V3hk not unexpected; be prone to / be apt to / tend to
    -V3rm  agreed-upon; agree to
    -V3rŧ  responsible for/in charge of
    -V3rp  remember to
    -V3ŧy feel a need to / feel one should / feel one must / feel driven to
    -V3ŧw to guess or think [that]…
    -V3lš available; available to/for
    -V3kk potential; can = have potential to
    -V3tt  permitted; can = permitted to
    -V3fw  hoped-for; hope/wish to
    -V3pp X by inclination; be inclined to
    +

    +

    7.4.12 Agential/Participant Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0n
    AGC
    		Degree of Agency
    Degree 1[AGENT] + = one who forces/causes
    Degree 2[ENABLER] + = one who enables to happen
    Degree 3[INFLUENCE] + = one who persuades/influences
    Degree 4ENABLER + BY PERMISSION] = one who permits/allows/lets happen
    Degree 5[PATIENT] + = one who does/is made to do
    Degree 6[EXPERIENCER] + = one who undergoes/experiences
    Degree 7[INSTRUMENT] + = instrument which causes
    Degree 8 [STIMULUS] + = one whose status is as stimulus of affective experience
    Degree 9[SOURCE] + = that which gives rise to, provides underlying reason for, source of
    +

    This suffix and the following identify a formative as filling a specific semantic + role corresponding in many cases to the semantic roles discussed in Sections + 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. In + several instances, these suffixes would translate the English “agentive” + suffixes -er, or -or.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0m
    ROL
    		Role
    Degree 1that which + contains or functions as the enclosure / container / house / shelter of + or for
    Degree 2that which + results from
    Degree 3 [RECIPIENT] + = one who receives / has / "-ee"
    Degree 4one who + is / acts as / functions as
    Degree 5one who + is characterized by / described by...
    Degree 6one who + is similar to/functions or acts similarly to
    Degree 7one whose + responsibility is / who is responsible for / runs the business of (operationally + speaking)
    Degree 8 one who + constructs / makes / creates
    Degree 9one who + manages / oversees / supervises / coordinates / runs the business of (managerially + speaking)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0pš
    UTE
    		Utilitative or Enabling Means
    Degree 1

    tool/device/apparatus + specifically designed for X-ing

    Degree 2medium + by/through which one X’s
    Degree 3conduit-like + tool/apparatus for X-ing
    Degree 4natural/standard + body part for X-ing
    Degree 5object + employed circumstantially as implement for X-ing
    Degree 6covering/protective + element employed to allow/permit X-ing
    Degree 7enabling + element/device/apparatus to allow/foster X-ing
    Degree 8 environment/situaton/circumstances/setting + which allows/fosters X-ing
    Degree 9FORCE which + causes/permits X-ing
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ž
    CNS
    		Degree of Consent
    Degree 1deliberately + without consent of knowledge
    Degree 2without + consent or knowledge as a precaution or “for their own good”
    Degree 3without + consent or knowledge due to circumstances
    Degree 4with their + knowledge but w/o consent; against their will
    Degree 5consent + obtained under pressure, threat, coercion
    Degree 6w/ reluctant + consent
    Degree 7willingly; + with full consent
    Degree 8 with enthusiastic + approval and support
    Degree 9at their + request
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0t
    MEC
    		Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1the body’s + natural method of doing so (e.g., on foot, by hand, etc.)
    Degree 2a manually + manipulated generic tool or implement
    Degree 3a specialized + tool for that specific purpose or activity
    Degree 4a machine + or via mechanical means or process
    Degree 5 a virtual, + electronic means or via engineering
    Degree 6mental + power, force of will, concentration
    Degree 7a redirection + or collation of energy specially applied
    Degree 8 a collective + pooling of manual labor resources
    Degree 9a collective + pooling of electronic/mechanical/engineering resources
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rx
    BOD
    		Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1

    a hand

    Degree 2an arm
    Degree 3a foot
    Degree 4a leg
    Degree 5one’s + eyes
    Degree 6both legs
    Degree 7both feet
    Degree 8 both arms
    Degree 9both hands
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mp
    DBI
    		Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1

    a finger

    Degree 2a thumb
    Degree 3a knee
    Degree 4one’s + head
    Degree 5one’s + teeth
    Degree 6one’s + lips
    Degree 7one’s + tongue
    Degree 8 one’s + elbow
    Degree 9one’s + fingers
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0çw/bž
    SOC
    		Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1via lackeys, + grunt labor, go-fors or henchmen
    Degree 2by coercion, + threat, blackmail
    Degree 3 “fronts”, + or disguised go-betweens
    Degree 4indirectly + through actions of others (unbeknownst to them)
    Degree 5indirectly + through actions of others (with their knowledge)
    Degree 6by leveraging + existing resources / personnel (deploying existing methods in a new application)
    Degree 7via a proxy + or proxies
    Degree 8 hired help + or staff
    Degree 9by delegation + of task to experts
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0šš
    RSN
    		Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action
    Degree 1for evil + or perverse reasons
    Degree 2for foolish + or naïve reason
    Degree 3due to + deception by another
    Degree 4due to + faulty information provided by another [no deception intended]
    Degree 5due to + or based on faulty perception or misinterpretation of information or evidence
    Degree 6despite + negative circumstances or reasons not to
    Degree 7for no + reason
    Degree 8 for appropriate + reasons / for good reason
    Degree 9for virtuous, + healthy reasons
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ps
    MTA
    		Additional Motivation for an Action or State
    Degree 1in anger
    Degree 2in repugnance/revulsion
    Degree 3in irritation
    Degree 4in defense/for protection
    Degree 5in fear
    Degree 6out of curiosity/to see what happens
    Degree 7to provoke/illicit reaction
    Degree 8 to entice
    Degree 9to show appreciation
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ňt
    XPT
    		Expectation of Outcome
    Degree 1shockingly + unexpected; without precedent or rumour
    Degree 2surprise + X / unexpected X; completely by surprise/ completely unexpected(ly)
    Degree 3manage + to X despite inadequacy of preparation or effort
    Degree 4manage + to X despite misguided or misdirected preparation or effort
    Degree 5managed + to X despite hindrance(s) or obstacles; hard-won
    Degree 6manage + to X due to hindrances or obstacles being overestimated; easier than thought + to be
    Degree 7manage + to X due to excellent preparation / planning / execution
    Degree 8 completely + as expected / totally as anticipated / as predicted
    Degree 9pat; outcome + pre-ordained or predetermined
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3rn
    DLB
    		Degree of Deliberateness/Agency
    Degree 1accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) and unaware of consequences
    Degree 2unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to and unaware of consequences
    Degree 3accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) but now aware of consequences
    Degree 4unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to but now aware of consequences
    Degree 5unforseeable + / unpredictable; unforeseeably / unpredictably
    Degree 6without + realizing or considering potential consequences
    Degree 7thinking + one can get away without reaping consequences / furtive(ly)
    Degree 8 realizing + potential risks or consequences / cognizant of potential risks or consequences
    Degree 9intentional(ly) + / deliberate(ly) / on purpose / by choice; choose to
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mz
    MOT
    		Degree of Self-Conscious Deliberation or Motivation
    Degree 1affected, + ostentatious; affectedly/ostentatiously
    Degree 2self-conscious(ly)
    Degree 3guilty + / guiltily
    Degree 4half-hearted(ly)
    Degree 5against + better judgement / can’t help but / can’t help it
    Degree 6ingrained, + by upbringing
    Degree 7learned + / habitual; by habit / trained to
    Degree 8 natural(ly) + / un-self-conscious(ly)
    Degree 9autonomic + / unaware, automatic
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V11ls
    ENB
    		Degree of Enablement
    Degree 1by inadvertent + gesture/word/sign taken as order or permission
    Degree 2by granting + of permission
    Degree 3by cajoling + or persuasion
    Degree 4by direct + request or imploring
    Degree 5by direct + order based on one’s real or perceived authority
    Degree 6by inadvertent + removal of hindrance
    Degree 7by inadvertent + action that initiates a chain of events
    Degree 8 by deliberate + removal of hindrance
    Degree 9by deliberate + action that initiates a chain of events
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ms
    AGN
    		Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness
    Degree 1with the + anticipated max. resulting effect possible
    Degree 2with the + anticipated resulting effect to a high degree
    Degree 3with the + anticipated resulting effect to a moderate degree
    Degree 4with the + anticipated resulting effect but only to a marginal, superficial or baredly + noticable degree
    Degree 5with no + noticeable effect or resulting change
    Degree 6with only + marginal, superficial, or barely noticeable effect or resulting change unanticipated
    Degree 7with moderate + effect or resulting change — unanticipated
    Degree 8 with the + resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated
    Degree 9with the + max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V21rz
    IMP
    		Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome
    Degree 1target + can do nothing - utterly inevitable
    Degree 2target + chooses to do nothing - resigned to fate
    Degree 3target + tries to prevent/avoid but fails
    Degree 4target + tries to prevent/avoid and does so partially or mitigates impact somewhat
    Degree 5target + tries to prevent/avoid and succeeds
    Degree 6target + helps/enables outcome inadvertently
    Degree 7target + helps/enables outcome against own interest (i.e., without thinking)
    Degree 8 target + helps/enables outcome intentionally despite negative consequences
    Degree 9target + helps/enables outcome intentionally for own benefit
    +

     

    +

    7.4.13 Miscellaneous Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1_’/kw
    TPF
    		Topic, Frame and Focus
    Degree 1[sentence + topic]
    Degree 2[end of + frame]
    Degree 3[head of + relative clause]
    Degree 4[sentence + topic + head of relative clause]
    Degree 5[end of + frame + head of relative clause]
    Degree 6[sentence + topic + end of frame]
    Degree 7[sentence + focus + end of frame + head of rel. clause]
    Degree 8 [sentence + focus]
    Degree 9[sentence + focus + end of frame]
    +

    The various functions of the above suffix are explained in Sec. 5.2 on + Frames, and Sec. 9.1 on Topic and Focus.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2_’/kw
    SWR
    		Switch Reference & Obviative Specification (For an explanation + and illustration of this suffix, see Sec. + 8.1.1.7 and Sec. + 8.1.4)
    Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
    Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
    Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
    Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
    Degree 5first referent + mentioned
    Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
    Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
    Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
    Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0s
    PLA
    		Place, State, Setting Where…
    Degree 1place where + one learns to
    Degree 2place where + one does, performs, carries out X
    Degree 3place where + one obtains
    Degree 4place where + one stores or inventories
    Degree 5place where + one keeps or shelters
    Degree 6place where + one sees or views
    Degree 7natural + habitat or environment of
    Degree 8 place where + one deals with/ treats/ confronts
    Degree 9place where + one feels affected by
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1mm
    APT
    		Aspects
    Degree 1yet, still
    Degree 2‘even’ + as in “I don’t even like them” = in the least bit, to + the slightest extent
    Degree 3Contemplative: + upon reflection/ in hindsight
    Degree 4upon deep + introspection / following careful consideration or meditation on the matter
    Degree 5on first + blush / at first / upon initial impression / [my] first thought is/was…
    Degree 6natural(ly) + / obvious(ly) / clear(ly) [in terms of naturalness, not blatancy]
    Degree 7Experiential: + ever
    Degree 8 Regressive: + return to previous state
    Degree 9Protractive: + over a long period of time / long-delayed
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2mm
    TEM
    		Alternative Temporal Aspects
    Degree 1Inceptive: + begin to / start to
    Degree 2Resumptive: + begin again / start again / resume
    Degree 3Continuative: + keep on / still / continue / stay / yet
    Degree 4Incessative: + to X away / not stop
    Degree 5tire of + X-ing / get tired of X-ing / become weary of X-ing
    Degree 6Cessative: + stop / discontinue / cease
    Degree 7 Pausal: + take a break from [stop with intention to re-sume]
    Degree 8 Recessative: + stop again
    Degree 9Terminative: + finish / complete
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rs
    PTF
    		Part/Whole Functional Metaphors
    Degree 1engine + / motor / heart / pump / core / driver mechanism
    Degree 2brain / + computer / chip / instruction set
    Degree 3input / + feeder / access point
    Degree 4exit point + / anus / exhaust / tailpipe / smokestack / vent
    Degree 5wing/ arm + / branch / extensor / manipulator
    Degree 6support + / leg / stand / base
    Degree 7skeleton + / frame
    Degree 8 wiring + / conduits / plumbing
    Degree 9sensor + / eye / ear / antennae
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0š
    PTG
    		Part/Whole Gestalt Componential Metaphors
    Degree 1“base”portion + (e.g., upper arm)
    Degree 2“extension” + portion (e.g., forearm) or “flange”
    Degree 3“trunk” + or central bulk portion
    Degree 4middle + or divisional segment or joint
    Degree 5top/upper + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
    Degree 6bottom/lower + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
    Degree 7side/flank/ + lateral component
    Degree 8 “head” + extension or main interface area
    Degree 9extension/”arm”
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0py/rž
    MET
    		Metonymic Categories
    Degree 1part for + whole
    Degree 2producer + for product
    Degree 3object + used or owned for user/owner
    Degree 4controller + for controlled
    Degree 5institution + for people responsible
    Degree 6place for + inhabitants/occupants
    Degree 7place for + event
    Degree 8 place for + institution
    Degree 9attribute + or characteristic for owner
    +

    Metonymy is the reference to an entity via one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business.
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1k
    SSD
    		Stem-Specific Derivatives
    Degree 1derivative + 1
    Degree 2derivative + 2
    Degree 3derivative + 3
    Degree 4derivative + 4
    Degree 5derivative + 5
    Degree 6derivative + 6
    Degree 7derivative + 7
    Degree 8 derivative + 8
    Degree 9derivative + 9
    +

    This suffix is used to distinguish particular instantiations of a more generic + entity; their meaning is semantically specific to the particular stem.
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2k
    SBS
    		 Subset of Configurative Set
    Degree 1single + specific member (random, i.e., any given member)
    Degree 2natural + first level subset, e.g., a cell among a network, a clique within a + club, a row of an orchard
    Degree 3natural + 2nd level subset, e.g., a section of a network, a subcommittee within + a club, a section of an orchard
    Degree 4complex + natural system or pattern within a set (e.g., the circulatory system, + the heating system)
    Degree 5subset + of set (unknown if natural or select subconfiguration)
    Degree 6complex/circumstantial + select pattern/arrangement within a set (e.g., the parts/things of a + house damaged by fire)
    Degree 72nd level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select section of trees of an + orchard
    Degree 8 first level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select rocks from a pile, select + trees of an orchard
    Degree 9single + select member (externally determined)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1rd
    ATN
    		Degree of Attention or Determination
    Degree 1concentrate + fully upon; pay utmost attention to
    Degree 2concentrate + to point of distraction, to be ‘lost’ in X-ing
    Degree 3pay strict + attention to
    Degree 4determined + to
    Degree 5pay attention + to; attend to; be careful that you…; heed
    Degree 6keep an + eye on
    Degree 7take some + notice of
    Degree 8 barely + notice; take little notice of
    Degree 9ignore + completely
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1šk
    DPR
    		Dispersion or Separability of a Configurative Set
    Degree 1in total + contact / contiguous mass of; pile, “ball of…”
    Degree 2non-contiguous + but closely connected, interlinked, each linked to adjacent via connecting + medium (like web); cluster
    Degree 3connected + via intervening central medium (like a vine or branches); bunch
    Degree 4not physically + connected but with immediate accessibility and knowledge of other member + actions
    Degree 5scattered + - contact with nearest member possible but less possible with others
    Degree 6“virtual” + association only
    Degree 7temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at long intervals
    Degree 8 temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at frequent intervals
    Degree 9temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at very short, immediate intervals / one + after another
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1nd
    SEP
    		Spatio-Temporal Separability of a Configurative Set
    Degree 1

    Logical + connectedness only (spatial)

    Degree 2Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned far away from another
    Degree 3Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned a little ways away from another
    Degree 4Well-integrated + spatially – one positioned right next to or behind another
    Degree 5Both spatially + and temporally well-integrated (one right after another)
    Degree 6Well-integrated + temporally – one right after the other
    Degree 7Loosely + integrated temporally – one a little while after the other
    Degree 8 Loosely + integrated temporally – one a long while after the other
    Degree 9Logical + connectedness only (temporal)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ňk
    SDP
    		Subset of Duplex Set
    Degree 1first, + top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + upper lip, inhale/inhalation, left hand)
    Degree 2beginning + or leading “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 3middle + section of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of + a duplex event or object
    Degree 4ending + or trailing “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 5midpoint, + peak, or lull between the 2 halves of a duplex set or pair
    Degree 6beginning + or leading “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 7middle + section of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing “half” of + a duplex event or object
    Degree 8 ending + or trailing “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 92nd, bottom, + back, righthand or trailing “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + lower lip, exhale/exhalation, right hand)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0xt
    NEW
    		Degree of Newness/Revision
    Degree 1new = original + new, i.e., never before seen
    Degree 2new = never before seen within current context, e.g., a new student
    Degree 3new = role, i.e., never functioning/existing in this capacity/manner before
    Degree 4new/other = replacement + new
    Degree 5new/other = additional instance + new
    Degree 6new/other = revision + additional
    Degree 7new/other = revision + replacement
    Degree 8 new/other/different = different, not seen/used before within current context; status as addition/replacement unknown
    Degree 9new/other/different = different + new; status as addition/replacement unknown
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ks
    COS
    		Comparison Specifications (Used with Levels ) - see Sections 5.8 and 5.8.5
    Degree 1“more”/“less” = extent/amount/volume
    Degree 2“harder”/“weaker” = degree of intensity or effort
    Degree 3“longer”/“shorter” = duration; time spent being/doing
    Degree 4“better”/“worse” = quality / style
    Degree 5“more efficiently”/“less efficiently” = efficiency / effort relative to outcome
    Degree 6“greater”/“poorer” = relevant outcome / bottom-line result
    Degree 7combo of 4, 5, and 6
    Degree 8 combo of 1, 2, and 3
    Degree 9combo of 1 through 6
    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 tw/tç
    XXX
    		Spread/wake/trail/area/expanse created by passage of entity
    Degree 1quasi-linear “trail” or wake left behind on path of linear movement; trail or wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., slime trail left by snail, footprints left on snow, mowed down foliage left by moving convoy, etc.)
    Degree 2quasi-linear spread of entity stretching behind linearly moving “head” (e.g., a line of soldiers put in place to create a front, a line left on a piece of paper as written by an ink pen, path of a ball of string or skein of yarn as it unravels while rolling down an incline)
    Degree 3quasi-linear trail/wake/spread left behind passage as line of demarcation/boundary/barrier
    Degree 42-d quasi-planar wake left behind on path of movement; wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., aftermath of a forest fire, cleaned area of dirty floor or wall after it has been wiped by a mop or dustcloth)
    Degree 52-d quasi-planar spread stretching behind moving front (e.g., area of spreading flames in a forest fire, area being inundated by a flood, area of a wall being covered up by plaster by workmen, coating of an apple dipped in chocolate, area of floor covered up by a rug)
    Degree 62-d quasi-planar wake/spread left behind passage as area of demarcation/zone/restricted area
    Degree 73-d volume left behind a moving front; volume is not composed of or inundated with the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., area left behind the passage of a tidal wave, column of superheated air left behind the passage of a rocket
    Degree 8 3-d volume inundated by spread of moving front (e.g., spread of a gas within a room, area inundated by fog, volume of a container taken up by substance placed/poured/stuffed into it)
    Degree 93-d volume left behind passage of moving front as volume/spatial area of demarcation/zone/restricted space
    +

    The above affix distinguishes movement of an entity from the “trail” or spread left behind, e.g., movement which leaves behind a wake or affected area; used with motion roots as well as roots designating shapes/forms. Use of the above suffixes in conjunction with the various roots pertaining to paths of translative movement allows for very nuanced translations of English words such as surround, cover, inundate, enclose, expand, spread out, encompass, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 gw/vž
    XXX
    		Degree of Shift/Change/Transition (used for both spatial and temporal contexts)
    Degree 1sharp break, sudden shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another with no discernible transition period/zone (i.e., point-like/instantaneous transition)
    Degree 2disjointed/non-contiguous/non-continuous break/shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 3extremely brief/small/barely discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 4somewhat brief/small/discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 5normal/standard/expected transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 6somewhat variable/changing/fluctuating transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 7highly variable/chaotic transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 8 smooth, gradual transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 9very gradual/almost imperceptible rate/degree of change/transition from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 rj
    NNN
    		n-numbered angles/facets/faces/sides/points/forms
    Degree 1uneven /assymmetrical n–sided 2-D obtusely angled form (e.g., quadrilateral, pentagonoid, hexagonoid
    Degree 2uneven/assymetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation
    Degree 3uneven/assymetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
    Degree 4uneven/assymmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., n-hedron-like solid)
    Degree 5having n number of 3-D projections/spikes/pointed surfaces
    Degree 6symmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., tetrahedron, dodecahedron)
    Degree 7symetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
    Degree 8 symetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation (can be used with numbers as low as 2, which would refer to an elongated diamond shape)
    Degree 9symmetrical n–sided 2-D form (e.g., square, pentagon, hexagon)
    +

    The above affix is used with the number stems (see Chapter 12) to provide words for forms, shapes, and solids bearing a distinct number of angles, points, sides, facets, etc.

    +
    +


    + 7.4.14 Locational Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rš
    LCT
    		Locational Quadrant Markers for Object Being Located (These + suffixes will be explained and illustrated in Chapter + 10.)
    Degree 1+X / +Y + / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant 1
    Degree 2+X / +Y + / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2
    Degree 3+X / -Y + / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3
    Degree 4+X / -Y + / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4
    Degree 5object + at rest relative to other object
    Degree 6-X / +Y + / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5
    Degree 7-X / +Y + / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6
    Degree 8 -X / -Y + / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7
    Degree 9-X / -Y + / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0bz
    PRX
    		Degree of Proximity
    Degree 1too close
    Degree 2 as close + as possible without contact
    Degree 3 very close + to
    Degree 4close to
    Degree 5somewhat + close to
    Degree 6not very + close to / somewhat far from
    Degree 7far from + / distant from
    Degree 8 far away + / very far from
    Degree 9too far + away
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ry/rv
    CTC
    		Degree of Contact
    Degree 1melded + with / blended with / fused
    Degree 2inseparable(ly) + / locked together / bonded
    Degree 3linked + / attached / connected / joined
    Degree 4touching + intimately / touching all over / in close contact with
    Degree 5deliberately + touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
    Degree 6deliberately + touching at one spot or place
    Degree 7casually + or incidentally touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
    Degree 8 casually + or incidentally touching at one spot or place
    Degree 9barely + touching / hardly touching at all / touching at one small spot
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Proceed to Chapter 8: Adjuncts >>

    +
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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology.11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +

    ©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_7.html.orig b/2004-en/Chapter_7.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ecf51e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_7.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,6656 @@ + + + + +Chapter 7 + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 7: Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      7.1 Suffix-Types  7.3 The Five Suffix Classes  
      7.2 Multiple Suffixation  7.4 List of Suffixes 
    +

    All Ilaksh formatives are capable of taking various consonant-based + suffixes. Like suffixes in other languages, these are used to modify the stem + in a variety of ways and to derive new concepts. The morpho-phonological structure of suffixes (how they are + formed from consonants and vowels) has already been briefly discussed in Section + 2.7. This chapter will describe the actual function of the particular suffixes + themselves.

    +

    There are 154 different consonantal suffix categories, each + of which divides into the nine degrees previously discussed in Section + 2.7.2 giving a total of 1314 distinct suffixes. As described in that section, + each degree of a suffix has a distinct meaning, often representing a point along + a continuum in terms of how much or how little the underlying semantic sense + of the suffix category is being manifested by the particular formative.

    +

    It is important to remember that, since all morpho-semantic + stems are both nominal and verbal in meaning, all suffixes to a stem have both + a nominal and a verbal meaning. Therefore, the choice whether to translate the + suffixes below into their nominal or verbal meaning is entirely dependent on + the morpho-syntactical structure of the word within the context of its use in + a phrase or sentence as a whole.

    +

    We have seen in Section + 2.7 that consonantal suffixes fall into three suffix-types, each having nine + degrees. It is the combination of suffix-type and degree which determines the + vowel infix which accompanies each consonantal suffix. For example, the suffix + -nt of Type 1 takes the following forms for its nine degrees: -int, -ent, -änt, -önt, (a)nt, + -ünt, -ïnt, -ont, -unt. Compare this to the same suffix -nt of Type 2, whose nine forms are: -ënt, + -iont, -ient, -uent, -iant, -uënt, -iënt, -oant, -uant; and + the suffix -nt of Type 3, whose nine forms are: -iunt, -eint, -aunt, + -eunt, -aint, -ount, -ëint, -oint, -uint. + These vowel infixes for suffixes are shown in Table 22 below (this table already + appeared in Chapter 2 as Table 9; it is repeated here for convenience).
    +

    +

    Table 22: +Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Suffix Type

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Suffix + Type 1: -V1C
    Suffix + Type 2: -V2C
    Suffix + Type 3: -V3C
    Degree + 1
    -iC
    -ëC
    -iuC
    Degree + 2
    -eC
    -ëuC /-ioC
    -eiC
    Degree + 3
    -äC
    -ieC
    -auC /-eaC
    Degree + 4
    -öC
    -ueC
    -euC
    Degree + 5
    -(a)C
    -iaC
    -aiC
    Degree + 6
    -üC
    -uëC
    -uoC
    Degree + 7
    -ïC
    -iëC
    -ëiC
    Degree + 8
    -oC
    -oaC
    -oiC
    Degree + 9
    -uC
    -uaC / -uiC
    -ouC
    +

    NOTE: For convenience’ sake, when referring to a particular + suffix of specific type and degree, we will use the notation in the paragraph + above, followed by a slash and a number indicating the degree. Thus, the suffix + -nt of Type 1 and 4th degree will be written -V1nt/4, + while the suffix -r of Type 3 and 8th degree would be written -V3r/8, and so forth.

    + + + + +

    TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    As part of the redesigned morpho-phonology, Ilaksh circumstantial/derivational suffixes cannot optionally appear as prefixes as in Ithkuil. Also, the optional “reversed” form of suffixes found in Ithkuil does not exist in Ilaksh. Other than these distinctions, these suffixes operate the same in Ilaksh as in Ithkuil.
    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    7.1 SUFFIX-TYPES
    +
    +
    +

    The meaning and usage of each suffix by type is particular to + each individual suffix. For example, some suffixes of Type 1 have a completely + different meaning than their Type 2 or Type 3 counterparts, while other suffixes + can be used as both Type 1 or Type 2 with the suffix having the same meaning + but conveying a different effect on the overall connotation of the word to which + they are suffixed. Still other suffixes retain their meaning across all three + suffix types but again convey a different overall connotation on the words to + which they are suffixed.

    +

    For example, the Type 1 suffix -eŧ, + i.e., -V1ŧ/2, means ‘hardly any + (of)…’ as in the word kàleŧ ‘hardly + any persons,’ while its Type 2 counterpart -ioŧ, i.e., -V2ŧ/2, + has the completely different meaning of ‘somewhat like/sort of like…’ + as in kalìoŧ‘sort of like some persons.’ + Compare this, however, to the Type 1 suffix -up, + i.e., -V1p/9, and its Type 2 counterpart + -uip , i.e., -V2p/9, + which both mean ‘exactly similar to…/identical…,’ the + difference in usage being that the Type 1 suffix conveys merely a circumstantial + or incidental similarity, while the Type 2 suffix implies that the similarity + is an integral aspect of the word. In English, such a distinction would most + likely be conveyed by using a different word. For example, note the difference + when we add these two suffixes to the Ilaksh word kàl ‘person’: kàlup means ‘identical-looking person,’ whereas kàluip means ‘twin.’ In this way, we can say + that the suffix -Vp with Type 1 vocalic infixes conveys a circumstantial + application of its meaning to a stem, while with Type 2 vocalic infixes, it + conveys a derivational application of its meaning (i.e., wholly new concepts + or words are derived from the stem).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    7.2 MULTIPLE SUFFIXATION
    +
    +

    Ilaksh allows for a formative to take multiple Vx-C suffixes. The rules for ordering these suffixes and the special instance of one suffix modifying another are explained below.

    +


    +7.21 Ordering of Suffixes and Suffixes Modifying Other Suffixes

    +

    When adding two or more suffixes to a stem, the suffixes generally + can be added to the stem in any order desired, with the exception of suffixes + which modify an adjacent suffix. The latter type of suffix is described as follows.

    +

    In addition to the patterns of suffix usage described in Section 7.1 above, + there is another class of suffixes which not only can be used to distinguish + a circumstantial versus derivational aspect like -Vp above, + but can also be used to modify an adjacent suffix rather than the stem. This + is somewhat analogous to the way that adverbs can be used to modify descriptive + adjectives in English. For example, in the phrase suddenly blue sky, + it is the blueness that is sudden, not the sky. In Ilaksh, certain suffixes + can be used to modify another suffix (usually the one following, unless there + are only two suffixes on the stem, in which case the suffix order is irrelevant); + this is done by using Type 3 vocalic infixes. For example, the suffix -Vd/5, + which means ‘enough / sufficient(ly),’ can be used both circumstantially + (using Type 1 infixes) and derivationally (using Type 2 infixes) to modify a + stem, or can be used to modify only the adjacent suffix (using Type 3 infixes). + Such suffixes must immediately precede + the suffix they are modifying, unless they are in word-final position, in which + case they modify the immediately preceding suffix. This is illustrated below:

    +

    kàlad: ‘a + sufficient person’ (i.e., one able to perform the task at hand)
    + kàliad: ‘a recruit’ + (i.e., one able to meet performance or entry requirements)
    + kalàidüx: +‘a sufficiently large person’ (where suffix -V1x/6 = ‘large’)

    +

     

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    Ithkuil allows for a specialized class of personal reference suffixes of Type 3 which are essentially shortcuts for single-referent personal reference adjuncts in certain noun cases (see Section 8.1 for an explanation of personal reference adjuncts). Such shortcut suffixes do not exist in Ilaksh, the equivalent being to utilize the full personal-reference adjunct.
    +

    +


    +
    +

    +
    + + + + +
    7.3 THE FIVE SUFFIX CLASSES
    +
    +

    All in all, there are five different patterns in which the + meanings/functions of suffixes are distributed. There are those like -ej and -êj above where the Type 1 meaning/function is completely + different than that of Type 2. We will label these classes of suffixes V1C suffixes and V2C suffixes respectively, + as they represent two totally independent suffixes.

    +

    Additionally there are those like -up and + -uip which are essentially a single suffix with one meaning/function + that alternates between Type 1 and Type 2 infixes to distinguish a circumstantial + versus a derivational aspect in the stem to which they are suffixed. We will + label such suffixes V0C suffixes.

    +

    Then there are suffixes like -(a)d/-iad/-aid shown above which alternate the circumstantial/derivational distinction using + Type 1 versus Type 2 infixes, but then go a step further by using Type 3 vocalic + infixes to indicate modification of an adjacent suffix; we will label these V3C suffixes.

    +

    Lastly there is a class of suffixes labeled VSC suffixes; this class of suffix operates like a V1C suffix (i.e., an independent suffix which modifies the stem circumstantially, + but not derivationally) but then also uses Type 2 infixes to apply the same + meaning to the adjacent suffix, similarly to the use of Type 3 infixes for V3C suffixes.

    +

    These five classes of suffixes are summarized below:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    V1C
    Takes Type 1 vocalic infixes only. + Can be either circumstantial or derivational in meaning (but not both), + depending on the particular suffix.
    V2C
    Takes Type 2 vocalic infixes only. Can be either + circumstantial or derivational in meaning (but not both), depending + on the particular suffix.
    V0C
    Takes both Type 1 and Type 2 vocalic infixes. Use + of Type 1 infix means suffix applies circumstantially to the particular + instance of the stem; use of Type 2 infix means the suffix is derivational + and generates an emergent concept for the stem constituting a new semantic + whole.
    VSC
    Takes both Type 1 and Type 2 vocalic infixes, but + use is circumstantial only, not derivational. Use of Type 1 infix means + suffix aplies the stem; use of Type 2 infix means the suffix applies to + the adjacent suffix only.
    V3C
    Same as V0C suffixes where Type 1 infix operates circumstantially and Type 2 infix + operates derivationally; but also takes Type 3 vocalic infixes which + function to modify an adjacent suffix (as with VSC suffixes when using Type 2 infixes)
    +
    +


    +
    +

    +
    + + + + +
    7.4 LIST OF SUFFIXES
    +
    +

    The 154 suffix categories are given in the sections which follow. + Each suffix indicates which of the five classes of suffixes it belongs (V1C, + V2C, V0C, VSC, or V3C), + the consonant-form associated with it, its overall function, its three-letter + label used in morphological analysis, and the meaning or translation of each + of its nine degrees. For most degrees, a nominal and verbal meaning is given.

    +


    + 7.4.1 Demonstrative Suffixes

    +

    These suffixes correspond to various determiners and modifying + adjectives in English having to do with denoting or identifying a noun within + a larger context or discourse.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1kt
    DEF
    		Degree Of Definiteness
    Degree 1any (number + of) [random selection - NOT quantitative/partitive “any”]; in + any manner
    Degree 2almost + any; in almost any (number of) way(s)
    Degree 3some X + or other; in some way or other
    Degree 4some certain + X ; in some certain way [identity unknown]
    Degree 5this X + or that; a certain X or more; in this way or that [identity almost known + – choices limited]
    Degree 6a certain + / a particular; in a certain or particular way [identity ascertainable]
    Degree 7presumably + this/that; apparently this X ; in that way presumably [tentatively identified]
    Degree 8 this/that/said; + in said manner/(in) that way [identity known]
    Degree 9at hand/under + discussion/this one now/instant; in this manner [identity = present context]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2kt
    DSR
    		Degree Of Discretion
    Degree 1announced/advertised/heralded; + w/ public disclosure
    Degree 2open & + well-known; with full public knowledge
    Degree 3open/public; + for all to see/publicly/openly
    Degree 4shown, + open, or available by request/ by request
    Degree 5semi-public(ly), + exclusive(ly)
    Degree 6own/personal; + personally
    Degree 7own private; + privately
    Degree 8 secret; + secretly
    Degree 9confidential/classified
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1ŧ
    INL
    		Degree Of Inclusion
    Degree 1not a(ny), + not one, no X whatsoever, none of X; in no such manner
    Degree 2hardly + any, barely any X; in hardly any such manner
    Degree 3some few/a + few certain … ; in a few certain ways
    Degree 4some (of)/certain + . . .; in certain ways
    Degree 5several + / more than a few / various / in various ways / in several different ways
    Degree 6a significant + portion of/a fair number of; in a fair number of ways
    Degree 7most/in + most ways
    Degree 8 almost + every; in almost every way
    Degree 9each/every; + in each way
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2ŧ
    EXT
    		Exactness of Identity / Identity As a Referent Or Standard
    Degree 1nothing + like that X; nothing like that ; in no way similar
    Degree 2somewhat + like that X; somewhat so
    Degree 3nearly + or almost that X; nearly or almost so
    Degree 4just about + . . . / for all intents and purposes
    Degree 5kind of + / type of / this sort of; typically
    Degree 6such (a); + in such a manner
    Degree 7clear (case + of); clearly / certainly / indeed[in negative sentences = no way / at all]
    Degree 8 just like + that; just so, thus(ly)
    Degree 9the exact + X / the very (one); exactly thus / exactly so
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ņs
    FAM
    		Degree Of Familiarity
    Degree 1unknowable + / alien; unable to even try X-ing
    Degree 2totally + unfamiliar; totally unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 3unfamiliar; + unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 4somewhat + unfamiliar; somewhat unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 5only just + (recently) familiar; only just recently familiar to X-ing
    Degree 6somewhat + familiar; somewhat accustomed to X-ing
    Degree 7familiar/known; + accustomed to X-ing
    Degree 8 well-known + / utterly familiar with / ingrained; inherently accustomed or used to X-ing
    Degree 9intimate + with; intimately involved with / intimately accustomed to
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0p
    SIM
    		Degree Of Similarity
    Degree 1opposite; + as different as possible / at the other extreme
    Degree 2completely + different/dissimilar; in a totally different or dissimilar way
    Degree 3rather + different / barely similar / almost completely different or dissimilar; + in an almost completely different way
    Degree 4other [=different]; + in another [=different] way
    Degree 5somewhat + different, only superficially similar; somewhat differently
    Degree 6similar + in the ways that count/similar down deep, some sort of X; similarly at deep + level
    Degree 7(somewhat) + similar, only superficially different, sort of like, something like, X-like; + similarly
    Degree 8 very similar; + very similarly
    Degree 9[exactly + the] same, indistinguishable from; in the [exactly] same way
    +

     

    +

    7.4.2 Deictic Suffixes

    +

    Deictic suffixes refer to the grammatical process of deixis, + the act of pointing to or pointing out. The suffixes correspond to the different + variants of the concepts of ‘here’ and ‘there.’ In Ilaksh, + distinctions are made in these suffixes as to whether a referent is near the + speaker, near the listener, distant from both, whether it is observable or accessible, + and in some case, whether it is alienable or inalienable (i.e., whether the + entity can be separated from the associated person).
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1rf
    DEX
    		Deixis Categories
    Degree 1yonder + / way over there somewhere / a long way away (not near anyone) [inaccessible + or unobservable]
    Degree 2over there + somewhere (by third party) [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 3there somewhere + (by listener) [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 4here somewhere + (by speaker] [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 5here (by + speaker and accessible]
    Degree 6here with + us (by speaker and listener and accessible]
    Degree 7there [by + listener and accessible]
    Degree 8 there (by + third party, but accessible to speaker and listener)
    Degree 9yonder + / way over there [not near any party but accessible]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2rf
    DXX
    		More Deixis Categories
    Degree 1spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [inaccessible]
    Degree 2spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [inaccessible]
    Degree 3spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over the place / here + and there [inaccessible]
    Degree 4spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over / here & there + [observable but inaccessible]
    Degree 5spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [inalienable]
    Degree 6spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [alienable]
    Degree 7spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker/all over the place / here + and there [accessible]
    Degree 8 spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [accessible]
    Degree 9spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [accessible]
    +

     

    +

    7.4.3 Sequential Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1nn
    SEQ
    		Numerical Sequence
    Degree 1first / + initial; first(ly) / first of all
    Degree 2second; + secondly
    Degree 3third; + thirdly
    Degree 4still near + the beginning / not yet halfway
    Degree 5the middle + one, in between (sequentially)/ just about halfway there
    Degree 6nearing + the end
    Degree 7third from + last; antepenultimately
    Degree 8 next to + last; penultimately
    Degree 9last / + final; last(ly) / finally (in terms of sequence)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2nn
    SQT
    		Sequence Relative to Present Context
    Degree 1immediately + beforehand / first
    Degree 2one before + preceding
    Degree 3the former; + primarily
    Degree 4two before + preceding
    Degree 5current/at + hand; now/currently / at the moment [in sequence of events]
    Degree 6second + one after next
    Degree 7the latter; + secondarily
    Degree 8 one after + next
    Degree 9next / + following; then / next
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rç
    SQC
    		Sequence of Cause and Effect
    Degree 1originating; + originally / in the first place / initially / at the outset
    Degree 2preliminary; + preliminarily
    Degree 3preparatory + / in preparation for / getting ready to
    Degree 4awaited; + waiting to/ waiting for [focus on imminency or sequential position, NOT + on anticipation]
    Degree 5precursor + to; but just beforehand
    Degree 6based on + the preceding and setting the stage for what follows
    Degree 7eventual + / at last; at last / finally (result)
    Degree 8 following + /...which follows; then subsequent to that / following that...
    Degree 9subsequent + / consequent; then / so / thus / therefore
    +

     

    +

    7.4.4 Coordinative Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1w
    +     or -V1rđ
    COO
    		Adjunctive Coordination
    Degree 1in conjunction + with / combined with / including X
    Degree 2and / also + / additionally/ furthermore/ moreover/ what’s more
    Degree 3 . . . + and so forth / and so on / and all that/ and whatever else
    Degree 4and at + the same time / and simultaneously
    Degree 5and [all + in a series]
    Degree 6or [potentially + inclusive] = and/or
    Degree 7either + . . . or [exclusive or] / or else
    Degree 8 . . . or + something else / or whatever / or whatever else
    Degree 9either + . . . or [exclusive or in a series]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1rr
    CTR
    		Contrastive Coordination
    Degree 1still / + nevertheless / however — (despite seemingly inherent conflict or contradiction)
    Degree 2besides + / not just . . . but also / in addition to X… also
    Degree 3even / + or even / … still [e.g., thicker still]
    Degree 4or [= otherwise]
    Degree 5as opposed + to / but not
    Degree 6but [qualifying]
    Degree 7however + / on the other hand — (simple difference in expected outcome, no inherent + conflict)
    Degree 8 but (rather) + [= substitute]
    Degree 9just in + case / should the need arise
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2rr
    DST
    		Distributive Coordination
    Degree 1applying + to each equally [unfairly]
    Degree 2applied + selectively by decision/preference [unfairly]
    Degree 3respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [unfairly]
    Degree 4selectively + at random [unfairly]
    Degree 5respectively + [= applied in the sequentially spoken order]
    Degree 6selectively + at random [fairly]
    Degree 7respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [fairly]
    Degree 8 applied + selectively by decision/calculation [fairly]
    Degree 9applying + to each equally [fairly]
    +

    +

    7.4.5 Temporal Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0kŧ
    TPI
    		Impact or Duration Over Time
    Degree 1immediate + / at this instant / for this moment; momentary
    Degree 2temporary + / for right now / for the moment; temporarily / in the meantime [duration + of context. recent]
    Degree 3short term/for + now; in the short term/for now/ / for the immediate future [hours to days]
    Degree 4for the + meantime / for the meanwhile [days to weeks to months]
    Degree 5for a while + / for some time to come [months to several years]
    Degree 6for the + foreseeable future [years to decades]
    Degree 7long term/in + the long run; over the course of time [over the course of a lifetime, decades + to centuries]
    Degree 8 through + the ages / over the course of the ages [centuries to millenia]; permanent
    Degree 9ever-present + / eternal / constant / incessant / neverending; from now on / eternally + / all the time / for all time
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ll
    FRQ
    		Degree Of Frequency
    Degree 1never
    Degree 2rare / + hardly ever / once in a great while; rarely / almost unheard of
    Degree 3infrequent; + seldom / infrequently
    Degree 4now and + then / from time to time / off and on / every so often / now and again occasionally + / sometimes
    Degree 5frequent; + frequently / often
    Degree 6usual; + usually / customarily / generally
    Degree 7almost + always / rarely fail to / routinely
    Degree 8 ever-faithful + / unwavering; always / every time / without fail / like clockwork / never + fail to
    Degree 9constant + / continuous; constantly / continuously / all the time
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1z
    TPR
    		Temporal Placement/Reaction/Viewpoint
    Degree 1wistfully + looking back / in the (good) old days [with longing]
    Degree 2in hindsight + / looking back
    Degree 3upon further + consideration/upon reflection
    Degree 4initial; + at first/initially / at first blush / at first glance
    Degree 5now that + the moment has come / now that the time is here / now that the deed or event + is at hand
    Degree 6any moment + now; on the verge of; just about to
    Degree 7imminent(ly) + ; very soon
    Degree 8 soon [w/ + anticipation]
    Degree 9someday. + . . / one day [with longing]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rň
    TPP
    		Temporal Position Relative to Present
    Degree 1in the + remote past, once upon a time
    Degree 2past/former/previous; + once [e.g., I was young once], a long time ago
    Degree 3recent; + recently
    Degree 4. . . just + past / just (happened)
    Degree 5present/current/present + day; now / at present / presently / currently
    Degree 6imminent; + just about to / about to / on the verge of
    Degree 7forthcoming + / soon to arrive; soon
    Degree 8 future + / -- to be / --to come / eventual(ly); someday...
    Degree 9in the + remote future / far in the future / long after we’re gone
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0pŧ
    ATC
    		Degree Of Anticipation
    Degree 1long-awaited + / long looked for
    Degree 2eagerly + awaited; can’t wait for / dying to
    Degree 3anticipated + / awaited; in anticipation of / look forward to
    Degree 4up for + / up to
    Degree 5await / + wait to / wait for / waiting to
    Degree 6ambivalent + about ; could take or leave it
    Degree 7not looking + forward to
    Degree 8 dreaded; + dread X-ing
    Degree 9long-dreaded; + dread the day when
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2z
    LAT
    		Degree Of Lateness/Earliness
    Degree 1way too + early / way too soon
    Degree 2too early + / too soon
    Degree 3a little + early / a bit soon
    Degree 4almost + late / not a moment too soon
    Degree 5just in + time / sharp / on the dot
    Degree 6a little + late
    Degree 7late
    Degree 8 too late
    Degree 9way too + late
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3nt
    ITN
    		Degree Of Iteration
    Degree 1just once + / once only
    Degree 2again / + once more / one more time / re-
    Degree 3again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on habit, not periodicity]
    Degree 4again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on periodicity, not habit]
    Degree 5irregular, + unpredictable ; at irregular or unpredictable intervals
    Degree 6[cyclic] + return of... / ...once again; return to / …back again [e.g., summer’s + back]
    Degree 7intermittent; + intermittently / at regular intervals
    Degree 8 repetitive + / repeating; repeatedly
    Degree 9constantly + cycling or repeating / continuously or perpetually repeating / constant, + eternal, perpetual repetition of
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ň
    RPN
    		Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set + Members
    Degree 1slow-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    Degree 2slow-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 3slow-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 4mid-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 5mid-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    Degree 6mid-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 7fast-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 8 fast-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 9fast-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    +

     

    +

    7.4.6 Quantifying Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSlz
    DGR
    		Exactness of Degree
    Degree 1unknowable + degree or amount of
    Degree 2unknown + degree or amount of
    Degree 3almost + impossible to determine degree of
    Degree 4nowhere + near the desired degree of
    Degree 5hard to + pinpoint / hard to determine / difficult to determine
    Degree 6fluctuating, + ever-changing (amount of); to changing/fluctuating degree or extent of
    Degree 7vaguely + around / vaguely in the range of / somewhere around / loosely in the vicinity + of
    Degree 8 approximate(ly) + / somewhere around / just about; or something like that / …or so
    Degree 9exact/specific; + exactly / specifically / on the dot / sharp / to the letter
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1ss
    PTW
    		Contiguous Portion of the Whole
    Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
    Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
    Degree 3few / a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
    Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
    Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
    Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite; a lot / very much / to + a large extent
    Degree 7a whole + lot of / a verly large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
    Degree 8 most of + / mostly
    Degree 9 every + / all (of)/whole; entirely/in its entirety
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2ss
    PTT
    		Non-Contiguous (i.e., Intermixed) Portion of the Whole
    Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
    Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
    Degree 3 few/a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
    Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
    Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
    Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite /; a lot / very much / + to a large extent
    Degree 7a whole + lot of / a very large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
    Degree 8 most of + / mostly
    Degree 9every / + all (of) / whole; entirely / in its entirety
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -Vomt
    CNM
    		Type of Container/Packaging/Conveyance/Holder
    Degree 1jar/pot + of X [storage + containment]
    Degree 2dispensor-type + container/package, e.g., tube, barrel, bottle for multiple use
    Degree 3can/tin/bottle/sealed + pouch [= storage + packaging + protection/preservation]
    Degree 4carton/box/basket + [= temporary containment]
    Degree 5natural + or generic mass containment/packaging/holder (e.g., a loaf of bread, a lump + of clay)
    Degree 6satchel, + pack of [= for personal conveyance/moving]
    Degree 7pile of, + load of [= in context of conveyance/moving or bulk storage]
    Degree 8 X-ful of + [+ Partitive], e.g., a roomful of clowns, a skyful of clouds, a treeful + of leaves, a spoonful
    Degree 9embodiment/manifestation + of abstract essence, e.g., a life form [= an embodiment of life]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3d
    SUF
    		Degree Of Sufficiency
    Degree 1none at + all; not…at all
    Degree 2way too + little / woefully insufficient / way too few; not...anywhere enough / totally + under-[+verb]
    Degree 3not enough + / insufficient / too few; not...enough / insufficiently / under-[+verb]
    Degree 4not quite + enough / slightly insufficient; not...quite enough / a bit insufficiently + / slightly under-[+verb]
    Degree 5enough + (of) / sufficient; enough / sufficiently
    Degree 6a little + too / a little too much; a little too much / slightly over- [+verb]
    Degree 7too / toomuch; + too much / too many / over- [+verb]
    Degree 8 way too + / way too much; way too much / totally over- [+verb]
    Degree 9inundated + with; to the exclusion of all else / to the point that X overwhelms or takes + over
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3b
    EXN
    		Degree or Extent
    Degree 1none (at + all); to no extent at all
    Degree 2tiniest + part of / a bit of; to smallest extent / hardly / barely
    Degree 3only a + part of / only some of; to some extent / partially / partly / somewhat
    Degree 4less than + usual / below normal; less so than usual/ to a lesser degree or extent than + usual
    Degree 5the normal, + expected or usual amount (of)
    Degree 6more than + usual / above normal; more so than usual; to a greater degree or extent + than normal
    Degree 7way more + than usual / way above normal or expected; to a much greater degree or extent + than normal
    Degree 8 almost + as much as possible / near(ly) maximum
    Degree 9total, + -ful; to greatest extent / maximum / maximal; maximally / at full capacity, + e.g., She bought out the store.
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSy/rg
    EXD
    		Dynamically Changing Degree or Extent
    Degree 1less and + less / fewer and fewer / ongoing decrease in; decreasingly
    Degree 2a lot fewer + / a lot less (of); a lot less
    Degree 3fewer / + less (of); less
    Degree 4a little + less (of) / a bit less (of); a little less / a bit less
    Degree 5a fluctuating + amount or degree of; to a fluctuating degree or extent
    Degree 6a little + more (of) / a bit more (of); a little more / a bit more
    Degree 7more (of); + more
    Degree 8 a lot more + (of); a lot more
    Degree 9more and + more / continuing increase in / increasingly more / ever-increasing
    +

    This suffix is used with all vector-like or gradient concepts. When used with + the COMPLETIVE version, degrees 1 and 9 imply attainment + of a change in state, e.g., sleepiness → sleep.

    +


    + 7.4.7 Modulative Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -Vons
    RCO
    		Recoil in place (spring back; snap back; fall back into place)
    -Vonž
    TFI
    		Back & forth; to & fro in place (e.g., pendulum, wagging tail)
    -Vonš
    TFV
    		Back & forth over linear vector (e.g., snake-like; zig-zag)
    -Vonz
    CRI
    		Cycle or circular motion in place (spin, revolve)
    -Vonŧ
    CRV
    		Cycle or circular motion over linear vector (e.g., train wheels, bike + wheels)
    -Voňň
    MDL
    		Random pattern of modulation (unpredictable/irregular movement pattern)
    +

    These suffixes operate in conjunction with Phase (see + Sec. 5.3) to describe contexts involving recoil, spring motion, oscillative, + cyclic, reflective or vibrative motion, using the following degrees:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1not enough
    Degree 2hardly + at all
    Degree 3to a small + degree
    Degree 4to a less + than normal degree
    Degree 5to the + normal / standard / usual degree
    Degree 6to a greater + than normal degree
    Degree 7to a large + degree
    Degree 8 to a very + large degree
    Degree 9too much + / overly
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3g
    FLC
    		Degree of Fluctuation/Stability
    Degree 1inherently + and consistently unstable and random to a high degree
    Degree 2highly + variable/random fluctuation or instability
    Degree 3moderately + variable/random fluctuation or instability
    Degree 4increasing + fluctuation or destabilization in pattern
    Degree 5tending + toward fluctuations and periods of instability
    Degree 6decreasing + fluctuation or instability in pattern = increasing stability
    Degree 7moderately + stable and lacking in fluctuations
    Degree 8 complete + lack of fluctuation or instability; highly stable
    Degree 9inherently + and consistently stable
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSf
    ICR
    		Increase
    -VSftDCRDecrease
    -VShtICDIncrease then Decrease
    -VSkfDCIDecrease then Increase
    -VStyIDRRandom/Varying Increases and Decreases 
    +

    Used with the following degrees, the above five suffixes operate to expand Phase + into showing increases or decreases (or wavering) of intensity of an action + during its duration.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1so slowly + as to seem immovable
    Degree 2very slowly
    Degree 3slowly
    Degree 4somewhat slower than + normal
    Degree 5normal/usual/standard + speed
    Degree 6somewhat faster than + normal
    Degree 7fast/quickly
    Degree 8 very rapidly
    Degree 9so rapidly as to be + unable to follow
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0fs
    MVT
    		Degree of Stillness/Movement
    Degree 1unmovable + – integrated
    Degree 2unmovable + due to mass
    Degree 3not easily + moved
    Degree 4inclined + to stillness
    Degree 5holding + still
    Degree 6moving + around slightly, stirring
    Degree 7moving + around in one place
    Degree 8 moving + around, agitated
    Degree 9highly agitated, unable to keep still
    +


    +
    +
    +     7.4.8 Qualifying Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0x
    SIZ
    		Degree of Size
    Degree 1too small
    Degree 2very small/ + very little/ miniscule/ tiny/ itty-bitty;in a very small manner; barely/hardly
    Degree 3small/little
    Degree 4a little + on the small size / undersized / petite
    Degree 5a little + on the large size / oversized / jumbo
    Degree 6big/large; + in a large manner
    Degree 7very big/very + large; in a very large manner
    Degree 8 enormous(ly) + / huge(ly) / humoungous(ly) / gigantic(ally)
    Degree 9too big + / too large / too huge; in too large a manner
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0xw/vz
    SCO
    		Dynamic Change of Size
    Degree 1smallest + single manifestation of / particle of
    Degree 2runaway + shrinkage of / rapid disappearance or diminishment of
    Degree 3solitary + / only / sole / lone / unaccompanied; alone / by -self / on his own / unaccompanied + / solely
    Degree 4decreasing + / de-escalating / shrinking
    Degree 5compact/concentrated; + in efficient or compact way [e.g., canyon → gorge]
    Degree 6expanded/enhanced; + in expanded or enhanced way [e.g., canyon → rift valley]
    Degree 7growing, + increasing, escalating
    Degree 8 runaway + / runaway growth, increase or expansion of
    Degree 9synergistic + expansion e.g., hit (+ RCP valence) → fight
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0h
    AFT
    		Degree of Affect
    Degree 1cute/darling + / in a cute or darling manner
    Degree 2too cute + / schmaltzy / in a maudlin way
    Degree 3kitschy + / quaint(ly)
    Degree 4dear, endearing(ly)
    Degree 5lovely + / elegant
    Degree 6esteemed
    Degree 7imperious + / royal / most high / most excellent / revered
    Degree 8 too grand + / too imperious
    Degree 9great / + grand; in a great / grand / grandiose manner
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0č
    QUA
    		Degree of Quality, Effectiveness or Adequacy
    Degree 1too poor(ly); + too badly
    Degree 2very bad(ly) + / very poor(ly) / very inadequate(ly) / intolerable / intolerably / terrible + / terribly
    Degree 3bad / poor + / inadequate; badly / poorly / inadequately / wanting / lacking
    Degree 4not-so-good + / could be better; somewhat poor(ly) or bad(ly) / somewhat wanting or lacking + / below average
    Degree 5not-so-bad + / average; could be worse; so-so / somewhat well / OK, I guess / adequate(ly) + / acceptably
    Degree 6good/effective; + well/effectively/ more than adequate / above-average
    Degree 7very good + / very effective(ly) / very well
    Degree 8 excellent(ly) + / superb(ly) / outstanding(ly)
    Degree 9astounding(ly) + / amazing(ly) great or well / unbelievably excellent / absolutely superb(ly) + / unsurpassable(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0c
    UNQ
    		Degree of Specialness or Uniqueness
    Degree 1vulgar, + trashy, too cheap / in a vulgar or trashy manner
    Degree 2cheap, + tasteless, gaudy, gauche / in a cheap, gaudy, gauche or tasteless manner
    Degree 3run of + the mill / unexceptional / average / commonplace / ordinary; in a commonplace + or unexceptional manner
    Degree 4somewhat + ordinary / somewhat common(place)
    Degree 5somewhat + special / somewhat out of the ordinary / interesting(ly) / intriguing(ly) + / eye-catching / appealing(ly)
    Degree 6special; + epecially
    Degree 7extraordinary + / highly unusual; extraordinarily
    Degree 8 (one and) + only/unique; in the only way / uniquely / unparallelled
    Degree 9marvelous + / wonderful / wondrous / awesome / awe-inspiring
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0tf
    CNQ
    		Degree of Consequentiality, Finality or Irrevocability
    Degree 1inconsequential/sham/having + no effect; like it didn’t even happen/with no effect
    Degree 2relatively + inconsequential / having little effect / easily reversible or undone / to + little effect / minor / to minor degree
    Degree 3somewhat + inconsequential/having only some effect/reparable/reversible/to some effect + / somewhat minor
    Degree 4not so + minor / somwhat significant degree / reversible with effort / having a somewhat + significant impact or effect
    Degree 5consequential + / having a fair effect / reversible only with concerted effort / to good + effect
    Degree 6Overall + / signifcant degree of; all in all / for the most part/to great effect / + on the whole
    Degree 7virtually + total/near total; nearly for good/almost completely
    Degree 8 utter / + complete / total; altogether / completely / for good / utterly / irrevocably + for all intents and purposes
    Degree 9for all + time / forever / finally
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ky
    NTR
    		Degree of Notoriety, Acceptance, Respect, Honor
    Degree 1pariah-like + / ostracized; in an alienating or self-ostracizing manner
    Degree 2infamous; + infamously
    Degree 3frowned-upon + / disapproved ; in a manner guaranteed to arouse disapproval
    Degree 4tolerated; + in a tolerated manner
    Degree 5common + / customary / expected / accepted; in an common, customary, expected, or + accepted manner
    Degree 6notorious(ly)
    Degree 7well-known + / well-liked / well thought of; in a totally appropriate way / in a manner + befitting a gentleman or lady
    Degree 8 respected + / honored; respectfully / honorably
    Degree 9highly + praised / highly honored / highly esteemed / highly respected / most excellent + / most honorable
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0gy
    APR
    		Degree of Contextual Appropriateness
    Degree 1contemptable(-ly) + / utterly inappropriate(ly)
    Degree 2scandalous(ly) + / trashy(-ly) / inappropriate(ly)
    Degree 3 ill-mannered + / boorish(ly) / improper(ly) / tasteless(ly)
    Degree 4eyebrow-raising + / questionable(-ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + improper(ly) / unorthodox(ically)
    Degree 6acceptable(-ly) + / adequate(ly)
    Degree 7appropriate(ly) + / proper(ly) / correct(ly)
    Degree 8 utterly + appropriate(ly), very proper(ly); strictly correct(ly)
    Degree 9stuffy + / orthodox / old-fashioned; utterly predictable(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0dz
    HRC
    		Position on Social, Occupational, or (Para-) Military Hierarchy
    Degree 1bottom + rung / the “dregs”
    Degree 2rank & + file
    Degree 3lower echeleon
    Degree 4lower-mid
    Degree 5mid-level
    Degree 6upper mid
    Degree 7upper echeleon
    Degree 8 senior
    Degree 9head / + chief / top / executive
    +

    This suffix, for example, would be used to distinguish the names of the various + ranks within a military or paramilitary organization such as private, corporal, + sergeant, lieutenant, etc. all the way up to general and supreme + commander.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0sp
    FRM
    		Degree of Formality
    Degree 1too casual + / overly casual
    Degree 2very casual
    Degree 3casual
    Degree 4somewhat + casual
    Degree 5neither + casual nor formal
    Degree 6somewhat + formal
    Degree 7formal
    Degree 8 very formal
    Degree 9too formal + / overly formal
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0j
    TYP
    		Degree of Typicalness
    Degree 1unique + / never-before-seen / one of a kind / shocking
    Degree 2original + / avante-garde; surprising(ly) / innovative(ly)
    Degree 3atypical(ly) + / unusual(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + atypical(ly) or unusual(ly)
    Degree 5garden + variety / run-of-the-mill / typical(ly)
    Degree 6expected + / common; in a commonplace manner
    Degree 7disappointingly + typical; very typically
    Degree 8 unoriginal + / mundane; in an uninspired way
    Degree 9stereotyped + / stereotypical(ly)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0zz
    PTY
    		Degree of Prototypicalness
    Degree 1very dissimilar + to prototype, very atypical member, closer to members of different set
    Degree 2dissimilar + to prototype, atypical member
    Degree 3having + noticeable dissimilarities from prototype
    Degree 4somewhat + dissimilar to prototype
    Degree 5having + unknown degree of closeness or similarity to prototype
    Degree 6adequately + similar to prototype
    Degree 7as close + to prototype as is typically found
    Degree 8 as close + to prototype as possible
    Degree 9prototype/archetype/model
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0žž
    ITG
    		Degree of Intelligence Manifested
    Degree 1dumb / + stupid / assinine; idiotic(ally) / moronic(ally)
    Degree 2foolhearty + / foolish(ly)
    Degree 3ill-conceived(ly) + / (in a) poorly thought out (way)
    Degree 4naïve(ly) + / simplistic(ally)
    Degree 5well-intentioned + but ill-conceived / reckless(ly); risky
    Degree 6well-reasoned + / intelligent(ly)
    Degree 7innovative(ly) + / daring [based on analysis and judgement]
    Degree 8 ingenious + / brilliant
    Degree 9wise(ly); + [V2c’ = ‘philosophical(ly)]
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0šp
    MDN
    		Degree of Age or Modernity
    Degree 1prehistoric + / proto-
    Degree 2ancient
    Degree 3old (first) + / archaic
    Degree 4classic(al)
    Degree 5old-fashioned; + in the old-fashioned way
    Degree 6“yesteryear”; + in the era just passed; in the previous zeitgeist
    Degree 7modern, + contemporary, present-day
    Degree 8 innovative + / trailblazing; innovatively, trailblazingly, cutting-edge
    Degree 9avant-garde
    +

     

    +

    7.4.9 Modifying Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSr
    NA1
    		Negation/affirmation of all morphological components
    -VSl
    NA2
    		Negation/affirmation of stem + affixes but not adjunct information
    -VSř
    NA3
    		Negation/affirmation of all morphological components except Modality
    -VSřř
    NA4
    		Negation/affirmation of all but aspectual or Modality information
    +

    The above four suffixes are used to affirm or negate a formative. Because much + of the information associated with an Ilaksh formative is carried in adjuncts, + the above suffixes are used to indicate exactly which morpho-semantic information + is being affirmed or negated. For example, in English the sentences I don’t + want to stop eating, I want to not stop eating, and I want to stop not eating mean different things. The above four suffixes are used with the following degrees.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1on + the contrary…most cerainly does NOT/is NOT [absolute negation]; no + X whatsoever; absolutely not = emphatic negation/denial
    Degree 2on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [absolute negation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 3on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [relative negation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 4no; not + [absolute negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (because I’m + not in the race)
    Degree 5no; not + [relative negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (although I am in + the race)
    Degree 6almost + / near(ly)
    Degree 7hardly + / barely
    Degree 8 …does + (too) / is (too) [= simple affirmation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 9…is + indeed / does indeed / most certainly is / most certainly does [emphatic + affirmation]
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rb
    DEV
    		Degree of Development
    Degree 1reversal + or undoing of process = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
    Degree 2reversal/undoing + of process in large chunks = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
    Degree 3reversal + little by little / a little at a time = entropic change in / slowly falling + apart / unravelling
    Degree 4moribund + / stagnant; in a moribund or stagnant manner
    Degree 5well-maintained + / well-kept / “healthy”; keep X going / maintain X-ing
    Degree 6one by + one / one at a time / one after another
    Degree 7little + by little / a little at a time / bit by bit / a piece at a time
    Degree 8 by leaps + and bounds / in large amounts at a time
    Degree 9complete + achievement now irreversible / set in stone
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3pt
    REA
    		Degree of Genuineness or Veracity
    Degree 1real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed [affirmation + contrary to suggestion otherwise]
    Degree 2real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed
    Degree 3apparent + / seeming / looks like a; apparently / appears to have / seems to have
    Degree 4suspicious-looking + / ”fishy” seeming; presumably /allegedly / gives the appearance + of having
    Degree 5ersatz + / facsimile; as an equivalent to
    Degree 6substitute + / replacement / proxy / fill-in / placeholder; as a substitue or proxy for
    Degree 7fake / + pretend / mock; pretend to, fake X-ing
    Degree 8 imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing
    Degree 9imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing [contrary to suggestion + otherwise]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3rk
    SCS
    		Degree of Success versus Failure
    Degree 1total failure + in; completely fail to
    Degree 2failed, + would-be; unsuccessfully, fail to
    Degree 3= INEFFECTUAL + or INCOMPLETIVE version (see Sec. 5.3)
    Degree 4certain + to be a failed / certain to fail in
    Degree 5marginally + successful(ly) / barely, hardly [in terms of adequacy or success]
    Degree 6certain + to be a successful ; certain to succeed in
    Degree 7= POSITIVE + or EFFECTIVE version (see Sec. 5.3)
    Degree 8 successful(-ly + completed); successfully
    Degree 9overwhelmingly + successful(ly)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1v
    CAP
    		Degree of Potential or Capability
    Degree 1utterly + incapable / completely lacking in all necessary abilities or capacities
    Degree 2underqualified; + almost totally lacking in necessary abilities or capacities
    Degree 3lacking + in certain key capabilities; mostly inadequate to task
    Degree 4possible + but less than likely due to underdeveloped capabilities
    Degree 5unknown + if capable or not
    Degree 6somewhat + capable / has possible potential to perform
    Degree 7sufficiently + capable / adequate potential to perform
    Degree 8 fully capable; + well within abilities
    Degree 9overly + qualified; more capable than necessary or required
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2v + *
    PRB
    		Degree of Probability or Likelihood
    + * This suffix takes a -V3 suffix form to apply its meaning + to an adjacent suffix only.
    Degree 1impossible + / hopeless / lost cause
    Degree 2almost + no chance of / virtually impossible
    Degree 3highly + unlikely
    Degree 4unlikely + / improbable(ly)
    Degree 5possible; + possibly
    Degree 6hopeful(ly)
    Degree 7probable; + probably
    Degree 8 highly + probable / highly likely / certain to be a. . . certain to
    Degree 9forgone + conclusion that / in the can / done deal
    +

     

    +

    7.4.10 Adverbial Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0lŧ
    STR
    		Degree of Physical Strength Possible or Used
    Degree 1barely + / hardly / very weak(ly)
    Degree 2weak(ly) + / to small degree
    Degree 3soft(ly) + / guarded(ly)
    Degree 4measured(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + strong(ly) / somewhat powerful(ly)
    Degree 6adequately + strong; with adequate strength
    Degree 7strong(ly) + / powerful(ly)
    Degree 8 very strong(ly) + / very powerful(ly)
    Degree 9with maximum + power
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3kç
    FRC
    		Degree of Physical Force Exerted
    Degree 1too light(ly) + / too soft(ly) / too delicate(ly)
    Degree 2light as + a feather/ baby soft; extremely delicately or lightly or softly
    Degree 3light/soft/hardly + a; softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
    Degree 4somewhat + on the light or soft side; somewhat softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
    Degree 5neither + soft(ly) nor forceful(ly); with the right touch
    Degree 6somewhat + violent(ly) / somewhat forceful(ly)
    Degree 7violent/forceful + / rough; violently / with force / roughly
    Degree 8 very violent(ly) + / very forceful(ly) / very rough(ly)
    Degree 9too violent(ly) + / too forceful(ly) / too rough(ly)
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3sk
    ITY
    		Degree of Speed (i.e., Intensity of Movement or Change)
    Degree 1too slow(ly)
    Degree 2very slow(ly)
    Degree 3slow(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
    Degree 5at just + the right speed or intensity
    Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
    Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0st
    SPD
    		Degree of Speed (i.e., Velocity = Distance Over Time)
    Degree 1too slow(ly)
    Degree 2very slow(ly)
    Degree 3slow(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
    Degree 5at just + the right speed
    Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
    Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly)/; at fast pace
    Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0lt
    CFD
    		Degree of Forthrightness, Confidence or Humility
    Degree 1

    too + meek(ly) / too submissive(ly) / too obedient(ly) / too docile(ly)

    Degree 2very meek(ly) + / very submissive(ly) / very obedient(ly) / very docile(ly)
    Degree 3meek(ly) + / submissive(ly) / obedient(ly) / docile(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + meek(ly) / somewhat submissive(ly) / somewhat obedient(ly) / somewhat docile(ly)
    Degree 5properly + humble / properly forthright ; with proper degree of humility or forthrightness
    Degree 6somewhat + confident(ly) / somewhat strong(ly) / somewhat definite(ly) / somewhat definitive(ly) + or authoritative(ly)
    Degree 7confident(ly) + /strong(ly) / definite(ly)/ definitive(ly) / authoritative(ly)
    Degree 8 very confident(ly) + / very strong(ly) / very definite(ly) / very definitive(ly) / very authoritative(ly)
    Degree 9over-confident(ly) + / too strong(ly) / too definite(ly) / too definitive(ly) / too authoritative(ly)
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0đ
    EFI
    		Degree of Efficiency or Efficacy
    Degree 1destructively + wasteful / disastrous(ly) / accomplishing the opposite of intention / making + things worse
    Degree 2very wasteful + / accomplishing nothing / making a mess of it
    Degree 3wasteful + / accomplishing little
    Degree 4somewhat + wasteful / accomplishing somewhat less than expected
    Degree 5adequate(ly) + [in terms of efficiency]
    Degree 6rather + efficient(ly) / fairly efficient(ly) / accomplishing somewhat more than + expected
    Degree 7efficient(ly) + / with little or no waste(d effort)
    Degree 8 extremely + efficient(ly) / with no waste(d effort) whatsoever
    Degree 9a synergy + of… / sum beyond total of parts / a synergistic composite of ; to + X synergistically
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3rw/gž
    ERR
    		Degree of Correctness versus Error
    Degree 1totally + wrong / totally mis- or mal-; totally in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
    Degree 2wrong/incorrect(ly) + / mis- / mal- ; in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
    Degree 3fairly + wrong / fairly incorrect(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + wrong / more wrong than right
    Degree 5so-so; + barely adequate(ly) / barely correct(ly)
    Degree 6somewhat + right / more right than wrong
    Degree 7fairly + right / fairly correct(ly)
    Degree 8 right / + correctly
    Degree 9totally + right / totally correct(ly) / totally well-X’d
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ç
    MAT
    		Degree of Maturation
    Degree 1undeveloped + / immature(ly) / seed / embryo
    Degree 2under-developed + / newborn [stage, not age] / seedling / baby
    Degree 3growing + / budding / youthful / young
    Degree 4maturing + / developing / getting stronger or bigger or more complex or sophisticated
    Degree 5fully developed + / fully mature(d) / robust / ripe
    Degree 6overly + developed / overripe / showing signs of wear and tear / stressed / under + stress / fatigued
    Degree 7declining/fading; + trail off/fade / getting softer or weaker / faded / decrepit / has-been + / past one’s prime
    Degree 8 disintegrating + / utterly deteriorated / beyond repair or rehabilitation / irreparable / + dying
    Degree 9dead / + defunct / disintegrated
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ňz
    SBT
    		Degree of Subtlety
    Degree 1too subtle(ly)
    Degree 2very subtle(ly)
    Degree 3subtle(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + subtle(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + unsubtle(ly)
    Degree 6unsubtle(ly) + / lumbering(ly) rather obvious/ fairly blatant / belabored ; belabor / lumber + along X-ing
    Degree 7obvious(ly) + / blatant(ly) / exaggerated(ly)
    Degree 8 very obvious(ly) + / very blatant(ly)
    Degree 9over-the-top + / in-your-face / to obvious(ly) / too blatant(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1kš
    DRC
    		Degree of Directness
    Degree 1too indirect(ly)
    Degree 2very indirect(ly)
    Degree 3indirect(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + indirect(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + direct(ly)
    Degree 6fairly + direct(ly) / rather direct(ly)
    Degree 7direct(ly) + / straightforward
    Degree 8 very direct(ly) + / very straightforward
    Degree 9too direct(ly) + / painfully straightforward
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mš
    SUD
    		Degree of Suddenness
    Degree 1too slow(ly) + in happening, too long in X-ing, overdue, delayed
    Degree 2very slow(ly) + in happening or developing
    Degree 3slow(ly) + ; long in developing or happening
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly) ; somewhat long in developing or happening
    Degree 5taking + just the right amount of time to develop or occur
    Degree 6somewhat + immediate / somewhat sudden; somewhat imediately / somewhat suddenly
    Degree 7immediate + / sudden; imediately / suddenly
    Degree 8 very immediate + / very sudden; very imediately / very suddenly
    Degree 9too immediate + / too sudden; too imediately / too suddenly
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0pç
    PCN
    		Degree of Care, Precision or Scrutiny
    Degree 1utterly + sloppy(ily) / totally careless(ly)
    Degree 2 very sloppy(ily) + / very careless(ly)
    Degree 3 sloppy(ily) + / careless(ly) / with poor attention to detail
    Degree 4somewhat + sloppy(ily) / somewhat careless(ly)
    Degree 5less than + careful(ly) / with only some degree of care
    Degree 6somewhat + careful(ly) / fairly precise(ly)
    Degree 7precise(ly) + / careful(ly) / detailed
    Degree 8 extremely + precise(ly) / with great care or precision or scrutiny / meticulous(ly)
    Degree 9overly + precise(ly) / ‘nit-picky’ / with too much scrutiny / overly + meticulous(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2kš
    CNC
    		Degree of Concern or Consideration
    Degree 1…the + hell…! / what the hell . . . / . . . who cares
    Degree 2self-centered(ly) + / without thought or concern for others
    Degree 3at the + very least / at the least level of concern required
    Degree 4 without + concern / indifferent(ly) / without consideration / unconcerned(ly) / thoughtless(ly)
    Degree 5reluctant(ly)
    Degree 6at best + / with the most concern one can muster
    Degree 7concerned(ly) + / with concern / with consideration for others
    Degree 8 very concerned(ly) + / highly concerned(ly) / with great concern or consideration for others
    Degree 9overly + concerned(ly) / worrisome(ly) / with too much concern or consideration for + others / altruistically
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0lk
    SPH
    		Degree of Sophistication
    Degree 1too crude(ly) + / too primitive(ly)
    Degree 2very crude(ly) + / very primitive(ly)
    Degree 3crude(ly) + / primitive(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + crude(ly) / somewhat primitive(ly)
    Degree 5with expected/normal + degree or level of sophistication
    Degree 6somewhat + sophisticated or refined
    Degree 7 sophisticated + or refined
    Degree 8 very sophisticated + or refined
    Degree 9too sophisticated + or refined
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0çt
    CVT
    		Degree of Covertness versus Overtness
    Degree 1too secretive(ly) + / overly covert(ly)
    Degree 2very secretive(ly) + / highly covert(ly) / hidden / well behind the scenes
    Degree 3secretive(ly) + / covert(ly) / behind the scenes / between the lines / under the table / + “back-room”
    Degree 4somewhat + secretive(ly) / somewhat covert(ly)
    Degree 5not too + secretive(ly) / not so open(ly)
    Degree 6somewhat + open(ly) / somewhat “up front”
    Degree 7open(ly) + / overt(ly) / “up front” / out in the open / honest / forthcoming(ly)
    Degree 8 very open(ly) + / very overt(ly) / very “up front” / flaunting(ly) / brutally + honest
    Degree 9too open(ly) + / too overt(ly) / overly flaunting(ly) / vulgar(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0lp
    EFT
    		Degree of Effort
    Degree 1too difficult + / overly difficult
    Degree 2very difficult + / so difficult
    Degree 3strained + / difficult; strain to / with difficulty / struggle to / to work at X-ing + / to X hard
    Degree 4somewhat + difficult / not that easy
    Degree 5neither + easy nor difficult
    Degree 6somewhat + easy; not so difficult
    Degree 7 easy / + certain / unhindered / with ease / without resistance / effortlessly
    Degree 8 very easy + / so easy
    Degree 9too easy + / overly easy
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0pw/ňž
    DSG
    		Degree of Design or Purposefulness
    Degree 1purposeless(ly) + /random(ly) / utterly unorganized / chaotic(ally)
    Degree 2haphazard(ly) + / without plan or guidance/ disorganized(ly) / poorly planned
    Degree 3 fairly + haphazard(ly) / not well-planned / not well-organized
    Degree 4somewhat + haphazard(ly) / somewhat disorganized
    Degree 5slightly + disorganized / less than well-planned
    Degree 6somewhat + organized / somewhat well-planned
    Degree 7organized(ly) + / purposeful(ly) / well-planned
    Degree 8 very organized + / very structured
    Degree 9too organized + / overly structured / “anal(ly)”
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3fš
    DCS
    		Degree of Decisiveness, Commitment or Emphasis
    Degree 1indecisive + / meandering; indecisively / first one way then another
    Degree 2wishy washy + / flaky
    Degree 3some sort + of / some kind of / sort of (like) / ”kind of”; in a way / halfway + / does and doesn’t
    Degree 4apparent(ly); + seeming(ly)
    Degree 5mere(ly) + / only (a); merely / only
    Degree 6deliberate + / decisive; deliberately / decisively / purposefully
    Degree 7a real + / certainly a ; really / certainly [emphasis, not genuineness or veracity]
    Degree 8 the (one); + in the only way that counts
    Degree 9what (a) + ...!; how . . .! ; Boy! Did (does) X ever …
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3št
    CTN
    		Degree of Contrariness to Expectation(s) or Shift in Subject
    Degree 1but X would… + / if things were otherwise X WOULD… / on the contrary, X WOULD [affirmation + of hypothetical contrary to statement/suggestion otherwise
    Degree 2but / X + DOES/IS . . . / on the contrary … [affirmation of fact contrary to + suggestion or statement otherwise]
    Degree 3like it + or not…/ well, as much as we didn’t want to think it would happen...
    Degree 4against + expectation or belief ‘… after all’ ‘well, what + do you know…X!’
    Degree 5a genuine + / real / true ; really do, [contrary to expectation]
    Degree 6as a matter + of fact
    Degree 7‘at + least/at any rate’
    Degree 8 ‘by + the way/ just to mention’
    Degree 9not to + change the subject but…/ sorry to change the subject, but…/ + I don’t mean to change the subject, but…
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3rt
    PHY
    		Degree of Physical Control
    Degree 1uncontrolled/helpless(ly) + ; without control/ out of control
    Degree 2almost + completely out of control / almost totally helpless
    Degree 3losing + control / losing the ability to…
    Degree 4insufficiently + trained in...
    Degree 5amateur(ishly) + / superficially able to…
    Degree 6learn(ing) + to… / begin(ning) to be able to…
    Degree 7w/ growing + proficiency or expertise (in)
    Degree 8 proficient(ly)
    Degree 9in full + control / expert(ly)
    +

    +

    7.4.11 Modality Suffixes

    +

    Many of these correspond to the modality suffixes used in valence/modality adjuncts (see Chapter 6). The nine degrees associated with each + suffix allow a speaker control over the extent to which the modality category + should apply to the utterance. These suffix forms function, then, as an alternative + to adjunct forms for greater nuance in the applicability of the modality category + and to apply them to nouns. The nine degrees of each suffix are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1not at + all
    Degree 2to too + little a degree; to an insufficient degree
    Degree 3hardly + at all
    Degree 4to a small + degree
    Degree 5to a fair + degree/somewhat
    Degree 6fairly + much/more so than not
    Degree 7very much + so / decidedly so / to a great degree
    Degree 8 too much + so / to too great a degree
    Degree 9to the + exclusion of all else / without consideration for anything else
    +

    The specific modality suffixes are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3bb
    		resigned to
    -V3dd devoted; committed to / devoted to
    -V3čč desired / sought-after; want to
    -V3ŧŧ attempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt to
    -V3çç  capable, able; can / able to / capable of
    -V3cc knowledgeable; can = know how to / familiar with
    -V3ff mandatory; must / have to
    -V3xx required; should / be to
    -V3by expected; be supposed to
    -V3hh intended; mean to / intend to / shall
    -V3gg chosen, selected; choose to / elect to
    -V3hš …on impulse; feel like X-ing
    -V3dy  promised; promise to
    -V3dw well-liked; like (to)
    -V3bw feared; fear (to)
    -V3hs willing; willing to
    -V3vw prepared / ready; prepared to/ready to
    -V3mf necessary / needed; need to
    -V3ňx Daring; dare to
    -V3fy decided-upon; decide to
    -V3pf offered/offer of; offer to
    -V3mb aided / assisted; help to / aid in X-ing
    -V3hk not unexpected; be prone to / be apt to / tend to
    -V3rm  agreed-upon; agree to
    -V3rŧ  responsible for/in charge of
    -V3rp  remember to
    -V3ŧy feel a need to / feel one should / feel one must / feel driven to
    -V3ŧw to guess or think [that]…
    -V3lš available; available to/for
    -V3kk potential; can = have potential to
    -V3tt  permitted; can = permitted to
    -V3fw  hoped-for; hope/wish to
    -V3pp X by inclination; be inclined to
    +

    +

    7.4.12 Agential/Participant Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0n
    AGC
    		Degree of Agency
    Degree 1[AGENT] + = one who forces/causes
    Degree 2[ENABLER] + = one who enables to happen
    Degree 3[INFLUENCE] + = one who persuades/influences
    Degree 4ENABLER + BY PERMISSION] = one who permits/allows/lets happen
    Degree 5[PATIENT] + = one who does/is made to do
    Degree 6[EXPERIENCER] + = one who undergoes/experiences
    Degree 7[INSTRUMENT] + = instrument which causes
    Degree 8 [STIMULUS] + = one whose status is as stimulus of affective experience
    Degree 9[SOURCE] + = that which gives rise to, provides underlying reason for, source of
    +

    This suffix and the following identify a formative as filling a specific semantic + role corresponding in many cases to the semantic roles discussed in Sections + 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. In + several instances, these suffixes would translate the English “agentive” + suffixes -er, or -or.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0m
    ROL
    		Role
    Degree 1that which + contains or functions as the enclosure / container / house / shelter of + or for
    Degree 2that which + results from
    Degree 3 [RECIPIENT] + = one who receives / has / "-ee"
    Degree 4one who + is / acts as / functions as
    Degree 5one who + is characterized by / described by...
    Degree 6one who + is similar to/functions or acts similarly to
    Degree 7one whose + responsibility is / who is responsible for / runs the business of (operationally + speaking)
    Degree 8 one who + constructs / makes / creates
    Degree 9one who + manages / oversees / supervises / coordinates / runs the business of (managerially + speaking)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0pš
    UTE
    		Utilitative or Enabling Means
    Degree 1

    tool/device/apparatus + specifically designed for X-ing

    Degree 2medium + by/through which one X’s
    Degree 3conduit-like + tool/apparatus for X-ing
    Degree 4natural/standard + body part for X-ing
    Degree 5object + employed circumstantially as implement for X-ing
    Degree 6covering/protective + element employed to allow/permit X-ing
    Degree 7enabling + element/device/apparatus to allow/foster X-ing
    Degree 8 environment/situaton/circumstances/setting + which allows/fosters X-ing
    Degree 9FORCE which + causes/permits X-ing
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ž
    CNS
    		Degree of Consent
    Degree 1deliberately + without consent of knowledge
    Degree 2without + consent or knowledge as a precaution or “for their own good”
    Degree 3without + consent or knowledge due to circumstances
    Degree 4with their + knowledge but w/o consent; against their will
    Degree 5consent + obtained under pressure, threat, coercion
    Degree 6w/ reluctant + consent
    Degree 7willingly; + with full consent
    Degree 8 with enthusiastic + approval and support
    Degree 9at their + request
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0t
    MEC
    		Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1the body’s + natural method of doing so (e.g., on foot, by hand, etc.)
    Degree 2a manually + manipulated generic tool or implement
    Degree 3a specialized + tool for that specific purpose or activity
    Degree 4a machine + or via mechanical means or process
    Degree 5 a virtual, + electronic means or via engineering
    Degree 6mental + power, force of will, concentration
    Degree 7a redirection + or collation of energy specially applied
    Degree 8 a collective + pooling of manual labor resources
    Degree 9a collective + pooling of electronic/mechanical/engineering resources
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rx
    BOD
    		Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1

    a hand

    Degree 2an arm
    Degree 3a foot
    Degree 4a leg
    Degree 5one’s + eyes
    Degree 6both legs
    Degree 7both feet
    Degree 8 both arms
    Degree 9both hands
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mp
    DBI
    		Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1

    a finger

    Degree 2a thumb
    Degree 3a knee
    Degree 4one’s + head
    Degree 5one’s + teeth
    Degree 6one’s + lips
    Degree 7one’s + tongue
    Degree 8 one’s + elbow
    Degree 9one’s + fingers
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0çw/bž
    SOC
    		Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1via lackeys, + grunt labor, go-fors or henchmen
    Degree 2by coercion, + threat, blackmail
    Degree 3 “fronts”, + or disguised go-betweens
    Degree 4indirectly + through actions of others (unbeknownst to them)
    Degree 5indirectly + through actions of others (with their knowledge)
    Degree 6by leveraging + existing resources / personnel (deploying existing methods in a new application)
    Degree 7via a proxy + or proxies
    Degree 8 hired help + or staff
    Degree 9by delegation + of task to experts
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0šš
    RSN
    		Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action
    Degree 1for evil + or perverse reasons
    Degree 2for foolish + or naïve reason
    Degree 3due to + deception by another
    Degree 4due to + faulty information provided by another [no deception intended]
    Degree 5due to + or based on faulty perception or misinterpretation of information or evidence
    Degree 6despite + negative circumstances or reasons not to
    Degree 7for no + reason
    Degree 8 for appropriate + reasons / for good reason
    Degree 9for virtuous, + healthy reasons
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ps
    MTA
    		Additional Motivation for an Action or State
    Degree 1in anger
    Degree 2in repugnance/revulsion
    Degree 3in irritation
    Degree 4in defense/for protection
    Degree 5in fear
    Degree 6out of curiosity/to see what happens
    Degree 7to provoke/illicit reaction
    Degree 8 to entice
    Degree 9to show appreciation
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ňt
    XPT
    		Expectation of Outcome
    Degree 1shockingly + unexpected; without precedent or rumour
    Degree 2surprise + X / unexpected X; completely by surprise/ completely unexpected(ly)
    Degree 3manage + to X despite inadequacy of preparation or effort
    Degree 4manage + to X despite misguided or misdirected preparation or effort
    Degree 5managed + to X despite hindrance(s) or obstacles; hard-won
    Degree 6manage + to X due to hindrances or obstacles being overestimated; easier than thought + to be
    Degree 7manage + to X due to excellent preparation / planning / execution
    Degree 8 completely + as expected / totally as anticipated / as predicted
    Degree 9pat; outcome + pre-ordained or predetermined
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3rn
    DLB
    		Degree of Deliberateness/Agency
    Degree 1accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) and unaware of consequences
    Degree 2unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to and unaware of consequences
    Degree 3accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) but now aware of consequences
    Degree 4unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to but now aware of consequences
    Degree 5unforseeable + / unpredictable; unforeseeably / unpredictably
    Degree 6without + realizing or considering potential consequences
    Degree 7thinking + one can get away without reaping consequences / furtive(ly)
    Degree 8 realizing + potential risks or consequences / cognizant of potential risks or consequences
    Degree 9intentional(ly) + / deliberate(ly) / on purpose / by choice; choose to
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mz
    MOT
    		Degree of Self-Conscious Deliberation or Motivation
    Degree 1affected, + ostentatious; affectedly/ostentatiously
    Degree 2self-conscious(ly)
    Degree 3guilty + / guiltily
    Degree 4half-hearted(ly)
    Degree 5against + better judgement / can’t help but / can’t help it
    Degree 6ingrained, + by upbringing
    Degree 7learned + / habitual; by habit / trained to
    Degree 8 natural(ly) + / un-self-conscious(ly)
    Degree 9autonomic + / unaware, automatic
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V11ls
    ENB
    		Degree of Enablement
    Degree 1by inadvertent + gesture/word/sign taken as order or permission
    Degree 2by granting + of permission
    Degree 3by cajoling + or persuasion
    Degree 4by direct + request or imploring
    Degree 5by direct + order based on one’s real or perceived authority
    Degree 6by inadvertent + removal of hindrance
    Degree 7by inadvertent + action that initiates a chain of events
    Degree 8 by deliberate + removal of hindrance
    Degree 9by deliberate + action that initiates a chain of events
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ms
    AGN
    		Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness
    Degree 1with the + anticipated max. resulting effect possible
    Degree 2with the + anticipated resulting effect to a high degree
    Degree 3with the + anticipated resulting effect to a moderate degree
    Degree 4with the + anticipated resulting effect but only to a marginal, superficial or baredly + noticable degree
    Degree 5with no + noticeable effect or resulting change
    Degree 6with only + marginal, superficial, or barely noticeable effect or resulting change unanticipated
    Degree 7with moderate + effect or resulting change — unanticipated
    Degree 8 with the + resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated
    Degree 9with the + max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V21rz
    IMP
    		Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome
    Degree 1target + can do nothing - utterly inevitable
    Degree 2target + chooses to do nothing - resigned to fate
    Degree 3target + tries to prevent/avoid but fails
    Degree 4target + tries to prevent/avoid and does so partially or mitigates impact somewhat
    Degree 5target + tries to prevent/avoid and succeeds
    Degree 6target + helps/enables outcome inadvertently
    Degree 7target + helps/enables outcome against own interest (i.e., without thinking)
    Degree 8 target + helps/enables outcome intentionally despite negative consequences
    Degree 9target + helps/enables outcome intentionally for own benefit
    +

     

    +

    7.4.13 Miscellaneous Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1_’/kw
    TPF
    		Topic, Frame and Focus
    Degree 1[sentence + topic]
    Degree 2[end of + frame]
    Degree 3[head of + relative clause]
    Degree 4[sentence + topic + head of relative clause]
    Degree 5[end of + frame + head of relative clause]
    Degree 6[sentence + topic + end of frame]
    Degree 7[sentence + focus + end of frame + head of rel. clause]
    Degree 8 [sentence + focus]
    Degree 9[sentence + focus + end of frame]
    +

    The various functions of the above suffix are explained in Sec. 5.2 on + Frames, and Sec. 9.1 on Topic and Focus.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2_’/kw
    SWR
    		Switch Reference & Obviative Specification (For an explanation + and illustration of this suffix, see Sec. + 8.1.1.7 and Sec. + 8.1.4)
    Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
    Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
    Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
    Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
    Degree 5first referent + mentioned
    Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
    Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
    Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
    Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0s
    PLA
    		Place, State, Setting Where…
    Degree 1place where + one learns to
    Degree 2place where + one does, performs, carries out X
    Degree 3place where + one obtains
    Degree 4place where + one stores or inventories
    Degree 5place where + one keeps or shelters
    Degree 6place where + one sees or views
    Degree 7natural + habitat or environment of
    Degree 8 place where + one deals with/ treats/ confronts
    Degree 9place where + one feels affected by
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1mm
    APT
    		Aspects
    Degree 1yet, still
    Degree 2‘even’ + as in “I don’t even like them” = in the least bit, to + the slightest extent
    Degree 3Contemplative: + upon reflection/ in hindsight
    Degree 4upon deep + introspection / following careful consideration or meditation on the matter
    Degree 5on first + blush / at first / upon initial impression / [my] first thought is/was…
    Degree 6natural(ly) + / obvious(ly) / clear(ly) [in terms of naturalness, not blatancy]
    Degree 7Experiential: + ever
    Degree 8 Regressive: + return to previous state
    Degree 9Protractive: + over a long period of time / long-delayed
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2mm
    TEM
    		Alternative Temporal Aspects
    Degree 1Inceptive: + begin to / start to
    Degree 2Resumptive: + begin again / start again / resume
    Degree 3Continuative: + keep on / still / continue / stay / yet
    Degree 4Incessative: + to X away / not stop
    Degree 5tire of + X-ing / get tired of X-ing / become weary of X-ing
    Degree 6Cessative: + stop / discontinue / cease
    Degree 7 Pausal: + take a break from [stop with intention to re-sume]
    Degree 8 Recessative: + stop again
    Degree 9Terminative: + finish / complete
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rs
    PTF
    		Part/Whole Functional Metaphors
    Degree 1engine + / motor / heart / pump / core / driver mechanism
    Degree 2brain / + computer / chip / instruction set
    Degree 3input / + feeder / access point
    Degree 4exit point + / anus / exhaust / tailpipe / smokestack / vent
    Degree 5wing/ arm + / branch / extensor / manipulator
    Degree 6support + / leg / stand / base
    Degree 7skeleton + / frame
    Degree 8 wiring + / conduits / plumbing
    Degree 9sensor + / eye / ear / antennae
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0š
    PTG
    		Part/Whole Gestalt Componential Metaphors
    Degree 1“base”portion + (e.g., upper arm)
    Degree 2“extension” + portion (e.g., forearm) or “flange”
    Degree 3“trunk” + or central bulk portion
    Degree 4middle + or divisional segment or joint
    Degree 5top/upper + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
    Degree 6bottom/lower + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
    Degree 7side/flank/ + lateral component
    Degree 8 “head” + extension or main interface area
    Degree 9extension/”arm”
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0py/rž
    MET
    		Metonymic Categories
    Degree 1part for + whole
    Degree 2producer + for product
    Degree 3object + used or owned for user/owner
    Degree 4controller + for controlled
    Degree 5institution + for people responsible
    Degree 6place for + inhabitants/occupants
    Degree 7place for + event
    Degree 8 place for + institution
    Degree 9attribute + or characteristic for owner
    +

    Metonymy is the reference to an entity via one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business.
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1k
    SSD
    		Stem-Specific Derivatives
    Degree 1derivative + 1
    Degree 2derivative + 2
    Degree 3derivative + 3
    Degree 4derivative + 4
    Degree 5derivative + 5
    Degree 6derivative + 6
    Degree 7derivative + 7
    Degree 8 derivative + 8
    Degree 9derivative + 9
    +

    This suffix is used to distinguish particular instantiations of a more generic + entity; their meaning is semantically specific to the particular stem.
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2k
    SBS
    		 Subset of Configurative Set
    Degree 1single + specific member (random, i.e., any given member)
    Degree 2natural + first level subset, e.g., a cell among a network, a clique within a + club, a row of an orchard
    Degree 3natural + 2nd level subset, e.g., a section of a network, a subcommittee within + a club, a section of an orchard
    Degree 4complex + natural system or pattern within a set (e.g., the circulatory system, + the heating system)
    Degree 5subset + of set (unknown if natural or select subconfiguration)
    Degree 6complex/circumstantial + select pattern/arrangement within a set (e.g., the parts/things of a + house damaged by fire)
    Degree 72nd level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select section of trees of an + orchard
    Degree 8 first level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select rocks from a pile, select + trees of an orchard
    Degree 9single + select member (externally determined)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1rd
    ATN
    		Degree of Attention or Determination
    Degree 1concentrate + fully upon; pay utmost attention to
    Degree 2concentrate + to point of distraction, to be ‘lost’ in X-ing
    Degree 3pay strict + attention to
    Degree 4determined + to
    Degree 5pay attention + to; attend to; be careful that you…; heed
    Degree 6keep an + eye on
    Degree 7take some + notice of
    Degree 8 barely + notice; take little notice of
    Degree 9ignore + completely
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1šk
    DPR
    		Dispersion or Separability of a Configurative Set
    Degree 1in total + contact / contiguous mass of; pile, “ball of…”
    Degree 2non-contiguous + but closely connected, interlinked, each linked to adjacent via connecting + medium (like web); cluster
    Degree 3connected + via intervening central medium (like a vine or branches); bunch
    Degree 4not physically + connected but with immediate accessibility and knowledge of other member + actions
    Degree 5scattered + - contact with nearest member possible but less possible with others
    Degree 6“virtual” + association only
    Degree 7temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at long intervals
    Degree 8 temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at frequent intervals
    Degree 9temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at very short, immediate intervals / one + after another
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1nd
    SEP
    		Spatio-Temporal Separability of a Configurative Set
    Degree 1

    Logical + connectedness only (spatial)

    Degree 2Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned far away from another
    Degree 3Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned a little ways away from another
    Degree 4Well-integrated + spatially – one positioned right next to or behind another
    Degree 5Both spatially + and temporally well-integrated (one right after another)
    Degree 6Well-integrated + temporally – one right after the other
    Degree 7Loosely + integrated temporally – one a little while after the other
    Degree 8 Loosely + integrated temporally – one a long while after the other
    Degree 9Logical + connectedness only (temporal)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ňk
    SDP
    		Subset of Duplex Set
    Degree 1first, + top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + upper lip, inhale/inhalation, left hand)
    Degree 2beginning + or leading “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 3middle + section of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of + a duplex event or object
    Degree 4ending + or trailing “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 5midpoint, + peak, or lull between the 2 halves of a duplex set or pair
    Degree 6beginning + or leading “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 7middle + section of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing “half” of + a duplex event or object
    Degree 8 ending + or trailing “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 92nd, bottom, + back, righthand or trailing “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + lower lip, exhale/exhalation, right hand)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0xt
    NEW
    		Degree of Newness/Revision
    Degree 1new = original + new, i.e., never before seen
    Degree 2new = never before seen within current context, e.g., a new student
    Degree 3new = role, i.e., never functioning/existing in this capacity/manner before
    Degree 4new/other = replacement + new
    Degree 5new/other = additional instance + new
    Degree 6new/other = revision + additional
    Degree 7new/other = revision + replacement
    Degree 8 new/other/different = different, not seen/used before within current context; status as addition/replacement unknown
    Degree 9new/other/different = different + new; status as addition/replacement unknown
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ks
    COS
    		Comparison Specifications (Used with Levels ) - see Sections 5.8 and 5.8.5
    Degree 1“more”/“less” = extent/amount/volume
    Degree 2“harder”/“weaker” = degree of intensity or effort
    Degree 3“longer”/“shorter” = duration; time spent being/doing
    Degree 4“better”/“worse” = quality / style
    Degree 5“more efficiently”/“less efficiently” = efficiency / effort relative to outcome
    Degree 6“greater”/“poorer” = relevant outcome / bottom-line result
    Degree 7combo of 4, 5, and 6
    Degree 8 combo of 1, 2, and 3
    Degree 9combo of 1 through 6
    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 tw/tç
    XXX
    		Spread/wake/trail/area/expanse created by passage of entity
    Degree 1quasi-linear “trail” or wake left behind on path of linear movement; trail or wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., slime trail left by snail, footprints left on snow, mowed down foliage left by moving convoy, etc.)
    Degree 2quasi-linear spread of entity stretching behind linearly moving “head” (e.g., a line of soldiers put in place to create a front, a line left on a piece of paper as written by an ink pen, path of a ball of string or skein of yarn as it unravels while rolling down an incline)
    Degree 3quasi-linear trail/wake/spread left behind passage as line of demarcation/boundary/barrier
    Degree 42-d quasi-planar wake left behind on path of movement; wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., aftermath of a forest fire, cleaned area of dirty floor or wall after it has been wiped by a mop or dustcloth)
    Degree 52-d quasi-planar spread stretching behind moving front (e.g., area of spreading flames in a forest fire, area being inundated by a flood, area of a wall being covered up by plaster by workmen, coating of an apple dipped in chocolate, area of floor covered up by a rug)
    Degree 62-d quasi-planar wake/spread left behind passage as area of demarcation/zone/restricted area
    Degree 73-d volume left behind a moving front; volume is not composed of or inundated with the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., area left behind the passage of a tidal wave, column of superheated air left behind the passage of a rocket
    Degree 8 3-d volume inundated by spread of moving front (e.g., spread of a gas within a room, area inundated by fog, volume of a container taken up by substance placed/poured/stuffed into it)
    Degree 93-d volume left behind passage of moving front as volume/spatial area of demarcation/zone/restricted space
    +

    The above affix distinguishes movement of an entity from the “trail” or spread left behind, e.g., movement which leaves behind a wake or affected area; used with motion roots as well as roots designating shapes/forms. Use of the above suffixes in conjunction with the various roots pertaining to paths of translative movement allows for very nuanced translations of English words such as surround, cover, inundate, enclose, expand, spread out, encompass, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 gw/vž
    XXX
    		Degree of Shift/Change/Transition (used for both spatial and temporal contexts)
    Degree 1sharp break, sudden shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another with no discernible transition period/zone (i.e., point-like/instantaneous transition)
    Degree 2disjointed/non-contiguous/non-continuous break/shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 3extremely brief/small/barely discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 4somewhat brief/small/discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 5normal/standard/expected transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 6somewhat variable/changing/fluctuating transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 7highly variable/chaotic transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 8 smooth, gradual transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 9very gradual/almost imperceptible rate/degree of change/transition from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 rj
    NNN
    		n-numbered angles/facets/faces/sides/points/forms
    Degree 1uneven /assymmetrical n–sided 2-D obtusely angled form (e.g., quadrilateral, pentagonoid, hexagonoid
    Degree 2uneven/assymetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation
    Degree 3uneven/assymetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
    Degree 4uneven/assymmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., n-hedron-like solid)
    Degree 5having n number of 3-D projections/spikes/pointed surfaces
    Degree 6symmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., tetrahedron, dodecahedron)
    Degree 7symetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
    Degree 8 symetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation (can be used with numbers as low as 2, which would refer to an elongated diamond shape)
    Degree 9symmetrical n–sided 2-D form (e.g., square, pentagon, hexagon)
    +

    The above affix is used with the number stems (see Chapter 12) to provide words for forms, shapes, and solids bearing a distinct number of angles, points, sides, facets, etc.

    +
    +


    + 7.4.14 Locational Suffixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0rš
    LCT
    		Locational Quadrant Markers for Object Being Located (These + suffixes will be explained and illustrated in Chapter + 10.)
    Degree 1+X / +Y + / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant 1
    Degree 2+X / +Y + / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2
    Degree 3+X / -Y + / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3
    Degree 4+X / -Y + / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4
    Degree 5object + at rest relative to other object
    Degree 6-X / +Y + / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5
    Degree 7-X / +Y + / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6
    Degree 8 -X / -Y + / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7
    Degree 9-X / -Y + / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0bz
    PRX
    		Degree of Proximity
    Degree 1too close
    Degree 2 as close + as possible without contact
    Degree 3 very close + to
    Degree 4close to
    Degree 5somewhat + close to
    Degree 6not very + close to / somewhat far from
    Degree 7far from + / distant from
    Degree 8 far away + / very far from
    Degree 9too far + away
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ry/rv
    CTC
    		Degree of Contact
    Degree 1melded + with / blended with / fused
    Degree 2inseparable(ly) + / locked together / bonded
    Degree 3linked + / attached / connected / joined
    Degree 4touching + intimately / touching all over / in close contact with
    Degree 5deliberately + touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
    Degree 6deliberately + touching at one spot or place
    Degree 7casually + or incidentally touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
    Degree 8 casually + or incidentally touching at one spot or place
    Degree 9barely + touching / hardly touching at all / touching at one small spot
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Proceed to Chapter 8: Adjuncts >>

    +
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    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_8.html b/2004-en/Chapter_8.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0e993ca --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_8.html @@ -0,0 +1,3652 @@ + + + + +Chapter 8 + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Affixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 8: Adjuncts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      8.1 Personal Reference Adjuncts  8.4 Combination Adjuncts  
      8.2 Aspectual Adjuncts  8.5 Bias Adjuncts  
      8.3 Affixual Adjuncts    
    +

    The notion of adjuncts was introduced in Section + 2.6.2. We have already discussed details of some kinds of adjuncts — valence adjuncts and modality adjuncts were introduced in Chapter + 6. In this chapter, several +additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    8.1 PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS
    +
    +

    The first type of adjunct we will analyze are those relating + to personal reference. By “personal reference” is meant the grammatical + description of nouns by abbreviated forms of reference. In most languages, this + is accomplished by means of personal pronouns (e.g., English he, she, it, I, + you, him, her, mine, ours, etc.). Generally, personal pronouns are distinguished + by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) and case (e.g., compare English + we, us, and ours). Ilaksh accomplishes the equivalent function by means of + personal reference adjuncts, of which there are two types: single-referent and + dual-referent.

    +

    Like other adjuncts in Ilaksh, personal reference adjuncts are + highly synthetic in their structure, comprised of at least two morphemes and + usually more. Before we examine the componential structure of personal reference + adjuncts themselves, we must first introduce the personal reference categories + they refer to.

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO PERSONS FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    Personal reference adjuncts in Ilaksh operate nearly identically to those of Ithkuil, the sole differences being the elimination of two personal reference categories (the generic animate and the generic inanimate) and the fact that the actual phonological markers for the various referents and their cases are, of course, different in many cases from those of Ithkuil.

    +


    + 8.1.1 Personal Reference Categories

    +

    The morpho-semantic delineations of Ilaksh personal reference + categorization are based on inclusion or exclusion in relation to an utterance. + These delineations begin with identifying whether or not the party speaking + is included or excluded in relation to the utterance. The next delineation made + is whether the party being addressed (i.e., the audience/listener) is included + or excluded, then finally whether any third party (i.e., a party other than + the speaker and the addressee) is included or excluded.

    +

    There are 46 personal reference categories in Ilaksh, each + of which is represented by a single consonant affix plus a corresponding low + or high tone as shown in Table 23 below. The various terms and abbreviations + used in the table are explained following the table.
    +

    +

    Table 23(a) + and (b): Personal Reference Categories

    +
    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    PRONOUNCED WITH LOW TONE
     LabelSpeaker Included Addressee Included 3rd Party Included
    t
    		1mYES——
    s
    		1+2mYESmonadic—
    š
    		1+2uYESunbounded—
    k
    		2m—monadic—
    p
    		2u—unbounded—
    r
    		ma——monadic animate
    đ
    		ua——unbounded animate
    ç
    		Col——Collective
    l
    		Ea——universal animate
    y
    		IDa——indefinite animate
    v
    		M——mixed m/p/a/i
    ř
    		IPa——impersonal animate
    ŧ
    		1+maYES—monadic animate
    n
    		1+uaYES—unbounded animate
    x
    		2m+ma—monadicmonadic animate
    ň
    		2m+ua—monadicunbounded animate
    f
    		2u+ma—unboundedmonadic animate
    m
    		2u+ua—unboundedunbounded animate
    h
    		1+2m+maYESmonadicmonadic animate
    z
    		1+2m+uaYESmonadicunbounded animate
    w
    		1+2u+maYESunboundedmonadic animate
    ž
    		1+2u+uaYESunboundedunbounded animate
    		 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    PRONOUNCED WITH HIGH TONE
     LabelSpeaker Included Addressee Included 3rd Party Included
    t
    		1m+MYES—mixed m/p/a/i
    s
    		1+2m+MYESmonadicmixed m/p/a/i
    š
    		1+2u+MYESunboundedmixed m/p/a/i
    k
    		2m+M—monadicmixed m/p/a/i
    p
    		2u+M—unboundedmixed m/p/a/i
    r
    		mi——monadic inanimate
    đ
    		ui——unbounded inanimate
    ç
    		Abt——Abstract
    l
    		Ei——universal inanimate
    y
    		IDi——indefinite inanimate
    v
    		Obv——Obviative
    ř
    		IPi——impersonal inanimate
    ŧ
    		1+miYES—monadic inanimate
    n
    		1+uiYES—unbounded inanimate
    x
    		2m+mi—monadicmonadic inanimate
    ň
    		2m+ui—monadicunbounded inanimate
    f
    		2u+mi—unboundedmonadic inanimate
    m
    		2u+ui—unboundedunbounded inanimate
    h
    		1+2m+miYESmonadicmonadic inanimate
    z
    		1+2m+uiYESmonadicunbounded inanimate
    w
    		1+2u+miYESunboundedmonadic inanimate
    ž
    		1+2u+uiYESunboundedunbounded inanimate
    +
    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    +     E = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)
    +

    +
    +

    The following sections explain the terminology in the above + table.

    +

    8.1.1.1 Monadic vs. Unbounded. These terms were discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.3 on Perspective. For simplicity’s sake, the difference between + a MONADIC third party versus an UNBOUNDED third party can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ + and ‘they.’

    +

    8.1.1.2 Speaker and Addressee. These terms refer respectively to the party + speaking (in Western grammar the first person), the party being spoken to (the + second person), and a third party being considered or mentioned (the third person). + Unlike the standard six-person matrix common in Western grammar (the three persons + divided into singular and plural), Ilaksh divides personal reference along + logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance.

    +

    From the viewpoint of Ilaksh grammar, only a single individual + can speak. Even if there are two or more persons speaking the same utterance + simultaneously it is but a collection of single individuals, each of which is + one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ilaksh, the speaker, + can be only MONADIC, never UNBOUNDED. + Thus, in Ilaksh, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” + since inherent in the various categories which translate “we” is + the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From this + we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s + utterance that determines the various personal reference categories.

    +

    The “second person” in Ilaksh is the addressee, + the person(s) being addressed or spoken to. There can be one addressee, or more + than one addressee, i.e., MONADIC or UNBOUNDED.

    +

    The “third person” in Ilaksh is where things get + very complicated, in that a party being referenced who is not the speaker or + the addressee can have many distinctions, including the presence or absence + of animacy, being MONADIC versus UNBOUNDED, + being referred to as a collective entity, being an intangible abstraction, being + indefinite, being an impersonal generic reference, or being a combination of + two or more of these categories. These distinctions are explained below.

    +

    8.1.1.3 Animate vs. Inanimate. This is as it sounds. As we saw in earlier chapters, + particularly Sec. 4.1, several + important morphological categories in Ilaksh are dependent on whether the party + to the act, condition, or event is a living entity or inanimate. Note that the + distinction between gender (he vs. she) found in most Western languages does + not exist in the Ilaksh personal reference system.

    +

    8.1.1.4 “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible for the third + party being referenced to be two or more entities of different natures. For + example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” where + “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic + animate entity), three boxes (i.e., a polyadic inanimate entity), and an intangible + concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract entity). In such + cases, Ilaksh personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” + parties to be included in a particular personal referent.

    +

    8.1.1.5 Collective Reference. This corresponds to the NOMIC Perspective in which a noun can be spoken of as a generic collective. For example, + the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast refers to all dogs in a collective sense, not any dog in particular. This COLLECTIVE category has its own set of personal reference affixes in Ilaksh, depending + on what other entities are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.6 Abstract Reference. This corresponds to the ABSTRACT perspective, equivalent to derivational abstract forms such as English nouns + ending with -hood, -ness, etc. In Ilaksh, all nouns can be + spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the + sense of being or functioning as a book), and the personal reference system + provides affixes for this category whose form again depends on what other entities + are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.7 Obviative (4th Person) Reference. This category has no equivalent in + Western languages, although it is found in various Native American languages. + It refers to a third party referent other than one previously mentioned, which + would otherwise be identically marked. In Native American grammatical treatises, + this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. + For example, the English sentence He saw his book is ambiguous because + we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer to the + same person or to two different persons (i.e., one who did the seeing and another + who owns the book). In Ilaksh, no such ambiguity occurs because the latter + third person referent, if a distinct person from the initial third person referent, + would be marked using the OBVIATIVE, not the third person. + This disambiguation of third person referents is the purpose of the OBVIATIVE. + Its translation into English is therefore dependent on a preceding personal + referent. (See Sec. 8.1.4 below for more information + about the OBVIATIVE).

    +

    8.1.1.8 Indefinite Reference. This category indicates that the third party + refers to any third party within the specified parameters. For example, the + referent y indicates an indefinite animate party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or + ‘anybody,’ while the referent y¯ indicates an indefinite inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’

    +

    8.1.1.9 Universal Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers + to every third party within the specified parameters. For example, the referent l indicates a universal animate party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or + ‘everybody,’ while the referent l¯ indicates a universal inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’

    +

    8.1.1.10 Impersonal Reference. This category corresponds to the German pronoun man or French pronoun on, as well as the various circumlocutions + used in English to describe impersonal reference (e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ + ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). + Such impersonal reference is illustrated in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    · One should + never speak to clowns alone.
    + · To dance the tango you need a partner.
    + · They say it never rains in August.
    + · That town is said to be haunted.
    + · She just wants to talk to someone without being criticized.

    +
    +

    8.1.1.11 Inclusivity vs. Exclusivity. Since + Ilaksh personal reference adjuncts are designed to specify who among the speaker, + addressee(s), and any third party is included or excluded in the context of + the utterance, there are many possible personal reference distinctions possible + in Ilaksh for which English has no equivalent pronouns. Such exacting distinctions + would have to be made periphrastically in English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ + the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and + he but not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English + word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings equivalent to ‘you + (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ + ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and those things,’ etc.

    +


    + 8.1.2 Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    Adjuncts with one personal referent are termed single-referent + adjuncts and have three forms: (1) a short form, (2) a long form, and (3) a + conjunct form, as shown in Table 24 below.
    +

    +

    Table 24: + Morphological Structure of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Form 1: CR + VK Example: p(w/high tone) + oi → pōi
    Form 2: (Va) + CR + VK1 + Vz Example:
    + au + t(w/high tone) + iw + u +     [tone shift] → autí’wu
    Form 3: (Va) + CR + VK1 + Vd + Cs (+ Vz + (Cb))Example:
    + o + k     + uiw + e + st + e     + çç → okui’westeçç
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Where: 
    CR =
    		consonant indicating + Referent 1 [from Table 23 above]
    VK =
    		short form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table + 25 below]
    Va =
    		vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, Designation & Focus of Referent + 1
    + _____ (see Table 26 below)
    VK1 =
    		long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 [see Table + 25 below]
    Vz =
    		vocalic suffix + (+ stress) showing Context and Extension of Referent 1 + [see Table + 27 below]
    Vd =
    		vocalic infix + showing degree of Cs (see Table 27 below)
    Cs =
    		consonantal suffix + for Referent 1 from standard suffix tables
    Cb =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 21 in Sec. + 6.6))
    Form + 2:
    		Ultimate stress = shortcut for FML designation in absence of Va
    Form + 3:
    		Stress pattern + shows affix-type: penultimate = V1C, + ultimate = V2C, antepenultimate + = V3C
    Forms
    + 1, 2, & 3    :
    		Tone + shift shows RPV essence for Referent 1: low → falling, high → rising
    +

    +

    The short form of the adjunct consists of a single consonant + (labeled CR in the diagram) plus tone, + corresponding to one of the 44 particular referents (as described in Sec. + 8.1.1 above). This is followed by a single vocalic suffix VK indicating the case of the personal referent (see Chapter 4 on Case). The 81 + possible values for this suffix are shown in Table 25 below.
    +

    +

    Table 25: Case Suffixes/Infixes +for Personal Reference Adjuncts

    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Label
    CASE
    VK
    VK1
    1
    OBL
    Oblique
    a
    -a’w-
    2
    IND
    Inducive
    ia
    -a’y-
    3
    ABS
    Absolutive
    e
    -e’w-
    4
    ERG
    Ergative
    o
    -o’w-
    5
    EFF
    Effectuative
    u
    -u’w-
    6
    AFF
    Affective
    ua
    -u’y-
    7
    DAT
    Dative
    i
    -i’w-
    8
    INS
    Instrumental
    ö
    -ö’w-
    9
    ACT
    Activative
    ü
    -ü’w-
    10
    DER
    Derivative
    ä
    -ä’w-
    11
    SIT
    Situative
    öi
    -öi’w-
    12
    POS
    Possessive
    ai
    -ai’w-
    13
    PRP
    Proprietive
    ei
    -ei’w-
    14
    GEN
    Genitive
    eo
    -i’y-
    15
    ATT
    Attributive
    oi
    -oi’w-
    16
    PDC
    Productive
    äi
    -äi’w-
    17
    ITP
    Interpretative
    ëi
    -ëi’w-
    18
    OGN
    Originative
    ui
    -ui’w-
    19
    PAR
    Partitive
    ëu
    -ëu’w-
    20
    CRS
    Contrastive
    äu
    -äu’w-
    21
    CPS
    Compositive
    öu
    -öu’w-
    22
    PRD
    Predicative
    öe
    -ë’w-
    23
    MED
    Mediative
    eö
    -ë’y-
    24
    APL
    Applicative
    au
    -au’w-
    25
    PUR
    Purposive
    eu
    -eu’w-
    26
    CSD
    Considerative
    ea
    -e’y-
    27
    ESS
    Essive
    aú
    -a-u’y-
    28
    ASI
    Assimilative
    eú
    -e-u’y-
    29
    FUN
    Functive
    iú
    -i-u’y-
    30
    TFM
    Transformative
    oú
    -o-u’y-
    31
    REF
    Referential
    ëú
    -ëu’y-
    32
    CLA
    Classificative
    oa
    -o’y-
    33
    CNV
    Conductive
    ou
    -ou’w-
    34
    IDP
    Interdependent
    öé
    -öe’y-
    35
    BEN
    Benefactive
    ie
    -eu’y-
    36
    TSP
    Transpositive
    ue
    -iu’y-
    37
    CMM
    Commutative
    i-u
    -ä’y-
    38
    COM
    Comitative
    io
    -ö’y-
    39
    CNJ
    Conjunctive
    uo
    -uo’w-
    40
    UTL
    Utilitative
    iu
    -ü’y-
    41
    ABE
    Abessive
    ao
    -au’y-
    42
    CVS
    Conversive
    aé
    a-e’y
    43
    COR
    		Correlative
    ë
    -iu’w-
    44
    DEP
    		Dependent
    ä-í
    -ai’y-
    45
    PVS
    Provisional
    ió
    -io’y-
    46
    PTL
    Postulative
    iá
    -ia’y-
    47
    DFR
    Deferential
    uá
    -ua’y-
    48
    CON
    Concessive
    aó
    -ea’w-
    		 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Label
    CASE
    VK
    VK1
    49
    EXC
    Exceptive
    eó
    -eo’y-
    50
    AVR
    Aversive
    ö-í
    -ö-i’y-
    51
    CMP
    Comparative
    ë-í
    -ëi’y-
    52
    SML
    Simultaneitive
    aö
    -oi’y-
    53
    ASS
    Assessive
    ö-á
    -öi’y-
    54
    CNR
    Concursive
    ié
    -ie’y-
    55
    ACS
    Accessive
    ué
    -ue’y-
    56
    DFF
    Diffusive
    uó
    -uo’y-
    57
    PER
    Periodic
    oe
    -oe’w-
    58
    PRO
    Prolapsive
    oé
    -oe’y-
    59
    PCV
    Precursive
    eá
    -ea’y-
    60
    PCR
    Postcursive
    oá
    -oa’y-
    61
    ELP
    Elapsive
    öa
    -oa’w-
    62
    ALP
    Allapsive
    üa
    -ua’w-
    63
    INP
    Interpolative
    öá
    -öa’y-
    64
    EPS
    Episodic
    üo
    -io’w-
    65
    PRL
    Prolimitive
    üó
    -ie’w-
    66
    LIM
    Limitative
    üá
    -ia’w-
    67
    LOC
    Locative
    a-í
    -a-i’y-
    68
    ORI
    Orientative
    e-í
    -e-i’y-
    69
    PSV
    Procursive
    iö
    -iö’w-
    70
    ALL
    Allative
    o-í
    -o-i’y-
    71
    ABL
    Ablative
    u-í
    -u-i’y
    72
    NAV
    Navigative
    uö
    -uö’w-
    73
    CMP1A
    Comparative1A
    iai
    a-i’w
    74
    CMP2A
    Comparative2A
    iei
    e-i’w
    75
    CMP3A
    Comparative3A
    ioi
    o-i’w
    76
    CMP4A
    Comparative4A
    i-ui
    -i-u’w
    77
    CMP5A
    Comparative5A
    uai
    -a-u’w
    78
    CMP6A
    Comparative6A
    uei
    -e-u’w
    79
    CMP7A
    Comparative7A
    u-iu
    u-i’w
    80
    CMP8A
    Comparative8A
    uoi
    -o-u’w
    81
    CMP1B
    Comparative1B
    iái
    -üa’y-
    82
    CMP2B
    Comparative2B
    iéi
    -ei’y-
    83
    CMP3B
    Comparative3B
    iói
    ao’y
    84
    CMP4B
    Comparative4B
    iúi
    -ui’y-
    85
    CMP5B
    Comparative5B
    uái
    -üa’w-
    86
    CMP6B
    Comparative6B
    uéi
    -ue’w-
    87
    CMP7B
    Comparative7B
    uíu
    -eo’w-
    88
    CMP8B
    Comparative8B
    uói
    -üo’w-
    89
    CMP1C
    Comparative1C
    iau
    -äu’y-
    90
    CMP2C
    Comparative2C
    ieu
    -eö’y-
    91
    CMP3C
    Comparative3C
    iou
    -ou’y-
    92
    CMP4C
    Comparative4C
    eai
    -iö’y-
    93
    CMP5C
    Comparative5C
    oai
    -uö’y-
    94
    CMP6C
    Comparative6C
    eau
    ao’w
    95
    CMP7C
    Comparative7C
    iéu
    a-e’w
    96
    CMP8C
    Comparative8C
    ióu
    -eö’w-
    +


    + As for the long form of the adjunct, the first part is an optional + vocalic prefix Va which indicates the Configuration, Affiliation, and Designation of the personal +referent (see Chapter 3 for a discussion of these morphological categories). The possible values for Va are shown in Tables 26 below.

    +


    + Table 26:     V    a Prefixes for Single-Referent Personal Reference Aduncts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    + DESIGNATION

    + AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
     
    +
    IFL
    CSL
    a
    au
    ai
    ia
    ua
    ya
    yo
    ea
    iö
    ASO
    u
    iu
    ui
    ie
    ue
    yu
    yë
    ae
    ao
    VAR
    e
    eu
    ei
    io
    uo
    ye
    yö
    oa
    oe
    COA
    i
    ou
    oi
    ië
    uë
    yi
    yä
    eo
    uö
     
    +
    FML
    CSL
    o
    wa
    wo
    äi
    äu
    wai
    yau
    wia
    yua
    ASO
    ü
    wu
    wë
    ë
    ï
    wui
    yiu
    wie
    yue
    VAR
    ö
    we
    wö
    ëi
    ëu
    wei
    yeu
    wio
    yuo
    COA
    ä
    wi
    wä
    öi
    öu
    woi
    you
    wië
    yuë
    +
    +
    +

    The second part of the long form of the adjunct is the single consonant (CR) + plus tone shown previously in Table 23, corresponding + to the personal referent. The third part of the long form of the adjunct is + a syllabic infix (VK1) + which shows the case of the personal referent; it is a combination of a vowel + or diphthong followed by the consonant y or w. + The 96 possible values for this infix are shown in the righthand columns of Table 25 above. + The final term of the long form of the adjunct is a single vowel suffix -Vz which indicates the Context and Extension of the personal + referent (see Sec. +3.5 on Context). The values for this -Vz suffix are shown in Table 27 below.

    +

    As for the third type, or conjunct form of the adjunct, the + first three terms of are identical to those of the long-form. The new terms + are Cs, + which is merely a standard suffix used with formatives, as analyzed in Sec. + 7.4, and a vocalic infix, Vd, + which indicates the degree and affix-type of Cs. + The values of Vd are shown in Table 27 below. The affix-type of Cs is shown by the adjunct’s stress pattern (penultimate stress = Type 1, ultimate stress = Type 2, antepenultimate = Type 3). Optional terms are Vz, + the same term as explained in the preceding paragraph indicating the Context and Extension of the personal + referent, and Cb, the Bias suffix discussed in Section 6.6. The use of optional elements in these adjunct is unnecessary if the particular category indicated by the optional element is already known (or can be inferred) + from the utterance. Note that the appearance of the bias suffix Cb is dependent on the appearance of Vz, as indicated by the nested pattern of parentheses + shown in Table 24 above.
    +

    +

    Table 27(a) and (b) : + Values for Vd and Vz

    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Vd
    Degree 1
    i
    Degree 2
    e
    Degree 3
    ä
    Degree 4
    ö
    Degree 5
    a
    Degree 6
    ü
    Degree 7
    ï/ë
    Degree 8
    o
    Degree 9
    u
    		 +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Vz
     
    EXS
    FNC
    SYM
    AMG
    DEL
    a
    u
    au
    iu
    PRX
    ai
    ui
    eu
    ëu
    ICP
    i
    ü
    ou
    ï
    TRM
    ö
    ëi
    öi
    öu
    DPL
    o
    e
    äi
    äu
    GRD
    oi
    ei
    ea
    oa
    +
    +

    For all three forms of the adjunct, shift from low to falling tone, or from high to rising, indicates the REPRESENTATIVE essence of the personal referent.

    +

    8.1.2.1 Use of the Short Form. The short form + of a single-referent personal reference adjunct is used when it is clear from + the surrounding context of the utterance which previously identified noun participant + is being referred to, so that it is unnecessary to indicate the Configuration, + Affiliation, Designation, Extension, and Context of the referent. The short form + of the adjunct merely indicates the party itself and its case.

    +

    8.1.2.2 Use of the Long Form: The long form + of the adjunct is used when necessary to indicate the Context and Extension, and/or the Configuration, + Affiliation, and Designation of the referent when the surrounding sentences + do not provide or make clear this information.

    +

    8.1.2.3 Use of the Conjunct Form: Form 3 of + the adjunct, the conjunct form, is a single-referent adjunct which combines + with a standard formative affix, allowing an affix category (and a Bias category if desired) to be applied to + a personal referent, just as an affix category would normally apply to the formative + to which it is affixed.

    +

    8.1.2.4 Examples of Single-Referent Personal Reference +Adjuncts in Use

    +
    +

    Teo  fwò-ul  ilákš  ujtavépla.
    + 1m-GEN    IFL-‘male maternal cousin’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/CST       FML-EFC/CTX/IPU-OPR-‘study’-TRM/M/CSL/UNI
    + My cousin has finally learned Ilaksh.

    +

    Hlŭakya  nia.
    +     EXP-IFL/RSL    -OPR-‘congratulate’    1m+ua-IND
    + We (I and the others) offer our congratulations.

    +

    Rü  n-nwà  aktlàc  utputānukt.
    + ma/ACT    CRD    IFL-MNF-‘woman’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI    FML-‘travel’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI-AGC1/5-DEF1/9
    + She thinks the travelers are women.

    +

    Äđü  iň-ňmà  atác.
    + CSL/DPX-ua-ACT    RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
    + The two of them like writing to each other.

    +
    +

     

    +

    8.1.3 Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    Ilaksh allows a personal reference adjunct to show the personal + reference category and associated case for two separate parties all in one adjunct. + This is called a dual-referent adjunct and serves to combine two unrelated personal + referents into one adjunct, no matter what their associated cases may be. There + is only one form of a dual-referent adjunct, shown in Table 28 below.

    +


    + Table 28: Morphological Structure + of a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + +

    Form 3:

    +

    (Va) + CRR + VK1 + VB + CK2 (+ Vg + (Cb))
    +

    Example: : ûksai'wénz
    + Examples:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Where: 
    Va =
    		vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, & Designation of Referent + 1
    + _____ (see Table 26 above)
    CRR =
    		consonant(s) + indicating Referent 1 and Referent 2 (see Table + 30 below)
    VK1 =
    		long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 (see Table + 25 above)
    VB =
    		vocalic infix + showing Context & Designation of Referent 2 (see Table + 29 below)
    CK2 =
    		consonantal suffix + showing Case and Configuration of Referent 2 (see Table + 31; 9 degrees of case suffix correspond to the 9 configurations)
    Vg =
    		vocalic suffix + showing Affiliation of Referent 2 (see Table + 31)
    Cb =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 21 in Sec. + 6.6)
    Tone =
    		Combinations + of Ref. 1& 2:
    + _____ low + low = low, high + + high = high, low + high = rising,
    + _____ high + low = falling
    Stress =
    		shows Referents 1 and 2 + Essence respectively: penultimate = 1:NRM/1:NRM, ultimate = 1:NRM/2:RPV, + antepenultimate = 1:RPV/2:NRM, preantepenultmate = 1:RPV/2:RPV
    +

     

    +

    Table 29: Values for VB

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    DESIGNATION
    CONTEXT
    VB
    IFR
    + INFORMAL
    EXS
    a
    FNC
    e
    RPS
    o
    AMG
    ä
    FML
    + FORMAL
    EXS
    ï
    FNC
    i/u
    RPS
    ë
    AMG
    ü
    +

    VB is a vocalic suffix indicating the Context and Designation of Referent-2; its + values are shown in Table 29 immediately above. The composite prefix (labeled CRR) + is a synthetic consonantal prefix formed from the combination of the Referent-1 + prefix and the Referent-2 prefix. For example, the combination of the prefix s- with the + prefix f- + renders the composite prefix sf-, + while the combination of the prefix t- + with the prefix k- + gives the composite g-. + Table 30 below illustrates how the 22 single-consonant prefixes combine with + each other. Those values grayed out on the table do not occur.
    +

    +

    Table 30: Personal Reference + Adjunct Prefixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    +
    Low Tone
     
    +
    High Tone
    2nd referent→
    +
    +
    +
    1st referent ↓
    h
    ř
    ç
    v
    l
    ň
    n
    m
    đ
    x
    ŧ
    f
    ž
    y
    z
    š
    w
    s
    p
    k
    t
    ma
    mi
    r
    hr
    rr
    çr
    vr
    ll
    ňr
    nr
    mr
    đr
    xr
    ŧr
    fr
    žr
    ry
    zr
    šr
    rw
    sr
    pr
    kr
    tr
    1
    1+ M
    t
    str
    tř
    çt
    nt
    tl
    gr
    štw
    stw
    zz
    xt
    ct
    tf
    j
    ty
    ż
    č
    tw
    c
    d
    g
    2m
    2m+M
    k
    skr
    kř
    çk
    ňk
    kl
    gw
    škw
    skw
    gđ
    kç
    kŧ
    kf
    gž
    ky
    gz
    kš
    kw
    ks
    b
    2u
    2u+M
    p
    spr
    př
    çp
    mp
    pl
    pç
    špw
    spw
    bđ
    xp
    pŧ
    pf
    bž
    py
    bz
    pš
    pw
    ps
    1+2m
    1+2m+M
    s
     
    sř
    sc
    ms
    sl
    sň
    sn
    sm
    žž
    sx
     
    sf
     
    ss
     
     
     
    1+2u+ma
    1+2u+mi
    w
     
    řw
    çw
    vw
    lw
    ňw
    nw
    mw
    đw
    xw
     
    fw
     
    hw
     
     
    1+2u
    1+2u+M
    š
     
    šř
    šč
    mš
    šl
    šň
    šn
    šm
    šš
    šx
    šŧ
    šf
     
    dy
     
    1+2m+ua
    1+2m+ui
    z
     
    zw
    st
    mz
    zl
    zg
     
    zm
    zd
    sk
     
    sp
     
    žd
    IDa
    IDi
    y
    çç
    řy
    cc
    vy
    ly
    dn
    ny
    my
    đy
    çm
    ŧy
    fy
    žb
    1+2u+ua
    1+2u+ui
    ž
     
    žw
    čč
    mž
    žl
    žg
    žn
    žm
    šw
    šk
    št
    šp
    2u+ma
    2u+mi
    f
    ff
    fř
    xv
    vv
    fl
    bl
    br
    bv
    ŧŧ
    hh
    zv
    1+ma
    1+mi
    ŧ
     
    ŧř
    xŧ
    nŧ
    ŧl
    dl
    dr
    dv
    đđ
    škl
    2m+ma
    2m+mi
    x
    xx
    rk
    çn
    ňx
    xl
    gv
    xn
    xm
    sŧ
    ua
    ui
    đ
    skl
    gř
    stl
    zb
    đl
    sw
    zn
    ŧw
    2u+ua
    2u+ui
    m
    hm
    mř
    špr
    mb
    ml
    ňň
    mm
    1+ua
    1+ui
    n
    hn
    nř
    štr
    nd
    nl
    nn
    2m+ua
    2m+ui
    ň
    hň
    řř
    škr
    ňg
    ňl
    Ea
    Ei
    l
    hl
    lk
    lt
    lp
    M
    Obv
    v
    špl
    štl
    spl
    Col
    Abt
    ç
    pst
    psk
    IPa
    IPi
    ř
    pšt
    1+2m+ma
    1+2m+mi
    h
    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    +     E = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)

    +
    +

    Note that when combining two referent prefixes to form the + composite prefix the tones associated with each referent must also be combined (remember + it is the distinction between low and high tone that expands the 22 single-consonant + referents into 44). Since all single-referent adjuncts are either of low + or high tone, their combination proceeds as follows:

    +
    +

    low + low → low
    + high + high → high
    + low + high → rising
    + high + low → falling

    +
    +

    As for the Referent-1 case infix, this is the same vocalic + case-affix (VK1) we saw for single-referent adjuncts in Sec. + 8.1.2 above (with the vocalic increment ending in -y- + or -w-). The + forms for these case infixes were given in Table 25.

    +

    Deferring for a moment the explanation of the Referent-2 consonantal + case suffix (CK2), + the last two terms of the dual-referent adjunct are Vg and Cb. + The former is one of four vocalic affixes representing the affiliation of Referent-2 (see Sec. 3.2), + while the latter is the consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. + 6.6. The use of Vg is optional if the affiliation of the referent is already known (or can be inferred) + from the context of the utterance. The appearance of the Cb bias suffix is dependent on the appearance of Vg. There are three different series Vg values for each of the four Affiliation categories (CSL - ASO - VAR - COA . These three series of four are arranged as follows:

    +
    +

    Vg variants:   (in the order CSL - ASO - VAR - COA)
    +     A)  a – u – o  – e                 B)  ai – ui – oi – ei              C) i – ü – ï/ë – iu

    +
    +

    The three different series of Vg values are utilized by the CK2 suffixes detailed in Table 31 below.

    +

    The four-way combination of Essence for Referent-1 and Referent-2 + respectively is shown by the four available stress patterns: penultimate stress indicates NORMAL + NORMAL, ultimate stress + indicates NORMAL + REPRESENTATIVE, antepenultimate + indicates REPRESENTATIVE + NORMAL, + and preantepenultimate indicates REPRESENTATIVE + REPRESENTATIVE. + (See Sec. 3.7 on + Essence)

    +

    shows Referents 1 and 2 + Essence respectively: penultimate = 1:NRM/1:NRM, ultimate = 1:NRM/2:RPV, +antepenultimate = 1:RPV/2:NRM, preantepenultmate = 1:RPV/2:RPV

    +

    The Referent-2 consonantal case suffix (CK2) + is a consonantal suffix associated with each of the 72 main noun cases (personal reference adjuncts marked for the specialized comparison cases, Nos. 73 - 96 cannot use dual-referent adjuncts). Note that + each of these case-frame adjunct markers has nine forms (a default form consisting of three variations in the consonantal form itself combined with the three series of the Vg affix). These nine variants are used to indicate the configuration + of Referent-2 (see Sec. + 3.1 on Configuration). The values for are shown in Tables 31 below.

    +


    + Table 31: CK2 Suffixes for Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
       
    CONFIGURATION OF REFERENT 2
     
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
     
    LABEL
    CASE
    Vg=A
    Vg=B
    Vg=C
    Vg=A
    Vg=B
    Vg=C
    Vg=A
    Vg=B
    Vg=C
    1
    OBL
    Oblique
    l
    →
    →
    rl
    →
    →
    çt
    →
    →
    2
    IND
    Inducive
    p
    →
    →
    rp
    →
    →
    lp
    →
    →
    3
    ABS
    Absolutive
    n
    →
    →
    rn
    →
    →
    ln
    →
    →
    4
    ERG
    Ergative
    m
    →
    →
    rm
    →
    →
    lm
    →
    →
    5
    EFF
    Effectuative
    ň
    →
    →
    rň
    →
    →
    lň
    →
    →
    6
    AFF
    Affective
    t
    →
    →
    rt
    →
    →
    lt
    →
    →
    7
    DAT
    Dative
    k
    →
    →
    rk
    →
    →
    lk
    →
    →
    8
    INS
    Instrumental
    r
    →
    →
    ňň
    →
    →
    lr
    →
    →
    9
    ACT
    Activative
    ç
    →
    →
    rç
    →
    →
    lç
    →
    →
    10
    DER
    Derivative
    v
    →
    →
    rv
    →
    →
    lv
    →
    →
    11
    SIT
    Situative
    đ
    →
    →
    rđ
    →
    →
    lđ
    →
    →
    12
    POS
    Possessive
    s
    →
    →
    rs
    →
    →
    ls
    →
    →
    13
    PRP
    Proprietive
    c
    →
    →
    rc
    →
    →
    lc
    →
    →
    14
    GEN
    Genitive
    š
    →
    →
    rš
    →
    →
    lš
    →
    →
    15
    ATT
    Attributive
    č
    →
    →
    rč
    →
    →
    lč
    →
    →
    16
    PDC
    Productive
    j
    →
    →
    rj
    →
    →
    lj
    →
    →
    17
    ITP
    Interpretative
    ż
    →
    →
    rż
    →
    →
    lż
    →
    →
    18
    OGN
    Originative
    rr
    →
    →
    sr
    →
    →
    šr
    →
    →
    19
    PAR
    Partitive
    ř
    →
    →
    kk
    →
    →
    ňr
    →
    →
    20
    CRS
    Constrastive
    řř
    →
    →
    hs
    →
    →
    hš
    →
    →
    21
    CPS
    Compositive
    ll
    →
    →
    sl
    →
    →
    šl
    →
    →
    22
    PRD
    Predicative
    nn
    →
    →
    tt
    →
    →
    nđ
    →
    →
    23
    MED
    Mediative
    mm
    →
    →
    pp
    →
    →
    mv
    →
    →
    24
    APL
    Applicative
    pf
    →
    →
    rpf
    →
    →
    lpf
    →
    →
    25
    PUR
    Purposive
    tf
    →
    →
    rtf
    →
    →
    ltf
    →
    →
    26
    CSD
    Considerative
    kf
    →
    →
    rkf
    →
    →
    lkf
    →
    →
    27
    ESS
    Essive
    f
    →
    →
    rf
    →
    →
    lf
    →
    →
    28
    ASI
    Assimilative
    ŧ
    →
    →
    rŧ
    →
    →
    lŧ
    →
    →
    29
    FUN
    Functive
    x
    →
    →
    rx
    →
    →
    lx
    →
    →
    30
    TFM
    Transformative
    ss
    →
    →
    nsk
    →
    →
    msk
    →
    →
    31
    REF
    Referential
    h
    →
    →
    rh
    →
    →
    lh
    →
    →
    32
    CLA
    Classificative
    šš
    →
    →
    nšt
    →
    →
    mšt
    →
    →
    33
    CNV
    Conductive
    ns
    →
    →
    nš
    →
    →
    nst
    →
    →
    34
    IDP
    Interdependent
    ms
    →
    →
    mš
    →
    →
    mst
    →
    →
    35
    BEN
    Benefactive
    ňs
    →
    →
    ňš
    →
    →
    ňst
    →
    →
    36
    TSP
    Transpositive
    ft
    →
    →
    rft
    →
    →
    lft
    →
    →
    37
    CMM
    Commutative
    g
    →
    →
    rg
    →
    →
    lg
    →
    →
    38
    COM
    Comitative
    z
    →
    →
    rz
    →
    →
    lz
    →
    →
    39
    CNJ
    Conjunctive
    b
    →
    →
    rb
    →
    →
    lb
    →
    →
    40
    UTL
    Utilitative
    d
    →
    →
    rd
    →
    →
    ld
    →
    →
    41
    ABE
    Abessive
    ž
    →
    →
    rž
    →
    →
    lž
    →
    →
    42
    CVS
    Conversive
    sp
    →
    →
    rsp
    →
    →
    lsp
    →
    →
    43
    CON
    Concessive
    šp
    →
    →
    ršp
    →
    →
    lšp
    →
    →
    44
    COR
    Correlative
    nt
    →
    →
    nŧ
    →
    →
    nd
    →
    →
    45
    DEP
    Dependent
    mp
    →
    →
    mf
    →
    →
    mb
    →
    →
    46
    PTL
    Postulative
    sk
    →
    →
    rsk
    →
    →
    sk
    →
    →
    47
    DFR
    Deferential
    šk
    →
    →
    ršk
    →
    →
    šk
    →
    →
    48
    EXC
    Exceptive
    st
    →
    →
    rst
    →
    →
    lst
    →
    →
    49
    PVS
    Provisional
    št
    →
    →
    ršt
    →
    →
    lšt
    →
    →
    50
    AVR
    Aversive
    ňk
    →
    →
    ňx
    →
    →
    ňg
    →
    →
    51
    CMP
    Comparative
    ff
    →
    →
    vv
    →
    →
    bv
    →
    →
    52
    SML
    Simultaneitive
    ŧŧ
    →
    →
    đđ
    →
    →
    dv
    →
    →
    53
    ASS
    Assessive
    xx
    →
    →
    ňt
    →
    →
    gv
    →
    →
    54
    CNR
    Concursive
    zz
    →
    →
    nz
    →
    →
    mz
    →
    →
    55
    ACS
    Accessive
    žž
    →
    →
    nž
    →
    →
    mž
    →
    →
    56
    DFF
    Diffusive
    fs
    →
    →
    pss
    →
    →
    kss
    →
    →
    57
    PER
    Periodic
    fš
    →
    →
    pšš
    →
    →
    kšš
    →
    →
    58
    PRO
    Prolapsive
    sf
    →
    →
    rsf
    →
    →
    lsf
    →
    →
    59
    PCV
    Precursive
    sŧ
    →
    →
    rsŧ
    →
    →
    lsŧ
    →
    →
    60
    PCR
    Postcursive
    pŧ
    →
    →
    rpŧ
    →
    →
    lpŧ
    →
    →
    61
    ELP
    Elapsive
    kŧ
    →
    →
    rkŧ
    →
    →
    lkŧ
    →
    →
    62
    ALP
    Allapsive
    šf
    →
    →
    ršf
    →
    →
    lšf
    →
    →
    63
    INP
    Interpolative
    šŧ
    →
    →
    ršŧ
    →
    →
    lšŧ
    →
    →
    64
    EPS
    Episodic
    pt
    →
    →
    rpt
    →
    →
    lpt
    →
    →
    65
    PRL
    Prolimitive
    kt
    →
    →
    rkt
    →
    →
    lkt
    →
    →
    66
    LIM
    Limitative
    nç
    →
    →
    hc
    →
    →
    hč
    →
    →
    67
    LOC
    Locative
    xt
    →
    →
    rxt
    →
    →
    lxt
    →
    →
    68
    ORI
    Orientative
    çç
    →
    →
    cc
    →
    →
    čč
    →
    →
    69
    PSV
    Procursive
    ps
    →
    →
    bz
    →
    →
    pst
    →
    →
    70
    ALL
    Allative
    pš
    →
    →
    bž
    →
    →
    pšt
    →
    →
    71
    ABL
    Ablative
    ks
    →
    →
    gz
    →
    →
    kst
    →
    →
    72
    NAV
    Navigative
    kš
    →
    →
    gž
    →
    →
    kšt
    →
    →
    +


    + 8.1.3.1 Special Use of Short Adjunct Form. The short form of + the single-referent adjunct discussed in Sec. 8.1.2 above (utilizing the abbreviated VK suffix from Table 24) can be used with the special dual-referent CRR composite prefixes from Table 30 under the following + circumstance: to show that two different parties are governed by the same case + and participate equally with the verb, equivalent to connecting two pronouns + in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or The man looked at them and me. Examples: ksau, xlú. + Note in the last example xlú how the combination of a low-toned referent and a high-toned referent combines +to give a rising-toned adjunct.

    +

    8.1.3.2 Illustration of a Dual-Referent Adjunct: + Based on the above information, we can now analyze an example dual-referent + adjunct:

    +

    gro-i’yálsëç

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ( + )-
    =
    		INFORMAL designation, UNIPLEX configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation for Referent No. 1
    -gr -
    =
    		combination of Referent No. 1, t- , 1m, + plus Referent No. 2, ň¯, 2m+ui
    [rising tone]
    =
    		combination of low tone of Referent No. 1 and high tone of Referent No. 2
    -o-i’y-
    =
    		ALLATIVE case infix (meaning ‘toward X’) for Referent No. 1
    -a-
    =
    		INFORMAL designation and EXISTENTIAL context for Referent No. 2
    -ls-
    =
    		POSSESSIVE case and MULTIFORM configuration for Referent No. 2
    -ë-
    =
    		VARIATIVE affiliation for Referent No. 2
    -ç
    =
    		REACTIVE bias
    [stress]
    =
    		penultimate stress indicating NORMAL essence for both Referents Nos. 1 and 2
    +

    Approximate translation: toward me + what belongs to a rag-tag amalgamation of you (singular) and all those things + [sense of surprise].

    +

    While such a word might seem contrived at first, it nevertheless + proves quite functional in a sentence such as the following (which a Star Trek© character might say to a Borg after the latter has produced an “assimilated” + spider from its pocket and let it loose during the night):

    +
    +

    Gro-i’yálsëç  xamstīelŧ.
    + 1m/ALL-2m+ui/POS/VAR/MLT-RAC     IFL-OPR-‘ambulate’-PRX/M/ASO/SEG-STR2/3
    + Hey! Something belonging to you and your hodge-podge of parts is crawling toward me!
    +

    +
    +

    Other examples of the use of dual-referent personal reference adjuncts are +given below.

    +
    +

    Uzgăt  tra’wap  zmäāwal.
    +     FML-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI   mi/OBL-1m/IND    IFL-‘valley’-LOC-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + I bought it in the valley.

    +

    Đrëu’yìrňu  wufyér?
    + mi/REF-ua/FML/FNC/REF/AGG/ASO     IRG-FML-OPR-‘inquiry’-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
    + Is it those formally recognized groups of people who are helping to make inquiries about it?

    +

    Hlŭakya  škwi’wap.
    +     EXP-IFL/RSL    -OPR-‘congratulate’    2m/DAT-1m+ua/IND
    + We (I and the others) offer you our congratulations.

    +
    +


    + 8.1.4 Use of the Switch Reference Suffix

    +

    In Section + 7.4.13, the SWR switch reference suffix was introduced. + This affix works with the OBVIATIVE personal referent + (see Sec. 8.1.1.7) to specifically indicate which + party is being referred to. The following is a review of this affix for all + nine degrees. By use of this affix, reference can be made immediately to any + party relevant to a discourse, even to a third party not previously mentioned.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2_’/kw
    SWR
    		Switch Reference & Obviative Specification
    Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
    Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
    Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
    Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
    Degree 5first referent + mentioned
    Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
    Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
    Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
    Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
    +

    The following example illustrates the use of the switch reference suffix:

    +

    Lawöól  alüùl  teo  ukše-ulă’  xakkā  va’yạ’  żżüwül  vei’wiekwạ.
    + IFL-OPR-‘speak’-PCR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI      IFL-‘brother’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI      1m-GEN     FML-‘clown’-DAT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPF1/5      IFL-OPR-‘run’-ICP/M/CSL/UNI       OBV/IND-SWR/5       IFL-‘pet dog’-ALL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI      OBV/PRP-SWR/3
    + After my brother spoke to the clown, he [my brother] began running toward his [a third party’s] pet dog.

    +


    +

    + + + + +
    8.2 ASPECTUAL ADJUNCTS
    +

    As we saw in Section 6.7, Aspect can be shown as the Vp suffix to a valence/modality adjunct, in addition to the its “standard ”position as an infix to a formative. However, in the absence of any valence/modality adjunct, and as another alternative to infixing Vp within a formative, Aspect can also be conveyed by simply using the Vp affix as its own autonomous adjunct.

    +

    Examples (compare these to the examples in Sec. 5.6.3):

    +
    +

    Ia  anyût  lülùlt  teo.
    + CLM    IFL-OPR-‘choose’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘brother’-IND-CFD1/9    1M-GEN
    + My over-confident brother made a choice once and for all.

    +

    Akkäàl  ui  usét.
    + IFL-‘woman’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     RGR    FML-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI
    + The woman returned to singing.

    +

    Au  ççwaralaruëèŧ  güliëèn.
    + PCL    HOR-IFL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    8.3 AFFIXUAL ADJUNCTS
    +

    Any Type-1 or Type-2 VX-C formative suffix described in Chapter 7 may be + removed from the formative and positioned as an adjacent adjunct for purposes + of euphony (i.e., to reduce the number of syllables in the formative). Additionally, since affix categories represent common concepts generally + applicable to many contexts, an affixual adjunct can also be informally used + as a “short cut” method of conveying a notion, essentially as an + abbreviated one-word sentence somewhat like an interjection or exclamation in + English, thus conveying the concept of the affix category. For example, the + affix -V1j/7 connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, ïj, + it can be used by itself as an informal expression translatable by the English + phrase How typical!

    +

    Example:

    +
    +

    Ççwa’lauralaruëèŧ  güliëèn.   →   Au  ëŧ  ççwaralàr  güliëèn.
    + HOR-IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-PCL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + →   PCL    EXT2/6    HOR-IFL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    8.4 COMBINATION ADJUNCTS
    +

    This section is under construction.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    8.5 BIAS ADJUNCTS
    +

    Section + 6.6.1 describes the standard ways in which Bias is shown on valence/modality adjuncts + and on formatives. And in Sec. 8.1.2, we saw how the conjunct + form of a single-referent personal reference adjunct can take an optional affix, Cb, + to indicate Bias. In the absence of these + possibilities, the Bias suffix (shown in Table 21 of Sec. + 6.6.1), like affixual adjuncts described above in Section 8.3, can stand alone as an autonomous adjunct. Such a Bias adjunct can be used to informally convey one’s attitude toward + a situation. For example, if one wishes to convey a sense of awe, one could + state the Ilaksh equivalent to the sentence, I feel a sense of awe! or one can simply hiss out a long s-sound, ‘ss,’ + which is the intensive form of the affix for the STUPEFACTIVE bias category, whose translation can be approximated by the English expressions + ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’

    +

    Other examples would be the expression ‘çç’ to signify fulfillment and contentment, the equivalent to a long sigh of satisfaction + ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression ‘kšš’to convey contempt and disgust, similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ + or ‘What bullshit!’

    +

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 9: Syntax >>

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    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_8.html.orig b/2004-en/Chapter_8.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0b14c5f --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_8.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,3652 @@ + + + + +Chapter 8 + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
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    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Affixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 8: Adjuncts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      8.1 Personal Reference Adjuncts  8.4 Combination Adjuncts  
      8.2 Aspectual Adjuncts  8.5 Bias Adjuncts  
      8.3 Affixual Adjuncts    
    +

    The notion of adjuncts was introduced in Section + 2.6.2. We have already discussed details of some kinds of adjuncts — valence adjuncts and modality adjuncts were introduced in Chapter + 6. In this chapter, several +additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    8.1 PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS
    +
    +

    The first type of adjunct we will analyze are those relating + to personal reference. By “personal reference” is meant the grammatical + description of nouns by abbreviated forms of reference. In most languages, this + is accomplished by means of personal pronouns (e.g., English he, she, it, I, + you, him, her, mine, ours, etc.). Generally, personal pronouns are distinguished + by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) and case (e.g., compare English + we, us, and ours). Ilaksh accomplishes the equivalent function by means of + personal reference adjuncts, of which there are two types: single-referent and + dual-referent.

    +

    Like other adjuncts in Ilaksh, personal reference adjuncts are + highly synthetic in their structure, comprised of at least two morphemes and + usually more. Before we examine the componential structure of personal reference + adjuncts themselves, we must first introduce the personal reference categories + they refer to.

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO PERSONS FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    Personal reference adjuncts in Ilaksh operate nearly identically to those of Ithkuil, the sole differences being the elimination of two personal reference categories (the generic animate and the generic inanimate) and the fact that the actual phonological markers for the various referents and their cases are, of course, different in many cases from those of Ithkuil.

    +


    + 8.1.1 Personal Reference Categories

    +

    The morpho-semantic delineations of Ilaksh personal reference + categorization are based on inclusion or exclusion in relation to an utterance. + These delineations begin with identifying whether or not the party speaking + is included or excluded in relation to the utterance. The next delineation made + is whether the party being addressed (i.e., the audience/listener) is included + or excluded, then finally whether any third party (i.e., a party other than + the speaker and the addressee) is included or excluded.

    +

    There are 46 personal reference categories in Ilaksh, each + of which is represented by a single consonant affix plus a corresponding low + or high tone as shown in Table 23 below. The various terms and abbreviations + used in the table are explained following the table.
    +

    +

    Table 23(a) + and (b): Personal Reference Categories

    +
    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    PRONOUNCED WITH LOW TONE
     LabelSpeaker Included Addressee Included 3rd Party Included
    t
    		1mYES——
    s
    		1+2mYESmonadic—
    š
    		1+2uYESunbounded—
    k
    		2m—monadic—
    p
    		2u—unbounded—
    r
    		ma——monadic animate
    đ
    		ua——unbounded animate
    ç
    		Col——Collective
    l
    		Ea——universal animate
    y
    		IDa——indefinite animate
    v
    		M——mixed m/p/a/i
    ř
    		IPa——impersonal animate
    ŧ
    		1+maYES—monadic animate
    n
    		1+uaYES—unbounded animate
    x
    		2m+ma—monadicmonadic animate
    ň
    		2m+ua—monadicunbounded animate
    f
    		2u+ma—unboundedmonadic animate
    m
    		2u+ua—unboundedunbounded animate
    h
    		1+2m+maYESmonadicmonadic animate
    z
    		1+2m+uaYESmonadicunbounded animate
    w
    		1+2u+maYESunboundedmonadic animate
    ž
    		1+2u+uaYESunboundedunbounded animate
    		 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    PRONOUNCED WITH HIGH TONE
     LabelSpeaker Included Addressee Included 3rd Party Included
    t
    		1m+MYES—mixed m/p/a/i
    s
    		1+2m+MYESmonadicmixed m/p/a/i
    š
    		1+2u+MYESunboundedmixed m/p/a/i
    k
    		2m+M—monadicmixed m/p/a/i
    p
    		2u+M—unboundedmixed m/p/a/i
    r
    		mi——monadic inanimate
    đ
    		ui——unbounded inanimate
    ç
    		Abt——Abstract
    l
    		Ei——universal inanimate
    y
    		IDi——indefinite inanimate
    v
    		Obv——Obviative
    ř
    		IPi——impersonal inanimate
    ŧ
    		1+miYES—monadic inanimate
    n
    		1+uiYES—unbounded inanimate
    x
    		2m+mi—monadicmonadic inanimate
    ň
    		2m+ui—monadicunbounded inanimate
    f
    		2u+mi—unboundedmonadic inanimate
    m
    		2u+ui—unboundedunbounded inanimate
    h
    		1+2m+miYESmonadicmonadic inanimate
    z
    		1+2m+uiYESmonadicunbounded inanimate
    w
    		1+2u+miYESunboundedmonadic inanimate
    ž
    		1+2u+uiYESunboundedunbounded inanimate
    +
    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    +     E = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)
    +

    +
    +

    The following sections explain the terminology in the above + table.

    +

    8.1.1.1 Monadic vs. Unbounded. These terms were discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.3 on Perspective. For simplicity’s sake, the difference between + a MONADIC third party versus an UNBOUNDED third party can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ + and ‘they.’

    +

    8.1.1.2 Speaker and Addressee. These terms refer respectively to the party + speaking (in Western grammar the first person), the party being spoken to (the + second person), and a third party being considered or mentioned (the third person). + Unlike the standard six-person matrix common in Western grammar (the three persons + divided into singular and plural), Ilaksh divides personal reference along + logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance.

    +

    From the viewpoint of Ilaksh grammar, only a single individual + can speak. Even if there are two or more persons speaking the same utterance + simultaneously it is but a collection of single individuals, each of which is + one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ilaksh, the speaker, + can be only MONADIC, never UNBOUNDED. + Thus, in Ilaksh, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” + since inherent in the various categories which translate “we” is + the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From this + we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s + utterance that determines the various personal reference categories.

    +

    The “second person” in Ilaksh is the addressee, + the person(s) being addressed or spoken to. There can be one addressee, or more + than one addressee, i.e., MONADIC or UNBOUNDED.

    +

    The “third person” in Ilaksh is where things get + very complicated, in that a party being referenced who is not the speaker or + the addressee can have many distinctions, including the presence or absence + of animacy, being MONADIC versus UNBOUNDED, + being referred to as a collective entity, being an intangible abstraction, being + indefinite, being an impersonal generic reference, or being a combination of + two or more of these categories. These distinctions are explained below.

    +

    8.1.1.3 Animate vs. Inanimate. This is as it sounds. As we saw in earlier chapters, + particularly Sec. 4.1, several + important morphological categories in Ilaksh are dependent on whether the party + to the act, condition, or event is a living entity or inanimate. Note that the + distinction between gender (he vs. she) found in most Western languages does + not exist in the Ilaksh personal reference system.

    +

    8.1.1.4 “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible for the third + party being referenced to be two or more entities of different natures. For + example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” where + “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic + animate entity), three boxes (i.e., a polyadic inanimate entity), and an intangible + concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract entity). In such + cases, Ilaksh personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” + parties to be included in a particular personal referent.

    +

    8.1.1.5 Collective Reference. This corresponds to the NOMIC Perspective in which a noun can be spoken of as a generic collective. For example, + the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast refers to all dogs in a collective sense, not any dog in particular. This COLLECTIVE category has its own set of personal reference affixes in Ilaksh, depending + on what other entities are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.6 Abstract Reference. This corresponds to the ABSTRACT perspective, equivalent to derivational abstract forms such as English nouns + ending with -hood, -ness, etc. In Ilaksh, all nouns can be + spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the + sense of being or functioning as a book), and the personal reference system + provides affixes for this category whose form again depends on what other entities + are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.7 Obviative (4th Person) Reference. This category has no equivalent in + Western languages, although it is found in various Native American languages. + It refers to a third party referent other than one previously mentioned, which + would otherwise be identically marked. In Native American grammatical treatises, + this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. + For example, the English sentence He saw his book is ambiguous because + we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer to the + same person or to two different persons (i.e., one who did the seeing and another + who owns the book). In Ilaksh, no such ambiguity occurs because the latter + third person referent, if a distinct person from the initial third person referent, + would be marked using the OBVIATIVE, not the third person. + This disambiguation of third person referents is the purpose of the OBVIATIVE. + Its translation into English is therefore dependent on a preceding personal + referent. (See Sec. 8.1.4 below for more information + about the OBVIATIVE).

    +

    8.1.1.8 Indefinite Reference. This category indicates that the third party + refers to any third party within the specified parameters. For example, the + referent y indicates an indefinite animate party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or + ‘anybody,’ while the referent y¯ indicates an indefinite inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’

    +

    8.1.1.9 Universal Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers + to every third party within the specified parameters. For example, the referent l indicates a universal animate party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or + ‘everybody,’ while the referent l¯ indicates a universal inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’

    +

    8.1.1.10 Impersonal Reference. This category corresponds to the German pronoun man or French pronoun on, as well as the various circumlocutions + used in English to describe impersonal reference (e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ + ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). + Such impersonal reference is illustrated in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    · One should + never speak to clowns alone.
    + · To dance the tango you need a partner.
    + · They say it never rains in August.
    + · That town is said to be haunted.
    + · She just wants to talk to someone without being criticized.

    +
    +

    8.1.1.11 Inclusivity vs. Exclusivity. Since + Ilaksh personal reference adjuncts are designed to specify who among the speaker, + addressee(s), and any third party is included or excluded in the context of + the utterance, there are many possible personal reference distinctions possible + in Ilaksh for which English has no equivalent pronouns. Such exacting distinctions + would have to be made periphrastically in English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ + the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and + he but not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English + word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings equivalent to ‘you + (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ + ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and those things,’ etc.

    +


    + 8.1.2 Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    Adjuncts with one personal referent are termed single-referent + adjuncts and have three forms: (1) a short form, (2) a long form, and (3) a + conjunct form, as shown in Table 24 below.
    +

    +

    Table 24: + Morphological Structure of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Form 1: CR + VK Example: p(w/high tone) + oi → pōi
    Form 2: (Va) + CR + VK1 + Vz Example:
    + au + t(w/high tone) + iw + u +     [tone shift] → autí’wu
    Form 3: (Va) + CR + VK1 + Vd + Cs (+ Vz + (Cb))Example:
    + o + k     + uiw + e + st + e     + çç → okui’westeçç
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Where: 
    CR =
    		consonant indicating + Referent 1 [from Table 23 above]
    VK =
    		short form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table + 25 below]
    Va =
    		vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, Designation & Focus of Referent + 1
    + _____ (see Table 26 below)
    VK1 =
    		long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 [see Table + 25 below]
    Vz =
    		vocalic suffix + (+ stress) showing Context and Extension of Referent 1 + [see Table + 27 below]
    Vd =
    		vocalic infix + showing degree of Cs (see Table 27 below)
    Cs =
    		consonantal suffix + for Referent 1 from standard suffix tables
    Cb =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 21 in Sec. + 6.6))
    Form + 2:
    		Ultimate stress = shortcut for FML designation in absence of Va
    Form + 3:
    		Stress pattern + shows affix-type: penultimate = V1C, + ultimate = V2C, antepenultimate + = V3C
    Forms
    + 1, 2, & 3    :
    		Tone + shift shows RPV essence for Referent 1: low → falling, high → rising
    +

    +

    The short form of the adjunct consists of a single consonant + (labeled CR in the diagram) plus tone, + corresponding to one of the 44 particular referents (as described in Sec. + 8.1.1 above). This is followed by a single vocalic suffix VK indicating the case of the personal referent (see Chapter 4 on Case). The 81 + possible values for this suffix are shown in Table 25 below.
    +

    +

    Table 25: Case Suffixes/Infixes +for Personal Reference Adjuncts

    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Label
    CASE
    VK
    VK1
    1
    OBL
    Oblique
    a
    -a’w-
    2
    IND
    Inducive
    ia
    -a’y-
    3
    ABS
    Absolutive
    e
    -e’w-
    4
    ERG
    Ergative
    o
    -o’w-
    5
    EFF
    Effectuative
    u
    -u’w-
    6
    AFF
    Affective
    ua
    -u’y-
    7
    DAT
    Dative
    i
    -i’w-
    8
    INS
    Instrumental
    ö
    -ö’w-
    9
    ACT
    Activative
    ü
    -ü’w-
    10
    DER
    Derivative
    ä
    -ä’w-
    11
    SIT
    Situative
    öi
    -öi’w-
    12
    POS
    Possessive
    ai
    -ai’w-
    13
    PRP
    Proprietive
    ei
    -ei’w-
    14
    GEN
    Genitive
    eo
    -i’y-
    15
    ATT
    Attributive
    oi
    -oi’w-
    16
    PDC
    Productive
    äi
    -äi’w-
    17
    ITP
    Interpretative
    ëi
    -ëi’w-
    18
    OGN
    Originative
    ui
    -ui’w-
    19
    PAR
    Partitive
    ëu
    -ëu’w-
    20
    CRS
    Contrastive
    äu
    -äu’w-
    21
    CPS
    Compositive
    öu
    -öu’w-
    22
    PRD
    Predicative
    öe
    -ë’w-
    23
    MED
    Mediative
    eö
    -ë’y-
    24
    APL
    Applicative
    au
    -au’w-
    25
    PUR
    Purposive
    eu
    -eu’w-
    26
    CSD
    Considerative
    ea
    -e’y-
    27
    ESS
    Essive
    aú
    -a-u’y-
    28
    ASI
    Assimilative
    eú
    -e-u’y-
    29
    FUN
    Functive
    iú
    -i-u’y-
    30
    TFM
    Transformative
    oú
    -o-u’y-
    31
    REF
    Referential
    ëú
    -ëu’y-
    32
    CLA
    Classificative
    oa
    -o’y-
    33
    CNV
    Conductive
    ou
    -ou’w-
    34
    IDP
    Interdependent
    öé
    -öe’y-
    35
    BEN
    Benefactive
    ie
    -eu’y-
    36
    TSP
    Transpositive
    ue
    -iu’y-
    37
    CMM
    Commutative
    i-u
    -ä’y-
    38
    COM
    Comitative
    io
    -ö’y-
    39
    CNJ
    Conjunctive
    uo
    -uo’w-
    40
    UTL
    Utilitative
    iu
    -ü’y-
    41
    ABE
    Abessive
    ao
    -au’y-
    42
    CVS
    Conversive
    aé
    a-e’y
    43
    COR
    		Correlative
    ë
    -iu’w-
    44
    DEP
    		Dependent
    ä-í
    -ai’y-
    45
    PVS
    Provisional
    ió
    -io’y-
    46
    PTL
    Postulative
    iá
    -ia’y-
    47
    DFR
    Deferential
    uá
    -ua’y-
    48
    CON
    Concessive
    aó
    -ea’w-
    		 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Label
    CASE
    VK
    VK1
    49
    EXC
    Exceptive
    eó
    -eo’y-
    50
    AVR
    Aversive
    ö-í
    -ö-i’y-
    51
    CMP
    Comparative
    ë-í
    -ëi’y-
    52
    SML
    Simultaneitive
    aö
    -oi’y-
    53
    ASS
    Assessive
    ö-á
    -öi’y-
    54
    CNR
    Concursive
    ié
    -ie’y-
    55
    ACS
    Accessive
    ué
    -ue’y-
    56
    DFF
    Diffusive
    uó
    -uo’y-
    57
    PER
    Periodic
    oe
    -oe’w-
    58
    PRO
    Prolapsive
    oé
    -oe’y-
    59
    PCV
    Precursive
    eá
    -ea’y-
    60
    PCR
    Postcursive
    oá
    -oa’y-
    61
    ELP
    Elapsive
    öa
    -oa’w-
    62
    ALP
    Allapsive
    üa
    -ua’w-
    63
    INP
    Interpolative
    öá
    -öa’y-
    64
    EPS
    Episodic
    üo
    -io’w-
    65
    PRL
    Prolimitive
    üó
    -ie’w-
    66
    LIM
    Limitative
    üá
    -ia’w-
    67
    LOC
    Locative
    a-í
    -a-i’y-
    68
    ORI
    Orientative
    e-í
    -e-i’y-
    69
    PSV
    Procursive
    iö
    -iö’w-
    70
    ALL
    Allative
    o-í
    -o-i’y-
    71
    ABL
    Ablative
    u-í
    -u-i’y
    72
    NAV
    Navigative
    uö
    -uö’w-
    73
    CMP1A
    Comparative1A
    iai
    a-i’w
    74
    CMP2A
    Comparative2A
    iei
    e-i’w
    75
    CMP3A
    Comparative3A
    ioi
    o-i’w
    76
    CMP4A
    Comparative4A
    i-ui
    -i-u’w
    77
    CMP5A
    Comparative5A
    uai
    -a-u’w
    78
    CMP6A
    Comparative6A
    uei
    -e-u’w
    79
    CMP7A
    Comparative7A
    u-iu
    u-i’w
    80
    CMP8A
    Comparative8A
    uoi
    -o-u’w
    81
    CMP1B
    Comparative1B
    iái
    -üa’y-
    82
    CMP2B
    Comparative2B
    iéi
    -ei’y-
    83
    CMP3B
    Comparative3B
    iói
    ao’y
    84
    CMP4B
    Comparative4B
    iúi
    -ui’y-
    85
    CMP5B
    Comparative5B
    uái
    -üa’w-
    86
    CMP6B
    Comparative6B
    uéi
    -ue’w-
    87
    CMP7B
    Comparative7B
    uíu
    -eo’w-
    88
    CMP8B
    Comparative8B
    uói
    -üo’w-
    89
    CMP1C
    Comparative1C
    iau
    -äu’y-
    90
    CMP2C
    Comparative2C
    ieu
    -eö’y-
    91
    CMP3C
    Comparative3C
    iou
    -ou’y-
    92
    CMP4C
    Comparative4C
    eai
    -iö’y-
    93
    CMP5C
    Comparative5C
    oai
    -uö’y-
    94
    CMP6C
    Comparative6C
    eau
    ao’w
    95
    CMP7C
    Comparative7C
    iéu
    a-e’w
    96
    CMP8C
    Comparative8C
    ióu
    -eö’w-
    +


    + As for the long form of the adjunct, the first part is an optional + vocalic prefix Va which indicates the Configuration, Affiliation, and Designation of the personal +referent (see Chapter 3 for a discussion of these morphological categories). The possible values for Va are shown in Tables 26 below.

    +


    + Table 26:     V    a Prefixes for Single-Referent Personal Reference Aduncts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    + DESIGNATION

    + AFFILIATION
    CONFIGURATION
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
     
    +
    IFL
    CSL
    a
    au
    ai
    ia
    ua
    ya
    yo
    ea
    iö
    ASO
    u
    iu
    ui
    ie
    ue
    yu
    yë
    ae
    ao
    VAR
    e
    eu
    ei
    io
    uo
    ye
    yö
    oa
    oe
    COA
    i
    ou
    oi
    ië
    uë
    yi
    yä
    eo
    uö
     
    +
    FML
    CSL
    o
    wa
    wo
    äi
    äu
    wai
    yau
    wia
    yua
    ASO
    ü
    wu
    wë
    ë
    ï
    wui
    yiu
    wie
    yue
    VAR
    ö
    we
    wö
    ëi
    ëu
    wei
    yeu
    wio
    yuo
    COA
    ä
    wi
    wä
    öi
    öu
    woi
    you
    wië
    yuë
    +
    +
    +

    The second part of the long form of the adjunct is the single consonant (CR) + plus tone shown previously in Table 23, corresponding + to the personal referent. The third part of the long form of the adjunct is + a syllabic infix (VK1) + which shows the case of the personal referent; it is a combination of a vowel + or diphthong followed by the consonant y or w. + The 96 possible values for this infix are shown in the righthand columns of Table 25 above. + The final term of the long form of the adjunct is a single vowel suffix -Vz which indicates the Context and Extension of the personal + referent (see Sec. +3.5 on Context). The values for this -Vz suffix are shown in Table 27 below.

    +

    As for the third type, or conjunct form of the adjunct, the + first three terms of are identical to those of the long-form. The new terms + are Cs, + which is merely a standard suffix used with formatives, as analyzed in Sec. + 7.4, and a vocalic infix, Vd, + which indicates the degree and affix-type of Cs. + The values of Vd are shown in Table 27 below. The affix-type of Cs is shown by the adjunct’s stress pattern (penultimate stress = Type 1, ultimate stress = Type 2, antepenultimate = Type 3). Optional terms are Vz, + the same term as explained in the preceding paragraph indicating the Context and Extension of the personal + referent, and Cb, the Bias suffix discussed in Section 6.6. The use of optional elements in these adjunct is unnecessary if the particular category indicated by the optional element is already known (or can be inferred) + from the utterance. Note that the appearance of the bias suffix Cb is dependent on the appearance of Vz, as indicated by the nested pattern of parentheses + shown in Table 24 above.
    +

    +

    Table 27(a) and (b) : + Values for Vd and Vz

    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Vd
    Degree 1
    i
    Degree 2
    e
    Degree 3
    ä
    Degree 4
    ö
    Degree 5
    a
    Degree 6
    ü
    Degree 7
    ï/ë
    Degree 8
    o
    Degree 9
    u
    		 +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Vz
     
    EXS
    FNC
    SYM
    AMG
    DEL
    a
    u
    au
    iu
    PRX
    ai
    ui
    eu
    ëu
    ICP
    i
    ü
    ou
    ï
    TRM
    ö
    ëi
    öi
    öu
    DPL
    o
    e
    äi
    äu
    GRD
    oi
    ei
    ea
    oa
    +
    +

    For all three forms of the adjunct, shift from low to falling tone, or from high to rising, indicates the REPRESENTATIVE essence of the personal referent.

    +

    8.1.2.1 Use of the Short Form. The short form + of a single-referent personal reference adjunct is used when it is clear from + the surrounding context of the utterance which previously identified noun participant + is being referred to, so that it is unnecessary to indicate the Configuration, + Affiliation, Designation, Extension, and Context of the referent. The short form + of the adjunct merely indicates the party itself and its case.

    +

    8.1.2.2 Use of the Long Form: The long form + of the adjunct is used when necessary to indicate the Context and Extension, and/or the Configuration, + Affiliation, and Designation of the referent when the surrounding sentences + do not provide or make clear this information.

    +

    8.1.2.3 Use of the Conjunct Form: Form 3 of + the adjunct, the conjunct form, is a single-referent adjunct which combines + with a standard formative affix, allowing an affix category (and a Bias category if desired) to be applied to + a personal referent, just as an affix category would normally apply to the formative + to which it is affixed.

    +

    8.1.2.4 Examples of Single-Referent Personal Reference +Adjuncts in Use

    +
    +

    Teo  fwò-ul  ilákš  ujtavépla.
    + 1m-GEN    IFL-‘male maternal cousin’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/CST       FML-EFC/CTX/IPU-OPR-‘study’-TRM/M/CSL/UNI
    + My cousin has finally learned Ilaksh.

    +

    Hlŭakya  nia.
    +     EXP-IFL/RSL    -OPR-‘congratulate’    1m+ua-IND
    + We (I and the others) offer our congratulations.

    +

    Rü  n-nwà  aktlàc  utputānukt.
    + ma/ACT    CRD    IFL-MNF-‘woman’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI    FML-‘travel’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI-AGC1/5-DEF1/9
    + She thinks the travelers are women.

    +

    Äđü  iň-ňmà  atác.
    + CSL/DPX-ua-ACT    RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
    + The two of them like writing to each other.

    +
    +

     

    +

    8.1.3 Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    Ilaksh allows a personal reference adjunct to show the personal + reference category and associated case for two separate parties all in one adjunct. + This is called a dual-referent adjunct and serves to combine two unrelated personal + referents into one adjunct, no matter what their associated cases may be. There + is only one form of a dual-referent adjunct, shown in Table 28 below.

    +


    + Table 28: Morphological Structure + of a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

    + + + + + + + + +

    Form 3:

    +

    (Va) + CRR + VK1 + VB + CK2 (+ Vg + (Cb))
    +

    Example: : ûksai'wénz
    + Examples:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Where: 
    Va =
    		vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, & Designation of Referent + 1
    + _____ (see Table 26 above)
    CRR =
    		consonant(s) + indicating Referent 1 and Referent 2 (see Table + 30 below)
    VK1 =
    		long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 (see Table + 25 above)
    VB =
    		vocalic infix + showing Context & Designation of Referent 2 (see Table + 29 below)
    CK2 =
    		consonantal suffix + showing Case and Configuration of Referent 2 (see Table + 31; 9 degrees of case suffix correspond to the 9 configurations)
    Vg =
    		vocalic suffix + showing Affiliation of Referent 2 (see Table + 31)
    Cb =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 21 in Sec. + 6.6)
    Tone =
    		Combinations + of Ref. 1& 2:
    + _____ low + low = low, high + + high = high, low + high = rising,
    + _____ high + low = falling
    Stress =
    		shows Referents 1 and 2 + Essence respectively: penultimate = 1:NRM/1:NRM, ultimate = 1:NRM/2:RPV, + antepenultimate = 1:RPV/2:NRM, preantepenultmate = 1:RPV/2:RPV
    +

     

    +

    Table 29: Values for VB

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    DESIGNATION
    CONTEXT
    VB
    IFR
    + INFORMAL
    EXS
    a
    FNC
    e
    RPS
    o
    AMG
    ä
    FML
    + FORMAL
    EXS
    ï
    FNC
    i/u
    RPS
    ë
    AMG
    ü
    +

    VB is a vocalic suffix indicating the Context and Designation of Referent-2; its + values are shown in Table 29 immediately above. The composite prefix (labeled CRR) + is a synthetic consonantal prefix formed from the combination of the Referent-1 + prefix and the Referent-2 prefix. For example, the combination of the prefix s- with the + prefix f- + renders the composite prefix sf-, + while the combination of the prefix t- + with the prefix k- + gives the composite g-. + Table 30 below illustrates how the 22 single-consonant prefixes combine with + each other. Those values grayed out on the table do not occur.
    +

    +

    Table 30: Personal Reference + Adjunct Prefixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    +
    Low Tone
     
    +
    High Tone
    2nd referent→
    +
    +
    +
    1st referent ↓
    h
    ř
    ç
    v
    l
    ň
    n
    m
    đ
    x
    ŧ
    f
    ž
    y
    z
    š
    w
    s
    p
    k
    t
    ma
    mi
    r
    hr
    rr
    çr
    vr
    ll
    ňr
    nr
    mr
    đr
    xr
    ŧr
    fr
    žr
    ry
    zr
    šr
    rw
    sr
    pr
    kr
    tr
    1
    1+ M
    t
    str
    tř
    çt
    nt
    tl
    gr
    štw
    stw
    zz
    xt
    ct
    tf
    j
    ty
    ż
    č
    tw
    c
    d
    g
    2m
    2m+M
    k
    skr
    kř
    çk
    ňk
    kl
    gw
    škw
    skw
    gđ
    kç
    kŧ
    kf
    gž
    ky
    gz
    kš
    kw
    ks
    b
    2u
    2u+M
    p
    spr
    př
    çp
    mp
    pl
    pç
    špw
    spw
    bđ
    xp
    pŧ
    pf
    bž
    py
    bz
    pš
    pw
    ps
    1+2m
    1+2m+M
    s
     
    sř
    sc
    ms
    sl
    sň
    sn
    sm
    žž
    sx
     
    sf
     
    ss
     
     
     
    1+2u+ma
    1+2u+mi
    w
     
    řw
    çw
    vw
    lw
    ňw
    nw
    mw
    đw
    xw
     
    fw
     
    hw
     
     
    1+2u
    1+2u+M
    š
     
    šř
    šč
    mš
    šl
    šň
    šn
    šm
    šš
    šx
    šŧ
    šf
     
    dy
     
    1+2m+ua
    1+2m+ui
    z
     
    zw
    st
    mz
    zl
    zg
     
    zm
    zd
    sk
     
    sp
     
    žd
    IDa
    IDi
    y
    çç
    řy
    cc
    vy
    ly
    dn
    ny
    my
    đy
    çm
    ŧy
    fy
    žb
    1+2u+ua
    1+2u+ui
    ž
     
    žw
    čč
    mž
    žl
    žg
    žn
    žm
    šw
    šk
    št
    šp
    2u+ma
    2u+mi
    f
    ff
    fř
    xv
    vv
    fl
    bl
    br
    bv
    ŧŧ
    hh
    zv
    1+ma
    1+mi
    ŧ
     
    ŧř
    xŧ
    nŧ
    ŧl
    dl
    dr
    dv
    đđ
    škl
    2m+ma
    2m+mi
    x
    xx
    rk
    çn
    ňx
    xl
    gv
    xn
    xm
    sŧ
    ua
    ui
    đ
    skl
    gř
    stl
    zb
    đl
    sw
    zn
    ŧw
    2u+ua
    2u+ui
    m
    hm
    mř
    špr
    mb
    ml
    ňň
    mm
    1+ua
    1+ui
    n
    hn
    nř
    štr
    nd
    nl
    nn
    2m+ua
    2m+ui
    ň
    hň
    řř
    škr
    ňg
    ňl
    Ea
    Ei
    l
    hl
    lk
    lt
    lp
    M
    Obv
    v
    špl
    štl
    spl
    Col
    Abt
    ç
    pst
    psk
    IPa
    IPi
    ř
    pšt
    1+2m+ma
    1+2m+mi
    h
    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    +     E = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)

    +
    +

    Note that when combining two referent prefixes to form the + composite prefix the tones associated with each referent must also be combined (remember + it is the distinction between low and high tone that expands the 22 single-consonant + referents into 44). Since all single-referent adjuncts are either of low + or high tone, their combination proceeds as follows:

    +
    +

    low + low → low
    + high + high → high
    + low + high → rising
    + high + low → falling

    +
    +

    As for the Referent-1 case infix, this is the same vocalic + case-affix (VK1) we saw for single-referent adjuncts in Sec. + 8.1.2 above (with the vocalic increment ending in -y- + or -w-). The + forms for these case infixes were given in Table 25.

    +

    Deferring for a moment the explanation of the Referent-2 consonantal + case suffix (CK2), + the last two terms of the dual-referent adjunct are Vg and Cb. + The former is one of four vocalic affixes representing the affiliation of Referent-2 (see Sec. 3.2), + while the latter is the consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. + 6.6. The use of Vg is optional if the affiliation of the referent is already known (or can be inferred) + from the context of the utterance. The appearance of the Cb bias suffix is dependent on the appearance of Vg. There are three different series Vg values for each of the four Affiliation categories (CSL - ASO - VAR - COA . These three series of four are arranged as follows:

    +
    +

    Vg variants:   (in the order CSL - ASO - VAR - COA)
    +     A)  a – u – o  – e                 B)  ai – ui – oi – ei              C) i – ü – ï/ë – iu

    +
    +

    The three different series of Vg values are utilized by the CK2 suffixes detailed in Table 31 below.

    +

    The four-way combination of Essence for Referent-1 and Referent-2 + respectively is shown by the four available stress patterns: penultimate stress indicates NORMAL + NORMAL, ultimate stress + indicates NORMAL + REPRESENTATIVE, antepenultimate + indicates REPRESENTATIVE + NORMAL, + and preantepenultimate indicates REPRESENTATIVE + REPRESENTATIVE. + (See Sec. 3.7 on + Essence)

    +

    shows Referents 1 and 2 + Essence respectively: penultimate = 1:NRM/1:NRM, ultimate = 1:NRM/2:RPV, +antepenultimate = 1:RPV/2:NRM, preantepenultmate = 1:RPV/2:RPV

    +

    The Referent-2 consonantal case suffix (CK2) + is a consonantal suffix associated with each of the 72 main noun cases (personal reference adjuncts marked for the specialized comparison cases, Nos. 73 - 96 cannot use dual-referent adjuncts). Note that + each of these case-frame adjunct markers has nine forms (a default form consisting of three variations in the consonantal form itself combined with the three series of the Vg affix). These nine variants are used to indicate the configuration + of Referent-2 (see Sec. + 3.1 on Configuration). The values for are shown in Tables 31 below.

    +


    + Table 31: CK2 Suffixes for Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
       
    CONFIGURATION OF REFERENT 2
     
    UNI
    DPX
    DCT
    AGG
    SEG
    CPN
    COH
    CST
    MLT
     
    LABEL
    CASE
    Vg=A
    Vg=B
    Vg=C
    Vg=A
    Vg=B
    Vg=C
    Vg=A
    Vg=B
    Vg=C
    1
    OBL
    Oblique
    l
    →
    →
    rl
    →
    →
    çt
    →
    →
    2
    IND
    Inducive
    p
    →
    →
    rp
    →
    →
    lp
    →
    →
    3
    ABS
    Absolutive
    n
    →
    →
    rn
    →
    →
    ln
    →
    →
    4
    ERG
    Ergative
    m
    →
    →
    rm
    →
    →
    lm
    →
    →
    5
    EFF
    Effectuative
    ň
    →
    →
    rň
    →
    →
    lň
    →
    →
    6
    AFF
    Affective
    t
    →
    →
    rt
    →
    →
    lt
    →
    →
    7
    DAT
    Dative
    k
    →
    →
    rk
    →
    →
    lk
    →
    →
    8
    INS
    Instrumental
    r
    →
    →
    ňň
    →
    →
    lr
    →
    →
    9
    ACT
    Activative
    ç
    →
    →
    rç
    →
    →
    lç
    →
    →
    10
    DER
    Derivative
    v
    →
    →
    rv
    →
    →
    lv
    →
    →
    11
    SIT
    Situative
    đ
    →
    →
    rđ
    →
    →
    lđ
    →
    →
    12
    POS
    Possessive
    s
    →
    →
    rs
    →
    →
    ls
    →
    →
    13
    PRP
    Proprietive
    c
    →
    →
    rc
    →
    →
    lc
    →
    →
    14
    GEN
    Genitive
    š
    →
    →
    rš
    →
    →
    lš
    →
    →
    15
    ATT
    Attributive
    č
    →
    →
    rč
    →
    →
    lč
    →
    →
    16
    PDC
    Productive
    j
    →
    →
    rj
    →
    →
    lj
    →
    →
    17
    ITP
    Interpretative
    ż
    →
    →
    rż
    →
    →
    lż
    →
    →
    18
    OGN
    Originative
    rr
    →
    →
    sr
    →
    →
    šr
    →
    →
    19
    PAR
    Partitive
    ř
    →
    →
    kk
    →
    →
    ňr
    →
    →
    20
    CRS
    Constrastive
    řř
    →
    →
    hs
    →
    →
    hš
    →
    →
    21
    CPS
    Compositive
    ll
    →
    →
    sl
    →
    →
    šl
    →
    →
    22
    PRD
    Predicative
    nn
    →
    →
    tt
    →
    →
    nđ
    →
    →
    23
    MED
    Mediative
    mm
    →
    →
    pp
    →
    →
    mv
    →
    →
    24
    APL
    Applicative
    pf
    →
    →
    rpf
    →
    →
    lpf
    →
    →
    25
    PUR
    Purposive
    tf
    →
    →
    rtf
    →
    →
    ltf
    →
    →
    26
    CSD
    Considerative
    kf
    →
    →
    rkf
    →
    →
    lkf
    →
    →
    27
    ESS
    Essive
    f
    →
    →
    rf
    →
    →
    lf
    →
    →
    28
    ASI
    Assimilative
    ŧ
    →
    →
    rŧ
    →
    →
    lŧ
    →
    →
    29
    FUN
    Functive
    x
    →
    →
    rx
    →
    →
    lx
    →
    →
    30
    TFM
    Transformative
    ss
    →
    →
    nsk
    →
    →
    msk
    →
    →
    31
    REF
    Referential
    h
    →
    →
    rh
    →
    →
    lh
    →
    →
    32
    CLA
    Classificative
    šš
    →
    →
    nšt
    →
    →
    mšt
    →
    →
    33
    CNV
    Conductive
    ns
    →
    →
    nš
    →
    →
    nst
    →
    →
    34
    IDP
    Interdependent
    ms
    →
    →
    mš
    →
    →
    mst
    →
    →
    35
    BEN
    Benefactive
    ňs
    →
    →
    ňš
    →
    →
    ňst
    →
    →
    36
    TSP
    Transpositive
    ft
    →
    →
    rft
    →
    →
    lft
    →
    →
    37
    CMM
    Commutative
    g
    →
    →
    rg
    →
    →
    lg
    →
    →
    38
    COM
    Comitative
    z
    →
    →
    rz
    →
    →
    lz
    →
    →
    39
    CNJ
    Conjunctive
    b
    →
    →
    rb
    →
    →
    lb
    →
    →
    40
    UTL
    Utilitative
    d
    →
    →
    rd
    →
    →
    ld
    →
    →
    41
    ABE
    Abessive
    ž
    →
    →
    rž
    →
    →
    lž
    →
    →
    42
    CVS
    Conversive
    sp
    →
    →
    rsp
    →
    →
    lsp
    →
    →
    43
    CON
    Concessive
    šp
    →
    →
    ršp
    →
    →
    lšp
    →
    →
    44
    COR
    Correlative
    nt
    →
    →
    nŧ
    →
    →
    nd
    →
    →
    45
    DEP
    Dependent
    mp
    →
    →
    mf
    →
    →
    mb
    →
    →
    46
    PTL
    Postulative
    sk
    →
    →
    rsk
    →
    →
    sk
    →
    →
    47
    DFR
    Deferential
    šk
    →
    →
    ršk
    →
    →
    šk
    →
    →
    48
    EXC
    Exceptive
    st
    →
    →
    rst
    →
    →
    lst
    →
    →
    49
    PVS
    Provisional
    št
    →
    →
    ršt
    →
    →
    lšt
    →
    →
    50
    AVR
    Aversive
    ňk
    →
    →
    ňx
    →
    →
    ňg
    →
    →
    51
    CMP
    Comparative
    ff
    →
    →
    vv
    →
    →
    bv
    →
    →
    52
    SML
    Simultaneitive
    ŧŧ
    →
    →
    đđ
    →
    →
    dv
    →
    →
    53
    ASS
    Assessive
    xx
    →
    →
    ňt
    →
    →
    gv
    →
    →
    54
    CNR
    Concursive
    zz
    →
    →
    nz
    →
    →
    mz
    →
    →
    55
    ACS
    Accessive
    žž
    →
    →
    nž
    →
    →
    mž
    →
    →
    56
    DFF
    Diffusive
    fs
    →
    →
    pss
    →
    →
    kss
    →
    →
    57
    PER
    Periodic
    fš
    →
    →
    pšš
    →
    →
    kšš
    →
    →
    58
    PRO
    Prolapsive
    sf
    →
    →
    rsf
    →
    →
    lsf
    →
    →
    59
    PCV
    Precursive
    sŧ
    →
    →
    rsŧ
    →
    →
    lsŧ
    →
    →
    60
    PCR
    Postcursive
    pŧ
    →
    →
    rpŧ
    →
    →
    lpŧ
    →
    →
    61
    ELP
    Elapsive
    kŧ
    →
    →
    rkŧ
    →
    →
    lkŧ
    →
    →
    62
    ALP
    Allapsive
    šf
    →
    →
    ršf
    →
    →
    lšf
    →
    →
    63
    INP
    Interpolative
    šŧ
    →
    →
    ršŧ
    →
    →
    lšŧ
    →
    →
    64
    EPS
    Episodic
    pt
    →
    →
    rpt
    →
    →
    lpt
    →
    →
    65
    PRL
    Prolimitive
    kt
    →
    →
    rkt
    →
    →
    lkt
    →
    →
    66
    LIM
    Limitative
    nç
    →
    →
    hc
    →
    →
    hč
    →
    →
    67
    LOC
    Locative
    xt
    →
    →
    rxt
    →
    →
    lxt
    →
    →
    68
    ORI
    Orientative
    çç
    →
    →
    cc
    →
    →
    čč
    →
    →
    69
    PSV
    Procursive
    ps
    →
    →
    bz
    →
    →
    pst
    →
    →
    70
    ALL
    Allative
    pš
    →
    →
    bž
    →
    →
    pšt
    →
    →
    71
    ABL
    Ablative
    ks
    →
    →
    gz
    →
    →
    kst
    →
    →
    72
    NAV
    Navigative
    kš
    →
    →
    gž
    →
    →
    kšt
    →
    →
    +


    + 8.1.3.1 Special Use of Short Adjunct Form. The short form of + the single-referent adjunct discussed in Sec. 8.1.2 above (utilizing the abbreviated VK suffix from Table 24) can be used with the special dual-referent CRR composite prefixes from Table 30 under the following + circumstance: to show that two different parties are governed by the same case + and participate equally with the verb, equivalent to connecting two pronouns + in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or The man looked at them and me. Examples: ksau, xlú. + Note in the last example xlú how the combination of a low-toned referent and a high-toned referent combines +to give a rising-toned adjunct.

    +

    8.1.3.2 Illustration of a Dual-Referent Adjunct: + Based on the above information, we can now analyze an example dual-referent + adjunct:

    +

    gro-i’yálsëç

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ( + )-
    =
    		INFORMAL designation, UNIPLEX configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation for Referent No. 1
    -gr -
    =
    		combination of Referent No. 1, t- , 1m, + plus Referent No. 2, ň¯, 2m+ui
    [rising tone]
    =
    		combination of low tone of Referent No. 1 and high tone of Referent No. 2
    -o-i’y-
    =
    		ALLATIVE case infix (meaning ‘toward X’) for Referent No. 1
    -a-
    =
    		INFORMAL designation and EXISTENTIAL context for Referent No. 2
    -ls-
    =
    		POSSESSIVE case and MULTIFORM configuration for Referent No. 2
    -ë-
    =
    		VARIATIVE affiliation for Referent No. 2
    -ç
    =
    		REACTIVE bias
    [stress]
    =
    		penultimate stress indicating NORMAL essence for both Referents Nos. 1 and 2
    +

    Approximate translation: toward me + what belongs to a rag-tag amalgamation of you (singular) and all those things + [sense of surprise].

    +

    While such a word might seem contrived at first, it nevertheless + proves quite functional in a sentence such as the following (which a Star Trek© character might say to a Borg after the latter has produced an “assimilated” + spider from its pocket and let it loose during the night):

    +
    +

    Gro-i’yálsëç  xamstīelŧ.
    + 1m/ALL-2m+ui/POS/VAR/MLT-RAC     IFL-OPR-‘ambulate’-PRX/M/ASO/SEG-STR2/3
    + Hey! Something belonging to you and your hodge-podge of parts is crawling toward me!
    +

    +
    +

    Other examples of the use of dual-referent personal reference adjuncts are +given below.

    +
    +

    Uzgăt  tra’wap  zmäāwal.
    +     FML-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI   mi/OBL-1m/IND    IFL-‘valley’-LOC-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + I bought it in the valley.

    +

    Đrëu’yìrňu  wufyér?
    + mi/REF-ua/FML/FNC/REF/AGG/ASO     IRG-FML-OPR-‘inquiry’-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
    + Is it those formally recognized groups of people who are helping to make inquiries about it?

    +

    Hlŭakya  škwi’wap.
    +     EXP-IFL/RSL    -OPR-‘congratulate’    2m/DAT-1m+ua/IND
    + We (I and the others) offer you our congratulations.

    +
    +


    + 8.1.4 Use of the Switch Reference Suffix

    +

    In Section + 7.4.13, the SWR switch reference suffix was introduced. + This affix works with the OBVIATIVE personal referent + (see Sec. 8.1.1.7) to specifically indicate which + party is being referred to. The following is a review of this affix for all + nine degrees. By use of this affix, reference can be made immediately to any + party relevant to a discourse, even to a third party not previously mentioned.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2_’/kw
    SWR
    		Switch Reference & Obviative Specification
    Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
    Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
    Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
    Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
    Degree 5first referent + mentioned
    Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
    Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
    Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
    Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
    +

    The following example illustrates the use of the switch reference suffix:

    +

    Lawöól  alüùl  teo  ukše-ulă’  xakkā  va’yạ’  żżüwül  vei’wiekwạ.
    + IFL-OPR-‘speak’-PCR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI      IFL-‘brother’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI      1m-GEN     FML-‘clown’-DAT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPF1/5      IFL-OPR-‘run’-ICP/M/CSL/UNI       OBV/IND-SWR/5       IFL-‘pet dog’-ALL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI      OBV/PRP-SWR/3
    + After my brother spoke to the clown, he [my brother] began running toward his [a third party’s] pet dog.

    +


    +

    + + + + +
    8.2 ASPECTUAL ADJUNCTS
    +

    As we saw in Section 6.7, Aspect can be shown as the Vp suffix to a valence/modality adjunct, in addition to the its “standard ”position as an infix to a formative. However, in the absence of any valence/modality adjunct, and as another alternative to infixing Vp within a formative, Aspect can also be conveyed by simply using the Vp affix as its own autonomous adjunct.

    +

    Examples (compare these to the examples in Sec. 5.6.3):

    +
    +

    Ia  anyût  lülùlt  teo.
    + CLM    IFL-OPR-‘choose’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘brother’-IND-CFD1/9    1M-GEN
    + My over-confident brother made a choice once and for all.

    +

    Akkäàl  ui  usét.
    + IFL-‘woman’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     RGR    FML-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI
    + The woman returned to singing.

    +

    Au  ççwaralaruëèŧ  güliëèn.
    + PCL    HOR-IFL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    8.3 AFFIXUAL ADJUNCTS
    +

    Any Type-1 or Type-2 VX-C formative suffix described in Chapter 7 may be + removed from the formative and positioned as an adjacent adjunct for purposes + of euphony (i.e., to reduce the number of syllables in the formative). Additionally, since affix categories represent common concepts generally + applicable to many contexts, an affixual adjunct can also be informally used + as a “short cut” method of conveying a notion, essentially as an + abbreviated one-word sentence somewhat like an interjection or exclamation in + English, thus conveying the concept of the affix category. For example, the + affix -V1j/7 connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, ïj, + it can be used by itself as an informal expression translatable by the English + phrase How typical!

    +

    Example:

    +
    +

    Ççwa’lauralaruëèŧ  güliëèn.   →   Au  ëŧ  ççwaralàr  güliëèn.
    + HOR-IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-PCL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + →   PCL    EXT2/6    HOR-IFL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    8.4 COMBINATION ADJUNCTS
    +

    This section is under construction.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + +
    8.5 BIAS ADJUNCTS
    +

    Section + 6.6.1 describes the standard ways in which Bias is shown on valence/modality adjuncts + and on formatives. And in Sec. 8.1.2, we saw how the conjunct + form of a single-referent personal reference adjunct can take an optional affix, Cb, + to indicate Bias. In the absence of these + possibilities, the Bias suffix (shown in Table 21 of Sec. + 6.6.1), like affixual adjuncts described above in Section 8.3, can stand alone as an autonomous adjunct. Such a Bias adjunct can be used to informally convey one’s attitude toward + a situation. For example, if one wishes to convey a sense of awe, one could + state the Ilaksh equivalent to the sentence, I feel a sense of awe! or one can simply hiss out a long s-sound, ‘ss,’ + which is the intensive form of the affix for the STUPEFACTIVE bias category, whose translation can be approximated by the English expressions + ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’

    +

    Other examples would be the expression ‘çç’ to signify fulfillment and contentment, the equivalent to a long sigh of satisfaction + ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression ‘kšš’to convey contempt and disgust, similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ + or ‘What bullshit!’

    +

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 9: Syntax >>

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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 9: Syntax

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      9.1 Topic, Focus and Pragmatic Relations    
      9.2 Morpho-Semantic Considerations   
      9.3 The “Carrier” Root    
    +

    Syntax refers to the rules for sequencing the order of words + within a phrase or sentence, including rules permitting more than one possible + sequential ordering of words. To understand the following discussion of Ilaksh + syntax it is necessary to have a cursory understanding of the notions of semantic + role, pragmatic role, and grammatical (or syntactical) relations:

    +
    +
      +
    • Semantic role: This refers to the underlying semantic + function of a particular word, irrespective of overt morphological category. + We have already seen how Ilaksh marks its noun cases to reflect semantic + roles, not grammatical relations. Such roles include Agent, Patient, Experiencer, + Recipient, Instrument, etc., as previously explained in Section + 4.1 et seq.
      +
      +
      • +
    • Pragmatic role: This refers to the function of a word + or phrase in relation to its predicate or the rest of the sentence in terms + of whether and how it represents “given” versus “new” + information, i.e., whether or not the word or phrase represents background + information already known to the addressee, or whether it represents new + information previously unknown to the addressee. Three such roles or relations + are generally delineated: topic, comment, + and focus. The topic of a sentence is the word + or phrase about which the speaker has been asked or is expected by the addressee + to talk about. The comment is the information (usually a predicate) + given by the speaker about the particular topic. The term focus refers to whatever information in a sentence is new to the addressee, (i.e., + not previously known). To illustrate these concepts, consider the sentence I can see + why Mary’s angry, but what about Bill? (i.e., What happened + to make Bill angry, too?). In the hypothetical answer Bill (or + He) is angry because he lost his keys, ‘Bill’ (or ‘he’) + is the topic, ‘is angry because he lost his keys’ is the comment, + and ‘he lost his keys’ is the focus.
      +
      +
      • +
    • Grammatical (or syntactical) relations: the arbitrary word-ordering rules of a language, irrespective + of semantic or pragmatic roles, e.g., the subject of the sentence in English + normally precedes the main verb and the direct object normally follows the + main verb.
      • +
    +
    +

    In general, the syntax of a language either (1) establishes + the permissible grammatical relations of the language, (2) reflects and/or reinforces + semantic roles, (3) reflects and/or reinforces pragmatic roles, or (4) any combination + of these. As one might surmise from the above, English syntax is weighted heavily + toward establishing grammatical relations at the near-total expense of identifying + semantic roles. As for pragmatic roles, English rarely reflects these in its + syntax (one exception is the strong tendency for placing wh- question + words in sentence-initial position in specialized questions, even if they represent + a direct object, e.g., What have you done? or Who[m] are they talking + about?), however, such roles do tend to be marked “supra-segmentally” + by inflection of vocal pitch and tone of voice.

    +

    We have already seen the extreme to which Ilaksh uses noun cases to mark semantic + roles morphologically as opposed to syntactically. And since grammatial relations + in and of themselves are relatively arbitrary within language, Ilaksh uses + word order primarily to accomplish pragmatic relations, i.e., to indicate the topic and/or focus of a sentence. Additionally, Ilaksh does have a few word order constraints necessary to ensure avoidance + of ambiguity in determining which + nouns lie in apposition to their head, and which words of a compound sentence + lie within a case-frame as opposed to outside the case-frame. The specifics of Ilaksh word order are explained in Section 9.1 below.

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    In Ithkuil, pragmatic relations (topic/focus/comment) are marked morphologically using affixes, allowing the overall word-order for nouns and verbs to be relatively free. In Ilaksh, however, pragmatic relations are shown by word-order, as described below. While suffixes to mark topic and focus are available, they are considered a secondary means.

    +


    +

    + + + + +
    9.1 TOPIC, FOCUS, AND PRAGMATIC RELATIONS
    +

    The concept of semantic focus refers to what + information in an utterance is to be considered new information, while the semantic topic is the + background context already known or implied. The specifics are explained below and are best understood +through various English illustrations.

    +

    In any given discourse (i.e., a contextual series of utterances + such as a conversation, a story, an account of an event, etc.), any single sentence + of that discourse will likely make reference to previously mentioned material + as background, as well as present new material to further the purpose of the + discourse. Semantic focus refers to those elements of a sentence which constitute + new material within an actual or implied discourse. For example, the sentence My dog jumps through hoops could function as an answer to several different + questions such as 1) What tricks can your dog do?, or 2) Does your + dog do anything with hoops? or 3) Do you know of anyone’s pet + that jumps through hoops? or even 4) What’s up with you? In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’ + would have semantic focus while the dog is background material, i.e. the topic. In answering + the second question, the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have + focus while both the dog and the hoops would be the topic. In answering + the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus + while jumping through hoops would be the topic. Lastly, in answering the + fourth sentence, no element in the sentence has focus over any other, as all + elements present previously unknown material within the context of the discourse. + In general, English conveys focus by a shift in vocal inflection (tone and pitch + contours) to provide emphasis.

    +

    Focus does not necessarily require a full discourse to have + semantic relevance; it can occur within a single autonomous sentence, in which + case the background discourse is implied. For example, a person might spontaneously + begin a conversation with the same sentence: My dog jumps through hoops. In + English, the speaker might use vocal inflection to emphasize what elements convey + semantic focus versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.” + Or, the speaker might say the sentence in a neutral tone of voice, essentially + inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in + responding, e.g., Oh, you have a dog? or Oh, does he do any other + tricks? or Oh, do you use metal or plastic hoops? or an equally + neutral response such as Oh, you don’t say?

    +

    Ilaksh uses word-order to accomplish the same options + that such vocal inflections accomplish in English. In Ilaksh, the element with focus is placed immediately before the verb. As for the topic of the sentence, this is shown by placing it as the first element in a sentence. If there is no overt topic or focus, the verb will appear as the first word in the sentence. Examples:

    +
    +

    Çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt ukšüŭl  bler.
    + ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRC-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
    + The clown had to buy some clams and consume them. (No topic or focus)

    +

    Ukšüŭl  çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt  bler.
    + FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRC-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
    + It was the clown who had to buy some clams and consume them. (The clown is the focus)

    +

    Bler  ukšüŭl  çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt.
    + ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRC-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    
    + As for the clams, it was the clown who bought and consumed them. (The clams are the topic; the clown is the focus)

    +
    +

     

    +

    9.1.1 Abbreviated Sentences Using Focus and Topicalization

    +

    Focus and topicalization allow Ilaksh, as with other languages, + to provide abbreviated sentences in direct answer to commands, the equivalent + of questions (see Sec. 5.7.6), + or to comment on a topic already under discussion. Because the topic is already + known within the contextual discourse, only the portion of the new sentence + carrying semantic focus need be spoken. Similarly, the topicalization + suffix in conjunction with the INTERROGATIVE illocution affix, allows for abbreviated inquiries within a known contextual + discourse, similar to such abbreviated sentences in English, e.g., ‘and + Bill?’ in lieu of the full sentence ‘Comment on how this applies + to Bill.’

    +

     

    +

    9.1.2 Word-order within Case-Frames

    +

    Within a case-frame (see Section + 5.2), the verb always appears in initial position to identify the clause + as a case frame. Because of this, it becomes necessary to utilize the focusing and sequencing affixes from Sec. 7.7.13 to identify elements which carry focus or are topicalized within the case-frame. Additionally, the last noun within the case-frame + will usually take one of the –V1’ suffixes (see Sec. 7.4.13) + signifying the end of the case-frame unless this is clear without the suffix + (e.g., because the case-frame is in sentence-final position).

    +

     

    +

    9.1.3 Additional Constraints in Word Order

    +

    The following additional word-order constraints exist + in order to avoid potential ambiguity or semantic incoherence.

    +
      +
    • Nouns in Associative and Appositive cases (see Secs. + 4.4 and 4.5) + which are dependent on, or in apposition to a “head” noun, must + immediately precede or follow that head noun, unless the relationship between + the two nouns is readily ascertainable without the two being in apposition.
      +
      +
      • +
    • A case-frame cannot be broken apart into segments within a main sentence, + i.e., the case-frame must constitute a single cohesive clause and not contain + elements of the main clause within it. It is possible to “nest” + a second case-frame within a case-frame, similar to the way in which subordinate + or relative clauses can be nested in English and other Western languages, + e.g., [Despite owning a Picasso [that comes from his Blue period] [of + which I, [a mere student,] am fond,]] Joe is actually a very humble person.
      • +
    +

     

    +

    9.1.4 Phonotactically-Induced Syntactic Modifications

    +

    As mentioned above, word-order can shift in an Ilaksh sentence + to accommodate phonotactic or phonaesthetic ends, i.e., for purposes of euphony. + This is because suffixes on a formative, as well as morphemes associated with + categories of Aspect and Bias and can be transformed into autonomous adjuncts (see Secs. 8.2, 8.3, 8.4 and 8.5 ). As + words + of six syllables or more are generally undesirable, any formative + with numerous affixes is potentially subject to having several of its morphemes + redistributed to adjuncts.

    +

    Example:

    +
    +

    Ççwa’lauralaruëèŧ  güliëèn.   →   Ar  ëŧau  ççwaràl  güliëèn.
    + HOR-IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-PCL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + →    NA11/5     EXT2/6-PCL    HOR-IFL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +
    +

    When ordering such phonaesthetically-induced adjuncts, it is + important that they can be easily associated with the formative to which they + apply. Generally, this means that they will be adjacent to the formative, or + occur on either side of other adjuncts associated with the formative.

    +


    + 9.1.5 Iconicity

    +

    English and other languages generally display phrase-structure + patterns and word-order patterns which reinforce, or even reflect, a cognitive + understanding of what is being described, i.e., the order of the words themselves + reflects information about how we are to understand the utterance. Such a phenomenon + is known as iconicity. In English and other Western languages, + the most common way in which iconicity is manifested is what is termed “sequential + order iconicity,” the idea that the actual sequential order of words in + a phrase or sentence reflects the sequential order of the events they describe. + For example, the phrases ‘eye it, try it, buy it,’ ‘I came, + I saw, I conquered,’ or ‘dine and dash’ describe sequential + events where the sequence of the words reflect the sequence of the events. What + is most important is that re-ordering of the words either changes the meaning + of the phrase or leads to semantic nonsense, e.g., ‘buy it, eye it, try + it’ implies that a different sequence of events actually takes place than + ‘eye it, try it, buy it.’ This can be more dramatically illustrated + with the following pair of sentences.

    +
    +

    1) Jane got married and had a baby.
    + 2) Jane had a baby and got married.

    +
    +

    In English, the ambiguous word ‘and’ is interpreted + as connecting a sequence of events, i.e., ‘and’ is interpreted to + mean sequential ‘then’ (= ‘and following that,’ ‘then + next’ or ‘then later’). As a result, the meanings of the two + sentences imply very different social interpretations about Jane.

    +

    Besides the reflection of sequential order, other types of + word-order iconicity are possible. For example, compare the subtle difference + in meaning between the following two sentences:

    +
    +

    3) Sam painted the fence white.
    + 4) Sam painted the white fence.

    +
    +

    In the first sentence, we do not know what color the fence + was prior to being painted, or even if it was a new fence that had never been + painted before. In the second sentence, not only do we know what color the fence + had been, but also that it was not previously unpainted, however, we do not + necessarily know what its new color is. This sort of iconicity is used to convey + a resultative state of affairs, i.e., by placing the adjective ‘white’ + after the word ‘fence’ (seemingly in violation of the usual adjective-before-noun + word order used in English), we describe a resulting state of affairs.

    +

    Yet another type of word-order iconicity is displayed in comparing + the following two sentences.

    +
    +

    5) Loretta gave Sue a wedding gift.
    + 6) Loretta gave a wedding gift to Sue.

    +
    +

    Most grammar textbooks would state that these two sentences + are semantically equivalent, the first employing a “ditransitive” + pattern (i.e., juxtaposing an indirect object ‘Sue’ with a direct + object ‘wedding gift’), while the second uses a “complement” + pattern in which the indirect object follows the direct object and is changed + to a prepositional phrase using ‘to.’ However, there is a subtle + semantic distinction between the two sentences. The first strongly implies that + the wedding gift is for Sue, i.e., Sue is the bride and intended recipient. + The second sentence, however, invites the possibility that Sue is only a temporary + or circumstantial goal for the act of giving, but not the bride and intended + recipient. For example, if Sue is merely a guest at the wedding and Loretta + needed Sue’s help carrying an armload of wedding gifts, she might give + a wedding gift to Sue, but that does not mean she would give Sue a wedding gift. This type of iconicity distinguishing a recipient from a directional + goal is an example of what is termed “distance iconicity,” because + the two linked words are made more “distant” from each other in + the sentence as a reflection of their more circumstantial association.

    +

    Ilaksh does not display iconicity. While the order of words + in an Ilaksh phrase or sentence may coincidentally reflect a temporal or causative + sequence of events, this is not by syntactic design. Because of the myriad means + available in Ilaksh to morphologically distinguish sequence, cause-and-effect, + resulting states, and the distinction of recipients from directional goals, + no iconicity patterns are required.

    +

    For example, we saw in sentences (1) and (2) above how English + ‘and’ can be used to convey not just mere coordination, but also + a sequencing function. In Sections + 7.4.3 and 7.4.4, we saw + that Ilaksh has no less than thirty-six suffixes (four suffix categories, each + with nine different degrees) which convey various coordinative and sequencing + patterns with great specificity. Thus, Ilaksh has no morpheme directly equivalent + to the ambiguous English word ‘and.’ There is an affix corresponding + to ‘and’ in its use as a mere additive listing device (e.g., ‘pears + and apples and bananas’), another corresponding to its use as an indicator + of simultaneity (e.g., I clenched my fists and scowled), another + corresponding to its use as an indicator of additional information (e.g., The + clown likes children and loves to eat), another to its use as an indicator + of parallel description or activity (e.g., We went dancing and so did + they), and yet another as a temporal sequencing indicator (e.g., I + went to the window and looked out).
    +

    +

     

    + + + + +
    9.2 MORPHO-SEMANTIC CONSIDERATIONS
    +

    It should be noted that when structuring an Ilaksh sentence, + particularly when translating from other languages such as English, care must + be given to avoid capturing irrelevant semantic information reflected by the + morphology of the source language and trying to find an equivalent or parallel + way to reflect those irrelevancies in the Ilaksh sentence. This can have a + profound effect on the morpho-syntactical structure of the resulting Ilaksh + sentence.

    +

     

    +

    9.2.1 Arbitrary Delineations of Perspective or Point of View

    +

    One area where word-choice in English and other Western languages + arbitrarily affects sentence structure is in the unintentional schematicization + of a particular perspective or point of view. For example, consider the following + pair of sentences in English.

    +
    +

    1) The path climbs steeply out of the canyon.
    + 2) That path descends steeply into the canyon.

    +
    +

    Both of these sentences are describing the same property of + the path — its steepness. The distinction in the sentences comes from + the point of view being reflected by the speaker. In sentence (1) the implied + point of view is from the bottom of the canyon upward, while in sentence (2) + the viewpoint is from the top of the canyon downward. What is important is that, + semantically, the point of view is of no relevance to the steepness of the path per se. So if the cognitive intent of the utterance is simply to describe + the vertical gradient of the path within the canyon, there would be only one + Ilaksh translation for both of these sentences, eschewing the point of view + entirely and restating the sentence to read:

    +
    +


    + Nrūoilüb  ervrēkf  zmayüūlavz.
    + IFL-‘oblique verticality’-FUN-EXN1/6 IFL-PSN-‘pathway’-PRX/N/CSL/UNI IFL-‘valley’-NAV-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5
    + The path through the canyon is steep.

    +
    +

     

    +

    9.2.2 Masking of Semantic or Participatory Roles

    +

    Similarly, care must be made, when comparing Ilaksh sentence + structure with other languages, to note that Ilaksh grammar allows for a more + overt reflection of the underlying semantic roles inherent in a given sentence. + As a result, sentence structures in Western languages which “mask” + potentially anomalous semantic structures are avoided in Ilaksh. For example, + compare the following pairs of sentences.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + +
     3a) He supplied a report to the analyst.4a) She applied a solvent to the stain.
     3b) He supplied the analyst a report.4b) *She applied the stain a solvent.
    +
    +

    The syntactical patterns of these two pairs of sentences are + identical, yet the word-order in sentence (4b) is ungrammatical (as indicated + by the asterisk), while the same word-order in sentence (3b) presents no problem. + The underlying reason for the difference is one of semantic role. While ‘analysts’ + can function in the role of Recipients, ‘stains’ cannot (they are + merely directional Goals, i.e., where the solvent gets applied). Cognitively, + stains cannot “possess” a solvent the way analysts can “possess” + a report. In Ilaksh, the semantic roles would be clearly defined by the case-markings + of the participants. Therefore, syntactically inconsistent pairs such as (3b) + and (4b) do not occur.

    +

    Sometimes, rather than semantic role, it is a participant’s + relationship to an underlying clause that presents the problem. For example, He’s a tall president means ‘He’s a president who + is tall.’ So why doesn’t He’s a likely president mean ‘*He’s a president who is likely’? The reason is that, + while ‘tall’ describes its adjacent referent ‘president,’ + ‘likely’ does not describe its adjacent referent. Rather, ‘likely’ + describes an underlying process in which that referent is or will be engaged, + i.e., ‘running for president.’ Therefore, while these two sentences + are morpho-syntactically identical in English, their Ilaksh translations are + quite different from one another morpho-syntactically:
    +

    +
    +

    Rua  altmisŭëss  urja’uiskuemăi.
    + ma-AFF     IFL-STA-‘height’-DEL/N/CSL/UNI-PTT2/6     FML-MNF-‘preside/govern’-COR-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-ROL2/4-FAC/FNC
    + He’s a tall president.
    + [literally: There is much height to him who formally presides.] _______

    +

    +

    Ra  urjakkoavuemăi.
    + ma-OBL    FML-MNF-‘preside/govern’-ICP/M/CSL/UNI-PRB2/7-ROL2/4-FAC/FNC
    + He’s a likely president.
    + [literally: He is one who probably will begin to formally preside.]

    +

     

    +
    +

    9.2.3 Negation

    +

    Negation is another morpho-semantic area where translation + from English or other Western languages can be tricky. Consider the English + sentence Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Note this + sentence does not mean what a literal word-for-word analysis implies, i.e., + ‘That they like her cooking is not something that Shelly is thinking.’ + Rather, the correct meaning is ‘Shelly thinks that they don’t like + her cooking.’ Ilaksh is very precise in specifying exactly what components + of a sentence are to be negated. Use of the four affirmation/negation affixes + from Sec. 7.7.9 () + in conjunction with a formative carries very specific information as to what + morphological components of a sentence are being affirmed or negated and to + what degree. Using these four affixes alone, Ilaksh can distinguish between + the following four sentences without any syntactic rearrangement of the words:

    +
    +

    I don’t want to begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to not want to sing.

    +

    I want to not begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to want to not sing.

    +
    +

    Thus when translating negative sentences into Ilaksh, care + must be taken to not syntactically “rearrange” a sentence as with Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Additionally, Ilaksh + makes a morpho-semantic distinction not found in Western languages: the difference + between absolute negation and relative negation. + Absolute negation implies that the non-existence or non-occurrence of an entity, + state, or event is due to contextual inapplicability, while relative negation + indicates that the non-existence or non-occurrence is circumstantial. This distinction + is illustrated in the two sentences below:

    +
    +


    + Usésar  àgmoel.
    + FML-OPR-‘sing’-DEL/N/CSL/UNI-NA11/5      IFL-‘girl’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The girl doesn’t sing [even though she can, i.e., she chooses + not to].

    +

    Usésör  àgmoel.
    + FML-OPR-‘sing’-DEL/N/CSL/UNI-NA11/4      IFL-‘girl’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The girl doesn’t sing [because she can’t, i.e., she is + mute].

    +
    +


    +

    + + + + +
    9.3 THE “CARRIER” + ROOT
    +

    Since the Ilaksh declensional and conjugational system is + based on predictable multi-level patterns of consonant and vowel mutation, proper + nouns such as personal and place names, as well as non-Ilaksh words from other + languages are by nature morpho-phonologically incompatible with such as system. + Nevertheless, such words can be declined or conjugated like any other Ilaksh + formative by means of the “carrier” root sú-. + In addition to this use, the carrier root is employed in certain other contexts + as well, as described below.

    +


    + 9.3.1 Words that Cannot Take Affixes or Be Mutated

    +

    The three primary stems of the carrier root, sú-, asú-, ásu(la), are respectively associated with animate + beings (the two complementary derivatives çú- and ssú- being humans versus non-humans or + figuratively/metaphorically animate entities); inanimate entities (the two complementary + derivatives açú- and assú- being objectively concrete entities versus subjective entities such + as thoughts, emotions, sensations, etc.); and finally intangible abstract referents + (the two complementary derivatives áçu(la) and ássu(la)being place names and abstractions). The + carrier stem is placed immediately before the proper noun or foreign word or + phrase, then declined or conjugated normally for any desired morphological categories, + even verbal categories. The proper noun or foreign word or phrase itself is + left unchanged.
    +

    +

    9.3.2 Emphasizing or Highlighting a Particular Category

    +

    Another use of the carrier root is to emphasize or topicalize + a particular affix or grammatical element associated with a word. For example, + in English we can say ‘a big house’ with extra intonation + on the word ‘big’ to emphasize that word. To accomplish such emphasis + in Ilaksh, the carrier root is used with the augmentative suffix in conjunction + with the noun ‘house’ as opposed to simply using the augmentative + suffix on the stem for ‘house.’ No change in vocal pitch or intonation + is required, as the grammatically unnecessary use of the carrier root serves + to accomplish the required emphasis. Any morphological category manifested by + a carrier root rather than an adjunct or mutation serves to emphasize that category. + (It should be noted that the use of optional combination and euphonic adjuncts + do not accomplish such emphasis. Their use versus non-use imparts no difference + in emphasis for the particular morphological categories contained in the adjunct.)
    +

    +

    9.3.3 Titles of Address

    +

    It should be noted that the use of the carrier root in front + of the names of persons serves to function as a title of address corresponding + to English Mister, Ms. or Miss. There is no distinction of + gender or marital status conveyed by the term.

    +

     

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics >>

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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Chapter 9: Syntax

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      9.1 Topic, Focus and Pragmatic Relations    
      9.2 Morpho-Semantic Considerations   
      9.3 The “Carrier” Root    
    +

    Syntax refers to the rules for sequencing the order of words + within a phrase or sentence, including rules permitting more than one possible + sequential ordering of words. To understand the following discussion of Ilaksh + syntax it is necessary to have a cursory understanding of the notions of semantic + role, pragmatic role, and grammatical (or syntactical) relations:

    +
    +
      +
    • Semantic role: This refers to the underlying semantic + function of a particular word, irrespective of overt morphological category. + We have already seen how Ilaksh marks its noun cases to reflect semantic + roles, not grammatical relations. Such roles include Agent, Patient, Experiencer, + Recipient, Instrument, etc., as previously explained in Section + 4.1 et seq.
      +
      +
      • +
    • Pragmatic role: This refers to the function of a word + or phrase in relation to its predicate or the rest of the sentence in terms + of whether and how it represents “given” versus “new” + information, i.e., whether or not the word or phrase represents background + information already known to the addressee, or whether it represents new + information previously unknown to the addressee. Three such roles or relations + are generally delineated: topic, comment, + and focus. The topic of a sentence is the word + or phrase about which the speaker has been asked or is expected by the addressee + to talk about. The comment is the information (usually a predicate) + given by the speaker about the particular topic. The term focus refers to whatever information in a sentence is new to the addressee, (i.e., + not previously known). To illustrate these concepts, consider the sentence I can see + why Mary’s angry, but what about Bill? (i.e., What happened + to make Bill angry, too?). In the hypothetical answer Bill (or + He) is angry because he lost his keys, ‘Bill’ (or ‘he’) + is the topic, ‘is angry because he lost his keys’ is the comment, + and ‘he lost his keys’ is the focus.
      +
      +
      • +
    • Grammatical (or syntactical) relations: the arbitrary word-ordering rules of a language, irrespective + of semantic or pragmatic roles, e.g., the subject of the sentence in English + normally precedes the main verb and the direct object normally follows the + main verb.
      • +
    +
    +

    In general, the syntax of a language either (1) establishes + the permissible grammatical relations of the language, (2) reflects and/or reinforces + semantic roles, (3) reflects and/or reinforces pragmatic roles, or (4) any combination + of these. As one might surmise from the above, English syntax is weighted heavily + toward establishing grammatical relations at the near-total expense of identifying + semantic roles. As for pragmatic roles, English rarely reflects these in its + syntax (one exception is the strong tendency for placing wh- question + words in sentence-initial position in specialized questions, even if they represent + a direct object, e.g., What have you done? or Who[m] are they talking + about?), however, such roles do tend to be marked “supra-segmentally” + by inflection of vocal pitch and tone of voice.

    +

    We have already seen the extreme to which Ilaksh uses noun cases to mark semantic + roles morphologically as opposed to syntactically. And since grammatial relations + in and of themselves are relatively arbitrary within language, Ilaksh uses + word order primarily to accomplish pragmatic relations, i.e., to indicate the topic and/or focus of a sentence. Additionally, Ilaksh does have a few word order constraints necessary to ensure avoidance + of ambiguity in determining which + nouns lie in apposition to their head, and which words of a compound sentence + lie within a case-frame as opposed to outside the case-frame. The specifics of Ilaksh word order are explained in Section 9.1 below.

    + + + + +

    NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

    +

    In Ithkuil, pragmatic relations (topic/focus/comment) are marked morphologically using affixes, allowing the overall word-order for nouns and verbs to be relatively free. In Ilaksh, however, pragmatic relations are shown by word-order, as described below. While suffixes to mark topic and focus are available, they are considered a secondary means.

    +


    +

    + + + + +
    9.1 TOPIC, FOCUS, AND PRAGMATIC RELATIONS
    +

    The concept of semantic focus refers to what + information in an utterance is to be considered new information, while the semantic topic is the + background context already known or implied. The specifics are explained below and are best understood +through various English illustrations.

    +

    In any given discourse (i.e., a contextual series of utterances + such as a conversation, a story, an account of an event, etc.), any single sentence + of that discourse will likely make reference to previously mentioned material + as background, as well as present new material to further the purpose of the + discourse. Semantic focus refers to those elements of a sentence which constitute + new material within an actual or implied discourse. For example, the sentence My dog jumps through hoops could function as an answer to several different + questions such as 1) What tricks can your dog do?, or 2) Does your + dog do anything with hoops? or 3) Do you know of anyone’s pet + that jumps through hoops? or even 4) What’s up with you? In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’ + would have semantic focus while the dog is background material, i.e. the topic. In answering + the second question, the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have + focus while both the dog and the hoops would be the topic. In answering + the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus + while jumping through hoops would be the topic. Lastly, in answering the + fourth sentence, no element in the sentence has focus over any other, as all + elements present previously unknown material within the context of the discourse. + In general, English conveys focus by a shift in vocal inflection (tone and pitch + contours) to provide emphasis.

    +

    Focus does not necessarily require a full discourse to have + semantic relevance; it can occur within a single autonomous sentence, in which + case the background discourse is implied. For example, a person might spontaneously + begin a conversation with the same sentence: My dog jumps through hoops. In + English, the speaker might use vocal inflection to emphasize what elements convey + semantic focus versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.” + Or, the speaker might say the sentence in a neutral tone of voice, essentially + inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in + responding, e.g., Oh, you have a dog? or Oh, does he do any other + tricks? or Oh, do you use metal or plastic hoops? or an equally + neutral response such as Oh, you don’t say?

    +

    Ilaksh uses word-order to accomplish the same options + that such vocal inflections accomplish in English. In Ilaksh, the element with focus is placed immediately before the verb. As for the topic of the sentence, this is shown by placing it as the first element in a sentence. If there is no overt topic or focus, the verb will appear as the first word in the sentence. Examples:

    +
    +

    Çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt ukšüŭl  bler.
    + ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRC-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
    + The clown had to buy some clams and consume them. (No topic or focus)

    +

    Ukšüŭl  çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt  bler.
    + FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRC-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
    + It was the clown who had to buy some clams and consume them. (The clown is the focus)

    +

    Bler  ukšüŭl  çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt.
    + ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRC-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    
    + As for the clams, it was the clown who bought and consumed them. (The clams are the topic; the clown is the focus)

    +
    +

     

    +

    9.1.1 Abbreviated Sentences Using Focus and Topicalization

    +

    Focus and topicalization allow Ilaksh, as with other languages, + to provide abbreviated sentences in direct answer to commands, the equivalent + of questions (see Sec. 5.7.6), + or to comment on a topic already under discussion. Because the topic is already + known within the contextual discourse, only the portion of the new sentence + carrying semantic focus need be spoken. Similarly, the topicalization + suffix in conjunction with the INTERROGATIVE illocution affix, allows for abbreviated inquiries within a known contextual + discourse, similar to such abbreviated sentences in English, e.g., ‘and + Bill?’ in lieu of the full sentence ‘Comment on how this applies + to Bill.’

    +

     

    +

    9.1.2 Word-order within Case-Frames

    +

    Within a case-frame (see Section + 5.2), the verb always appears in initial position to identify the clause + as a case frame. Because of this, it becomes necessary to utilize the focusing and sequencing affixes from Sec. 7.7.13 to identify elements which carry focus or are topicalized within the case-frame. Additionally, the last noun within the case-frame + will usually take one of the –V1’ suffixes (see Sec. 7.4.13) + signifying the end of the case-frame unless this is clear without the suffix + (e.g., because the case-frame is in sentence-final position).

    +

     

    +

    9.1.3 Additional Constraints in Word Order

    +

    The following additional word-order constraints exist + in order to avoid potential ambiguity or semantic incoherence.

    +
      +
    • Nouns in Associative and Appositive cases (see Secs. + 4.4 and 4.5) + which are dependent on, or in apposition to a “head” noun, must + immediately precede or follow that head noun, unless the relationship between + the two nouns is readily ascertainable without the two being in apposition.
      +
      +
      • +
    • A case-frame cannot be broken apart into segments within a main sentence, + i.e., the case-frame must constitute a single cohesive clause and not contain + elements of the main clause within it. It is possible to “nest” + a second case-frame within a case-frame, similar to the way in which subordinate + or relative clauses can be nested in English and other Western languages, + e.g., [Despite owning a Picasso [that comes from his Blue period] [of + which I, [a mere student,] am fond,]] Joe is actually a very humble person.
      • +
    +

     

    +

    9.1.4 Phonotactically-Induced Syntactic Modifications

    +

    As mentioned above, word-order can shift in an Ilaksh sentence + to accommodate phonotactic or phonaesthetic ends, i.e., for purposes of euphony. + This is because suffixes on a formative, as well as morphemes associated with + categories of Aspect and Bias and can be transformed into autonomous adjuncts (see Secs. 8.2, 8.3, 8.4 and 8.5 ). As + words + of six syllables or more are generally undesirable, any formative + with numerous affixes is potentially subject to having several of its morphemes + redistributed to adjuncts.

    +

    Example:

    +
    +

    Ççwa’lauralaruëèŧ  güliëèn.   →   Ar  ëŧau  ççwaràl  güliëèn.
    + HOR-IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-PCL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + →    NA11/5     EXT2/6-PCL    HOR-IFL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
    + If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

    +
    +

    When ordering such phonaesthetically-induced adjuncts, it is + important that they can be easily associated with the formative to which they + apply. Generally, this means that they will be adjacent to the formative, or + occur on either side of other adjuncts associated with the formative.

    +


    + 9.1.5 Iconicity

    +

    English and other languages generally display phrase-structure + patterns and word-order patterns which reinforce, or even reflect, a cognitive + understanding of what is being described, i.e., the order of the words themselves + reflects information about how we are to understand the utterance. Such a phenomenon + is known as iconicity. In English and other Western languages, + the most common way in which iconicity is manifested is what is termed “sequential + order iconicity,” the idea that the actual sequential order of words in + a phrase or sentence reflects the sequential order of the events they describe. + For example, the phrases ‘eye it, try it, buy it,’ ‘I came, + I saw, I conquered,’ or ‘dine and dash’ describe sequential + events where the sequence of the words reflect the sequence of the events. What + is most important is that re-ordering of the words either changes the meaning + of the phrase or leads to semantic nonsense, e.g., ‘buy it, eye it, try + it’ implies that a different sequence of events actually takes place than + ‘eye it, try it, buy it.’ This can be more dramatically illustrated + with the following pair of sentences.

    +
    +

    1) Jane got married and had a baby.
    + 2) Jane had a baby and got married.

    +
    +

    In English, the ambiguous word ‘and’ is interpreted + as connecting a sequence of events, i.e., ‘and’ is interpreted to + mean sequential ‘then’ (= ‘and following that,’ ‘then + next’ or ‘then later’). As a result, the meanings of the two + sentences imply very different social interpretations about Jane.

    +

    Besides the reflection of sequential order, other types of + word-order iconicity are possible. For example, compare the subtle difference + in meaning between the following two sentences:

    +
    +

    3) Sam painted the fence white.
    + 4) Sam painted the white fence.

    +
    +

    In the first sentence, we do not know what color the fence + was prior to being painted, or even if it was a new fence that had never been + painted before. In the second sentence, not only do we know what color the fence + had been, but also that it was not previously unpainted, however, we do not + necessarily know what its new color is. This sort of iconicity is used to convey + a resultative state of affairs, i.e., by placing the adjective ‘white’ + after the word ‘fence’ (seemingly in violation of the usual adjective-before-noun + word order used in English), we describe a resulting state of affairs.

    +

    Yet another type of word-order iconicity is displayed in comparing + the following two sentences.

    +
    +

    5) Loretta gave Sue a wedding gift.
    + 6) Loretta gave a wedding gift to Sue.

    +
    +

    Most grammar textbooks would state that these two sentences + are semantically equivalent, the first employing a “ditransitive” + pattern (i.e., juxtaposing an indirect object ‘Sue’ with a direct + object ‘wedding gift’), while the second uses a “complement” + pattern in which the indirect object follows the direct object and is changed + to a prepositional phrase using ‘to.’ However, there is a subtle + semantic distinction between the two sentences. The first strongly implies that + the wedding gift is for Sue, i.e., Sue is the bride and intended recipient. + The second sentence, however, invites the possibility that Sue is only a temporary + or circumstantial goal for the act of giving, but not the bride and intended + recipient. For example, if Sue is merely a guest at the wedding and Loretta + needed Sue’s help carrying an armload of wedding gifts, she might give + a wedding gift to Sue, but that does not mean she would give Sue a wedding gift. This type of iconicity distinguishing a recipient from a directional + goal is an example of what is termed “distance iconicity,” because + the two linked words are made more “distant” from each other in + the sentence as a reflection of their more circumstantial association.

    +

    Ilaksh does not display iconicity. While the order of words + in an Ilaksh phrase or sentence may coincidentally reflect a temporal or causative + sequence of events, this is not by syntactic design. Because of the myriad means + available in Ilaksh to morphologically distinguish sequence, cause-and-effect, + resulting states, and the distinction of recipients from directional goals, + no iconicity patterns are required.

    +

    For example, we saw in sentences (1) and (2) above how English + ‘and’ can be used to convey not just mere coordination, but also + a sequencing function. In Sections + 7.4.3 and 7.4.4, we saw + that Ilaksh has no less than thirty-six suffixes (four suffix categories, each + with nine different degrees) which convey various coordinative and sequencing + patterns with great specificity. Thus, Ilaksh has no morpheme directly equivalent + to the ambiguous English word ‘and.’ There is an affix corresponding + to ‘and’ in its use as a mere additive listing device (e.g., ‘pears + and apples and bananas’), another corresponding to its use as an indicator + of simultaneity (e.g., I clenched my fists and scowled), another + corresponding to its use as an indicator of additional information (e.g., The + clown likes children and loves to eat), another to its use as an indicator + of parallel description or activity (e.g., We went dancing and so did + they), and yet another as a temporal sequencing indicator (e.g., I + went to the window and looked out).
    +

    +

     

    + + + + +
    9.2 MORPHO-SEMANTIC CONSIDERATIONS
    +

    It should be noted that when structuring an Ilaksh sentence, + particularly when translating from other languages such as English, care must + be given to avoid capturing irrelevant semantic information reflected by the + morphology of the source language and trying to find an equivalent or parallel + way to reflect those irrelevancies in the Ilaksh sentence. This can have a + profound effect on the morpho-syntactical structure of the resulting Ilaksh + sentence.

    +

     

    +

    9.2.1 Arbitrary Delineations of Perspective or Point of View

    +

    One area where word-choice in English and other Western languages + arbitrarily affects sentence structure is in the unintentional schematicization + of a particular perspective or point of view. For example, consider the following + pair of sentences in English.

    +
    +

    1) The path climbs steeply out of the canyon.
    + 2) That path descends steeply into the canyon.

    +
    +

    Both of these sentences are describing the same property of + the path — its steepness. The distinction in the sentences comes from + the point of view being reflected by the speaker. In sentence (1) the implied + point of view is from the bottom of the canyon upward, while in sentence (2) + the viewpoint is from the top of the canyon downward. What is important is that, + semantically, the point of view is of no relevance to the steepness of the path per se. So if the cognitive intent of the utterance is simply to describe + the vertical gradient of the path within the canyon, there would be only one + Ilaksh translation for both of these sentences, eschewing the point of view + entirely and restating the sentence to read:

    +
    +


    + Nrūoilüb  ervrēkf  zmayüūlavz.
    + IFL-‘oblique verticality’-FUN-EXN1/6 IFL-PSN-‘pathway’-PRX/N/CSL/UNI IFL-‘valley’-NAV-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5
    + The path through the canyon is steep.

    +
    +

     

    +

    9.2.2 Masking of Semantic or Participatory Roles

    +

    Similarly, care must be made, when comparing Ilaksh sentence + structure with other languages, to note that Ilaksh grammar allows for a more + overt reflection of the underlying semantic roles inherent in a given sentence. + As a result, sentence structures in Western languages which “mask” + potentially anomalous semantic structures are avoided in Ilaksh. For example, + compare the following pairs of sentences.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + +
     3a) He supplied a report to the analyst.4a) She applied a solvent to the stain.
     3b) He supplied the analyst a report.4b) *She applied the stain a solvent.
    +
    +

    The syntactical patterns of these two pairs of sentences are + identical, yet the word-order in sentence (4b) is ungrammatical (as indicated + by the asterisk), while the same word-order in sentence (3b) presents no problem. + The underlying reason for the difference is one of semantic role. While ‘analysts’ + can function in the role of Recipients, ‘stains’ cannot (they are + merely directional Goals, i.e., where the solvent gets applied). Cognitively, + stains cannot “possess” a solvent the way analysts can “possess” + a report. In Ilaksh, the semantic roles would be clearly defined by the case-markings + of the participants. Therefore, syntactically inconsistent pairs such as (3b) + and (4b) do not occur.

    +

    Sometimes, rather than semantic role, it is a participant’s + relationship to an underlying clause that presents the problem. For example, He’s a tall president means ‘He’s a president who + is tall.’ So why doesn’t He’s a likely president mean ‘*He’s a president who is likely’? The reason is that, + while ‘tall’ describes its adjacent referent ‘president,’ + ‘likely’ does not describe its adjacent referent. Rather, ‘likely’ + describes an underlying process in which that referent is or will be engaged, + i.e., ‘running for president.’ Therefore, while these two sentences + are morpho-syntactically identical in English, their Ilaksh translations are + quite different from one another morpho-syntactically:
    +

    +
    +

    Rua  altmisŭëss  urja’uiskuemăi.
    + ma-AFF     IFL-STA-‘height’-DEL/N/CSL/UNI-PTT2/6     FML-MNF-‘preside/govern’-COR-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-ROL2/4-FAC/FNC
    + He’s a tall president.
    + [literally: There is much height to him who formally presides.] _______

    +

    +

    Ra  urjakkoavuemăi.
    + ma-OBL    FML-MNF-‘preside/govern’-ICP/M/CSL/UNI-PRB2/7-ROL2/4-FAC/FNC
    + He’s a likely president.
    + [literally: He is one who probably will begin to formally preside.]

    +

     

    +
    +

    9.2.3 Negation

    +

    Negation is another morpho-semantic area where translation + from English or other Western languages can be tricky. Consider the English + sentence Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Note this + sentence does not mean what a literal word-for-word analysis implies, i.e., + ‘That they like her cooking is not something that Shelly is thinking.’ + Rather, the correct meaning is ‘Shelly thinks that they don’t like + her cooking.’ Ilaksh is very precise in specifying exactly what components + of a sentence are to be negated. Use of the four affirmation/negation affixes + from Sec. 7.7.9 () + in conjunction with a formative carries very specific information as to what + morphological components of a sentence are being affirmed or negated and to + what degree. Using these four affixes alone, Ilaksh can distinguish between + the following four sentences without any syntactic rearrangement of the words:

    +
    +

    I don’t want to begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to not want to sing.

    +

    I want to not begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to want to not sing.

    +
    +

    Thus when translating negative sentences into Ilaksh, care + must be taken to not syntactically “rearrange” a sentence as with Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Additionally, Ilaksh + makes a morpho-semantic distinction not found in Western languages: the difference + between absolute negation and relative negation. + Absolute negation implies that the non-existence or non-occurrence of an entity, + state, or event is due to contextual inapplicability, while relative negation + indicates that the non-existence or non-occurrence is circumstantial. This distinction + is illustrated in the two sentences below:

    +
    +


    + Usésar  àgmoel.
    + FML-OPR-‘sing’-DEL/N/CSL/UNI-NA11/5      IFL-‘girl’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The girl doesn’t sing [even though she can, i.e., she chooses + not to].

    +

    Usésör  àgmoel.
    + FML-OPR-‘sing’-DEL/N/CSL/UNI-NA11/4      IFL-‘girl’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + The girl doesn’t sing [because she can’t, i.e., she is + mute].

    +
    +


    +

    + + + + +
    9.3 THE “CARRIER” + ROOT
    +

    Since the Ilaksh declensional and conjugational system is + based on predictable multi-level patterns of consonant and vowel mutation, proper + nouns such as personal and place names, as well as non-Ilaksh words from other + languages are by nature morpho-phonologically incompatible with such as system. + Nevertheless, such words can be declined or conjugated like any other Ilaksh + formative by means of the “carrier” root sú-. + In addition to this use, the carrier root is employed in certain other contexts + as well, as described below.

    +


    + 9.3.1 Words that Cannot Take Affixes or Be Mutated

    +

    The three primary stems of the carrier root, sú-, asú-, ásu(la), are respectively associated with animate + beings (the two complementary derivatives çú- and ssú- being humans versus non-humans or + figuratively/metaphorically animate entities); inanimate entities (the two complementary + derivatives açú- and assú- being objectively concrete entities versus subjective entities such + as thoughts, emotions, sensations, etc.); and finally intangible abstract referents + (the two complementary derivatives áçu(la) and ássu(la)being place names and abstractions). The + carrier stem is placed immediately before the proper noun or foreign word or + phrase, then declined or conjugated normally for any desired morphological categories, + even verbal categories. The proper noun or foreign word or phrase itself is + left unchanged.
    +

    +

    9.3.2 Emphasizing or Highlighting a Particular Category

    +

    Another use of the carrier root is to emphasize or topicalize + a particular affix or grammatical element associated with a word. For example, + in English we can say ‘a big house’ with extra intonation + on the word ‘big’ to emphasize that word. To accomplish such emphasis + in Ilaksh, the carrier root is used with the augmentative suffix in conjunction + with the noun ‘house’ as opposed to simply using the augmentative + suffix on the stem for ‘house.’ No change in vocal pitch or intonation + is required, as the grammatically unnecessary use of the carrier root serves + to accomplish the required emphasis. Any morphological category manifested by + a carrier root rather than an adjunct or mutation serves to emphasize that category. + (It should be noted that the use of optional combination and euphonic adjuncts + do not accomplish such emphasis. Their use versus non-use imparts no difference + in emphasis for the particular morphological categories contained in the adjunct.)
    +

    +

    9.3.3 Titles of Address

    +

    It should be noted that the use of the carrier root in front + of the names of persons serves to function as a title of address corresponding + to English Mister, Ms. or Miss. There is no distinction of + gender or marital status conveyed by the term.

    +

     

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics >>

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    +

    ©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +
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    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
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    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
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    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Introduction

    +

    These webpages present the grammar of an artificially constructed language, Ilaksh.  For those readers already familiar with my constructed language Ithkuil, this new language, Ilaksh, represents a revision of the Ithkuil language to allow easier pronunciation for those persons who have an interest in trying to speak Ithkuil but are daunted by the complex phonology (sound system).  The revision consists mostly of a simplification of the phonology of the language and a complete restructuring of the morpho-phonology.  While most of the morphology of the original Ithkuil remains intact, I have taken the opportunity to revise several morphological elements with which I’ve been less than satisfied. 

    +

    Like Ithkuil, the purpose of Ilaksh is to present a philosophical design for a hypothetical language featuring extreme morpho-phonological conciseness while overtly presenting a much deeper level of human cognition than is found in natural human languages, i.e., maximal communication of underlying cognitive intent coupled with maximal morpho-phonological efficiency.

    +

    The specific differences found in Ilaksh compared to Ithkuil are as follows:

    +

    • The number of phonemes (i.e., relevant speech sounds) has been reduced from 82 to 40.  I have eliminated what many readers would consider the most difficult-to-pronounce phonemes.  Specifically, the number of consonants has been reduced from 65 to 30 and the number of vowels from 17 to ten.  In partial compensation of this reduction, however, Ithkuil’s five tones have been increased to seven in Ilaksh.  Tone also plays a more pervasive role in Ilaksh than in Ithkuil.

      +
      • +
    • +

      The reduction in total phonemes has required a drastic restructuring of Ithkuil’s morpho-phonology, i.e., the patterns in which phonemes (speech sounds) are mapped to morphemes (meaningful word-components).  All in all, Ilaksh is more agglutinative and less synthetic in its grammar than Ithkuil.  As a result, Ilaksh looks and sounds rather differently than Ithkuil, and the structure of the words is different as well.  Therefore, to all surface appearances, both visual and aural, Ilaksh is a different language than Ithkuil.

      +
      • +
    • +

      Ithkuil’s four Levels have been expanded to 18 in Ilaksh.

      +
      • +
    • +

      Ithkuil’s 81 noun cases have been consolidated to 72 in Ilaksh. However, a system of 24 new specialized noun cases have been added which operate in conjunction with the expansion of the Level categories, resulting in a total of 96 noun cases in Ilaksh.

      +
      • +
    • +

      Ithkuil’s nine Validations (evidential categories) have been expanded to 14 in Ilaksh.

      +
      • +
    • +

      The Ithkuil category of Focus has been eliminated as a morphological category in Ilaksh.  Topic and Focus are primarily handled at the syntactic level in Ilaksh rather than at the morphological level.  As a result, word-order is more important in Ilaksh than in Ithkuil.

      +
      • +
    • +

      The 259 Derivations of Ithkuil verbs, used to expand upon the seven basic verb Conflations, have been eliminated.  Instead, Ilaksh now allows the option to incorporate any formative stem into a verbal stem, i.e., Ilaksh verbs are optionally incorporative. The category of Conflation has been renamed Function and an additional Function has been added bring the number to eight, compared to Ithkuil's seven.

      +
      • +
    • +
      The HORTATIVE has been moved from a Validation category to an Illocution category.
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      The number of morpho-semantic classes of formative stems has been reduced from 17 in Ithkuil to ten in Ilaksh.
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Ilaksh uses a completely different writing system than Ithkuil.  The new system is non-linear and two-dimensional, and almost entirely morphemic in nature, as opposed to the morpho-phonemic script used for Ithkuil (a sample of Ilaksh writing is visible above in the header/title area of this page). 
      +
      • +
    +

    I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil and who have patiently looked forward to Ilaksh. I hope you find the new site interesting. And I especially wish to thank Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of so many people. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian.

    +

                                                                                  —John Quijada
    +                                                                              June, 2007
    +

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 1: Phonology >>

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +

    ©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +
    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Ilaksh_Intro.html.orig b/2004-en/Ilaksh_Intro.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc68179 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Ilaksh_Intro.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,154 @@ + + + + +Introduction + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +
    +
    +

    Introduction

    +

    These webpages present the grammar of an artificially constructed language, Ilaksh.  For those readers already familiar with my constructed language Ithkuil, this new language, Ilaksh, represents a revision of the Ithkuil language to allow easier pronunciation for those persons who have an interest in trying to speak Ithkuil but are daunted by the complex phonology (sound system).  The revision consists mostly of a simplification of the phonology of the language and a complete restructuring of the morpho-phonology.  While most of the morphology of the original Ithkuil remains intact, I have taken the opportunity to revise several morphological elements with which I’ve been less than satisfied. 

    +

    Like Ithkuil, the purpose of Ilaksh is to present a philosophical design for a hypothetical language featuring extreme morpho-phonological conciseness while overtly presenting a much deeper level of human cognition than is found in natural human languages, i.e., maximal communication of underlying cognitive intent coupled with maximal morpho-phonological efficiency.

    +

    The specific differences found in Ilaksh compared to Ithkuil are as follows:

    +

    • The number of phonemes (i.e., relevant speech sounds) has been reduced from 82 to 40.  I have eliminated what many readers would consider the most difficult-to-pronounce phonemes.  Specifically, the number of consonants has been reduced from 65 to 30 and the number of vowels from 17 to ten.  In partial compensation of this reduction, however, Ithkuil’s five tones have been increased to seven in Ilaksh.  Tone also plays a more pervasive role in Ilaksh than in Ithkuil.

      +
      • +
    • +

      The reduction in total phonemes has required a drastic restructuring of Ithkuil’s morpho-phonology, i.e., the patterns in which phonemes (speech sounds) are mapped to morphemes (meaningful word-components).  All in all, Ilaksh is more agglutinative and less synthetic in its grammar than Ithkuil.  As a result, Ilaksh looks and sounds rather differently than Ithkuil, and the structure of the words is different as well.  Therefore, to all surface appearances, both visual and aural, Ilaksh is a different language than Ithkuil.

      +
      • +
    • +

      Ithkuil’s four Levels have been expanded to 18 in Ilaksh.

      +
      • +
    • +

      Ithkuil’s 81 noun cases have been consolidated to 72 in Ilaksh. However, a system of 24 new specialized noun cases have been added which operate in conjunction with the expansion of the Level categories, resulting in a total of 96 noun cases in Ilaksh.

      +
      • +
    • +

      Ithkuil’s nine Validations (evidential categories) have been expanded to 14 in Ilaksh.

      +
      • +
    • +

      The Ithkuil category of Focus has been eliminated as a morphological category in Ilaksh.  Topic and Focus are primarily handled at the syntactic level in Ilaksh rather than at the morphological level.  As a result, word-order is more important in Ilaksh than in Ithkuil.

      +
      • +
    • +

      The 259 Derivations of Ithkuil verbs, used to expand upon the seven basic verb Conflations, have been eliminated.  Instead, Ilaksh now allows the option to incorporate any formative stem into a verbal stem, i.e., Ilaksh verbs are optionally incorporative. The category of Conflation has been renamed Function and an additional Function has been added bring the number to eight, compared to Ithkuil's seven.

      +
      • +
    • +
      The HORTATIVE has been moved from a Validation category to an Illocution category.
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      The number of morpho-semantic classes of formative stems has been reduced from 17 in Ithkuil to ten in Ilaksh.
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Ilaksh uses a completely different writing system than Ithkuil.  The new system is non-linear and two-dimensional, and almost entirely morphemic in nature, as opposed to the morpho-phonemic script used for Ithkuil (a sample of Ilaksh writing is visible above in the header/title area of this page). 
      +
      • +
    +

    I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil and who have patiently looked forward to Ilaksh. I hope you find the new site interesting. And I especially wish to thank Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of so many people. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian.

    +

                                                                                  —John Quijada
    +                                                                              June, 2007
    +

    +
    +

    Proceed to Chapter 1: Phonology >>

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +

    ©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +
    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Intro_1.gif b/2004-en/Intro_1.gif new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aaa4f26 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/Intro_1.gif differ diff --git a/2004-en/Lexicon.htm b/2004-en/Lexicon.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1ec1c2a --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Lexicon.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6796 @@ + + + +Untitled Document + + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ilaksh Logo

     

     

    		 
    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morph.11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +


    + Updated June 28, 2008 (38 new roots added - marked in green)

    +

    The Lexicon

    +

    Currently, the lexicon below lists 12258 stems as derived from 681 roots (see + Sections 2.2, 2.4, + and 10.1.1 for an explanation + of the structure of individual roots and their 18 stems). This represents only + a random sampling from the 10 different morpho-semantic classes of Ilaksh roots + (see Sec. 10.2 for an explanation + of these classes). Additional roots and their stems will be periodically added +to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes.

    +

    The reader should be aware that the glosses (i.e., the English translations + or definitions) for each of the stems below are at times somewhat arbitrary, + as Ilaksh roots and their stems have been conceptualized from the cognitive + level up, without regard as to whether they correspond necessarily to an existing + word or phrase in English or other languages. As a result, some of the English + glosses chosen as representations for the Ilaksh stems are approximations at + best. This is especially true for verbal glosses, since the translation of an + Ilaksh verbal formative is usually dependent on the specific Function and Format + (see Sections 6.4 and 6.5).

    +

    Ideally, the best way to represent the meanings of Ilaksh stems would be to + use a semantic “meta-language” comprised of a closed set of semantically + universal (or near-universal) “primitives” to create semantic “formulas” + which define the use of a particular stem. (The design and use of such a meta-language + to translate the meanings of words from one language to another can be found + in the writings of linguist Anna Wierzbicka.) However, the author has chosen + not to pursue such an effort for the sake of time, as such an analysis for all + of the 3600 roots and their 64,800 stems would likely take decades to complete.

    +

    In regard to the list below, note that in some cases both a nominal (i.e., + noun) and verbal gloss have been provided, while in others only one or the other + is present. Nevertheless, the reader should keep in mind at all times that Ilaksh + stems always convey both a nominal and verbal meaning, as explained in detail + in Section 2.6.1.

    +

     

    +

    CLASS I ROOTS:  Organic life, matter, organic taxonomies

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    BÀ - ‘BODILY JOINT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. bodily joint (physical joint + function); flex joint

    1. specialized bodily joint/juncture

    2. ball & socket-type bodily joint

    2. vertebra

    3. standard-type joint

    3. wrist/ankle/waist (lateral circular joint type)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to external hard or knob-like external body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to internal joint and its function/process

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    hip/flex hip, shoulder, flex shoulder
    + finger joint, toe joint, knee, elbow
    + spinal column; flex spine
    + wrist, ankle waist

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ČÀ- ‘HEAR(ING)/SOUND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hear a sound; aural faculty + sound heard; an act of hearing a sound

    1. listen to a (specific) sound / discern aurally a (specific) sound

    2. ear (aural organ + physical part of body, i.e., Spanish oído + oreja)

    2. aural instrument / device for detecting sound waves + sound detected

    3. imagine a sound (act + sound)

    3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to hear; aural faculty

    1. sound

    1. listen

    1. (selected) sound

    2. ear (aural organ)

    2. ear (body part)

    2. aural instrument

    2. sound detected via aural instrument

    3. imagine a sound / hear in one’s mind

    3. imagined sound

    3. create or manufacture a sound

    3. sound created

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: speaker, megaphone, telephone, stereo, microphone, hearing aid

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DÀ-  ‘TYPES OF HARD OR NON-LIVING BODILY TISSUES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tooth

    1. head hair

    2. fingernail/toenail/claw

    2. whisker / facial hair

    3. hard growth of skin (e.g., wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar)

    3. pubic/armpit hair

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

    +

    Morphological derivative from FORMAL Stem 1:  bald
    +SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2:  mustache, beard, sideburn
    +SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 1:  incisor, fang, bicuspid, molar
    +SSD Derivatives for INFORMSL Stem 3;:  wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DÈ-  ‘HAND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hand (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “hand” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. hand (as holder, grasper, striker) [both physical body part and function]; to grasp-->hold

    3. leg (as manipulator, handler, feeler) [both physical body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. hand as physical body part

    1. function of hand as “feeler”- focuser of body’s tactile sense

    2. hand as main tool of body

    2. function of hand as holder/grasper

    3. hand as limb/extension

    3. function of hand as manipulator/handler

    +

    SSD derivatives:  1) fist 2) palm 3) knuckle 4) hand as flat “blade”, e.g., for karate chop 5) finger 6) thumb 7) “butt” of hand [=lower part of palm] 8) fingernail  9) bottom side of fist [as when pounding fist onto table; for individual fingers, use following affixes + SSD/5 for ‘finger’:  index = “main finger” or “first finger”, middle finger = “mid-finger” or “long finger” or “2nd finger”, ring finger = “3rd finger”, pinkie = 4th finger or small(est) finger

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DYÙ- ‘SENSE/SENSATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sense/sensation, “feel” / “feeling” [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]; an act of sensing something

    1. examine via the senses [both act and result/outcome]

    2. sensor / sensory organ [function + sensor itself]

    2. sensor(y) device/instrument [both use and device itself]

    3. imagine a sensation or feeling / imagined sensation or feeling [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]

    3. create/induce a sensory experience [both act and result/outcome]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to sense / act of sensing

    1. a sensation, a feeling

    1. examine via the senses [the act thereof]

    1. resulting evidence of senses

    2. sense faculty/ability

    2. sensor(y) organ

    2. sensor(y) device/instrument [the use thereof]

    2. sensor(y) device or instrument [the device/instrument itself]

    3. imagine a sensation/feeling

    3. a mentally imagined sensation

    3. create a sensory experience or feeling [the act thereof]

    3. sensation/feeling as externally created/induced

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  perceive, detect, perception

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ĐÀ - ‘GENDER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. gender

    1. psycho-sexual identity

    2. neuter

    2. asexual / psychologically neuter

    3. androgynous

    3. sexual preference/orientation

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male (anatomically)

    1. female (anatomically)

    1. masculine (psycho-behaviorally)

    1. feminine (psycho-behaviorally)

    2. sterile (incapable of procreation)

    2. genderless (neither male nor female anatomically)

    2. celibate/chaste

    2. asexual; devoid of sexual desire

    3. androgyne / androgynous (difficultyfor others to determine gender)

    3. hermophrodite / hermophroditic (anatomically both male & female)

    3. sexual preference or orientation psychologically

    3. sexual orientation in actuality (as manifested)

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  homosexual, bisexual, heterosexual, bisexual with preference for heterosexuality, bisexual with preference for homosexuality, homosexual with preference for functioning in male role, homosexual with preference for functioning in female role

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DLÀ - ‘PREGNANCY/GESTATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. pregnancy/gestation

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring exclusively to human pregnancy/gestation

    2. manifestation of morning sickness

    3. contraction during labor

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical condition/state
    +  

    Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  conception, labor, birth/delivery

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FÀ- ‘BODY PART’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. body part/component  (e.g., appendage, section, organ, gland, tissue, fluid, etc.)

    1. bodily tissue/flesh/sinew

    2. bodily organ

    2. secondary organ/gland

    3. bone

    3. bodily fluid/secretion

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  body, corpse
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 3:  1) spine 2) rib 3) skull 4) limb bone (tibia, femur, ulna, etc.) 5) bone of hand/foot  6) “shield” bone (e.g., patella, shoulder blade) 7) hipbone
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  1) membrane 2) tendon 3) ligament 4) nerve 5) muscle 6) skin/integument 7) sphincter/valve 8)  marrow 9) fat/gristle
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 2:  1) gonad 2) esophagus 3) adrenal gland 4) bowel/intestine 5) brain 6) lung 7) kidney 8)
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 3:  1) tear  2) bile 3) semen 4) pus 5) blood 6) mucus/mucal secretion 7) saliva 8) lymph  9) sweat/perspiratioin

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FÙ ‘COUSIN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cousin [male or female]

    1. step-cousin [male or female]

    2. male cousin

    2. male step-cousin

    3. female cousin

    3. female step-cousin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s mother]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s father]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepmother]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepfather]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s mother]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s father]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s mother]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s father]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GÀ- ‘ABDOMEN/THORAX/TORSO/CHEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. thorax/torso [both body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “mid-section” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. abdomen/midsection (lower front half of torso) [both body part and function]

    3. chest (upper front of torso) [both  body part and function)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GLÀ - ‘NECK’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. neck (as gestalt entity) [body part + function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “neck” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

    2. neck (as bodily support/swivel point for head) [body part + function

    3. neck (as narrowest, most vulnerable body part) [body part + function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. neck as physical body part

    1. neck as functional body part

    2. neck as bodily support/swivel point for head

    2. neck as functional support/swivel point for head

    3. neck as physically narrowest, most vulnerable body part)

    3. neck as functionally narrowest, most vulnerable body part

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  nape, throat (i.e., front part of neck)

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GÙ- ‘STATE OF HEALTH/ILLNESS/WELL-BEING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. state of physical health / physical well-being

    1. state of mental health / mental well-being

    2. physical illness; sick(ness)

    2. mental illness

    3. physical injury/wound/lesion/trauma

    3. mental trauma

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

    +

    SSD affix used with Stem 2 of both INFORMAL and FORMAL stem in conjunction w/ the AGC2/7 affix give:  1) nurse 2) emergency technician 3) therapist 4) caregiver 5) doctor 6) surgeon 7) healer 8) “medicine man” 9) medical assistant
    + Derivations:  madness, craziness, insanity

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GYÀ - ‘MISCELLANEOUS BODY PARTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. buttock

    1. haunch

    2. breast/teat

    2. snout/proboscis

    3. navel

    3. fin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GYÙ- ‘SPECIALIZED VOLITIONAL BODILY SOUNDS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-linguistic sound made by mouth (i.e., tongue, teeth, lips)

    1.  consonant

    2. non-linguistic sound made from throat or vocal chords

    2. vowel

    3. sound made by non-oral, non-vocal part of the body

    3. phoneme

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

    +

    SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 1:  1) whistle 2) hum 3) “raspberry” 4) hoot/whoop 5) non-avian animal call 6) bird call 7) scream 8) click-sound (i.e., w/ ingressive airstream) 9) non-phonemic consonantal gibberish sound

    +

    SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 3:  1) slap 2) rubbing sound 3) footfall (--> stomp) 4) snap of fingers 5) finger tap 6) toe/foot tap 7) suction-based sound (e.g., “armpit fart”) 8) knuckle crack  9) other joint cracking

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    JÀ- ‘BACK/DORSAL AREA OF BODY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to the dorsal area of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. lower back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

    3. upper back & shoulder blade area

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    JÈ- ‘IN-LAW/FOSTER RELATIONS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of parent/child in-law relationship

    1. member of foster family

    2. male member of parent/child in-law relationship

    2. male member of foster family

    3. female member of parent/child in-law relationship

    3. female member of foster family

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. parent in-law

    1. child in-law

    1. foster parent

    1. foster child

    2. father in-law

    2. son in-law

    2. foster father

    2. foster son

    3. mother in-law

    3. daughter in-law

    3. foster mother

    3. foster daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KÀ- ‘HIGHER ORDER ANIMAL LIFE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. higher order being (i.e., large bilateral vertebrate with discrete organs)

    1. authorized or officially designated person or animal/beast

    2. human, person

    2. official, authorized person

    3. non-human higher order being or animal, beast

    3. pet or zoo animal/beast

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male higher order being

    1. female higher order being

    1. authorized male animal/ or officially designated man or beast

    1. authorized or officially designated woman or female animal/ beast

    2. human male, man

    2. human female, woman

    2. official, authorized man

    2. official, authorized woman

    3. male higher order animal or beast

    3. female higher order animal or beast

    3. male pet or zoo animal/beast

    3. female pet or zoo animal/beast

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: boy, girl, child [developmentally, not as offspring], population, group of people, crowd, mob, assembly, people, masses, elder, crone, adult, youth, adulthood, fetus, adolescent, zoo

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KMÈ- ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. nuclear family member

    1. non-sanguine family member

    2. male family member

    2. non-sanguine male family member

    3. female family member

    3. non-sanguine female family member

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. parent

    1. child/offspring

    1. step-parent

    1. step-child

    2. father

    2. boy child / son

    2. step-father

    2. step-son

    3. mother

    3. girl child / daughter

    3. step-mother

    3. step-daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KMÙ- ‘LOWER ORDER LIFE FORM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. lower-order life form (i.e. non-vertebrate)

    same as INFORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

    2. microbe

    3. non-microbial animal

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bacterium

    1. soft-bodied animal (e.g., jellyfish, sponge, slime mold)

    2. virus

    2. exoskeletal animal (e.g., insect, arthropod, crustacean)

    3. protist

    3. endoskeletal animal

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KYÀ- ‘BREATHE/RESPIRATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. respire/inhale or exhale; a breath

    1. inflate (w/ air)

    2. yawn

    2. blow (passage of air under pressure through narrow opening)

    3. pump (by air)

    3. suck/suckle/siphon

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to gaseous compound itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  breathe, pant, gasp, suffocate, suffocation, asphyxiate, asphyxiation, drown

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    LÙ ‘SIBLING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sibling

    1. step-sibling

    2. brother

    2. step-brother

    3. sister

    3. step-sister

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. half-sibling [shared mother]

    1. half-sibling [shared father]

    1. step-sibling [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    1. step-sibling [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    2. half-brother [shared mother]

    2. half-brother [shared father]

    2. step-brother [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    2. step-brother [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    3. half-sister [shared mother]

    3. half-sister [shared father]

    3. step-sister [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    3. step-sister [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MÈ-‘CLASSES OF ANIMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. animal of land or air (i.e., “terroid”)

    Same as INFORMAL holistic stems but domesticated, tamed, captive, or bred

    2. waterlife (i.e., “aquoid”)

    3. amphibian

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems but domesticable

    same as above 3 stems but undomesticable

    same as above FORMAL stems but as pets or tamed

    same as above FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, breeding stock, etc.)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MLÙ- ‘CLASSES OF WATERLIFE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. skeletal/vertebral waterlife form

    Same as INFORMAL holistic stems referring to tamed, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

    2. exoskeletal/arthropod form

    3. soft-bodied waterlife form

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. jellyfish-like lifeform

    1. gilled/finned fish

    Same INFORMAL complementary stems referring to tamed, pet, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

    2. crustacean

    2. “non-standard”-shaped fish (e.g., ray, eel, squid, octopus, etc.)

    3. shellfish

    3. sea mammal (e.g., whale, seal, walrus, etc.)

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  fisherman, whale hunter, aquarium, fishery, fish hatchery

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    NÈ - ‘SENSE OF TASTE / THE TASTE OF SOMETHING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to taste a taste (taste faculty + flavor tasted)

    1. to taste for an anticipated/expected flavor

    2. tongue/palate (tissue containing taste buds + taste buds themselves)

    2. instrument/device for detecting flavor + flavor detected

    3. imagine a taste (act + the flavor imagined)

    3. create/manufacture a flavor + flavor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to taste; faculty of taste

    1. flavor

    1. to taste

    1.

    2. tongue/palate  (as sensory organs of tasting)

    2. taste bud

    2. instrument for detecting flavor

    2. flavor detected via instrument

    3. imagine a taste in one’s mind

    3. an imagined taste

    3. create/manufacture a flavor

    3. flavor created

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  tasty, savory, flavorful
    + SSD Derivatives:  1) bitter 2) chemical-like taste 3)  salty  4) foul/rancid taste 5) sweet  6) sweet & sour  7) sour 8)  hot (spicy)  9) umami

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PLÀ - ‘GASTRO-INTESTINAL/UROLOGICAL COMPONENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. gastrointestinal component (body part + function)

    1. urological component (body part + function)

    2. gastrointestinal process / digestive process / digest(ion) (physical process + nutritive function

    2. urological process (physical process + waste elimination function)

    3. (amount/piece of) feces, dung, excrement

    3. (an amount of) urine, piss, pee

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part/process  itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  gastrointestinal tract
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  esophagus, stomach, guts/viscera/intestine, jejenum, ilium, colon, rectum, small intestine/bowel, anus
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  kidney, ureter, adrenal gland, bladder, urethra

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PŠÙ-  ‘RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act + sound]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act + sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act + sound]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act]

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [sound]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [sound]

    +

    Morphological derivations:  clear throat, harrumph, hacking cough, cough up

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PYÀ - ‘DEGREE OF BODILY SLENDERNESS/FATNESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of slenderness/fatness

    same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

    2. decrease in degree of slenderness/fatness; lose weight; become thin(ner); slenderize

    3. increase in degree of slenderness/fatness; gain weight; become fat(ter); fatten up

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring specifically to physical size/girth/volume

    Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  skinny, rail-thin, obese, plump

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    RÀ-‘NUTRITION / NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. food and drink; to eat and drink

    1. eat a serving of food or drink; to dine

    2. food; to eat

    2. prepared/cooked food; to eat prepared food

    3. drink (i.e., substance drunk); to drink

    3. processed drink or spirits; to drink processed drink or spirits

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. eat and drink as biological process

    1. food and drink (substances consumed)

    same as abvoe 3 stems but with focus on the process of consumption

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on the items consumed

    2. eat/ingest/consume

    2. item of solid food

    3. drink/imbibe

    3. liquid (to be) drunk

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: cooking, meal, repast, feast, become drunk, gorge(d); chef, cook, brewer

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    RÈ- ‘COLLATERAL FAMILY MEMBER/RELATIVE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. paternal collateral relative

    1. maternal collateral relative

    2. paternal male collateral relative

    2. maternal male collateral relative

    3. paternal female collateral relative

    3. maternal female collateral relative

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. paternal aunt/uncle

    1. paternal aunt/uncle

    1. maternal nephew/neice

    1. maternal aunt/uncle

    2. paternal uncle

    2. paternal uncle

    2. maternal nephew

    2. maternal uncle

    3. paternal aunt

    3. paternal aunt

    3. maternal neice

    3. maternal aunt

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SÀ  ‘PLANT TYPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. branched/leaved plant including its fruit or flower

    same as FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

    2. grass-like or stalked plant including its seed or grain

    3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold including its spore or cyst

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. branched/leaved plant

    1. flower, fruit, or blossom of branched/leaved plant

    2. grass-like or stalked plant

    2. seed, grain, or kernel of grass-like or stalked plant

    3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold

    3. spore or cyst of moss-like or fungal plant or mold

    +

    SSD for Stem 2:  1) grass  2) ground-covering plant 3) clover  4) weed 5) wildgrass
    +SSD for Stem 3:  1) lichen  2)  mushroom  3)  mold  4)  slime mold 5) moss  6) non-mushroom fungus

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠÀ- ‘SOIL/GROUND/DIRT (MIXED ORGANIC + MINERAL)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. dirt/ground/soil [=substance + function as substrate/firmament]

    1. peat

    2. mud

    2. dirt(y)/filth(y) [= soiled, unclean]

    3. ground cover [organic-based, e.g., carpet of leaves]

    3. mulch/compost/fertilizer

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

    same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠÈ- ‘NON-SANGUINE RELATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of godparent-godchild relationship

    1. adoptive family member

    2. male member of godparent-godchild relationship

    2. male adoptive family member

    3. female member of godparent-godchild relationship

    3. female adoptive family member

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. godparent

    1. godchild

    1. adoptive parent

    1. adopted child

    2. godfather

    2. godson

    2. adoptive father

    2. adopted son

    3. godmother

    3. goddaughter

    3. adoptive mother

    3. adopted daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TÀ- ‘ALIVE/LIVING THING/LIVING BEING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. living thing; be alive / to live

    1. domesticated or civilized being

    2. [wild] animal (all orders)

    2. domesticated animal

    3. [wild] plant (all orders)

    3. cultivated plant

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male being

    1. female being

    1. domesticated or civilized male being

    1. domesticated or civilized female being

    2. male [wild] animal

    2. female [wild] animal

    2. male [domesticated] animal

    2. female [domesticated] animal

    3. male [wild] plant

    3. female [wild] plant

    3. male [cultivated] plant

    3. female [cultivated] plant

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: life, vegetation, flora, fauna, wildlife; farm, farmer, breeder, livestock

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŢÀ- ‘SMELL/ODOR’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to smell (= use olfactory sense) + odor smelled; an act of smelling a smell or odor

    1. examine or inspect via smelling + odor smelled

    2. nose (olfactory organ + facial proboscis)

    2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument + odor detected

    3. imagine a smell (act + imagined odor)

    3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to smell (= use olfactory sense)

    1. an odor, a smell; to give off an odor

    1. examine or inspect via smelling

    1. odor detected via inspection or examination

    2. nose (= olfactory organ)

    2. nose (= facial proboscis)

    2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument

    2. odor detected via olfactory instrument

    3. imagine an odor

    3. an imagined odor

    3. create or manufacture an odor

    3. manufactured odor

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sniff, aroma, “bouquet”, perfume, stench

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TLÀ - ‘COMPONENT OF BODY’S RESPIRATORY/CARDIO-VASCULATORY SYSTEM

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. heart

    1. lung

    2. vascular component

    2. component of respiratory system

    3. (an amount of) blood

    3. oxygen

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  ventricle, atrium, vein, coronary artery, capillary,
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 2:  blood vessel, vein, artery, capillary, aorta, vena cava
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1: bronchus, bronchiolus, alveolar sac
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 21:  nasal cavity, trachea

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TMÙ- ‘PLEASURE-BASED VOCALIZATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sigh (affective/non-volitional)

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) vocalizations

    2. squeal/groan/moan (affective/non-volitional)

    3. gasp (affective/non-volitional)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental  pleasure or satisfaction

    Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental distress, pain, torment, or dissatisfaction

    +

    SSD DERIVATIONS:  cry, sob, howl, whimper, murmur
    + OTHER MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  weep

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VYÙ - ‘FOOD PLANT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. plant grown/harvested/cultured as food source

    1. food dish/serving derived from plant

    2. vegetable

    2. food dish/serving derived from vegetable

    3. fruit

    3. food dish/serving derived from fruit

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to plant itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to edible part of plant or plant in edible condition following any necessary processing

    Same as above 3 stems referring to serving/dish itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to consumption/ingestion  of the dish

    +

    SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL stems:  stem, leaf, seed/nut, pod/fruit, flower, juice, sap, rhizome, root/tuber
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL stems:  soup, stew, salad, sauteed, deep-fried, boiled, steamed, baked, fancy/other style of preparation

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÀ- ‘VISION/SIGHT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to sight (see + thing seen); an act of seeing something

    1. observe / visually examine + thing seen

    2. eye (functional organ + visible facial feature)

    2. optical instrument + image

    3. visualize / imagine / picture a visual image in one’s mind + image

    3. create image / render an image

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. see; an act of seeing

    1. a sight / image; to project an image

    1. visually examine / observe

    1. thing observed / visual evidence

    2. eye (functional organ)

    2. eye (visible facial feature)

    2. optical instrument

    2. thing observed via optical instrument

    3. visualize / envision; act of visualization

    3. an image / a vision (in one’s mind)

    3. create image

    3. image created

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: faculty of sight, look (at), view, glimpse, glance, ogle, gawk, stare, spy, espy, peep, voyeur, panorama, scrutinize (visually), camera, telescope, microscope, binoculars, magnifying glass, lens, glasses

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÈ- ‘ARM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. arm (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. arm (as holder, support, carrier) [both body part and function]

    3. arm (as protective extension of body) [both body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. arm as single body part

    1. arm as reacher or manipulator

    2. arm as limb (focus on part/whole relation to body)

    2. arm as holder/carrier

    3. arm as extension of body

    3. arm as natural protective/defensive implement of body

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XRÙ - ‘GASTRONOMIC PAROXYSM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act + sound]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act + sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act + sound]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act]

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [sound]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [sound]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZÀ - ‘THROAT (interior tract of neck)/GULLET’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. throat (= interior respiratory/digestive tract of neck)

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “throat/gullet” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

    2. gullet (= tube- or trumpet-shaped digestive conduit from oral cavity)

    3. interior chamber of throat (containing pharynx, larynx, plus epiglottal and glottal structures)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    SSD derivatives:  pharynx, larynx, syrinx, epiglottis, glottis, trachea/windpipe, vocal fold/chord, hyoid bone / “Adam’s apple”

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZÈ- ‘MOUTH/ORAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mouth [= oral orifice]

    Same as INFORMAL Stems but for non-animal entity or figuratively

    2. lip [use of DPX = lips]

    3. interior of mouth/oral cavity

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on bodily location/physical aspect

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose, use, function

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZÙ- ‘TRAGICOMIC-BASED VOCAL/FACIAL GESTURE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mouth gesture

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) gestures/vocalizations (INFORMAL stems are affective/non-volitional)

    2. vocalization

    3. facial expression

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. smile

    1. frown

    2. laugh

    2. whine, moan

    3. “light up” (referring to one’s face’)

    3. crestfallen look, look of dejection

    +

    SSD DERIVATIONS:  scowl

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŻÀ- ‘HEAD’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. head (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. head (as seat of brain/mind) [both body part and function]

    3. head (as entity’s primary “interface” area of body)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. head as physical body part

    1. head as functional body part

    2. head as physical seat of brain/mind

    2. head as functional seat of brain/mind

    3. head as “top” or “forward” part or “access” point

    3. head as vital seat of identity

    +

    SSD = parts of head 1) cheek  2) chin  3) upper lip [plane between mouth and nose] 4) forehead 5) temple 6) crown of head 6) occipital area [back of head] 7) socket area around eye 8) upper part of back of head 9) cheekbone

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŽÀ - ‘COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. component of CNS

    1. brain

    2. CNS- eurological process

    2. spinal cord

    3. component of peripheral nervous system

    3. nerve

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    sympathetic nerve, parasympathetic nerve, vegus nerve
    + neuron, neuron firing, synapse, synaptic uptake, axon, dendrite, glial cell-->blood-brain barrier
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŽÈ-  ‘LEG’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. leg (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. leg (as support) [both physical body part and function]

    3. leg (as ambulator, extension, limb) [both physical body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. leg as physical body part

    1. leg as manipulating body part (e.g., for kicking, stomping)

    2. leg as or balancing appendage for body

    2. leg as support against gravity

    3. leg as limb/extension

    3. leg as ambulatory organ

    +

    SIMILAR PATTERNS EXIST FOR:
    + DÈ-  ‘HAND’-->  SSD derivatives:  1) fist 2) palm 3) knuckle 4) hand as flat “blade”, e.g., for karate chop 5) finger 6) thumb 7) “butt” of hand [=lower part of palm] 8) fingernail  9) bottom side of fist [as when pounding fist onto table; for individual fingers, use following affixes + SSD/5 for ‘finger’:  index = “main finger” or “first finger”, middle finger = “mid-finger” or “long finger” or “2nd finger”, ring finger = “3rd finger”, pinkie = 4th finger or small(est) finger
    + VÀ- ‘TAIL’
    + GÈ-  ‘FOOT’--> SSD Derivatives:  heel, ball of foot, upper side of foot, arch, plantar fascia, achilles tendon

    +

     

    +

    CLASS II ROOTS:  Organic taxonomies (continued)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    BẸ-  ‘CLASSES OF MAMMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. marsupial

    Same as INFORMAL stems referring to tamed, domesticated, pet, bred, etc. individual

    2. egg-laying mammal, ovoviviparous mammal

    3. placental mammal

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to male

    Same as above 3 stems referring to female

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DLẠ-  ‘INSECT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of particular genus of insect

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: larvae/grub, chrysalis, cocoon, adult, etc.
    + SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) wing, 3) oil/secretion, 4) silk/web, 5) skin/pellicle, 6) tail, 7) horn, 8) leg(s) 9) [open]
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + PYẠ-  ‘BUMBLEBEE’
    + VLẠ-  ‘HONEYBEE’
    + ĐLẠ-  ‘ANT’
    + MLẠ-  ‘COCKROACH’
    + ŠRẠ-  ‘BUTTERFLY’
    + NLẠ-  ‘MOTH’
    + TRẠ-  ‘HOUSEFLY’
    + ÇPẠ-  ‘WASP’
    + ÇTẠ-  ‘HORNET’
    + ÇKẠ-  ‘GNAT’
    + FYẠ-  ‘MOSQUITO’
    + ŢYẠ-  ‘APHID’
    + VYẠ-  ‘FIREFLY’
    + ĐYẠ-  ‘FLEA’
    + XRẠ-  ‘BEETLE’
    + VRẠ-  ‘SPIDER’
    + ĐRẠ-  ‘TICK’
    + ŻẠ-  ‘TERMITE’
    + DYẠ-  ‘WATERBUG’
    + MYẠ-  ‘GRASSHOPPER’
    + ZRẠ-  ‘LOCUST’
    + ŽRẠ-  ‘DRAGONFLY’
    + BŽẠ-  ‘MANTIS’
    + BLẠ-  ‘GENERIC CRAWLING BUG’
    + GLẠ-  ‘GENERIC FLYING BUG’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MLẸ-  ‘GENERIC WATERLIFE ’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) meat, 3) skin/shell, 4) fluid/ink, 5) smoked meat, 6) as bait, 7) as fodder, 8) as ingredient in food or as fishmeal 9) cooked meat
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + BŘẸ- ‘OCTOPUS’
    + TRẸ- ‘SQUID’
    + VLẸ- ‘EEL’
    + DLẸ- ‘LAMPREY’
    + KRẸ- ‘RAY’
    + XLẸ- ‘SHARK’
    + BLẸ- ‘CLAM’
    + FLẸ- ‘SCALLOP’
    + FRẸ- ‘MUSSEL’
    + ŦLẸ- ‘CRAB’
    + ZLẸ- ‘SHRIMP/PRAWN’
    + MRẸ- ‘LOBSTER’
    + ŠLẸ-  ‘TROUT’
    + KLẸ-  ‘TUNA’
    + XNẸ-  ‘COD’
    + SPẸ-  ‘BASS’
    + GŘẸ-  ‘PIKE’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PẠ-  ‘BRANCHED AND/OR LEAVED PLANT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. genus of branched tree/bush and/or leaved plant

    1. wood product

    2. leaf

    2. leaf product

    3. bark

    3. bark product

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wood

    1. seed/fruit/nut

    1. wood as resource

    1. seed/fruit as food or resource

    2. root

    2. flower/blossom

    2. root as food or resource

    2. flower as food or resource

    3. branch

    3. sap

    3. branch as resource

    3. sap product/syrup

    +

    SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) meat of fruit, 2) seed within fruit, 3) rind, 4) juice, 5) flavor, 6) odor of fruit, 7) oil, 8) [unassigned/specific to individual root] 9) fermented juice, i.e., wine
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + CẠ-  ‘BIRCH’
    + TẠ-  ‘SPRUCE’
    + XẠ-  ‘CEDAR’
    + GYẠ-  ‘OAK’
    + KẠ-  ‘PINE’
    + GẠ-  ‘PALM’
    + FẠ-  ‘CHERRY’
    + ČẠ-  ‘WALNUT’
    + ŦẠ-  ‘MAPLE’
    + RYẠ-  ‘ASH’
    + BẠ-  ‘CYPRESS’
    + SẠ-  ‘BEECH’
    + DẠ-  ‘MAHOGANY’
    + MẠ-  ‘COCONUT’
    + NẠ-  ‘EUCALYPTUS’
    + ŇẠ-  ‘MAGNOLIA’
    + ŠẠ-  ‘REDWOOD’
    + VẠ-  ‘LARCH’
    + LẠ-  ‘ELM’
    + LYẠ-  ‘FIG’
    + RẠ-  ‘BANANA’
    + ŘẠ-  ‘YEW’
    + PSẠ-  ‘ALMOND’
    + ZẠ-  ‘CHESTNUT’
    + PŠẠ-  ‘ALDER’
    + KSẠ-  ‘OLIVE’
    + GZẠ-  ‘POPLAR’
    + TLẠ-  ‘PINEAPPLE’
    + KŠẠ-  ‘APPLE’
    + PLẠ-  ‘ORANGE’
    + KLẠ-  ‘LEMON’
    + FLẠ-  ‘LIME’
    + ŦLẠ-  ‘PEAR’
    + XLẠ-  ‘PLUM’
    + SLẠ-  ‘PEACH’
    + ŽẠ-  ‘TANGERINE’
    + KYẠ-  ‘COFFEE’
    +BZẠ- FLAX

    +

    THE STEM PATTERN OF THE FOLLOWING  CLASS 2 ROOTS IS IDENTICAL TO THE PATTERN OF THE CLASS 1 ROOT VYÙ - ‘FOOD PLANT’:
    + PẸ-  cabbage (plant/leaves of sp. Brassica oleracea capitata)
    + TẸ-  lettuce (plant/leaves of genus Lactuca)
    + KẸ-  spinach (plant/leaves of sp. Spinacia oleracea)
    + KYẸ-  tea (plant/leaves of sp. Camellia sinensis)
    + CẸ-  kelp (seaweed of orders Laminariales and Fucales)
    + ČẸ-  mustard (plant of sp. Brassica hirta / B. nigra / B. juncea)
    + SẸ-  corn, maize (plant/seeds of sp. Zea mays)
    + ŠẸ-  oat (plant/seed of genus Avena)
    + ZẸ-  wheat (plant/seed of sp. Triticum aestivum)
    + ŽẸ-  tobacco (plant/leaves of sp. Nicotiana tabacum)
    + DẸ-  hemp, marijuana (plant/material of sp. Cannabis sativa)
    + GẸ-  sesame (plant/seed of genus Sesamum)
    + JẸ-  pea (plant/seed of sp. Pisum sativum)
    + FẸ-  bean (lima/snap/etc.: plant/seed of genus Phaseolus or similar)
    + ŦẸ-  lentil (plant/seeds of sp. Lens culinaris)
    + XẸ-  soya, soybean (plant/seed of sp. Glycine max)
    + GYẸ-  peanut (plant/seed/pod of sp. Arachis hypogaea)
    + VẸ-  rice (plant/seed of sp. Oryza sativa)
    + ĐẸ-  pepper (hot/sweet/bell pepper -- plant/pod of genus Capsicum)
    + RẸ-  pepper (black -- plant/seed of sp. Piper nigrum)
    + PFẸ-  millet
    + TFẸ-  amaranth
    + KFẸ-  sorghum
    + TYẸ-  teff
    + KMẸ-  ginseng
    + RẸ-  potato
    + LYẸ-  carrot
    + RYẸ-  yam, sweet potato
    + ŘẸ-  garlic
    + LẸ-  onion
    + MẸ-  grape
    + NẸ-  tomato
    + ŇẸ-  squash, melon
    + SMẸ-  gourd
    + SNẸ-  date
    + BYẸ-  cucumber
    + ŠMẸ-  bamboo
    + ŠNẸ-  cork
    + PRẸ-  cotton
    + GVẸ-  ginger
    + DVẸ-  mint
    +BVẸ-  safflower

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SKỤ-  ‘GENERIC MAMMAL/AVIAN/REPTILE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of mammalian/avian/reptilian genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: e.g., foal, fawn, yearling, adult, etc.
    + SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) milk, 3) oil/secretion/venom, 4) fat, 5) skin/hide, 6) tail, 7) tusk/horn, 8) fur/feathers 9) flesh/meat
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + PỤ-  ‘HORSE’
    + TỤ-  ‘COW’
    + GỤ-   ‘PIG’
    + CỤ-   ‘SHEEP’
    + FỤ-   ‘GOAT’
    + BỤ-    ‘DEER’
    + KỤ-   ‘BISON/BUFFALO’
    + MỤ-   ‘CHICKEN’
    + ŠỤ-    ‘DUCK’
    + PLỤ-    ‘GOOSE’
    + JỤ-    ‘SWAN’
    + KYỤ-    ‘TURKEY’
    + ŦỤ-    ‘OSTRICH’
    + BZỤ-    ‘DOLPHIN’
    + ČỤ-    ‘MULE’
    + XỤ-    ‘DONKEY’
    + GYỤ-    ‘ZEBRA’
    + XLỤ-    ‘LION’
    + LỤ-    ‘TIGER’
    + RỤ-    ‘BEAR’
    + SỤ-    ‘ELK’
    + ŇỤ-   ‘MOOSE’
    + LYỤ-    ‘BOAR’
    + PSỤ-    ‘YAK’
    + KSỤ-    ‘CAMEL’
    + BŽỤ-    ‘WALRUS’
    + RYỤ-   ‘ELEPHANT’
    + PŠỤ-    ‘GIRAFFE’
    + NỤ-    ‘CAT’
    + ŻỤ-    ‘DOG’
    + KŠỤ-    ‘RABBIT’
    + TLỤ-    ‘CHIMPANZEE’
    + GZỤ-    ‘GORILLA’
    + ŦLỤ-    ‘LEMUR’
    + KLỤ-    ‘ORANGUTAN’
    + FLỤ-    ‘OTTER’
    + SLỤ-   ‘WHALE’
    + ŠLỤ-    ‘SEAL’
    + GLỤ-    ‘SEA LION’
    + PŦỤ-    ‘ANTELOPE’
    + ZLỤ-   ‘GAZELLE’
    + KŦỤ-   ‘BABOON’
    + PŘỤ-    ‘FOX’
    + SPỤ-   ‘WOLF’
    + STỤ-    ‘COYOTE’
    + ŠPỤ-   ‘SKUNK’
    + SF Ụ-    ‘PORCUPINE’
    + TŘỤ-   ‘POSSUM’
    + SXỤ-    ‘KANGAROO’
    + SŦỤ-   ‘MOUSE’
    + SNỤ-   ‘RAT’
    + VỤ-    ‘LEOPARD’
    + ĐỤ-    ‘CHEETAH’
    + KFỤ-    ‘PANTHER’
    + TYỤ-    ‘JAGUAR’
    + TFỤ-    ‘MOLE’
    + BVỤ-    ‘SQUIRREL’
    + DVỤ-   ‘VOLE’
    + GVỤ-    ‘CHIPMUNK’
    + BLỤ-   ‘SHREW’
    + KŘỤ-    ‘ROBIN’
    + DŘỤ-    ‘LARK’
    + GŘỤ-    ‘SPARROW’
    + GŽỤ-    ‘OWL’
    + XMỤ-    ‘PIGEON’
    + ŠTỤ-    ‘EAGLE’
    + SMỤ-    ‘GULL’
    + ŠXỤ-    ‘ALBATROSS’
    + BRỤ-    ‘HAWK’
    + GRỤ-   ‘VULTURE’
    + DRỤ-    ‘PHEASANT’
    + ŦRỤ-    ‘NIGHTINGALE’
    + KNỤ-    ‘SNAKE’
    + ŠKỤ-   ‘VIPER’
    + ŠMỤ-   ‘COBRA’
    + ŠNỤ-    ‘RATTLESNAKE’
    + BŘỤ-   ‘PYTHON’
    + ŠŦỤ-    ‘ASP’
    + ŠFỤ-   ‘ALLIGATOR’
    + ÇPỤ-    ‘CROCODILE’
    + SRỤ-   ‘LIZARD’
    + ŠRỤ-    ‘GILA MONSTER’
    + FRỤ-    ‘IGUANA’
    + BYỤ-    ‘FROG’
    + KRỤ-    ‘TOAD’
    + PRỤ-    ‘TURTLE’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TLẸ-  ‘CLASSES OF LAND/AIR ANIMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mammal

    Same as INFORMAL stems referring to domesticated, tamed, bred, pet, etc. individual

    2. non-mammalian, non-avian, non-reptilian animal, i.e.,  insect/arthropod/arachnid/worm/mollusk

    3. avian or reptilian lifeform

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. insect

    1. mollusc

    2. worm

    2. bird

    3. arthropod/arachnid

    3. reptile

    +

     

    +

    CLASS III ROOTS:  Inorganic matter, the physical world, and physical substance taxonomies

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DÌ - ‘ROCK/MINERAL-BASED SOIL/GROUND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. stone [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    1. rock(y) [= specific natural embodiment of stone]

    2. sand [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    2. gravel

    3. clay [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    3. lava [w/ CPT = volcanic rock/lava-based rock]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

    Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

    Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MLÌ ‘HORIZONTAL SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. “ground”/firmament

    1. floor

    2. table-like horizontal flat object / slab

    2. table

    3. shelf-like flat object

    3. shelf

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŘÒ- ‘LIGHT / RADIANT ENERGY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ray of sunlight

    1. ray of radiant light or energy (non-solar)

    2. the Sun / Sol

    2. flame / “tongue” of fire

    3. star

    3. artificial source of light or energy

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. light from a ray of sunlight

    1. heat from a ray of sunlight

    1. ray of light (non-solar)

    1. ray of energy/heat (non-solar)

    2. the Sun as light source

    2. the Sun as energy/heat source

    2. ray of firelight

    2. flame as energy/heat source

    3. starlight

    3. energy of a star

    3. lamp light / light from artificial source

    3. energy/heat from artificial energy/heat source

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: fire, sunshine, illuminate, light a fire, flare (up), lamp, fireplace; galaxy, heater, to warm, warmth, to cook [= transform by heat], to melt, to smelt, to expose [via illumination]; burn

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SÌ - ‘PLANETARY BODY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. planet/planetary body

    1. The Earth/Terra

    2. moon/satellite of planetary body

    2. The Moon/Luna

    3. other spatial body

    3. artificial satellite

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

    Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

    Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  asteroid, comet, cosmic dust, cosmic gas, cosmic ray, component of Oort Cloud, cosmic string, quantum filament
    + MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  Gaia, Gaia Principle/Hypothesis

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ĐÒ- ‘WATER AS SUBSTANCE AND TOOL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (some) water; (be/make) wet / moist(en)

    1. (some) water as component of life

    2. (some) water in context of usage [both substance and use]

    2. (some) water as nourishment; to consume/drink water

    3. ice

    3. (some) water as biological environment or medium

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. (some) water [substance itself]

    1. degree of moisture [from water]

    1. (some) water of one’s corporeal body

    1. hydration; hydrate

    2. water as “tool” (e.g., for washing, for powering a turbine, etc.)

    2. wash, clean [with water]

    2. act of drinking water; to drink water

    2. to water (e.g., plants)

    3. ice / freeze

    3. float

    3. (some) water from a natural environmental setting

    3. to inhabit water / live in water / water-dwelling

    +

    EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THIS STEM: bathe, lave, submerge, sink, dunk, immerse, dry, drench(ed), irrigate, swim, the sea (as environment); dehydrate; thirst

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KLÒ- ‘WATER IN NATURAL MOTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a flow of water / to flow or run

    1. river / to flow as a river / to run as a river

    2. sprinkle / shower; to sprinkle or shower upon

    2. rain(fall); to rain

    3. cascade / pour [= free falling of water]

    3. waterfall

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. water component of a flow of water

    1. channel or course of a flow of water

    1. water component of a river

    1. channel or course of a river

    2. water component of a sprinkle/shower

    2. trajectory or course of a sprinkle/shower

    2. water component of rain

    2. “path” or course of a rain shower

    3. water component of a cascade or pouring of water

    3. trajectory or course of a pouring of water

    3. water component of a waterfall

    3. channel or “groove” of a waterfall

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: flood, downpour, to rain “cats and dogs”, brook, stream, rivulet, arroyo, floodplain

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TLÒ- ‘WATER IN STATIC SETTING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. container of water

    1. (standing) body of water

    2. water/moisture located in confined space

    2. ambient/atmospheric water/moisture

    3. (something) imbued/drenched with water; waterlogged

    3. artificial body of water (e.g., reservoir)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. some water in/from a container

    1. holder/container which holds water

    1. water component of a body of water

    1. the basin or bed of a body of water

    2. degree of moisture contained

    2. the volume/space occupied by water/moisture

    2. water/moisture in the air or atmosphere

    2. volume of air(space) containing the water or moisture

    3. the water imbued within an object, substance, or substrate

    3. the object, substance or substrate imbued/soaked with water

    3. water within an artificial body of water

    3. the basis or bed of an artificial body of water, e.g., reservoir bed

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  lake, pool, pond, tern, tank, sink, canteen, cistern, puddle, sea, ocean, water vapor

    +

    NOTE:  The above three roots associated with water, ĐÒ, KLÒ, and TLÒ form the patterns for three parallel roots referring to any liquid other than water:    BYÒ, MRÒ, AND FRÒ respectively.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VĬ-   ‘DIMENSIONAL/SPATIO-TEMPORAL RELATIONS

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of (static) dimensional property (e.g., short/long)

    same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to an applied contextual gestalt (e.g., the vicinity, the depths, the expanse, the interregnum, the surroundings, the perimeter, etc.)

    2. dynamic decrease in degree of dimensional property (e.g., shorten/ing)

    3. dynamic increase in degree of dimensional property (e.g., lengthen/ing)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems applied to spatial context

    same as above 3 stems applied to temporal context

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + THE PATTERN FOR THIS ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + PĬ-  ‘PROXIMITY/DISTANCE’
    +GĬ-  ‘LENGTH’
    +TĬ-  ‘HEIGHT (= “THICKNESS”)’
    +KĬ-  ‘WIDTH (= “SLENDERNESS”)’
    +KYĬ-  ‘GIRTH (= 2-DIMENSIONAL X-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    +CĬ-  ‘AMPLITUDE (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Z-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    +ČĬ-  ‘ “REACH” (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Y-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    +SĬ-  ‘DEPTH’
    +ŠĬ-  ‘INTERVAL/GAP’
    +ZĬ-  ‘VOLUME (= 3-DIMENSIONAL SIZE)’
    +ŽĬ-  ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF A POINT’
    +BĬ-  ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF AN EDGE’
    +DĬ-  ‘SPEED/VELOCITY/ACCELERATION’
    +TMĬ-  ‘HEIGHT (= “TALLNESS” – RELATTIVE TO GRAVITY)
    +DVĬ-  ‘FLATNESS/LEVELNESS (RELATIVE TO GRAVITY)’
    +GVĬ-  ‘PERIPHERY/CIRCLE/RING’
    +VLĬ-  ‘CONVEXITY/ROTUNDITY’
    +JĬ-     ‘CONCAVITY/DEPRESSION’
    +ĐLĬ-  ‘PERPENDICULARITY/UPRIGHTNESS’
    +ÇPĬ-  ‘PLANARITY/FLATNESS RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
    +ÇTĬ-  ‘STRAIGHTNESS/LINEARITY RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
    +ÇKĬ-  ‘SPHERICALNESS/ROUNDNESS’
    +PMĬ-  ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-SURFACED IN PLANAR CONTEXT)’
    +PNĬ-  ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-EDGED IN LINEAR CONTEXT)’
    +ŦYĬ-  ‘RECTILINEAR/POLYHEDRAL/STRAIGHT-ANGLED’
    +PFĬ-  ‘ELASTICITY / STRETCH CAPACITY’

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: big/large, small/little, shrink, expand, grow, diminish, huge, immense, tiny, enormous, shallow

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FYĬ - ‘QUALITY OR PROPERTY OF MATTER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of quality/property of matter

    same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

    2. decrease in degree of quality/property of matter

    3. increase in degree of quality/property of matter

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + THE PATTERN FOR THIS ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + VYĬ-   ‘THICKNESS (= VISCOSITY/RUNNINESS)
    + ĐYĬ-   ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
    + XRĬ-   ‘SOLIDITY/HOLLOWNESS (= PERMEABILITY)’
    + VRĬ-   ‘DURABILITY/FRAGILITY’ (= CAPACITY FOR BEING DAMAGED)
    + ĐRĬ-   ‘RESILIENCE/DELICATENESS’ (= CAPACITY FOR RECOVERY)
    + TFĬ-   ‘TIGHTNESS/SLACK’ (= TAUTNESS)
    + ŻĬ-     ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
    + DYĬ-   ‘SMOOTHNESS/ROUGHNESS (= TACTILE COARSENESS)
    + MYĬ-   ‘FULLNESS/EMPTINESS’
    + KFĬ-  ‘FLEXIBILITY/RIGIDITY’
    + BVĬ-  ‘HARD/SOFT (= MALLEABILITY)’
    + SPĬ-  ‘WEIGHT/MASS’

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VLÌ- ‘COLOR/HUE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something having a color plus the color

    same as INFORMAL stems but tinted/painted/stained, etc. to have other than its natural color

    2. something light-colored plus the color

    3. something dark-colored plus the color

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. something having a color

    1. a color

    2. something having a light color

    2. a light color

    3. something having a dark color

    3. a dark color

    +

    NOTE: This stem patterns for the above root are a template for all other roots donating a specific color. The following root ‘RED’ provides an example.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KRÌ- ‘RED’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something red plus the color red

    same as INFORMAL stems but referring to something tinted/painted/stained red

    2. something light-red plus the color light-red

    3. something dark-red plus the color light-red

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. something red

    1. red

    2. something light red

    2. light red

    3. something dark red

    3. dark red

    +

    SIMILARLY:
    + T-D PRÌ- ‘BLUE’
    + TRÌ- ‘GREEN’
    + BRÌ- ‘YELLOW’
    + DRÌ- ‘ORANGE’
    + GRÌ- ‘SKY BLUE’
    + PSÌ- ‘PINK’
    + KSÌ- ‘PURPLE’
    + PŠÌ- ‘OCHRE’
    + KŠÌ- ‘ECRU’
    + BZÌ- ‘BEIGE/TAN’
    + GZÌ- ‘PEACH’
    + BŽÌ- ‘MAUVE’
    + GŽÌ- ‘LAVENDER’
    + PLÌ- ‘BURGUNDY’
    + TLÌ- ‘TEAL’
    + KLÌ- ‘TURQUOISE’
    + BLÌ- ‘AQUAMARINE’
    + DLÌ- ‘BROWN’
    + GLÌ- ‘WHITE’
    + FLÌ- ‘BLACK’
    + ŦLÌ- ‘GRAY’
    + XLÌ- ‘YELLOW-GREEN’
    + ĐLÌ- ‘MAROON’
    +The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions for all color-stems: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SXĬ - ‘STICKY/ADHESIVE MATERIAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sticky substance or material; to stick / to be mired in

    1. adhesive substance material; adhere/stick (via adhesive)

    2. goo / ooze / slime

    2. glue / liquid adhesive

    3. sap / resin

    3. cement / mortar / grout

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÌ- ‘ (QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + substance/compound itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal liquid or gaseous state

    2. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from a another subtance +  the derived substance itself

    2. thing/object composed of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + its function/purpose

    3. source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being (quasi-) solid

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a material substance

    1. substance/compound itself

    1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

    1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state

    2.  elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from refinement, distillation or processing of material substance or compound

    2. derived substance / compound itself

    2. object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

    2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

    3. natural source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

    3. derived or artificially created source of a (quasi-) solid material substance / compound

    3. solid (= hard to the touch)

    3. quasi-solid (= non-gaseous and non-liquid but not hard; able to be deformed by touch)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÒ - ‘LIQUID/FLUID’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. drop of liquid/fluid + liquid/fluid itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or gaseous state

    2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance + the derived liquid subtance itself

    2. thing/object composed of liquid + its function/purpose

    3. source of a liquid/fluid

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a liquid/fluid state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. drop of liquid/fluid

    1. liquid/fluid subtance itself

    1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

    1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state (i.e., vapor)

    2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance

    2. the derived liquid/fluid subtance itself

    2. object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

    2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

    3.  natural source of a liquid/fluid

    3.  derived or artificially created source of a liquid or fluid

    3. liquid/fluid state

    3. viscous state (quasi-liquid but able to be deformed/shaped; semi-solid)

    +

    The stem pattern of this root also applies to the root FÒ- ‘liquid chemical’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŽÌ- ‘ARTICLE OF CLOTHING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. piece of clothing as covering or fashion; to wear such

    1. piece of clothing as part of uniform or costume; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker or indicator of station; to wear such

    2. part of uniform or costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as ornament or accessory; to wear such

    3. part of uniform or costume as ornament; to wear such

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. piece of clothing as covering; to wear such

    1. piece of clothing as fashion; to wear such

    1. part of uniform as covering; to wear such

    1. part of costume as covering; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as indicator of station; to wear such

    2. part of uniform as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    2. part of costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as ornament; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as accessory; to wear such

    3. part of uniform as ornament; to wear such

    3. part of costume as ornament; to wear such

    +

    THE STEM PATTERN OF THIS ROOT APPLIES TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + SPÌ-  ‘SHIRT/BLOUSE’
    + STÌ-  ‘PANTS’
    + SKÌ- ‘COAT/JACKET’
    + SXÌ- ‘GLOVE’
    + ŠPÌ- ‘SCARF’
    + ŠTÌ- ‘HAT’
    + ŠKÌ- ‘FOOTWEAR’
    + ŠXÌ- ‘LEGGING/SOCK’
    +PŘÌ- ‘BELT’
    +TŘÌ- ‘APRON’
    +KŘÌ- ‘COLLAR’
    +FYÌ- ‘NECKTIE/CRAVATTE
    +SLÌ- ‘HELMET’
    +ŠLÌ- ‘SKIRT/KILT’
    +GÌ-  ‘DRESS’
    +ŦYÌ- ‘VEIL’
    +JÌ-  ‘SARI’
    +FÌ-  ‘TUNIC’
    +ŦÌ-  ‘ROBE(S)/TOGA’

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZÒ - ‘GAS / FLUME’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cloud/flume of gas/vapor + gas/vapor itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or liquid state

    2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance + the derived gas itself

    2. thing/object composed of gas + its function/purpose

    3. source of a gas

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a gaseous state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. cloud/flume of a gas or vapor

    1. gas/vapor itself

    1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

    1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

    2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance

    2. the derived gas itself

    2. thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

    2. function/purpose of thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

    3.  natural source of a gas

    3.  derived or artificially created source of gas

    3. gaseous/vapor state

    3. semi-gaseous state (combination or gaseous + non-gaseous state, e.g., as w/ CO2 vapor rising from dry ice)

    +

     

    +

    CLASS IV ROOTS:  physical substance taxononies (continued)

    +

    THE STEM PATTERN OF THE FOLLOWING CLASS 4 ROOTS IS THE SAME AS THE ABOVE CLASS 3 ROOT XÌ- ‘ (QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’
    +PỌ- ‘brass’
    +TỌ- ‘chalk’
    +KỌ- ‘cloth/fabric’
    +KYỌ- ‘coal’
    +CỌ- ‘spice/herb/seasoning’
    +ČỌ- ‘glass’
    +SỌ- ‘jade’
    +ŠỌ- ‘metal/ore’
    +ZỌ- ‘mineral’
    +ŽỌ- ‘oil (petroleum)’
    +BỌ- ‘plastic’
    +DỌ- ‘quartz’
    +GỌ- ‘rubber’
    +JỌ- ‘salt’
    +FỌ- ‘steel’
    +ŦỌ- ‘silk’
    +XỌ- ‘tar’
    +GYỌ- ‘wax’
    +PLỌ- Aluminium
    +PŦỌ- Antimony
    +KŦỌ- Arsenic
    +SŦỌ- Beryllium           
    +ŠŦỌ- Bismuth
    +SFỌ- Boron                
    +ŠFỌ- Cadmium           
    +MRỌ- Calcium           
    +TLỌ- Carbon  
    +KLỌ- Chromium         
    +PRỌ- Cobalt   
    +BLỌ- Copper
    +TRỌ- Gallium  
    +LỌ- Gold
    +KRỌ- Iridium  
    +DLỌ- Iron
    +FLỌ- Lead
    +BYỌ- Lithium
    +BRỌ- Magnesium       
    +DRỌ- Manganese       
    +GRỌ- Molybdenum    
    +GLỌ- Nickel
    +FRỌ- Palladium          
    +ŦRỌ- Phosphorus       
    +ŦLỌ- Platinum            
    +SPỌ- Plutonium          
    +STỌ- Potassium
    +SKỌ- Radium
    +ŠPỌ- Rubidium           
    +ŠTỌ- Selenium            
    +ŠKỌ- Silicon  
    +RỌ- Silver                   
    +VLỌ- Sulfur
    +ĐLỌ- Tin
    +SXỌ- Titanium
    +ŠXỌ- Uranium            
    +ŠNỌ-Vanadium
    +SMỌ-Tungsten
    +RỌ- Zinc         
    +ŠMỌ-Zirconium
    +XLỌ- asbestos            
    +ĐỌ- aspirin     
    +SNỌ- baking soda        
    +PSỌ-   bicarbonate of soda       
    +PŠỌ-   graphite
    +MỌ- diamond               
    +NỌ- marble      
    +KSỌ-emery powder     
    +KŠỌ-  epsom salts        
    +BZỌ-  fluorspar             
    +GZỌ-  gypsum              
    +BŽỌ-  linoleum              
    +RYỌ-   lime      
    +GŽỌ-  magnesia            
    +KMỌ-  milk of magnesium        
    +KNỌ-  plaster of Paris              
    +VRỌ-  potash               
    +XRỌ-  saltpeter             
    +VYỌ-  silica      
    +VỌ-  table sugar
    +ŅỌ- talc or talcum        
    +ŦYỌ-  washing soda     
    +ĐYỌ-  zinc white         zinc oxide
    +LYỌ- ‘paint’
    +PFỌ- ‘oil (fatty liquid derived from plants/animals)’
    +TFỌ- ‘honey’
    +KFỌ- ‘vinegar’
    +ÇPỌ- acetone               
    +DVỌ- alcohol, grain      
    +BVỌ- alcohol, wood
    +TYỌ- ammonia
    +GVỌ- iodine   
    +ÇTỌ- mercury
    +MLỌ- brine      
    +TMỌ- benzene
    +NLỌ- lye or soda lye   
    +ÇKỌ- formalin             aqueous formaldehyde solution
    +PMỌ- rubbing alcohol              isopropyl alcohol
    +PNỌ- methanol            methyl alcohol

    +

    THE ROOT/STEM PATTERN OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS IS IDENTICAL TO THE ABOVE CLASS 3 ROOT : ZÒ - ‘GAS / FLUME’:
    + SLỌ- ‘carbon dioxide’
    + ZLỌ- ‘carbon monoxide’
    + ŠLỌ- Chlorine            
    + ŽLỌ- Argon    
    + SRỌ- Helium  
    + ZRỌ- Hydrogen          
    + ŠRỌ- Fluorine
    + ŽRỌ- Nitrogen            
    + MYỌ- Oxygen            
    + FYỌ- Neon    
    + NRỌ- Radon  
    + TNỌ- Xenon
    + NYỌ- ozone
    + ŻỌ- laughing gas          nitrous oxide
    +ŘỌ- air

    +

    CLASS V ROOTS:  spatio-dimensional concepts, form and motion

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    BŪ- ‘RECLINE / PRONE POSITION OR ORIENTATION / HORIZONTALITY

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. recline(d) / prone position (relative to long axis of object) / lie (down) / lay (out)

    1. horizontal (relative to gravity or plane of the earth’s surface) / orientation perpendicular to direction of gravity

    2. recumbent position / position of relaxation relative to gravity --> sprawl, loll

    2. occupying position of maximum repose or having a positional or dynamic orientation based on the path of least resistance relative to gravity

    3. flush / flat against / position or orientation level with some flat or even firmament / lay flat

    3. flatten(ed); collapse(d) or configure(d) to minimum height perpendicular to background firmament

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DŪ-  ‘PATH-ORIENTED TRANSLATIVE MOTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. move from one place to another; translative motion (i.e., motion from one place toward another)

    1. journey; to travel, traverse, to journey

    2. course/way/route/trajectory followed between two points

    2. route travelled/traversed on journey

    3. move between two points; motion along path from one point to another; to cross/go across from one side to another

    3. travel between two points / make a crossing / travel across

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. motion “outward”; go

    1. motion “inward”; come

    1. go travelling / be off

    1. journey toward

    2. movement away; go away (= increase distance between two objects)

    2. close in / get close(r) (= decrease distance between two objects)

    2. travel further away from

    2. reach vicinity of / close in on

    3. leave (= move away from one point toward some distant point)

    3. approach (= approach one point from direction of some distant point)

    3. departure; depart

    3. arrival; arrive / reach destination

    +

    Morphological derivations:  sojourn, set off / set out, set in motion; self-directed movement
    + THE PATTERN FOR THE ABOVE ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + ĐŪ- ‘VERTICAL MOTION / ASCENT & DESCENT / UP & DOWN’
    + NRŪ- ‘OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION’
    + BRŪ- ‘PLANAR RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional horizontal plane)
    + PRŪ- ‘VERTICAL RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional vertical plane)
    + TRŪ- ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE 3-DIMENSIONAL RANGE OF MOTION/3-DIMENSIONAL PERVASIVE MOVEMENT / MOVEMENT THROUGHOUT 3-D VOLUME’
    + KRŪ- ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG Y-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
    + BRŪ- ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG X-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
    + ĐRŪ- ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN HORIZONTAL PLANE’
    + ŽRŪ- ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN VERTICAL PLANE’
    + ŘŪ- ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE CIRCULAR MOTION’
    + BŽŪ- ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG HORIZONTAL PLANE’
    + GZŪ- ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG VERTICAL PLANE’
    + DRŪ- ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE SPIRAL MOTION’
    + GRŪ- ‘CIRCULAR VECTOR MOTION’ (i.e., “corkscrew” motion)
    + SRŪ- ‘SPIRAL VECTOR MOTION (i.e., corkscrew motion with increasing or decreasing amplitude)
    + ŠRŪ- ‘ARC / PARABOLIC MOTION RELATIVE TO GRAVITY’
    + SŦŪ- ‘CURVED MOTION / CURVE’
    + ŠTŪ-  ‘SWITCH BACK / VEER’
    + MRŪ-  ‘OBLIQUELY LINEAR  MOTION (relative to XYZ grid)
    + CŪ- ‘2-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR OUTSIDE EDGE’ encircle, surround
    + ZŪ ‘2-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG BOUNDARY OR INSIDE EDGE’
    + VŪ- ‘3-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR SURFACE OF’
    +SMŪ- ‘3-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG INTERNAL 3-D BOUNDARY OF’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FĒ-  ‘COMPONENTIAL PART OF WHOLE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. component/part of something + its function/purpose

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to a separable/detachable component/part, as opposed to INFORMAL stems which refer to an inalienable or integrated component/part

    2. appearance/condition of component/part + its function/purpose

    3. component/part as seen in relation to the greater whole

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. component/part itself

    1. function/purpose of component/part

    2. phsycial appearance/condition of component/part

    2. impact/effect of component’s/part’s condition on its function/purpose

    3. component/part itself as seen in relation to the greater whole

    3. function/purpose of component/part itself in relation to the greater whole

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + PĒ-  ‘front [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
    + TĒ- ‘rear, back part of [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
    + KĒ- ‘side/flank, lateral area’
    + KYĒ- ‘middle, center (as seen perpendicular to long axis of entity)
    + CĒ- ‘middle, center (as seen parallel to long axis of entity)
    + ČĒ- ‘top, peak, summit’
    + SĒ- ‘bottom, lowest part of, foundation’
    + ŠĒ- ‘upper part or “half”’
    + BĒ- ‘lower part or “half”’
    + DĒ- ‘edge’
    + GĒ- ‘interior, inner/internal part of, insides, innards’
    + JĒ- ‘exterior, outer/external part of, outside, “skin”’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GĀ- ‘UPRIGHT POSITION OR ORIENTATION/VERTICALITY/PERPENDICULAR/PROTRUSION

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. upright/erect position or orientation (relative to long axis of object) / stand (up)

    1. vertical (i.e., parallel to gravity or plane of earth’s surface)

    2.  stick up or out/ protrude

    2. occupying position of maximum contrast to a position of repose; position of maximum “alertness” or readiness or action

    3. perpendicular / position or orientation at right angles  to background firmament (relative to long axis of object); be or stand on end

    3. stretch(ed) outward; pull(ed) or configure(d) to maximum height perpendicular to background firmament

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GZĒ- ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE SHAPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.   generic 2-D outline shape (e.g., the shape of a close-course race-track, the outline of the shore of a lake, a drawing of a national border on a map, etc.)

    1. 2-D outline shape generically distorted

    2. generic 2-D outline horizontally elongated

    2. 2-D outline shape obliquely elongated / skewed along one axis

    3. generic 2-D outline vertically elongated

    3. 2-D outline shape medially compressed, i.e., “squished/pinched in the middle”

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

    The above root’s stem pattern is applied to all of the following roots:
    + XLĒ-: ‘square/rectangle/rhombus’
    + JĒ-:  ‘circle/ellipse’
    + FRŪ-: ‘oval’
    + ŠPĀ-:  ‘egg-shaped’
    + SNĒ-: ‘half-circle/semi-circle’
    + PFĀ-:  ‘sliver-moon shaped’
    + ŠŦĒ-:  ‘irregular/amorphous outline’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KLÎ - ‘MANNERCONDUCT/BEHAVIOR/DEMEANOR’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. manner (= the way something or someone acts or behaves)

    1. method, the way something happens, course of action; conduct

    2. guise, form; to take the form/guise of

    2. behave/comport/conduct onself = outward display of one’s personality/thoughts/emotions/motives; behavior/conduct/deportment

    3. practice/policy

    3. bearing/carriage/demeanor

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the manner/form/practice itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the method or behavior itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  process, procedure, regimen, strategy

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KLÓ- ‘TEMPORARY ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence + manifestation/effect]

    1. zone of high or low barometric pressure relative to surrounding pressure

    2. flash of lightning + peal of thunder [electrical phenomenon + associated sound]

    2. cold or warm air front

    3. cloud [in the sky]

    3. eye of a storm

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence]

    1. manifestation/effect of momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon

    1. low pressure zone

    1. high pressure zone

    2. flash of lightning

    2. peal of thunder

    2. cold air front

    2. warm air front

    3. cloud [in the sky] – physical occurrence

    3. impact/effect of cloud [in the sky], e.g., its hiding of the sun, it causing zero visibility as a plane flies through it, etc.

    3. eye of storm [physical occurrence]

    3. short-lived calm/still conditions associated with the eye of a storm

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KRĀ- ‘VERTICAL ELEVATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. level [= relative vertical elevation]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but as applied to buildings and other architectural forms/constructs

    2. layer/stratum

    3. degree of size/expanse of level relative to adjacent or surrounding level

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. low spot in relative elevation

    1. high spot in relative elevation

    2. low-layered; deep

    2. upper-layered; shallow

    3. plateau-like level, abuttmant; loft-like

    3. ridge-like formation; crest-like formation

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KNĒ- ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. strip [solid/rigid]

    1. ribbon-like shape [flexible]

    2. plane/planar [solid/rigid]

    2. sheet-like shape [flexible]

    3. tube/cylinder/cylindrical [solid/rigid]

    3. tube-like shape [flexible]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KRĒ- ‘INVERSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. orientational inversion

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is formal/authorized/permanent/abstract as described in Sec. 3.7

    2. unidirectional topological inversion [= mirror-image]

    3. three-dimensional topological inversion [= inside-out]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. orientational inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

    1. mirror-image inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

    2. mirror-image inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

    2. orientational inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

    3. orientational inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

    3. mirror-image inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŦŪ- ‘LATITUDE / NORTH-SOUTH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. north-south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    1. latitude

    2. north axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    2. north latitude

    3. south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    3. south latitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. north-south axial direction or orientation

    1. north-south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    1. polar area

    1. parallel [= line of latitude]

    2. north direction or orientation

    2. north geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    2. north polar area (Arctic)

    2. Northern Hemisphere

    3. south direction or orientation

    3. south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    3. south polar area (Antarctic)

    3. Eastern Hemisphere

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MĒ- ‘ACCESS/PASSAGE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. access point / passage; pass through, access

    1. doorway (= the access portal itself, not the door which opens/closes off access)

    2. passage or infiltration of one substance into another

    2. gateway / portal

    3. filter / screening [selective access]

    3. checkpoint

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. enter / go in / pass within / ingress

    1. exit / go out / egress

    1. enter (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

    1. exit (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

    2. infiltrate / imbue / immerse

    2. emit / dispense

    2. receive (= welcome) ; reception

    2. remove / dispel

    3. filter through

    3. filter out

    3. admittance; admit

    3. oust / eject

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: door, gate, let in, insert, introduce, take out, remove, penetrate, emanate, emerge

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PĀ- ‘INTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION INSIDE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. position/orientation somewhere inside (of), i.e., underneath or on other side of surface or boundary layer

    1. entirety of an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

    2. position/orientation somewhere inside of (2-D context), i.e., within the area defined by a boundary line

    2. entirety of an interior surface / functional planar area within the boundaries of

    3. position/orientation somewhere inside of (3-D context), i.e., within the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

    3. entirety of an interior volume / functional space within the boundaries of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    +

    compare to root GĒ-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PLĒ-  ‘2-DIMENSIONAL CURVATURE/DISTORTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself + object manifesting such curvature]

    1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself + object manifesting the depression]

    2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself + object manifesting the distortion]

    3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself]

    1. object manifesting a curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

    1. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself]

    2. object manifesting a dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

    2. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself]

    3. object manifesting an undefined distortion, blurring or anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself]

    3. object manifesting a volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  crease, pleat, wrinkle(s), curl up, crumple(d), wad(ded), zig-zag, groove/furrow

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PRĒ- ‘ANGULAR STRUCTURE / CORNER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (two-dimensional) angle

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

    2. (three-dimensional) vertex

    3. angle-based constraint on access or movement

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. interior angle of two-dimensional surface or analog

    1. exterior corner/vertex of two-dimensional surface or analog

    2. interior vertex/corner of three-dimensional space

    2. exterior corner/vertex of three dimensional space

    3. corner as constraint

    3. corner as opportunity for choice of movement

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠKĒ- ‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL (i.e., LINEAR) SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. point / dot [solid/fixed/rigid]

    1. point / dot [flexible/movable/fluid]

    2. line / linear [solid/fixed/rigid]

    2. line / linear [flexible/movable/fluid] / string-like

    3. hoop / ring [solid/fixed/rigid]

    3. hoop / ring [flexible/movable/fluid] / loop

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SMĀ-  ‘TERRAIN-BASED/GEOGRAPHICAL ELEVATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. relative elevation in comparison to other geological feature/terrain

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is geo-political or in terms of formal property [geographic ownership]

    2. geological layer/stratum

    3. flatland area/plain

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. v alley / geographic depression relative to surrounding terrain

    1. hill / upland / raised geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

    2. deep underground

    2. near-surface / shallow [in terms of depth underground]

    3. plateau / raised flat-topped geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

    3. ridge / crest / flat-linear edge between different geographic/geologically-based elevations

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    STĀ-  ‘FIT/HOLD/CONTAIN AS INTERNAL-EXTERNAL PARTITION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. holding area / containment area; hold/keep/contain

    1. room, chamber

    2. fit; to fit, contain (= have sufficient room for)

    2. reside, situate; room as place of residence, quasi-permanent situation or default location

    3. volume or boundary of containment area

    3. room boundaries (i.e., walls, floor, ceiling)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the physical boundaries (“walls”) which define the containment area and prevent contents from leaking or escaping

    same as above 3 stems referring to the space (“room”) within the holding area and protection of contents from external environment

    same as above 3 stems referring to the room as a container separating inside from outside

    same as abvoe 3 stems referring to the space within the room as shelter or sanctuary

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  ceiling, wall, floor, dividing panel, piece of furniture serving to divide room space
    +EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: house, building, cell, booth, closet; snug, snugness, loose, looseness, baggy, bagginess

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TĀ- ‘EXTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION OUTSIDE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. position/orientation somewhere outside (of), i.e., beyond or on other side of surface or boundary layer

    1. the space beyond/outside/excluded from an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

    2. position/orientation somewhere outside of (2-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the area defined by a boundary line

    2. an external surface / functional planar area beyond/outside the boundaries of (e.g., the “out of bounds” area of a tennis court)

    3. position/orientation somewhere outside of (3-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

    3. the space beyond/outside an interior volume / functional space outside the boundaries of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    +

    compare to root JĒ-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TÎ- ‘APPEAR/MANIFEST/SHOW/EXHIBIT/DISPLAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. appear/manifest/show = be/make observable to the senses of others; manifestation, appearance

    1. exhibit; display

    2. expose; exposure

    2. show off, flaunt

    3. bring/call attention to = make others aware of the appearance/showing of something

    3. announce; advertise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of manifestation/showing

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing manifested or shown

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of exhibiting or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing exhibited or displayed

    +

    Morphological derivations:  demonstrate, flourish, show off, display, spectacle, parade, promenade, procession, ostentation, gaudy, garish, pomp, pompous

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TNĒ- ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL BLOCK-LIKE SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cube [solid volume]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but as outline edges/frame only, not as solid volumes

    2. rectilinear block [solid volume]

    3. disc

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VĒ- ‘CURVATURE/BENDING/OPEN LINEAR FORMS OR SHAPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    1. obtuse angle [degree of size/openness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

    2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    2. acute angle [degree of size/narrownness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

    3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    3. mathematically determined form made of lines (e.g., polygon, quadrilateral, etc.) [pattern + object having the pattern]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

    1. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate

    1. obtuse angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of openness]

    1. obtuse angled object or bounded space

    2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

    2. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate

    2. acute angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of narrowness]

    2. acute angled object or bounded space

    3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself]

    3. object manifesting a linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic)

    3. mathematically determined form made of lines [the pattern]

    3. object manifesting a mathematically determined form made of lines

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  fold, bend, pleat, zig-zag/“sawtooth”/serrated pattern, undulate/undulation, S-curve, wave(s)/wavy, bent, crooked, jagged, serrated, curvature
    + The above root use PHASE and the iterative series of affixes to specify extent/number/pattern of folds.
    + SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 3:  parabola, hyperbola, exponential curve

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VRĒ-  ‘PATH/WAY/COURSE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. course/way [taken]

    1. route [taken]

    2. [marked] path [taken]

    2. road [taken]

    3. trajectory; move(ment) along a trajectory / “sail” / arc

    3. channel [taken]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the course/way/path/trajectory itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to following or travelling along the course/path/trajectory

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the route/road/channel itself

    same as a stems with focus on following or travelling along the route/road/channel

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: walkway, sidewalk, highway, street, slide, tunnel, conduit

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XĀ- ‘AMBULATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ambulate (as natural to specific species, e.g., walk, slither, fly, crawl, etc.)

    1. “formal” ambulation, e.g., march, prance

    2. rapid ambulation (as per specific species, e.g., run, gallop, scamper, scurry, etc.)

    2. purposeful rapid ambulation, e.g., flee, race

    3. unnatural or affected ambulation

    3. deliberately unnatural or affected ambulation, e.g., swagger, saunter

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

    same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

    same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

    same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: skip, shuffle, slink; lead, follow
    +SSD DERIVATIVES:  1) swim on surface  2) swim/glide underwater 3) slither 4) crawl 5) walk  6) hop 7) jump/leap  8) swing (e.g., through trees, from vines, etc.)  9) fly

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XŪ- ‘LONGITUDE / EAST-WEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. east-west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    1. longitude

    2. west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    2. West longitude

    3. east axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    3. East longitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. east-west axial direction or orientation

    1. east-west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    1. meridian

    1. zero meridian (Greenwich meridian)

    2. west direction or orientation

    2. west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    2. time zone

    2. Western Hemisphere

    3. east direction or orientation

    3. east geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    3. International Date Line

    3. Eastern Hemisphere

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZĒ- ‘SPATIAL ORIENTATION / POSITION / DIRECTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. general spatial position [currently or within context of utterance]; be situated at

    1. specific spatial position at “end point”; be situated at “end point” of

    2. general orientation (along or relative to directional axes); to “face” [toward]

    2. specific orientation toward “end point” of; to “face” squarely

    3. general direction/axis of movement; direct/move along axis of

    3. specific direction/axis of movement toward “end point” of; to head straight for

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. general position toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    1. general position toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    1. specific position at “one end” of opposed spatial points

    1. specific position at “other side” of opposed spatial points

    2. general orientation toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    2. general orientation toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    2. specific orientation toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

    2. specific orientation toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

    3. general direction toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    3. general direction toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    3. specific direction toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

    3. specific direction toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN OF STEMS IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA:
    + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT
    + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD
    + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE
    + 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS
    + KLĒ- ‘+X/+Y/+Z’
    + ŠLĒ- ‘+X/+Y/-Z’
    + MLĒ- ‘+X/-Y/+Z’
    + GRĒ- ‘+  X/-Y/-Z’
    + LYĒ- ‘-X/+Y/+Z’
    + BZĒ- ‘-X/+Y/-Z’
    + KMĒ- ‘-X/-Y/+Z’
    + SRĒ- ‘-X/-Y/-Z’
    + PLĀ- ‘+X/+Y/0’
    + ŇĀ- ‘+X/-Y/0’
    + RĀ- ‘-X/+Y/0’
    + ŘĀ- ‘-X/-Y/0’
    + TLĀ- ‘+X/0/+Z’
    + PSĀ- ‘+X/0/-Z’
    + KSĀ- ‘-X/0/+Z’
    + ŦĀ- ‘-X/0/-Z’
    + PŦĀ- ‘0/+Y/+Z’
    + PŘĀ- ‘0/+Y/-Z’
    + TŘĀ- ‘0/-Y/+Z’
    + KŘĀ- ‘0/-Y/-Z’
    + BŘĀ- ‘+X/0/0’
    + DŘĀ- ‘-X/0/0’
    + GŪ-  ‘0/+Y/0’
    + JŪ-  ‘0/-Y/0’
    + FŪ-  ‘0/0/+Z’
    + ŇŪ-  ‘0/0/-Z’
    + ZĒ- ‘0/0/0’
    + PLŪ- ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [linear unidimensional context, e.g., between two others in a queue]
    +KLŪ- ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [planar 2-dimensional context, e.g., among others in a crowded room]
    +FLŪ- ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [volume-based 3-dimensional context, e.g., sky crowded with balloonists]
    +MYŪ- ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components separable/extractable]
    +NŪ- ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components inseparable/mixed/permanently combined]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZRĒ- ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPHEROID SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sphere(oid) [rigid or solid]

    1. ball-like form [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    2. ovoid / elliptoid / round [rigid or solid]

    2. ovoid /elliptoid / round [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    3. torus / toroid (hoop/ring-like form with circular/elliptical/oval cross-section) [rigid or solid]

    3. torus / toroid [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    +

    CLASS VI ROOTS:  change, causation, interaction, state, occurrence, existence, relation, association, identity

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    BÎ- ‘APPEARANCE/SEMBLANCE/IMPRESSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. appear to be/seem/look as if/give (off) the impression of; appearance/semblance/impression

    1. ostensible/ostensibly

    2. on the face of it, on first blush

    2. resemble, look like

    3. on the surface/superficially/seemingly

    3. façade, veneer

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DÓ- ‘EXISTENCE/ONTOLOGY/METAPHYSICS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exist objectively; something that exists; be(ing) [both ontological and metaphysical]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except in reference to epistemological context [i.e., in relation to knowledge/awareness of ontological or metaphysical existence]

    2. law of nature / existential axiom

    3. natural/inherent

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontology / ontological aspect

    same as above 3 stems referring to metaphysics / metaphysical aspect

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KRÍ - TOOL/INSTRUMENT

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tool, instrument, implement as extension of bodily appendage(s) (e.g., as per force, strength, precision, reach, pressure, instrument as labor-saving or efficiency-increasing means etc.)

    1. utensil, specialized implement for assisting in refined task

    2. tool, instrument as means of “defying nature” (e.g., wheel, wedge, fulcrum, etc.

    2. mechanical/motorized/electric/electronic implement/device

    3. supply-like resource/implement used by itself or in  association with specific tool (e.g., nail, tack, clothespin, hook)

    3. supply-like resource/implement used as fuel or input for mechanical/electrical/electronic implement/device

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  equipment, gear (collection of associated tools/supplies), apparatus, appliance, paraphernalia, machine
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1: awl, pliers, screwdriver, wrench, pick, shovel/spade, chisel, file, stick/pole/bar
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  wheel, jack, wedge, fulcrum, pulley, sling, lever, gear, spool
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3: nail, tack, clip/fastener, hook, screw, bolt, nut, piece of wire, screwdriver bit/head
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  anvil, fork, spoon, scissors, vice/clamp, plane, saw, tweezers, puncher
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  drill, power saw, engine/motor
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  drill bit

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KSÓ- ‘TRANSCENDENCE / SPIRIT / RELIGION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. one’s spirit or soul / transcendent “connection” to the universe

    1. religious belief

    2. universal oneness / metaphysical interconnectedness between all things

    2. feeling of religious fervor or zeal

    3. striving/quest for ultimate destiny/purpose/”Omega point”

    3. striving/quest for salvation/redemption/enlightment (specific to particular religion)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

    same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

    same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MYÓ- ‘SIMILARITY/SAMENESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. similar(ity) to oneself (on another occasion)

    1. same (= selfsame)

    2. similar(ity) to (an)other entity/instance

    2. same (= identical to (an)other entity/instance)

    3. remind (one) of / reminder

    3. same (= copy/replacement)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on appearance or superficial impression

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on identity or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠNÎ- ‘SWITCH/ALTERATION BETWEEN MULTI-VALUED SETTINGS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. switch to a different value or setting

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

    2. veer, change course

    3. change to a less active or more active setting; increase or decrease intensity or setting

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. switch to higher/greater value or setting

    1. switch to lower/lesser value or setting

    2. change to more difficult, dangerous, or unpredictable course

    2. change to easier, safer, or more predictable course

    3. increase to higher/stronger intensity

    3. decrease to lower/weaker intensity

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SPÓ- ‘PHYSICAL CONTACT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. physical contact between 2 or more objects [contact + effect]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that the context is specific to physical contact by one’s “default” appendage(s) for volitional physical contact, i.e., hands/fingers, beak, snout, tongue, pseudopod, tendril, tentacle, etc.

    2. application of physical pressure/force + effect

    3. move or set in motion via physical contact + resulting motion

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on physical act of contact

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on resulting effect/movement

    +

    EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THESE STEMS: feel, push, stroke, caress, tap, nudge, hit, strike, slap, punch, shove, press, rub, knock over, fall [due to being pushed], injure [via striking], etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠÎ - ‘POSSESSION / OWNERSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. have/possess; physical possession (temporary/circumstantial and alienable – e.g., a library book in one’s hand)

    1. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right and in one’s immediate possession-, e.g., a hat I bought and am wearing)

    2. have/possess; possession (circumstantial and affective + (quasi-) inalienable, either permanent or temporary – e.g., a medical condition, an office at work I occupy, a seat at a cinema showing)

    2. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right, not necessarily in one’s immediate possession -, e.g., a hat I bought/own but am not necessarily wearing)

    3. have/possess; possession (genetic, intrinsic and inalienable, but not considered property – e.g., a sibling, a child, a limb, a memory)

    3. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (quasi-permanent and legally inalienable except through formal/legal separation process – e.g., a house I own, a pet dog I registered

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing possessed

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession/ownership

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing owned; piece of property

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠTÎ - ‘WEATHER CONDITION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (current) weather condition

    1. adverse weather condition

    2. amenable weather condition (warm seasons)

    2. adverse weather condition (warm seasons)

    3. amenable weather condition (cold seasons)

    3. adverse weather condition (cold seasons)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: climate, the weather, clime
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  mild, balmy, sunny, warm, still/calm, gently breezy
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  brisk, cool, clear, still/calm, crisp, light snowfall, drizzle
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2: mugginess, heat, drought, summer rainstorm, summer flood, mud, hurricane, smog, hot wind
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  fog/mist, cloudy/overcast, wind, rain, snow, blizzard, rainstorm, tornado/twister, flood

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TRÍ- ‘BINARY REVERSAL / POLARITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. switch to opposing or complementary value

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Sec. 3.7.

    2. switch or reverse [linear] direction

    3. toggle between active/positive or inactive/negative state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. set to positive, primary, or initial value

    1. set to negative, secondary, or complementary value

    2. change current course or direction

    2. reverse course or direction

    3. active / activate / turn on / render active / on / positive state

    3. inactive / deactivate / turn off / render inactive / off / negative state

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TRÓ - ‘LARGE IMPLEMENT FOR COUNTERING GRAVITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ladder [object itself + use]

    1. winch/windlass

    2. stair

    2. expandable boom

    3. bridge; span

    3. derrick

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  staircase, stairway

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VÍ- ‘VALUE/WORTH/PRICE/COST’
    + (Often used in conjunction with various Quantifying and Modulative affixes from Sections 7.7.6 and 7.7.7 to show relative degree of value within context)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of usefulness, convenience, efficacy, service, applicability]

    1. cost appraisal, assessment, estimate, quote

    2. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of personal desire or emotional attachment]

    2. cost, expense, expenditure [what is (to be) given up or released in exchange for something, either a commercial or non-commercial context]

    3. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of financial benefit or gain, profit, or remuneratively]

    3. rate (of payment); formula/terms for determining payment

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on intrinsic value

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on actual value (i.e., degree to which the intrinsic value can actually be utilized, consumed or manifested)

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to cost quoted or agreed to

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to actual payment

    +

    SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2: 1) fee/toll or service charge 2) tithe 3) duty/tariff/levy 4) ransom 5) tax 6) dues 7) wage(s) 8) fare  9) price/charge [in money or legal tender]

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÓ - WEAPON

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hand-held or hand-thrown bladed weapon for cutting or stabbing [object + use]

    1. ballistically launched projectile [projectile + use]

    2. pointed-tipped handheld or propelled weapon for piercing [object + use]

    2. explosive/incendiary substance/device [substance/device + use]

    3. blunt force-driven hand-held or propelled weapon [object + use]

    3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon [substance + use]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bladed weapon itself

    1. use/function of bladed weapon

    1. ballistically launched projectile

    1. use/function of ballistically launched projectile

    2. pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon itself

    2. use/function of pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon

    2. explosive/incendiary substance/device

    2. use/function of explosive/incendiary substance/device

    3. blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon itself

    3. use/function of blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon

    3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon

    3. use/function of gaseous/chemical/other weapon

    +

    SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1:  dagger, switchblade, axe, sword, scimitar, bayonet
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  arrow, lance, spear, javelin, harpoon
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  mace, club, hammer, catapult fodder, shot from slingshot. cudgel
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  bullet, shell, shrapnel, cannonball, shot, rocket, self-propelled missile
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  bomb, grenade, plastic explosive, firecracker, dynamite stick
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  gas irritant/poison, poison chemical vapor, liquid irritant/poison, radioactive compound used as weapon

    +

    NOTE:  In Ilaksh, guns, catapults, slings and all other firearms or devices for shooting/hurling projectiles utilize Degree 1 of the UTE suffix ('tool/implement for doing X'), as it is not the firearm/shooting device that kills but the projectile shot/fired from it. Thus a gun is a "bullet-implementer".  Care must be taken in assigning appropriate noun Cases or verbal Formats to stems associated with ballistic aerial weapons to distinguish the fact that it is the projectile that is the actual "weapon" and not the object it was fired/projected from. This is the good old "shoot bullets" vs. "shoot guns" vs. "shoot bullets from a gun" vs. "shoot him with a gun" vs. "shoot him with bullets from a gun" problem . This which would translate into Ithkuil/Ilaksh as "I bulleted him due to/enabled by a gun" or incorparatively as "I gun-bulleted him" using either the RESULTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him as a result of concurrently gun-activating") or the INSTRUMENTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him by the enabling means of gun-activating").

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XRÎ - ‘HAPPEN/OCCUR(ENCE)/MANIFEST/EVENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. happen / occur / take place / to “pass”

    1. step / act / action

    2. manifest / be or make real / reify

    2. phenomenon

    3. event (spacio-temporal context)

    3. incident

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

    +

    Various derivations from the above stems:  turn out, situation, chain of events, doings, process, phase, deed, result(s), consequence(s)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZLÍ-  ‘GROWTH/CULTIVATION/HUSBANDRY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. grow; stage of growth

    1. stage of plant growth; grow (plant)

    2. raise; look after; foster; function as guardian

    2. till/cultivate/raise crop; stage of cultivation (e.g., etc.)

    3. nurture / provide requirements for growth; husbandry

    3. to garden/specialized act of plant nurturage (e.g., prune, graft, weed, etc.)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

    +

    Stems of this root are often used with the MAT suffix
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2:  plow, sow, irrigate, fertilize; hoe, reap, pick, dry, store
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 3:  prune, graft, weed, transplant, thin out
    + Morphological Derivatives:  shepherd, garden, gardener, field (of crop), crop, harvest, plow/plough, hoe, etc.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    CLASS VII ROOTS :  Numerical and mathematical concepts, quantity, comparison, order, arrangement, configuration, time

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ČŌ ‘MAKE/CONSTRUCT/INTEGRATE/FORM’
    + (NOTE:  This root does not refer to ‘make/create’ meaning ‘emit/secrete/produce’as in ‘make noise’ or ‘make milk’, etc.)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. make/construct/create (non-mechanical) [= construct via integration of material resources]

    1. mechanically construct / build from a design

    2. to form/fashion/mix  (non-mechanical) [= combine ingredients/parts to form]

    2. integrate parts / integration of parts

    3. integrate/organize (non-mechanical)

    3. machine / mechanical device

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

    +

    NOTE:  The above meanings represent these stems as used in conjunction with the COMPLETIVE (CPT) version.  Their default PROCESSUAL (PCT) counterparts would translate as ‘plan (to)’, ‘design’, etc.
    + Derivations:  cobble together, rig, system, conspire

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FĪ - ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION MORE THAN ONE DAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. expanse of time/period/duration more than 1 day

    1. subjective long-term period/era

    2. lunar period / month

    2. geologic era

    3. solar year

    3. ‘lifetime’; timespan from beginning to end of something

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    +

    Use of SSD affix give equivalents to ‘decade’, ‘century,’ ‘millenium’, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FLÔ- ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS (ORNAMENTAL/SPECIALIZED)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tower

    1. window opening

    2. dome

    2. doorway

    3. spire/steeple

    3. balcony/terrace

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GÔ- ‘GEOGRAPHICAL/GEOPOLITICAL ELEMENTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. geographical feature or element

    1. geopolitical feature or element

    2. geographical area / “land”

    2. geopolitical area / “land” or “country”

    3. natural piece of territory

    3. (piece of) property

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on geophysical feature or element

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus as natural habitat

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus as political entity

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on political boundaries/borders

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KĪ- ‘DAY/NIGHT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. day [= 24-hour period]

    same as for INFORMAL stems except applied to a particular date or scheduled day as in “my first day at work” or “Independence Day”

    2. sky

    3. degree of sunlight [use with EXN, EXD, SUF affixes, etc. from Sec. 7.7.6]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. daytime

    1. nighttime

    2. daytime sky

    2. nighttime sky

    3. daylight

    3. natural darkness

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dawn, sunrise, daybreak, evening, sunset, twilight, morning, evening, afternoon, mid-day, noontime, midnight, the “wee” hours [= Spanish ‘madrugada’]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KYÔ- ‘SEASON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. season, time of year

    1.  social behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., celebration, recreation, vacation, etc.)

    2. weather associated w/ particular season / seasonal weather

    2. weather-determined practice/behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., migration, mating, nesting, hibernation, etc.)

    3. cyclic state/condition of flora/fauna associated with a particular season

    3. practice/behavior/custom relating to maintenance/upkeep of crops, game and other material resources associated with a particular season (e.g., foraging, hunting, planting, harvest, storage, etc.)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

    +

    ABOVE PATTERN APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + RÔ-  ‘SPRING’
    + LÔ-  ‘SUMMER’
    + SÔ-  ‘AUTUMN/FALL’
    + TÔ-  ‘WINTER’
    + RYÔ-  ‘TROPICAL RAINY SEASON’
    + LYÔ-  ‘TROPICAL DRY SEASON’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŌ- ‘TWO/DUALITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set of two / a duo; to be two in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make dual / having 2 uses or aspects / bi- / twofold

    3. second one in a sequence; be/make second in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. twice the number of something; to double / multiply by two

    1. half; halve / divide by or into two

    2. two times [= iterations] / twice; to be/make/do twice

    2. be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)

    3. to the second power / squared; to square / raise to the second power

    3. to the negative second power / inverse square; to divide by the square of

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    NŌ- ‘SEVEN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 7 / a septet; to be 7 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make seven-faceted / having 7 uses or aspects / septi- / sevenfold

    3. seventh one in a sequence; be/make seventh in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 7 times the number of something; to septuple / multiply by 7

    1. a seventh / divide by 7 or into 7 parts

    2. 7 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 7 times

    2. be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts

    3. to the 7th power; raise to the 7th power

    3. to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN FOR ‘TWO’ AND ‘SEVEN’ APPLIES TO THE REMAINING NUMBER ROOTS AS FOLLOWS:
    + Š-S   ŠŌ-  ‘3’
    + P-S   PŌ- ‘4’
    + Ţ-S  ŦŌ-  ‘5’
    + T-S   TŌ- ‘6’
    + X-S   XŌ- ‘8’
    + F-S  FŌ- ‘9’
    + M-S  MŌ- ‘10’
    + R-S   RŌ- ‘100’
    + Q-S   KYŌ- ‘10,000’
    + Ç-S  ZŌ- ‘100,000,000’
    + Ċ-S  CŌ-  ‘10 QUADRILLION’

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    LŌ- ‘ONE/UNITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. one

    1. single entity / single / singular

    2. (something) alone/lone/sole

    2. (something) isolated

    3. (something) unique

    3. 9something) independent / self-reliant / self-sufficient

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. unit (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    1. unify/unite; unit (in terms of being indivisible)

    Same as above 3 stems in terms of there being no other instance/example thereof

    Same as above 3 stems in terms of entity being indivisible

    2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being indivisible)

    3. unique (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    3. unique (in terms of being indivisible)

    +

    EXAMPLES OF MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  individual(ity), solitude, lonely, loneliness

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MÔ - ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION LESS THAN ONE DAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. moment/instant

    1. ‘second’ [= basic unit of cyclic time, based on clapping of hands once together then once with back of hands together]

    2. a ‘while’

    2. ‘minute’ = 100 seconds

    3. portion of a day

    3. ‘hour’ = 100 minutes

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    +

    SSD affix used with FORMAL stems by degree:  1) 1/100 of time period 2) 1/10 3) ¼ 4) ½  5) exactly/precisely 6) twice the duration 7) 4 times 8) 10 times 9) 100 times

    +

    SSD affix used with INFORMAL Stem No. 3 by degree:  1) midnight to dawn period [Spanish ‘madrugada’] 2) dawn [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunrise’] 3) early morning 4) morning 5) midday 6) afternoon [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunset’] 7) twilight 8) evening 9) late night, from darkness till midnight

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PÔ- ‘WAIT/AWAIT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. wait (for), await; waiting, a wait

    1. vigil/a watch; be vigilant/watchful

    2. expect; expectation; expected/impending

    2. foresee; foresight; prospective/foreseeable

    3. predict; prediction

    3. prognosticate, forecast

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PRŌ- ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. column/pillar

    1. strut/buttress

    2. “side”/wall (external)

    2. partition

    3. floor [= base/ground]

    3. roof

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VŌ- ‘WHOLE NUMBER/INTEGER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a (whole) number, numeral, digit, integer

    Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to formal, authoritative, permanent context as per Section 3.7

    2. having more than one aspect; multifaceted

    3. numerical series/sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. multiply (by)

    1. divide (by)

    2. consisting of more than instance; multiple instance(s) of

    2. having more than one part; consisting of parts; non-unitary; non-unified

    3. exponential/logarithmic progression

    3. negative exponential/logarithmic progression

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VLÔ- ‘CONTAIN / HOLD / CONTENTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. contain(ment) via gravity (e.g., basin) + contents

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in quasi-permanent context or by intrinsic nature as opposed to the INFORMAL stems which convey an incidental or circumstantial context

    2. contain(ment) via enclosure / surrounding conveyance + contents

    3. contain(ment) via imbuement / as ingredient; to “carry” [as integrated component or ingredient] + contents

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to contents

    same as above 3 stems referring to the container

    +

    The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions: 1) bottle 2) jar/pot 3) barrel/cask 4) bin 5) vat / tub / basin [distinguished via SIZ affix] 6) can/tin 7) piece of furniture 8) purse/bag/satchel/pack 9) case/trunk

    +

     

    +

    CLASS VIII ROOTS:  Communication, learning, language, entertainment

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DÁ- ‘NAME/DESIGNATION/TITLE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. name + referent; to be named, to be called

    1. title + referent

    2. designation/reference + referent; refer to as

    2. formal designation + referent

    3. label / nickname + referent; to go by

    3. role

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FYÉ- ‘QUESTION/INQUIRY/ANSWER/RESPONSE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. question & answer [statement requesting information + the answer/reply/response thereto]

    1. inquire/inquiry + answer

    2. query/investigate [investigative act + discovery made]

    2. research + findings

    3. ponder/introspect [self-questioning + conclusion]

    3. analyze + results of analysis

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. question [statement requesting information]

    1. response/reply/answer [information desired or given]

    1. inquire/inquiry

    1. answer [i.e., result of inquiry]

    2. query

    2. answer (to query) [i.e., cause/reason for what is being looked into or investigated]

    2. research

    2. finding(s)/discovery made via research

    3. ponder/introspect; to question oneself mentally

    3. conclusion [(desired) result of self-analysis]

    3. analyze

    3. conclusion/results of analysis

    +

    Morphological derivations:  problem; solution; solve; resolution; resolve; elucidate

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KÁ- ‘REMEMBER/RECALL/MEMORY/RECORD’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. memory; remember (= recall) [whether unwilled/affective or self -willed/voluntary]

    1. trace/track/vestige

    2. retain / retention of something past into present

    2. memorial (object/action formally recognizing or acknowledging something/someone past)

    3. remember [= commit to memory] / memorize

    3. to record / a record

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. a memory itself (i.e., the content thereof)

    1. faculty of memory/recall (i.e., the process of using one’s memory)

    same as above 3 stems with focus on that which the physical manifestation memorializes or gives evidence/remembrance of

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the object/event/physical manifestation itself which conveys the memory or record

    2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the content thereof)

    2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the process thereof)

    3. thing remembered or memorized [=event/act/situation/state, etc. committed to memory]

    3. process of committing something to memory

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  recollect(ion), remind, memorize, memento, monument, archive, commemorate, commemoration, souvenir/keepsake, relic, to bear in mind, ponder/relish a memory, sear into one’s memory

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŦÚ-  ‘FANTASTIC OR IMAGINARY CREATURE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fantastic or imaginary creature/beast

    1. mythological/symbolic creature/beast

    2. winged fantastic creature/beast

    2. legendary being/creature/beast, allegedly real

    3. reptilian/saurian fantastic creature/beast

    3. alien/extraterrestrial being

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 1: 
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  dragon
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  centaur, sphinx, satyr, unicorn, chimera
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  vampyre, werewolf, yeti

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    LÁ- ‘SPEAK/VOICE/ORAL SOUND/INTERPRETATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. vocal utterance / oral sound; utter

    1. meaning or interpretation of vocal utterance; to mean or signify

    2. talk / speak / spoken utterance [parole]

    2. meaning or interpretation of word; to mean or signify

    3. rhetorical utterance / express [langue]

    3. meaning or interpretation of sentence or phrase; to mean or signify

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical production of sound

    same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

    same as above 3 stems referring to objective meaning, signification or denotation

    same as above 3 stems referring to subjective interpretation, connotation or “impact”

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: voice, (a) language, linguistic(s), yell, shout, cry, bark/meow/bleat/neigh, etc., [vocal] message, account, recount, story, tell, eloquence, glib(ness), smooth-talk, rhetoric, speech, dialect, slang

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    RÉ- ‘THOUGHT/IDEA/REASON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. think / cogitate + thought or idea cogitated

    1. to reason / use logic + content of reasoning

    2. consider + idea considered

    2. analyze + object of analysis

    3. propose + argument or idea proposed

    3. abstract (= to mentally construct) + concept

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. think / cogitate; an act of thinking

    1. a thought / an idea

    1. to reason / use logic; act of reasoning

    1. object of reasoning

    2. consider; an act of consideration

    2. a thought or idea considered

    2. analyze; act of analysis

    2. object of analysis

    3. propose / posit

    3. a proposition or argument

    3. to abstract / conceive / conceptualize; act of abstraction or conception

    3. concept

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: ponder, deliberate/deliberation, plan, contemplate, theory, hypothesis, deduce/deduction, postulate, infer(ence), judge, conclude/conclusion

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SÉ- ‘MUSIC’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. musical note or tone / produce [i.e., play] musical note or tone [sound + its playing]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except that they apply to the production of song, i.e., vocal music or for voice with musical accompaniment

    2. consciously select musical note [for purpose of composition] + sound of note

    3. a musical beat or measure [sound + its playing]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. sound of musical note or tone

    1. producing/playing of musical note or tone

    2. sound of selected musical note

    2. conscious selection of musical note [for purpose of composition]

    3. sound of a musical beat or measure

    3. production/playing of a musical beat or measure

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: piece of music, melody, music [abstract concept], composition, musical instrument, musician, composer, rhythm, band, orchestra, song

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    STÚ- ‘COMPARISON/MEASUREMENT/WEIGH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. compare/contrast

    1. measure

    2. discriminate/distinguish

    2. discern

    3. “weigh”/ponder choice/pro-con analysis

    3. relate/collate/determine relationships between

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or outcome

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TÁ- ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/DOCUMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. inscribe [= make written symbol]; written symbol

    1. written record / thing containing writing

    2. write message; written content

    2. document

    3. “write” [= compose via writing] / to author

    3. a writing / a written work

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical act of inscription

    same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

    ame as above 3 stems referring to the physical document

    same as above 3 stems referring to the content

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: book, treatise, manuscript, author, archive

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŦÚ ‘MIND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mind / mental (faculty + use)

    1. sentience / capacity for self awareness and self-identity + act of self-reflection

    2. perception / awareness (faculty + use)

    2. conscious + subconscious mind

    3. instinct (faculty + practice)

    3. intellect / wits /mind as efficacious tool

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. mental faculty / mind

    1. application of mental faculty; act of mentation / use one’s mind

    1. feeling of sentience

    1. act of self-reflection

    2. faculty of perception or awareness

    2. use of perception or awareness; to perceive / be aware of

    2. conscious mind

    2. subconscious mind

    3. instinct

    3. instinctual act; to act instinctively

    3. intellect; use one’s intellect

    3. product of one’s intellect / intellectual feat

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: philosophy, metaphysics

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TLÁ- ‘DEITY / SPIRITUAL ENTITY / SUPERNATURAL ENTITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (a) spirit / supernatural entity

    1. angel

    2. deity / god / “overseer” spirit

    2. God / Supreme Being / Creator deity

    3. demon

    3. the Devil / Satan

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VÉ- ‘FACT/KNOW/LEARN/UNDERSTAND/EXPERTISE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ontological fact;  observe/notice an ontological fact

    1. study/practice [= formal process to acquire skill or knowledge]

    2. epistemological/conventionalized fact; know fact

    2. realize/understand/comprehension via act of insight

    3. experience/proficiency [= know via familiarity]

    3. understand [= know via sharing/communication of knowledge]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of knowing

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing known

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of study/understanding

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing studied or understood

    +

    INFORMAL Stem Derivations:  find out, discover, determine, wisdom
    + FORMAL Stem Derivations:  learn, insight, enlightenment, education, school, scholar, student, university

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VYÚ- ‘GOOD/BENEFICIAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. good [= beneficial to context]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to concrete, range-of-moment tangible contexts, whereas INFORMAL stems are applied to general, metaphysical contexts.

    2. good [= morally right; beneficial metaphysically]

    3. good [= advantageous/effective]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act, event or situation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on desired outcome/reward/benefit

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    CLASS IX ROOTS:  Feelings, emotion, affect, preferences, volition, choice

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ČÊ- ‘DEGREE OF PLEASURE/FULFILLMENT/SATISFACTION/HAPPINESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of physical/sensual pleasure [both feeling and cause]

    1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented pleasure/contentment [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of emotional/psychological contentment/pleasure [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of happiness
    + (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of physical satisfaction/satiety [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of emotional/psychological satisfaction and fulfillment [both feeling and cause]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a pleasant visit’ or ‘a satisfying meal’

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a happy home’ or ‘a fulfilling job’

    +

    Derivations:  gratify/gratification, satiety, ecstasy, joy

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ĐÛ- ‘LOVE/AFFECTION/EMOTIONAL BOND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act of affection / display of fondness or endearment

    1. like / value as source of emotional fulfillment

    2. familial/genetically-tied bond of love

    2. love of country, heritage, race, etc.

    3. act/feeling of romantic love

    3. love of or emotional allegiance to abstract idea (e.g., freedom, life, wealth)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

    +

    Morphological Derivations:  love, tenderness, infatuation, obsession, passion, passionate
    + SSD Derivatives from INFORMAL Stem 1:  kiss, embrace, hug, hold hand, cuddle, caress, massage, pat, wink

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FÂ- ‘AFFECTIVE/NON-VOLITIONAL MENTAL STATE/PROCESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mood; be in a mood

    1. rationalization; rationalize

    2. instinct; act/behave on instinct [state + content]

    2. delusion; (be) delude(d)

    3. dream [state + content]

    3. hallucination; hallucinate

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    C-H    FÊ-  ‘PLAY/RECREATION/LEISURE’
    + (These stems are often used with the various Valence categories (Section 6.2) to specify the manner of participation)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. play/recreate/amuse oneself (activity + feeling of enjoyment derived) = self-involved activity, e.g., play w/ a toy, play hide-and-seek, etc.

    1. play/recreate (activity + feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived) = formal rule-oriented activity, e.g., a board game, a sport, etc.

    2. element of participitory or self-involved leisure activity (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived), e.g., a dance, a hike, fishing, camping

    2. attend/view a formal entertainment (activity + feeling of enjoyment/diversion derived), e.g., view a show, live performance, movie, a sporting event, etc.)

    3. practice hobby or pastime (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived)

    3. engage in (a) sport activity (activity + feeling of competitive spirit) for motive of formal competition, e.g., victory-oriented

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed, i.e., a toy, game or diversion

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

    +

    SSD Derivatives:
    + sports, toys, traditional board games, participitory outdoor games

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KÛ- ‘PRIDE/EGO/RESPECT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. feel proud (of oneself); feeling of pride (in oneself)

    1. self-esteem

    2. feel proud (of someone); feeling of pride (of someone)

    2. respect/admiration

    3. one’s feelings/sensibilities (e.g., to hurt one’s feelings)

    3. ego/sense of self-identity; to sense (some)one’s ego / to gain an impression of someone’s self-identity

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  arrogance/arrogant, haughtiness/haughty, pomposity/pompous, put on airs, vainglorious; magisterial/imperious

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    LYÂ- ‘ “HEART” / “ESSENCE” / VALUES ’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. metaphorical/psychological seat of one’s personality and emotions, i.e., “heart”, “soul”, mind

    1. personal value(s)/ what one holds dearest or as most important

    2. degree/depth of one’s emotions / “feelings” / experience a certain depth of emotion

    2. personal virtues/ personality traits

    3. essence; essential subjective/intangible qualities of an entity

    3. personal principles

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

    +

    Derivations:  personality

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MYÛ-   ‘DEGREE OF WAKEFULNESS OR CONSCIOUSNESS’
    + Note: Stems from this root are used in conjunction with various degree indicator affixes such as the EXN, EXD and SUF affixes from Sec. 7.7.6 in order to distinguish which polarity (awake vs. asleep) is implied.

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of consciousness or unconsciousness

    1. degree of activity/vivaciousness/“energy”

    2. degree of wakefulness or sleepiness

    2. degree of dormancy or hibernation

    3. degree of alertness/focus/attention/awareness or lack thereof

    3. degree of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. capacity for or faculty of consciousness

    1. object/entity/thought of which one is conscious

    1. state of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

    1. object of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

    2. capacity for or faculty of wakefulness/sleepiness

    2. that which stimulates awakening or lulls into sleep

    2. state of dormancy/hibernation

    2. object of dormancy/hibernation

    3. capacity for or faculty of alertness/attention/awareness

    3. that to or of which one is alert/attentive/aware

    3. state of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

    3. object of one’s intent/diligence/enterprise

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sleepy, listless(ness), grogginess, “fresh”, unconscious, dull, inattentive, vigilant, to “stir”, frisky, ardent, eager, persevere, bustling, zeal

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    NYÛ- ‘CHOICE/ALTERNTIVE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. choose/choice [from open selection]

    1. select/pick [from limited selection]

    2. prefer(ence)

    2. alternative/option

    3. settle (for)

    3. vote [w/ CPT = elect]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PÂ-  ‘DEGREE OF PAIN/LOSS/DISSATISFACTION/MISERY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of physical pain [both feeling and cause]

    1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented displeasure/discontent [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of emotional/psychological discontent/pain [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of unhappiness/misery
    + (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of physical dissatisfaction/lack [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of emotional/psychological dissatisfaction and loss/lack [both feeling and cause]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unpleasant visit’ or ‘a terrible meal’

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unhappy home’ or ‘a miserable job’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PYÂ- ‘HUMOR/WIT/JEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something funny or humorous = comical

    1. a jest or prank; make a jest or pull a prank = act or situation designed to evoke humor

    2. something witty = subtlely and cleverly humorous

    2. a joke; make a joke  = communicated situation or message designed to evoke humor

    3. something farcical = something humorous based in irony

    3. something sardonic = double-edged humor based in sarcasm

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

    +

    SSD derivatives:  pun, riddle

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SLÊ- ‘EXPERIENCE / UNDERGO A STATE OR FEELING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of a state/feeling/emotion; feel (an) emotion [state + content]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of the particular emotion.

    2. act or action caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling

    3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on process itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential state/feeling itself

    +

    The stem patterns of the above root are applied to all of the following roots:
    + TMÊ-:  ‘excitement/thrill’
    + PSÛ-:  ‘agitation/disquietude’
    + MRÛ:  ‘awe / be or feel impressed / humbleness in face of something’
    + BZÂ-:  ‘depression / be or feel depressed’
    + ŦRÂ-: ‘eagerness / fervor / zeal’
    + TMÂ:  ‘cordiality/benevolence’
    + PSÂ:  ‘hysteria/loss of control’
    + GŽÊ-:  ‘commitment/loyalty’  Derivations:  ‘intransigence’, ‘stubbornness’
    + LÊ-:  ‘tenderness/nuturing/caring’
    + PSÊ-: ‘feel hurt/offended’
    + NLÛ-:  ‘spite’
    + DYÛ-: ‘stoicism/repression’
    + TLÊ-:  ‘nonchalance/indifference’ Derivations:  ‘callousness’
    + SKÛ-:  ‘torpor/lethargy’ Derivations: ‘stupor’, ‘catatonia’
    + ÇTÂ-:  ‘numbness / emotional saturation’
    + MRÂ-:  ‘wonder/enthrallment’
    + VRÛ-:  ‘inspiration / feeling of positive energy’
    + DŘÛ-: ‘fear/fright’
    + ČÂ-:  ‘uplift/inspiration (e.g., by beauty, art, music, etc.)
    + TMÛ-:  ‘jollity/merriment/gayness’
    + DYÊ-: ‘feeling carefree / frivolity / relaxed’
    + XLÂ-:  ‘stress / feel pressured’
    + GYÛ-:  ‘worry / feel preoccupied’
    + KRÛ:  ‘grief / sadness from loss’
    + ŠMÊ-: ‘angst / weltschmertz’
    + STÂ-  ‘regret, repining’
    + PÛ-  ‘woe, despair, desolation’
    + JÊ-  ‘sorrow, lamentation’
    +BÂ-  ‘wistfulness, bitter sweetness’
    +GÛ-  ‘bittersweet longing’ (Portuguese “saudade”)
    +KÂ-  ‘anticipate; feeling of anticipation’
    + DVÂ-: ‘feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that achievement of long-awaited vengeance or vindication is hollow and meaningless due to personal maturation or present irrelevance of original circumstances’
    + BZÊ-: ‘mix of humor and shame felt upon pulling joke on someone or at their expense but the target doesn’t “get it” or remains ignorant of the joke’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TÂ- ‘SEEK/SEARCH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. search, seek, look for something unknown [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

    1. hunt, hunt for [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

    2. search, seek, look for something lost [i.e., something known to exist which is missing]

    2. pursue, track down [i.e., existence certain, location surmisable]

    3. inspect

    3. quest / seek to accomplish/achieve something

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

    +

    Morphological Derivations: find, scan, reconnoiter, ransack, pry, ferret out, winnow through, fulfill a quest

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TÊ- ‘DEGREE OF FUN/MERRIMENT/JOVIALITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fun/ merriment; feel/be merry, have fun (both cause/source + feeling derived)

    1. be jovial/jocular/jolly; express/manifest joviality, jollity

    2. frolic, skylark = aimless, innocent pursuit of fun and amusement (both cause/source + feeling derived)

    2. formal amusement (activity or cause + feeling derived), e.g., from/at party, fete, show, performance, etc.

    3. whim, impulsive moment for purpose of amusement

    3. revel; an instance of revelry

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of merriment derived

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of merriment/amusement derived

    +

    carouse, with wild abandon, spree, escapade, jaunt, romp, party, fete

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÛ-  ‘WANT/DESIRE/REQUEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) want/desire [emotion + object of desire]

    1. request [desire + thing requested]

    2. conscious desire based on need/lack/goal

    2. need/lack/necessity + thing needed or lacking

    3. hope/wish [feeling + thing wished/hoped for]

    3. ambition/goal/aspiration; aspire

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire

    same as above 3 stems referring to the thing desired

    same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire/need

    same as above 3 stems referring to the thing requested/needed

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: whim, fancy, inclination, appetite, “hunger”, greed, covet, propensity, aptness, eagerness, longing, crave, urge, passion, attract, tempt, persuade, allure, popularity, demand

    +

     

    +

    CLASS X ROOTS:  Socially or externally-induced affectations, intersocial volition

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    BĂ- ‘REPUTE/NOTORIETY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. repute/reputation

    1. distinction/mark

    2. public image/persona

    2. degree of eminence [= power or influence]

    3. notoriety [= degree of renown/recognition by others]

    3. degree of prestige/status

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

    +

    This root is usually used in conjunction with the NOTORIETY affix.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DĔ- ‘MANNERS/DECORUM/DIGNITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. well-mannered, well-behaved; display a sense of manners

    1. decorum/cultural appropriateness; have/display a sense of decorum, politeness and civility

    2. dignified; have/display a sense of dignity

    2. courtly/stately/refined; stateliness

    3. noble, distinguished, cultivated; have/display a noble, distinguished or cultivated air

    3. aristocratic, well-bred; having/displaying a sense of aristocracy, nobility and breeding

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

    +

    Morphological derivatives:  polite(ness); courtesy/courteous

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    JĂ-  ‘MANAGE/GUIDANCE/COMPLIANCE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. guide / guideline + compliance

    1. rule, precept + obedience

    2. manage / direct + compliance

    2. preside over / mete out law / govern + abidance

    3. discipline + submission/obedience

    3. moral guideline + personal rectitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. guide / guideline

    1. follow guide / follow guideline

    1. rule, precept

    1. obey rule or precept

    2. manage / direct

    2. comply / follow direction(s)

    2. preside over / met out law / govern

    2. abide by law / obey law

    3. apply discipline

    3. submit to discipline

    3. moral guideline

    3. personal rectitude

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: guidance, management, morality, law, president, ruler; set of rules, steer, administer, order, drive; oversee, custom, “norm”, authority

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŬ- ‘GRATITUDE/THANKFULNESS/PRAISE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to unexpected favor or convenience performed

    1. praise

    2. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to being relieved/rescued from negative situation

    2. gratefulness; feeling or manifestation of being beholden to someone or something [feeling is justified and an honor to be feeling]

    3. thank(s) / offer gratitude within ironic circumstances or merely as a courtesy, i.e., where expectation of thanks is for an unwanted, unnecessary, or purely symbolic act or required little or no effort on doer’s part

    3. feeling or manifestation of being beholden or obliged to someone or something [feeling is resented and unwanted]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on intent to convey gratitude

    same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of gratitude

    same as above 3 stems with focus on desire/intent to convey the feeling

    same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of the feeling

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  worship, indebted(ness)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŠŬ- ‘FOOL/CLOWN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fool(ish); dupe

    1. town fool, village idiot

    2. buffoon, laughingstock

    2. clown

    3. nerd, dweeb

    3. jester

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems in non-serious context of “in fun” or “for laughs”

    Same as above 3 stems in poignant, sorrowful, pathetic context

    Same as above 3 stems in context of entertainment

    Same as above 3 stems in context of parody or as a foil for society

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KYĂ- ‘SALUTATION/GREETING/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. acknowledge/demonstrate awareness of

    1. greet(ings) / salutation(s)

    2. hail / get attention of / bring attention to

    2. formal welcome or farewell

    3. congratulate

    3. socially introduce / to socially present

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    +

    SSD affix for FORMAL Stem Nos. 1 and 2 by degree:  1) bow upon arrival/introduction 2) shake hands upon arrival/introduction  3) wave hand or arm upon arrival/introduction/seeing 4)verbal salutation only upon arrival/introduction/seeing 5) words used in greeting/salutation/farewell  6) say goodbye  7) wave goodbye 8) shake hands upon farewell/leavetaking 9) bow upon farewell/leavetaking

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    NĂ-  ‘TRANSFER OF POSSESSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. temporary, circumstantial, incidental direct transfer of possession (i.e., give / take)

    1. quasi-permanent or official transfer of possession (i.e., rendering/reception; render, receive)

    2. temporary, circumstantial, incidental indirect transfer (i.e., to leave for someone / to take based on discernment of availability)

    2. quasi-permanent or official transfer (i.e., bestowal or bequest/acquisition; bestow/acquire)

    3. temporary, circumstantial, incidental transfer over distance (i.e., to bring something / to leave with something)

    3. deliver/take ownership of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. give, lend

    1. take, borrow

    1. donate; donation

    1. receive; reception

    2. leave (something for someone), make available

    2. get, obtain

    2. leave to heir

    2. inherit; inheritance

    3. thing given, gift (given)

    3. thing taken, gift (taken)

    3. bestow; bequest

    3. acquire; acquisition

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  procure(ment), requisition, accept (= willingly receive)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    NŬ- ‘GOODWILL/FRIENDLINESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. being nice [= emotional/spiritual/physical support of another’s interests]

    1. good samaritanship, going out of the way to help

    2. goodwill, benevolent intent, kindness

    2. peace / fellowship

    3. amicability / friendliness

    3. friendship (unidirectional)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

    +

    Derivations:  altruism, being friends, affable

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PYĂ - ‘CELEBRATORY ACT/ CEREMONIAL RITE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act of jubilation (as manifestation of personal joy, contentment, freedom, self-indulgence, etc.) [both act + cause/reason]

    1. solemn act of commemoration/memorial

    2. act of celebration (in positive recognition of something) [both act + cause/reason]

    2. solemn act of recognition/acknowledgement

    3. joyful or celebratory symbolic/ceremonial rite [both act + cause/reason]

    3. solemn symbolic/ceremonial rite

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  party, celebration, fête, festivities, ceremony

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŘĂ -  ‘ATTRACTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. feel/be attracted to (physical attraction to other person)

    1. feel/be attracted/drawn to (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

    2. feel/be attractive (physical attraction to other person)

    2. be attractive/seductive (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing, idea or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

    3. act/gesture indicating or hinting of attraction to; “(give) clue/hint” (physical attraction to other person)

    3. “selling point” / a “pro” (vs. “con”)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL Derivations:  seduce, seduction

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠŬ- ‘ROMANTIC AND/OR SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.  state of sexual/romantic relationship

    1. significant other / boyfriend or girlfriend

    2.  erotic/sexual act; engage in a sexual/erotic activity

    2. lover / sex partner

    3.  to date / to court; pursue romantic relationship

    3. dating partner

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. sexual/romantic relationship itself

    1. emotional / hormonal basis underlying sexual relationship

    1. boyfriend

    1. girlfriend

    2. sexual/erotic act itself

    2. feeling of lust or other motive underlying sexual act

    2. male lover

    2. female lover

    3. particular act involved in dating or courtship

    3. feeling of hope or long-term goal of monogamous relationship or marriage underlying pursuit of romantic relationship

    3. male dating partner

    3. female dating partner

    +

    have sex, make love, cheat, monogamous relationship

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VĂ-  ‘EFFORT/WORK’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exert / expend energy

    1. perform / operate / act / function

    2. work / labor / effort

    2. job task / employment-related task; perform job task

    3. handiwork / craftsmanship

    3. act of industry or enterprise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

    Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: strain, struggle, “fight”, toil, strenuous, persevere, operation, job, achievement, industry, enterprise, employment, employer, employee

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SKĂ-  ‘EXCHANGE/PURCHASE’
    + Note: The stems below are generally used in conjunction with PROCESSUAL versus COMPLETIVE version (See Secs. 5.3.1 and 5.3.2) in order to distinguish an offer of exchange from a completed exchange. Alternately, the distinction between MONOACTIVE and COMPLEMENTARY valence (Sec. 5.2) can be used for the same purpose.

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exchange / swap

    1. act of trade / act of barter

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange

    2. purchase / commercial transaction; buy(ing) and sell(ing)

    3. change out / supplant / replace

    3. invest(ment)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. exchange (focus on entity given)

    1. exchange (focus on entity taken)

    1. to trade for / acquire through trade; act of acquiring via trade

    1. to trade away / give up through trade; act of given away via trade

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted into new function/place)

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted out of old function/place)

    2. buy; acquisition via purchase

    2. sell; act of selling

    3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity newly placed)

    3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity taken out of action)

    3. acquire via investment; act of acquisition via investment

    3. release interest in / sell one’s investment

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: commercial venture, a purchase, acquisition via trade, acquisition via investment; purvey, goods, thing sold, market, warehouse, buyer, seller, agent, business

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TĂ- ‘OCCUPANCY/RESIDENCY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. entity present + presence

    1. tenant + domicile

    2. occupant + place occupied

    2. resident + residence

    3. denizen + claimed property

    3. citizen + property

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. entity present

    1. presence of entity

    1. tenant

    1. domicile

    2. occupant

    2. place occupied

    2. resident

    2. residence

    3. denizen

    3. claimed property

    3. citizen

    3. property

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dwelling, quarters, population, community, town, village, city, hamlet, county, geopolitical area, state/province, nation, geopolitical bloc; nest, lair, den

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZBĔ- ‘CONFLICT-BASED HOSTILITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hostility / anger / be angry [both emotion and display/actions]

    1. authoritative/official (i.e., police/military, etc.) use of force / act of aggression

    2. threat(en) [reason for plus act]

    2. threat of official/authoritative use of force

    3. defend oneself / defense [reason for plus act]

    3. official/authoritative defense

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. feeling of anger

    1. show/display of anger

    1. rationale/cause behind military agression

    1. official/authoritative act of force/agression

    2. cause/rationale for threat

    2. effect of threat or being threatened

    2. cause/rationale for official/authoritative/ military threat

    2. effect of official/authoritative/ military threat or being threatened

    3. situation/rationale for defensive act

    3. defend / take defensive action

    3. situation/rationale for official/authoritative/ military defensive act

    3. defend / take official/authoritative/ military defensive action

    +

    Derivations:  peeved, conflict, intimidate, fight, battle, skirmish, military operation or campaign, war

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZŬ- ‘MARITAL/SPOUSAL RELATIONSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.  state of marriage / marital state / state of being married

    1. spouse

    2. act of infidelity / extramarital liaison / to be unfaithful / to betray spouse

    2. extramarital sex partner / mistress or gigolo

    3.  betrothal / engagement; be betrothed, be engaged

    3. fiancé(e) / being a fiancé(e)

     

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1.  formal/legal state of marriage

    1. emotional bond of love/fidelity underlying marriage

    1. husband

    1. wife

    2. physical act of infidelity/betrayal

    2. breaking of emotional bond underlying marriage

    2. gigolo, kept man (male equivalent of mistress)

    2. mistress

    3. formal/legal status of being betrothed/engaged

    3. emotional bond of love/fealty underlying betrothal/engagement

    3. fiancé

    3. fiancée

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  wed, wedded, marry, get married, marriage, wedding ceremony, cuckold (male or female)

    +

     

    +

     

    +
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    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
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    + + diff --git a/2004-en/Lexicon.htm.orig b/2004-en/Lexicon.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a738421 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Lexicon.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,6796 @@ + + + +Untitled Document + + + + + +

    Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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    Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
    Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
    1 Phonology6 More Verb Morph.11 The Writing System
    2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
    3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
       
    +


    + Updated June 28, 2008 (38 new roots added - marked in green)

    +

    The Lexicon

    +

    Currently, the lexicon below lists 12258 stems as derived from 681 roots (see + Sections 2.2, 2.4, + and 10.1.1 for an explanation + of the structure of individual roots and their 18 stems). This represents only + a random sampling from the 10 different morpho-semantic classes of Ilaksh roots + (see Sec. 10.2 for an explanation + of these classes). Additional roots and their stems will be periodically added +to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes.

    +

    The reader should be aware that the glosses (i.e., the English translations + or definitions) for each of the stems below are at times somewhat arbitrary, + as Ilaksh roots and their stems have been conceptualized from the cognitive + level up, without regard as to whether they correspond necessarily to an existing + word or phrase in English or other languages. As a result, some of the English + glosses chosen as representations for the Ilaksh stems are approximations at + best. This is especially true for verbal glosses, since the translation of an + Ilaksh verbal formative is usually dependent on the specific Function and Format + (see Sections 6.4 and 6.5).

    +

    Ideally, the best way to represent the meanings of Ilaksh stems would be to + use a semantic “meta-language” comprised of a closed set of semantically + universal (or near-universal) “primitives” to create semantic “formulas” + which define the use of a particular stem. (The design and use of such a meta-language + to translate the meanings of words from one language to another can be found + in the writings of linguist Anna Wierzbicka.) However, the author has chosen + not to pursue such an effort for the sake of time, as such an analysis for all + of the 3600 roots and their 64,800 stems would likely take decades to complete.

    +

    In regard to the list below, note that in some cases both a nominal (i.e., + noun) and verbal gloss have been provided, while in others only one or the other + is present. Nevertheless, the reader should keep in mind at all times that Ilaksh + stems always convey both a nominal and verbal meaning, as explained in detail + in Section 2.6.1.

    +

     

    +

    CLASS I ROOTS:  Organic life, matter, organic taxonomies

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    BÀ - ‘BODILY JOINT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. bodily joint (physical joint + function); flex joint

    1. specialized bodily joint/juncture

    2. ball & socket-type bodily joint

    2. vertebra

    3. standard-type joint

    3. wrist/ankle/waist (lateral circular joint type)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to external hard or knob-like external body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to internal joint and its function/process

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    hip/flex hip, shoulder, flex shoulder
    + finger joint, toe joint, knee, elbow
    + spinal column; flex spine
    + wrist, ankle waist

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ČÀ- ‘HEAR(ING)/SOUND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hear a sound; aural faculty + sound heard; an act of hearing a sound

    1. listen to a (specific) sound / discern aurally a (specific) sound

    2. ear (aural organ + physical part of body, i.e., Spanish oído + oreja)

    2. aural instrument / device for detecting sound waves + sound detected

    3. imagine a sound (act + sound)

    3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to hear; aural faculty

    1. sound

    1. listen

    1. (selected) sound

    2. ear (aural organ)

    2. ear (body part)

    2. aural instrument

    2. sound detected via aural instrument

    3. imagine a sound / hear in one’s mind

    3. imagined sound

    3. create or manufacture a sound

    3. sound created

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: speaker, megaphone, telephone, stereo, microphone, hearing aid

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DÀ-  ‘TYPES OF HARD OR NON-LIVING BODILY TISSUES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tooth

    1. head hair

    2. fingernail/toenail/claw

    2. whisker / facial hair

    3. hard growth of skin (e.g., wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar)

    3. pubic/armpit hair

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

    +

    Morphological derivative from FORMAL Stem 1:  bald
    +SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2:  mustache, beard, sideburn
    +SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 1:  incisor, fang, bicuspid, molar
    +SSD Derivatives for INFORMSL Stem 3;:  wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DÈ-  ‘HAND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hand (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “hand” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. hand (as holder, grasper, striker) [both physical body part and function]; to grasp-->hold

    3. leg (as manipulator, handler, feeler) [both physical body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. hand as physical body part

    1. function of hand as “feeler”- focuser of body’s tactile sense

    2. hand as main tool of body

    2. function of hand as holder/grasper

    3. hand as limb/extension

    3. function of hand as manipulator/handler

    +

    SSD derivatives:  1) fist 2) palm 3) knuckle 4) hand as flat “blade”, e.g., for karate chop 5) finger 6) thumb 7) “butt” of hand [=lower part of palm] 8) fingernail  9) bottom side of fist [as when pounding fist onto table; for individual fingers, use following affixes + SSD/5 for ‘finger’:  index = “main finger” or “first finger”, middle finger = “mid-finger” or “long finger” or “2nd finger”, ring finger = “3rd finger”, pinkie = 4th finger or small(est) finger

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DYÙ- ‘SENSE/SENSATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sense/sensation, “feel” / “feeling” [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]; an act of sensing something

    1. examine via the senses [both act and result/outcome]

    2. sensor / sensory organ [function + sensor itself]

    2. sensor(y) device/instrument [both use and device itself]

    3. imagine a sensation or feeling / imagined sensation or feeling [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]

    3. create/induce a sensory experience [both act and result/outcome]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to sense / act of sensing

    1. a sensation, a feeling

    1. examine via the senses [the act thereof]

    1. resulting evidence of senses

    2. sense faculty/ability

    2. sensor(y) organ

    2. sensor(y) device/instrument [the use thereof]

    2. sensor(y) device or instrument [the device/instrument itself]

    3. imagine a sensation/feeling

    3. a mentally imagined sensation

    3. create a sensory experience or feeling [the act thereof]

    3. sensation/feeling as externally created/induced

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  perceive, detect, perception

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ĐÀ - ‘GENDER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. gender

    1. psycho-sexual identity

    2. neuter

    2. asexual / psychologically neuter

    3. androgynous

    3. sexual preference/orientation

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male (anatomically)

    1. female (anatomically)

    1. masculine (psycho-behaviorally)

    1. feminine (psycho-behaviorally)

    2. sterile (incapable of procreation)

    2. genderless (neither male nor female anatomically)

    2. celibate/chaste

    2. asexual; devoid of sexual desire

    3. androgyne / androgynous (difficultyfor others to determine gender)

    3. hermophrodite / hermophroditic (anatomically both male & female)

    3. sexual preference or orientation psychologically

    3. sexual orientation in actuality (as manifested)

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  homosexual, bisexual, heterosexual, bisexual with preference for heterosexuality, bisexual with preference for homosexuality, homosexual with preference for functioning in male role, homosexual with preference for functioning in female role

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DLÀ - ‘PREGNANCY/GESTATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. pregnancy/gestation

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring exclusively to human pregnancy/gestation

    2. manifestation of morning sickness

    3. contraction during labor

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical condition/state
    +  

    Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  conception, labor, birth/delivery

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FÀ- ‘BODY PART’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. body part/component  (e.g., appendage, section, organ, gland, tissue, fluid, etc.)

    1. bodily tissue/flesh/sinew

    2. bodily organ

    2. secondary organ/gland

    3. bone

    3. bodily fluid/secretion

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  body, corpse
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 3:  1) spine 2) rib 3) skull 4) limb bone (tibia, femur, ulna, etc.) 5) bone of hand/foot  6) “shield” bone (e.g., patella, shoulder blade) 7) hipbone
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  1) membrane 2) tendon 3) ligament 4) nerve 5) muscle 6) skin/integument 7) sphincter/valve 8)  marrow 9) fat/gristle
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 2:  1) gonad 2) esophagus 3) adrenal gland 4) bowel/intestine 5) brain 6) lung 7) kidney 8)
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 3:  1) tear  2) bile 3) semen 4) pus 5) blood 6) mucus/mucal secretion 7) saliva 8) lymph  9) sweat/perspiratioin

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FÙ ‘COUSIN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cousin [male or female]

    1. step-cousin [male or female]

    2. male cousin

    2. male step-cousin

    3. female cousin

    3. female step-cousin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s mother]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s father]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepmother]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepfather]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s mother]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s father]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s mother]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s father]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GÀ- ‘ABDOMEN/THORAX/TORSO/CHEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. thorax/torso [both body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “mid-section” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. abdomen/midsection (lower front half of torso) [both body part and function]

    3. chest (upper front of torso) [both  body part and function)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GLÀ - ‘NECK’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. neck (as gestalt entity) [body part + function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “neck” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

    2. neck (as bodily support/swivel point for head) [body part + function

    3. neck (as narrowest, most vulnerable body part) [body part + function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. neck as physical body part

    1. neck as functional body part

    2. neck as bodily support/swivel point for head

    2. neck as functional support/swivel point for head

    3. neck as physically narrowest, most vulnerable body part)

    3. neck as functionally narrowest, most vulnerable body part

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  nape, throat (i.e., front part of neck)

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GÙ- ‘STATE OF HEALTH/ILLNESS/WELL-BEING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. state of physical health / physical well-being

    1. state of mental health / mental well-being

    2. physical illness; sick(ness)

    2. mental illness

    3. physical injury/wound/lesion/trauma

    3. mental trauma

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

    +

    SSD affix used with Stem 2 of both INFORMAL and FORMAL stem in conjunction w/ the AGC2/7 affix give:  1) nurse 2) emergency technician 3) therapist 4) caregiver 5) doctor 6) surgeon 7) healer 8) “medicine man” 9) medical assistant
    + Derivations:  madness, craziness, insanity

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GYÀ - ‘MISCELLANEOUS BODY PARTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. buttock

    1. haunch

    2. breast/teat

    2. snout/proboscis

    3. navel

    3. fin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GYÙ- ‘SPECIALIZED VOLITIONAL BODILY SOUNDS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-linguistic sound made by mouth (i.e., tongue, teeth, lips)

    1.  consonant

    2. non-linguistic sound made from throat or vocal chords

    2. vowel

    3. sound made by non-oral, non-vocal part of the body

    3. phoneme

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

    +

    SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 1:  1) whistle 2) hum 3) “raspberry” 4) hoot/whoop 5) non-avian animal call 6) bird call 7) scream 8) click-sound (i.e., w/ ingressive airstream) 9) non-phonemic consonantal gibberish sound

    +

    SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 3:  1) slap 2) rubbing sound 3) footfall (--> stomp) 4) snap of fingers 5) finger tap 6) toe/foot tap 7) suction-based sound (e.g., “armpit fart”) 8) knuckle crack  9) other joint cracking

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    JÀ- ‘BACK/DORSAL AREA OF BODY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to the dorsal area of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. lower back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

    3. upper back & shoulder blade area

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    JÈ- ‘IN-LAW/FOSTER RELATIONS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of parent/child in-law relationship

    1. member of foster family

    2. male member of parent/child in-law relationship

    2. male member of foster family

    3. female member of parent/child in-law relationship

    3. female member of foster family

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. parent in-law

    1. child in-law

    1. foster parent

    1. foster child

    2. father in-law

    2. son in-law

    2. foster father

    2. foster son

    3. mother in-law

    3. daughter in-law

    3. foster mother

    3. foster daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KÀ- ‘HIGHER ORDER ANIMAL LIFE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. higher order being (i.e., large bilateral vertebrate with discrete organs)

    1. authorized or officially designated person or animal/beast

    2. human, person

    2. official, authorized person

    3. non-human higher order being or animal, beast

    3. pet or zoo animal/beast

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male higher order being

    1. female higher order being

    1. authorized male animal/ or officially designated man or beast

    1. authorized or officially designated woman or female animal/ beast

    2. human male, man

    2. human female, woman

    2. official, authorized man

    2. official, authorized woman

    3. male higher order animal or beast

    3. female higher order animal or beast

    3. male pet or zoo animal/beast

    3. female pet or zoo animal/beast

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: boy, girl, child [developmentally, not as offspring], population, group of people, crowd, mob, assembly, people, masses, elder, crone, adult, youth, adulthood, fetus, adolescent, zoo

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KMÈ- ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. nuclear family member

    1. non-sanguine family member

    2. male family member

    2. non-sanguine male family member

    3. female family member

    3. non-sanguine female family member

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. parent

    1. child/offspring

    1. step-parent

    1. step-child

    2. father

    2. boy child / son

    2. step-father

    2. step-son

    3. mother

    3. girl child / daughter

    3. step-mother

    3. step-daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KMÙ- ‘LOWER ORDER LIFE FORM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. lower-order life form (i.e. non-vertebrate)

    same as INFORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

    2. microbe

    3. non-microbial animal

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bacterium

    1. soft-bodied animal (e.g., jellyfish, sponge, slime mold)

    2. virus

    2. exoskeletal animal (e.g., insect, arthropod, crustacean)

    3. protist

    3. endoskeletal animal

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KYÀ- ‘BREATHE/RESPIRATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. respire/inhale or exhale; a breath

    1. inflate (w/ air)

    2. yawn

    2. blow (passage of air under pressure through narrow opening)

    3. pump (by air)

    3. suck/suckle/siphon

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to gaseous compound itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  breathe, pant, gasp, suffocate, suffocation, asphyxiate, asphyxiation, drown

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    LÙ ‘SIBLING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sibling

    1. step-sibling

    2. brother

    2. step-brother

    3. sister

    3. step-sister

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. half-sibling [shared mother]

    1. half-sibling [shared father]

    1. step-sibling [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    1. step-sibling [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    2. half-brother [shared mother]

    2. half-brother [shared father]

    2. step-brother [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    2. step-brother [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    3. half-sister [shared mother]

    3. half-sister [shared father]

    3. step-sister [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    3. step-sister [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MÈ-‘CLASSES OF ANIMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. animal of land or air (i.e., “terroid”)

    Same as INFORMAL holistic stems but domesticated, tamed, captive, or bred

    2. waterlife (i.e., “aquoid”)

    3. amphibian

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems but domesticable

    same as above 3 stems but undomesticable

    same as above FORMAL stems but as pets or tamed

    same as above FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, breeding stock, etc.)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MLÙ- ‘CLASSES OF WATERLIFE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. skeletal/vertebral waterlife form

    Same as INFORMAL holistic stems referring to tamed, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

    2. exoskeletal/arthropod form

    3. soft-bodied waterlife form

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. jellyfish-like lifeform

    1. gilled/finned fish

    Same INFORMAL complementary stems referring to tamed, pet, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

    2. crustacean

    2. “non-standard”-shaped fish (e.g., ray, eel, squid, octopus, etc.)

    3. shellfish

    3. sea mammal (e.g., whale, seal, walrus, etc.)

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  fisherman, whale hunter, aquarium, fishery, fish hatchery

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    NÈ - ‘SENSE OF TASTE / THE TASTE OF SOMETHING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to taste a taste (taste faculty + flavor tasted)

    1. to taste for an anticipated/expected flavor

    2. tongue/palate (tissue containing taste buds + taste buds themselves)

    2. instrument/device for detecting flavor + flavor detected

    3. imagine a taste (act + the flavor imagined)

    3. create/manufacture a flavor + flavor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to taste; faculty of taste

    1. flavor

    1. to taste

    1.

    2. tongue/palate  (as sensory organs of tasting)

    2. taste bud

    2. instrument for detecting flavor

    2. flavor detected via instrument

    3. imagine a taste in one’s mind

    3. an imagined taste

    3. create/manufacture a flavor

    3. flavor created

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  tasty, savory, flavorful
    + SSD Derivatives:  1) bitter 2) chemical-like taste 3)  salty  4) foul/rancid taste 5) sweet  6) sweet & sour  7) sour 8)  hot (spicy)  9) umami

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PLÀ - ‘GASTRO-INTESTINAL/UROLOGICAL COMPONENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. gastrointestinal component (body part + function)

    1. urological component (body part + function)

    2. gastrointestinal process / digestive process / digest(ion) (physical process + nutritive function

    2. urological process (physical process + waste elimination function)

    3. (amount/piece of) feces, dung, excrement

    3. (an amount of) urine, piss, pee

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part/process  itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  gastrointestinal tract
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  esophagus, stomach, guts/viscera/intestine, jejenum, ilium, colon, rectum, small intestine/bowel, anus
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  kidney, ureter, adrenal gland, bladder, urethra

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PŠÙ-  ‘RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act + sound]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act + sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act + sound]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act]

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [sound]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [sound]

    +

    Morphological derivations:  clear throat, harrumph, hacking cough, cough up

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PYÀ - ‘DEGREE OF BODILY SLENDERNESS/FATNESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of slenderness/fatness

    same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

    2. decrease in degree of slenderness/fatness; lose weight; become thin(ner); slenderize

    3. increase in degree of slenderness/fatness; gain weight; become fat(ter); fatten up

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring specifically to physical size/girth/volume

    Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  skinny, rail-thin, obese, plump

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    RÀ-‘NUTRITION / NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. food and drink; to eat and drink

    1. eat a serving of food or drink; to dine

    2. food; to eat

    2. prepared/cooked food; to eat prepared food

    3. drink (i.e., substance drunk); to drink

    3. processed drink or spirits; to drink processed drink or spirits

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. eat and drink as biological process

    1. food and drink (substances consumed)

    same as abvoe 3 stems but with focus on the process of consumption

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on the items consumed

    2. eat/ingest/consume

    2. item of solid food

    3. drink/imbibe

    3. liquid (to be) drunk

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: cooking, meal, repast, feast, become drunk, gorge(d); chef, cook, brewer

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    RÈ- ‘COLLATERAL FAMILY MEMBER/RELATIVE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. paternal collateral relative

    1. maternal collateral relative

    2. paternal male collateral relative

    2. maternal male collateral relative

    3. paternal female collateral relative

    3. maternal female collateral relative

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. paternal aunt/uncle

    1. paternal aunt/uncle

    1. maternal nephew/neice

    1. maternal aunt/uncle

    2. paternal uncle

    2. paternal uncle

    2. maternal nephew

    2. maternal uncle

    3. paternal aunt

    3. paternal aunt

    3. maternal neice

    3. maternal aunt

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SÀ  ‘PLANT TYPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. branched/leaved plant including its fruit or flower

    same as FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

    2. grass-like or stalked plant including its seed or grain

    3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold including its spore or cyst

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. branched/leaved plant

    1. flower, fruit, or blossom of branched/leaved plant

    2. grass-like or stalked plant

    2. seed, grain, or kernel of grass-like or stalked plant

    3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold

    3. spore or cyst of moss-like or fungal plant or mold

    +

    SSD for Stem 2:  1) grass  2) ground-covering plant 3) clover  4) weed 5) wildgrass
    +SSD for Stem 3:  1) lichen  2)  mushroom  3)  mold  4)  slime mold 5) moss  6) non-mushroom fungus

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠÀ- ‘SOIL/GROUND/DIRT (MIXED ORGANIC + MINERAL)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. dirt/ground/soil [=substance + function as substrate/firmament]

    1. peat

    2. mud

    2. dirt(y)/filth(y) [= soiled, unclean]

    3. ground cover [organic-based, e.g., carpet of leaves]

    3. mulch/compost/fertilizer

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

    same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠÈ- ‘NON-SANGUINE RELATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of godparent-godchild relationship

    1. adoptive family member

    2. male member of godparent-godchild relationship

    2. male adoptive family member

    3. female member of godparent-godchild relationship

    3. female adoptive family member

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. godparent

    1. godchild

    1. adoptive parent

    1. adopted child

    2. godfather

    2. godson

    2. adoptive father

    2. adopted son

    3. godmother

    3. goddaughter

    3. adoptive mother

    3. adopted daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TÀ- ‘ALIVE/LIVING THING/LIVING BEING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. living thing; be alive / to live

    1. domesticated or civilized being

    2. [wild] animal (all orders)

    2. domesticated animal

    3. [wild] plant (all orders)

    3. cultivated plant

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male being

    1. female being

    1. domesticated or civilized male being

    1. domesticated or civilized female being

    2. male [wild] animal

    2. female [wild] animal

    2. male [domesticated] animal

    2. female [domesticated] animal

    3. male [wild] plant

    3. female [wild] plant

    3. male [cultivated] plant

    3. female [cultivated] plant

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: life, vegetation, flora, fauna, wildlife; farm, farmer, breeder, livestock

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŢÀ- ‘SMELL/ODOR’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to smell (= use olfactory sense) + odor smelled; an act of smelling a smell or odor

    1. examine or inspect via smelling + odor smelled

    2. nose (olfactory organ + facial proboscis)

    2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument + odor detected

    3. imagine a smell (act + imagined odor)

    3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to smell (= use olfactory sense)

    1. an odor, a smell; to give off an odor

    1. examine or inspect via smelling

    1. odor detected via inspection or examination

    2. nose (= olfactory organ)

    2. nose (= facial proboscis)

    2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument

    2. odor detected via olfactory instrument

    3. imagine an odor

    3. an imagined odor

    3. create or manufacture an odor

    3. manufactured odor

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sniff, aroma, “bouquet”, perfume, stench

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TLÀ - ‘COMPONENT OF BODY’S RESPIRATORY/CARDIO-VASCULATORY SYSTEM

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. heart

    1. lung

    2. vascular component

    2. component of respiratory system

    3. (an amount of) blood

    3. oxygen

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  ventricle, atrium, vein, coronary artery, capillary,
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 2:  blood vessel, vein, artery, capillary, aorta, vena cava
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1: bronchus, bronchiolus, alveolar sac
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 21:  nasal cavity, trachea

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TMÙ- ‘PLEASURE-BASED VOCALIZATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sigh (affective/non-volitional)

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) vocalizations

    2. squeal/groan/moan (affective/non-volitional)

    3. gasp (affective/non-volitional)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental  pleasure or satisfaction

    Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental distress, pain, torment, or dissatisfaction

    +

    SSD DERIVATIONS:  cry, sob, howl, whimper, murmur
    + OTHER MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  weep

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VYÙ - ‘FOOD PLANT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. plant grown/harvested/cultured as food source

    1. food dish/serving derived from plant

    2. vegetable

    2. food dish/serving derived from vegetable

    3. fruit

    3. food dish/serving derived from fruit

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to plant itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to edible part of plant or plant in edible condition following any necessary processing

    Same as above 3 stems referring to serving/dish itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to consumption/ingestion  of the dish

    +

    SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL stems:  stem, leaf, seed/nut, pod/fruit, flower, juice, sap, rhizome, root/tuber
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL stems:  soup, stew, salad, sauteed, deep-fried, boiled, steamed, baked, fancy/other style of preparation

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÀ- ‘VISION/SIGHT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to sight (see + thing seen); an act of seeing something

    1. observe / visually examine + thing seen

    2. eye (functional organ + visible facial feature)

    2. optical instrument + image

    3. visualize / imagine / picture a visual image in one’s mind + image

    3. create image / render an image

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. see; an act of seeing

    1. a sight / image; to project an image

    1. visually examine / observe

    1. thing observed / visual evidence

    2. eye (functional organ)

    2. eye (visible facial feature)

    2. optical instrument

    2. thing observed via optical instrument

    3. visualize / envision; act of visualization

    3. an image / a vision (in one’s mind)

    3. create image

    3. image created

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: faculty of sight, look (at), view, glimpse, glance, ogle, gawk, stare, spy, espy, peep, voyeur, panorama, scrutinize (visually), camera, telescope, microscope, binoculars, magnifying glass, lens, glasses

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÈ- ‘ARM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. arm (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. arm (as holder, support, carrier) [both body part and function]

    3. arm (as protective extension of body) [both body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. arm as single body part

    1. arm as reacher or manipulator

    2. arm as limb (focus on part/whole relation to body)

    2. arm as holder/carrier

    3. arm as extension of body

    3. arm as natural protective/defensive implement of body

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XRÙ - ‘GASTRONOMIC PAROXYSM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act + sound]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act + sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act + sound]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act]

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [sound]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [sound]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZÀ - ‘THROAT (interior tract of neck)/GULLET’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. throat (= interior respiratory/digestive tract of neck)

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “throat/gullet” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

    2. gullet (= tube- or trumpet-shaped digestive conduit from oral cavity)

    3. interior chamber of throat (containing pharynx, larynx, plus epiglottal and glottal structures)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    SSD derivatives:  pharynx, larynx, syrinx, epiglottis, glottis, trachea/windpipe, vocal fold/chord, hyoid bone / “Adam’s apple”

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZÈ- ‘MOUTH/ORAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mouth [= oral orifice]

    Same as INFORMAL Stems but for non-animal entity or figuratively

    2. lip [use of DPX = lips]

    3. interior of mouth/oral cavity

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on bodily location/physical aspect

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose, use, function

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZÙ- ‘TRAGICOMIC-BASED VOCAL/FACIAL GESTURE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mouth gesture

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) gestures/vocalizations (INFORMAL stems are affective/non-volitional)

    2. vocalization

    3. facial expression

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. smile

    1. frown

    2. laugh

    2. whine, moan

    3. “light up” (referring to one’s face’)

    3. crestfallen look, look of dejection

    +

    SSD DERIVATIONS:  scowl

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŻÀ- ‘HEAD’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. head (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. head (as seat of brain/mind) [both body part and function]

    3. head (as entity’s primary “interface” area of body)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. head as physical body part

    1. head as functional body part

    2. head as physical seat of brain/mind

    2. head as functional seat of brain/mind

    3. head as “top” or “forward” part or “access” point

    3. head as vital seat of identity

    +

    SSD = parts of head 1) cheek  2) chin  3) upper lip [plane between mouth and nose] 4) forehead 5) temple 6) crown of head 6) occipital area [back of head] 7) socket area around eye 8) upper part of back of head 9) cheekbone

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŽÀ - ‘COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. component of CNS

    1. brain

    2. CNS- eurological process

    2. spinal cord

    3. component of peripheral nervous system

    3. nerve

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    sympathetic nerve, parasympathetic nerve, vegus nerve
    + neuron, neuron firing, synapse, synaptic uptake, axon, dendrite, glial cell-->blood-brain barrier
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŽÈ-  ‘LEG’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. leg (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. leg (as support) [both physical body part and function]

    3. leg (as ambulator, extension, limb) [both physical body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. leg as physical body part

    1. leg as manipulating body part (e.g., for kicking, stomping)

    2. leg as or balancing appendage for body

    2. leg as support against gravity

    3. leg as limb/extension

    3. leg as ambulatory organ

    +

    SIMILAR PATTERNS EXIST FOR:
    + DÈ-  ‘HAND’-->  SSD derivatives:  1) fist 2) palm 3) knuckle 4) hand as flat “blade”, e.g., for karate chop 5) finger 6) thumb 7) “butt” of hand [=lower part of palm] 8) fingernail  9) bottom side of fist [as when pounding fist onto table; for individual fingers, use following affixes + SSD/5 for ‘finger’:  index = “main finger” or “first finger”, middle finger = “mid-finger” or “long finger” or “2nd finger”, ring finger = “3rd finger”, pinkie = 4th finger or small(est) finger
    + VÀ- ‘TAIL’
    + GÈ-  ‘FOOT’--> SSD Derivatives:  heel, ball of foot, upper side of foot, arch, plantar fascia, achilles tendon

    +

     

    +

    CLASS II ROOTS:  Organic taxonomies (continued)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    BẸ-  ‘CLASSES OF MAMMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. marsupial

    Same as INFORMAL stems referring to tamed, domesticated, pet, bred, etc. individual

    2. egg-laying mammal, ovoviviparous mammal

    3. placental mammal

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to male

    Same as above 3 stems referring to female

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DLẠ-  ‘INSECT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of particular genus of insect

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: larvae/grub, chrysalis, cocoon, adult, etc.
    + SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) wing, 3) oil/secretion, 4) silk/web, 5) skin/pellicle, 6) tail, 7) horn, 8) leg(s) 9) [open]
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + PYẠ-  ‘BUMBLEBEE’
    + VLẠ-  ‘HONEYBEE’
    + ĐLẠ-  ‘ANT’
    + MLẠ-  ‘COCKROACH’
    + ŠRẠ-  ‘BUTTERFLY’
    + NLẠ-  ‘MOTH’
    + TRẠ-  ‘HOUSEFLY’
    + ÇPẠ-  ‘WASP’
    + ÇTẠ-  ‘HORNET’
    + ÇKẠ-  ‘GNAT’
    + FYẠ-  ‘MOSQUITO’
    + ŢYẠ-  ‘APHID’
    + VYẠ-  ‘FIREFLY’
    + ĐYẠ-  ‘FLEA’
    + XRẠ-  ‘BEETLE’
    + VRẠ-  ‘SPIDER’
    + ĐRẠ-  ‘TICK’
    + ŻẠ-  ‘TERMITE’
    + DYẠ-  ‘WATERBUG’
    + MYẠ-  ‘GRASSHOPPER’
    + ZRẠ-  ‘LOCUST’
    + ŽRẠ-  ‘DRAGONFLY’
    + BŽẠ-  ‘MANTIS’
    + BLẠ-  ‘GENERIC CRAWLING BUG’
    + GLẠ-  ‘GENERIC FLYING BUG’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MLẸ-  ‘GENERIC WATERLIFE ’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) meat, 3) skin/shell, 4) fluid/ink, 5) smoked meat, 6) as bait, 7) as fodder, 8) as ingredient in food or as fishmeal 9) cooked meat
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + BŘẸ- ‘OCTOPUS’
    + TRẸ- ‘SQUID’
    + VLẸ- ‘EEL’
    + DLẸ- ‘LAMPREY’
    + KRẸ- ‘RAY’
    + XLẸ- ‘SHARK’
    + BLẸ- ‘CLAM’
    + FLẸ- ‘SCALLOP’
    + FRẸ- ‘MUSSEL’
    + ŦLẸ- ‘CRAB’
    + ZLẸ- ‘SHRIMP/PRAWN’
    + MRẸ- ‘LOBSTER’
    + ŠLẸ-  ‘TROUT’
    + KLẸ-  ‘TUNA’
    + XNẸ-  ‘COD’
    + SPẸ-  ‘BASS’
    + GŘẸ-  ‘PIKE’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PẠ-  ‘BRANCHED AND/OR LEAVED PLANT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. genus of branched tree/bush and/or leaved plant

    1. wood product

    2. leaf

    2. leaf product

    3. bark

    3. bark product

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wood

    1. seed/fruit/nut

    1. wood as resource

    1. seed/fruit as food or resource

    2. root

    2. flower/blossom

    2. root as food or resource

    2. flower as food or resource

    3. branch

    3. sap

    3. branch as resource

    3. sap product/syrup

    +

    SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) meat of fruit, 2) seed within fruit, 3) rind, 4) juice, 5) flavor, 6) odor of fruit, 7) oil, 8) [unassigned/specific to individual root] 9) fermented juice, i.e., wine
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + CẠ-  ‘BIRCH’
    + TẠ-  ‘SPRUCE’
    + XẠ-  ‘CEDAR’
    + GYẠ-  ‘OAK’
    + KẠ-  ‘PINE’
    + GẠ-  ‘PALM’
    + FẠ-  ‘CHERRY’
    + ČẠ-  ‘WALNUT’
    + ŦẠ-  ‘MAPLE’
    + RYẠ-  ‘ASH’
    + BẠ-  ‘CYPRESS’
    + SẠ-  ‘BEECH’
    + DẠ-  ‘MAHOGANY’
    + MẠ-  ‘COCONUT’
    + NẠ-  ‘EUCALYPTUS’
    + ŇẠ-  ‘MAGNOLIA’
    + ŠẠ-  ‘REDWOOD’
    + VẠ-  ‘LARCH’
    + LẠ-  ‘ELM’
    + LYẠ-  ‘FIG’
    + RẠ-  ‘BANANA’
    + ŘẠ-  ‘YEW’
    + PSẠ-  ‘ALMOND’
    + ZẠ-  ‘CHESTNUT’
    + PŠẠ-  ‘ALDER’
    + KSẠ-  ‘OLIVE’
    + GZẠ-  ‘POPLAR’
    + TLẠ-  ‘PINEAPPLE’
    + KŠẠ-  ‘APPLE’
    + PLẠ-  ‘ORANGE’
    + KLẠ-  ‘LEMON’
    + FLẠ-  ‘LIME’
    + ŦLẠ-  ‘PEAR’
    + XLẠ-  ‘PLUM’
    + SLẠ-  ‘PEACH’
    + ŽẠ-  ‘TANGERINE’
    + KYẠ-  ‘COFFEE’
    +BZẠ- FLAX

    +

    THE STEM PATTERN OF THE FOLLOWING  CLASS 2 ROOTS IS IDENTICAL TO THE PATTERN OF THE CLASS 1 ROOT VYÙ - ‘FOOD PLANT’:
    + PẸ-  cabbage (plant/leaves of sp. Brassica oleracea capitata)
    + TẸ-  lettuce (plant/leaves of genus Lactuca)
    + KẸ-  spinach (plant/leaves of sp. Spinacia oleracea)
    + KYẸ-  tea (plant/leaves of sp. Camellia sinensis)
    + CẸ-  kelp (seaweed of orders Laminariales and Fucales)
    + ČẸ-  mustard (plant of sp. Brassica hirta / B. nigra / B. juncea)
    + SẸ-  corn, maize (plant/seeds of sp. Zea mays)
    + ŠẸ-  oat (plant/seed of genus Avena)
    + ZẸ-  wheat (plant/seed of sp. Triticum aestivum)
    + ŽẸ-  tobacco (plant/leaves of sp. Nicotiana tabacum)
    + DẸ-  hemp, marijuana (plant/material of sp. Cannabis sativa)
    + GẸ-  sesame (plant/seed of genus Sesamum)
    + JẸ-  pea (plant/seed of sp. Pisum sativum)
    + FẸ-  bean (lima/snap/etc.: plant/seed of genus Phaseolus or similar)
    + ŦẸ-  lentil (plant/seeds of sp. Lens culinaris)
    + XẸ-  soya, soybean (plant/seed of sp. Glycine max)
    + GYẸ-  peanut (plant/seed/pod of sp. Arachis hypogaea)
    + VẸ-  rice (plant/seed of sp. Oryza sativa)
    + ĐẸ-  pepper (hot/sweet/bell pepper -- plant/pod of genus Capsicum)
    + RẸ-  pepper (black -- plant/seed of sp. Piper nigrum)
    + PFẸ-  millet
    + TFẸ-  amaranth
    + KFẸ-  sorghum
    + TYẸ-  teff
    + KMẸ-  ginseng
    + RẸ-  potato
    + LYẸ-  carrot
    + RYẸ-  yam, sweet potato
    + ŘẸ-  garlic
    + LẸ-  onion
    + MẸ-  grape
    + NẸ-  tomato
    + ŇẸ-  squash, melon
    + SMẸ-  gourd
    + SNẸ-  date
    + BYẸ-  cucumber
    + ŠMẸ-  bamboo
    + ŠNẸ-  cork
    + PRẸ-  cotton
    + GVẸ-  ginger
    + DVẸ-  mint
    +BVẸ-  safflower

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SKỤ-  ‘GENERIC MAMMAL/AVIAN/REPTILE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of mammalian/avian/reptilian genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: e.g., foal, fawn, yearling, adult, etc.
    + SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) milk, 3) oil/secretion/venom, 4) fat, 5) skin/hide, 6) tail, 7) tusk/horn, 8) fur/feathers 9) flesh/meat
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + PỤ-  ‘HORSE’
    + TỤ-  ‘COW’
    + GỤ-   ‘PIG’
    + CỤ-   ‘SHEEP’
    + FỤ-   ‘GOAT’
    + BỤ-    ‘DEER’
    + KỤ-   ‘BISON/BUFFALO’
    + MỤ-   ‘CHICKEN’
    + ŠỤ-    ‘DUCK’
    + PLỤ-    ‘GOOSE’
    + JỤ-    ‘SWAN’
    + KYỤ-    ‘TURKEY’
    + ŦỤ-    ‘OSTRICH’
    + BZỤ-    ‘DOLPHIN’
    + ČỤ-    ‘MULE’
    + XỤ-    ‘DONKEY’
    + GYỤ-    ‘ZEBRA’
    + XLỤ-    ‘LION’
    + LỤ-    ‘TIGER’
    + RỤ-    ‘BEAR’
    + SỤ-    ‘ELK’
    + ŇỤ-   ‘MOOSE’
    + LYỤ-    ‘BOAR’
    + PSỤ-    ‘YAK’
    + KSỤ-    ‘CAMEL’
    + BŽỤ-    ‘WALRUS’
    + RYỤ-   ‘ELEPHANT’
    + PŠỤ-    ‘GIRAFFE’
    + NỤ-    ‘CAT’
    + ŻỤ-    ‘DOG’
    + KŠỤ-    ‘RABBIT’
    + TLỤ-    ‘CHIMPANZEE’
    + GZỤ-    ‘GORILLA’
    + ŦLỤ-    ‘LEMUR’
    + KLỤ-    ‘ORANGUTAN’
    + FLỤ-    ‘OTTER’
    + SLỤ-   ‘WHALE’
    + ŠLỤ-    ‘SEAL’
    + GLỤ-    ‘SEA LION’
    + PŦỤ-    ‘ANTELOPE’
    + ZLỤ-   ‘GAZELLE’
    + KŦỤ-   ‘BABOON’
    + PŘỤ-    ‘FOX’
    + SPỤ-   ‘WOLF’
    + STỤ-    ‘COYOTE’
    + ŠPỤ-   ‘SKUNK’
    + SF Ụ-    ‘PORCUPINE’
    + TŘỤ-   ‘POSSUM’
    + SXỤ-    ‘KANGAROO’
    + SŦỤ-   ‘MOUSE’
    + SNỤ-   ‘RAT’
    + VỤ-    ‘LEOPARD’
    + ĐỤ-    ‘CHEETAH’
    + KFỤ-    ‘PANTHER’
    + TYỤ-    ‘JAGUAR’
    + TFỤ-    ‘MOLE’
    + BVỤ-    ‘SQUIRREL’
    + DVỤ-   ‘VOLE’
    + GVỤ-    ‘CHIPMUNK’
    + BLỤ-   ‘SHREW’
    + KŘỤ-    ‘ROBIN’
    + DŘỤ-    ‘LARK’
    + GŘỤ-    ‘SPARROW’
    + GŽỤ-    ‘OWL’
    + XMỤ-    ‘PIGEON’
    + ŠTỤ-    ‘EAGLE’
    + SMỤ-    ‘GULL’
    + ŠXỤ-    ‘ALBATROSS’
    + BRỤ-    ‘HAWK’
    + GRỤ-   ‘VULTURE’
    + DRỤ-    ‘PHEASANT’
    + ŦRỤ-    ‘NIGHTINGALE’
    + KNỤ-    ‘SNAKE’
    + ŠKỤ-   ‘VIPER’
    + ŠMỤ-   ‘COBRA’
    + ŠNỤ-    ‘RATTLESNAKE’
    + BŘỤ-   ‘PYTHON’
    + ŠŦỤ-    ‘ASP’
    + ŠFỤ-   ‘ALLIGATOR’
    + ÇPỤ-    ‘CROCODILE’
    + SRỤ-   ‘LIZARD’
    + ŠRỤ-    ‘GILA MONSTER’
    + FRỤ-    ‘IGUANA’
    + BYỤ-    ‘FROG’
    + KRỤ-    ‘TOAD’
    + PRỤ-    ‘TURTLE’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TLẸ-  ‘CLASSES OF LAND/AIR ANIMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mammal

    Same as INFORMAL stems referring to domesticated, tamed, bred, pet, etc. individual

    2. non-mammalian, non-avian, non-reptilian animal, i.e.,  insect/arthropod/arachnid/worm/mollusk

    3. avian or reptilian lifeform

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. insect

    1. mollusc

    2. worm

    2. bird

    3. arthropod/arachnid

    3. reptile

    +

     

    +

    CLASS III ROOTS:  Inorganic matter, the physical world, and physical substance taxonomies

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DÌ - ‘ROCK/MINERAL-BASED SOIL/GROUND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. stone [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    1. rock(y) [= specific natural embodiment of stone]

    2. sand [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    2. gravel

    3. clay [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    3. lava [w/ CPT = volcanic rock/lava-based rock]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

    Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

    Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MLÌ ‘HORIZONTAL SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. “ground”/firmament

    1. floor

    2. table-like horizontal flat object / slab

    2. table

    3. shelf-like flat object

    3. shelf

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŘÒ- ‘LIGHT / RADIANT ENERGY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ray of sunlight

    1. ray of radiant light or energy (non-solar)

    2. the Sun / Sol

    2. flame / “tongue” of fire

    3. star

    3. artificial source of light or energy

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. light from a ray of sunlight

    1. heat from a ray of sunlight

    1. ray of light (non-solar)

    1. ray of energy/heat (non-solar)

    2. the Sun as light source

    2. the Sun as energy/heat source

    2. ray of firelight

    2. flame as energy/heat source

    3. starlight

    3. energy of a star

    3. lamp light / light from artificial source

    3. energy/heat from artificial energy/heat source

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: fire, sunshine, illuminate, light a fire, flare (up), lamp, fireplace; galaxy, heater, to warm, warmth, to cook [= transform by heat], to melt, to smelt, to expose [via illumination]; burn

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SÌ - ‘PLANETARY BODY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. planet/planetary body

    1. The Earth/Terra

    2. moon/satellite of planetary body

    2. The Moon/Luna

    3. other spatial body

    3. artificial satellite

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

    Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

    Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  asteroid, comet, cosmic dust, cosmic gas, cosmic ray, component of Oort Cloud, cosmic string, quantum filament
    + MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  Gaia, Gaia Principle/Hypothesis

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ĐÒ- ‘WATER AS SUBSTANCE AND TOOL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (some) water; (be/make) wet / moist(en)

    1. (some) water as component of life

    2. (some) water in context of usage [both substance and use]

    2. (some) water as nourishment; to consume/drink water

    3. ice

    3. (some) water as biological environment or medium

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. (some) water [substance itself]

    1. degree of moisture [from water]

    1. (some) water of one’s corporeal body

    1. hydration; hydrate

    2. water as “tool” (e.g., for washing, for powering a turbine, etc.)

    2. wash, clean [with water]

    2. act of drinking water; to drink water

    2. to water (e.g., plants)

    3. ice / freeze

    3. float

    3. (some) water from a natural environmental setting

    3. to inhabit water / live in water / water-dwelling

    +

    EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THIS STEM: bathe, lave, submerge, sink, dunk, immerse, dry, drench(ed), irrigate, swim, the sea (as environment); dehydrate; thirst

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KLÒ- ‘WATER IN NATURAL MOTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a flow of water / to flow or run

    1. river / to flow as a river / to run as a river

    2. sprinkle / shower; to sprinkle or shower upon

    2. rain(fall); to rain

    3. cascade / pour [= free falling of water]

    3. waterfall

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. water component of a flow of water

    1. channel or course of a flow of water

    1. water component of a river

    1. channel or course of a river

    2. water component of a sprinkle/shower

    2. trajectory or course of a sprinkle/shower

    2. water component of rain

    2. “path” or course of a rain shower

    3. water component of a cascade or pouring of water

    3. trajectory or course of a pouring of water

    3. water component of a waterfall

    3. channel or “groove” of a waterfall

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: flood, downpour, to rain “cats and dogs”, brook, stream, rivulet, arroyo, floodplain

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TLÒ- ‘WATER IN STATIC SETTING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. container of water

    1. (standing) body of water

    2. water/moisture located in confined space

    2. ambient/atmospheric water/moisture

    3. (something) imbued/drenched with water; waterlogged

    3. artificial body of water (e.g., reservoir)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. some water in/from a container

    1. holder/container which holds water

    1. water component of a body of water

    1. the basin or bed of a body of water

    2. degree of moisture contained

    2. the volume/space occupied by water/moisture

    2. water/moisture in the air or atmosphere

    2. volume of air(space) containing the water or moisture

    3. the water imbued within an object, substance, or substrate

    3. the object, substance or substrate imbued/soaked with water

    3. water within an artificial body of water

    3. the basis or bed of an artificial body of water, e.g., reservoir bed

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  lake, pool, pond, tern, tank, sink, canteen, cistern, puddle, sea, ocean, water vapor

    +

    NOTE:  The above three roots associated with water, ĐÒ, KLÒ, and TLÒ form the patterns for three parallel roots referring to any liquid other than water:    BYÒ, MRÒ, AND FRÒ respectively.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VĬ-   ‘DIMENSIONAL/SPATIO-TEMPORAL RELATIONS

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of (static) dimensional property (e.g., short/long)

    same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to an applied contextual gestalt (e.g., the vicinity, the depths, the expanse, the interregnum, the surroundings, the perimeter, etc.)

    2. dynamic decrease in degree of dimensional property (e.g., shorten/ing)

    3. dynamic increase in degree of dimensional property (e.g., lengthen/ing)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems applied to spatial context

    same as above 3 stems applied to temporal context

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + THE PATTERN FOR THIS ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + PĬ-  ‘PROXIMITY/DISTANCE’
    +GĬ-  ‘LENGTH’
    +TĬ-  ‘HEIGHT (= “THICKNESS”)’
    +KĬ-  ‘WIDTH (= “SLENDERNESS”)’
    +KYĬ-  ‘GIRTH (= 2-DIMENSIONAL X-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    +CĬ-  ‘AMPLITUDE (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Z-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    +ČĬ-  ‘ “REACH” (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Y-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    +SĬ-  ‘DEPTH’
    +ŠĬ-  ‘INTERVAL/GAP’
    +ZĬ-  ‘VOLUME (= 3-DIMENSIONAL SIZE)’
    +ŽĬ-  ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF A POINT’
    +BĬ-  ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF AN EDGE’
    +DĬ-  ‘SPEED/VELOCITY/ACCELERATION’
    +TMĬ-  ‘HEIGHT (= “TALLNESS” – RELATTIVE TO GRAVITY)
    +DVĬ-  ‘FLATNESS/LEVELNESS (RELATIVE TO GRAVITY)’
    +GVĬ-  ‘PERIPHERY/CIRCLE/RING’
    +VLĬ-  ‘CONVEXITY/ROTUNDITY’
    +JĬ-     ‘CONCAVITY/DEPRESSION’
    +ĐLĬ-  ‘PERPENDICULARITY/UPRIGHTNESS’
    +ÇPĬ-  ‘PLANARITY/FLATNESS RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
    +ÇTĬ-  ‘STRAIGHTNESS/LINEARITY RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
    +ÇKĬ-  ‘SPHERICALNESS/ROUNDNESS’
    +PMĬ-  ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-SURFACED IN PLANAR CONTEXT)’
    +PNĬ-  ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-EDGED IN LINEAR CONTEXT)’
    +ŦYĬ-  ‘RECTILINEAR/POLYHEDRAL/STRAIGHT-ANGLED’
    +PFĬ-  ‘ELASTICITY / STRETCH CAPACITY’

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: big/large, small/little, shrink, expand, grow, diminish, huge, immense, tiny, enormous, shallow

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FYĬ - ‘QUALITY OR PROPERTY OF MATTER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of quality/property of matter

    same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

    2. decrease in degree of quality/property of matter

    3. increase in degree of quality/property of matter

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + THE PATTERN FOR THIS ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + VYĬ-   ‘THICKNESS (= VISCOSITY/RUNNINESS)
    + ĐYĬ-   ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
    + XRĬ-   ‘SOLIDITY/HOLLOWNESS (= PERMEABILITY)’
    + VRĬ-   ‘DURABILITY/FRAGILITY’ (= CAPACITY FOR BEING DAMAGED)
    + ĐRĬ-   ‘RESILIENCE/DELICATENESS’ (= CAPACITY FOR RECOVERY)
    + TFĬ-   ‘TIGHTNESS/SLACK’ (= TAUTNESS)
    + ŻĬ-     ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
    + DYĬ-   ‘SMOOTHNESS/ROUGHNESS (= TACTILE COARSENESS)
    + MYĬ-   ‘FULLNESS/EMPTINESS’
    + KFĬ-  ‘FLEXIBILITY/RIGIDITY’
    + BVĬ-  ‘HARD/SOFT (= MALLEABILITY)’
    + SPĬ-  ‘WEIGHT/MASS’

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VLÌ- ‘COLOR/HUE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something having a color plus the color

    same as INFORMAL stems but tinted/painted/stained, etc. to have other than its natural color

    2. something light-colored plus the color

    3. something dark-colored plus the color

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. something having a color

    1. a color

    2. something having a light color

    2. a light color

    3. something having a dark color

    3. a dark color

    +

    NOTE: This stem patterns for the above root are a template for all other roots donating a specific color. The following root ‘RED’ provides an example.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KRÌ- ‘RED’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something red plus the color red

    same as INFORMAL stems but referring to something tinted/painted/stained red

    2. something light-red plus the color light-red

    3. something dark-red plus the color light-red

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. something red

    1. red

    2. something light red

    2. light red

    3. something dark red

    3. dark red

    +

    SIMILARLY:
    + T-D PRÌ- ‘BLUE’
    + TRÌ- ‘GREEN’
    + BRÌ- ‘YELLOW’
    + DRÌ- ‘ORANGE’
    + GRÌ- ‘SKY BLUE’
    + PSÌ- ‘PINK’
    + KSÌ- ‘PURPLE’
    + PŠÌ- ‘OCHRE’
    + KŠÌ- ‘ECRU’
    + BZÌ- ‘BEIGE/TAN’
    + GZÌ- ‘PEACH’
    + BŽÌ- ‘MAUVE’
    + GŽÌ- ‘LAVENDER’
    + PLÌ- ‘BURGUNDY’
    + TLÌ- ‘TEAL’
    + KLÌ- ‘TURQUOISE’
    + BLÌ- ‘AQUAMARINE’
    + DLÌ- ‘BROWN’
    + GLÌ- ‘WHITE’
    + FLÌ- ‘BLACK’
    + ŦLÌ- ‘GRAY’
    + XLÌ- ‘YELLOW-GREEN’
    + ĐLÌ- ‘MAROON’
    +The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions for all color-stems: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SXĬ - ‘STICKY/ADHESIVE MATERIAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sticky substance or material; to stick / to be mired in

    1. adhesive substance material; adhere/stick (via adhesive)

    2. goo / ooze / slime

    2. glue / liquid adhesive

    3. sap / resin

    3. cement / mortar / grout

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÌ- ‘ (QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + substance/compound itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal liquid or gaseous state

    2. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from a another subtance +  the derived substance itself

    2. thing/object composed of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + its function/purpose

    3. source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being (quasi-) solid

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a material substance

    1. substance/compound itself

    1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

    1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state

    2.  elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from refinement, distillation or processing of material substance or compound

    2. derived substance / compound itself

    2. object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

    2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

    3. natural source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

    3. derived or artificially created source of a (quasi-) solid material substance / compound

    3. solid (= hard to the touch)

    3. quasi-solid (= non-gaseous and non-liquid but not hard; able to be deformed by touch)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÒ - ‘LIQUID/FLUID’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. drop of liquid/fluid + liquid/fluid itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or gaseous state

    2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance + the derived liquid subtance itself

    2. thing/object composed of liquid + its function/purpose

    3. source of a liquid/fluid

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a liquid/fluid state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. drop of liquid/fluid

    1. liquid/fluid subtance itself

    1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

    1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state (i.e., vapor)

    2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance

    2. the derived liquid/fluid subtance itself

    2. object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

    2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

    3.  natural source of a liquid/fluid

    3.  derived or artificially created source of a liquid or fluid

    3. liquid/fluid state

    3. viscous state (quasi-liquid but able to be deformed/shaped; semi-solid)

    +

    The stem pattern of this root also applies to the root FÒ- ‘liquid chemical’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŽÌ- ‘ARTICLE OF CLOTHING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. piece of clothing as covering or fashion; to wear such

    1. piece of clothing as part of uniform or costume; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker or indicator of station; to wear such

    2. part of uniform or costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as ornament or accessory; to wear such

    3. part of uniform or costume as ornament; to wear such

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. piece of clothing as covering; to wear such

    1. piece of clothing as fashion; to wear such

    1. part of uniform as covering; to wear such

    1. part of costume as covering; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as indicator of station; to wear such

    2. part of uniform as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    2. part of costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as ornament; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as accessory; to wear such

    3. part of uniform as ornament; to wear such

    3. part of costume as ornament; to wear such

    +

    THE STEM PATTERN OF THIS ROOT APPLIES TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + SPÌ-  ‘SHIRT/BLOUSE’
    + STÌ-  ‘PANTS’
    + SKÌ- ‘COAT/JACKET’
    + SXÌ- ‘GLOVE’
    + ŠPÌ- ‘SCARF’
    + ŠTÌ- ‘HAT’
    + ŠKÌ- ‘FOOTWEAR’
    + ŠXÌ- ‘LEGGING/SOCK’
    +PŘÌ- ‘BELT’
    +TŘÌ- ‘APRON’
    +KŘÌ- ‘COLLAR’
    +FYÌ- ‘NECKTIE/CRAVATTE
    +SLÌ- ‘HELMET’
    +ŠLÌ- ‘SKIRT/KILT’
    +GÌ-  ‘DRESS’
    +ŦYÌ- ‘VEIL’
    +JÌ-  ‘SARI’
    +FÌ-  ‘TUNIC’
    +ŦÌ-  ‘ROBE(S)/TOGA’

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZÒ - ‘GAS / FLUME’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cloud/flume of gas/vapor + gas/vapor itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or liquid state

    2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance + the derived gas itself

    2. thing/object composed of gas + its function/purpose

    3. source of a gas

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a gaseous state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. cloud/flume of a gas or vapor

    1. gas/vapor itself

    1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

    1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

    2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance

    2. the derived gas itself

    2. thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

    2. function/purpose of thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

    3.  natural source of a gas

    3.  derived or artificially created source of gas

    3. gaseous/vapor state

    3. semi-gaseous state (combination or gaseous + non-gaseous state, e.g., as w/ CO2 vapor rising from dry ice)

    +

     

    +

    CLASS IV ROOTS:  physical substance taxononies (continued)

    +

    THE STEM PATTERN OF THE FOLLOWING CLASS 4 ROOTS IS THE SAME AS THE ABOVE CLASS 3 ROOT XÌ- ‘ (QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’
    +PỌ- ‘brass’
    +TỌ- ‘chalk’
    +KỌ- ‘cloth/fabric’
    +KYỌ- ‘coal’
    +CỌ- ‘spice/herb/seasoning’
    +ČỌ- ‘glass’
    +SỌ- ‘jade’
    +ŠỌ- ‘metal/ore’
    +ZỌ- ‘mineral’
    +ŽỌ- ‘oil (petroleum)’
    +BỌ- ‘plastic’
    +DỌ- ‘quartz’
    +GỌ- ‘rubber’
    +JỌ- ‘salt’
    +FỌ- ‘steel’
    +ŦỌ- ‘silk’
    +XỌ- ‘tar’
    +GYỌ- ‘wax’
    +PLỌ- Aluminium
    +PŦỌ- Antimony
    +KŦỌ- Arsenic
    +SŦỌ- Beryllium           
    +ŠŦỌ- Bismuth
    +SFỌ- Boron                
    +ŠFỌ- Cadmium           
    +MRỌ- Calcium           
    +TLỌ- Carbon  
    +KLỌ- Chromium         
    +PRỌ- Cobalt   
    +BLỌ- Copper
    +TRỌ- Gallium  
    +LỌ- Gold
    +KRỌ- Iridium  
    +DLỌ- Iron
    +FLỌ- Lead
    +BYỌ- Lithium
    +BRỌ- Magnesium       
    +DRỌ- Manganese       
    +GRỌ- Molybdenum    
    +GLỌ- Nickel
    +FRỌ- Palladium          
    +ŦRỌ- Phosphorus       
    +ŦLỌ- Platinum            
    +SPỌ- Plutonium          
    +STỌ- Potassium
    +SKỌ- Radium
    +ŠPỌ- Rubidium           
    +ŠTỌ- Selenium            
    +ŠKỌ- Silicon  
    +RỌ- Silver                   
    +VLỌ- Sulfur
    +ĐLỌ- Tin
    +SXỌ- Titanium
    +ŠXỌ- Uranium            
    +ŠNỌ-Vanadium
    +SMỌ-Tungsten
    +RỌ- Zinc         
    +ŠMỌ-Zirconium
    +XLỌ- asbestos            
    +ĐỌ- aspirin     
    +SNỌ- baking soda        
    +PSỌ-   bicarbonate of soda       
    +PŠỌ-   graphite
    +MỌ- diamond               
    +NỌ- marble      
    +KSỌ-emery powder     
    +KŠỌ-  epsom salts        
    +BZỌ-  fluorspar             
    +GZỌ-  gypsum              
    +BŽỌ-  linoleum              
    +RYỌ-   lime      
    +GŽỌ-  magnesia            
    +KMỌ-  milk of magnesium        
    +KNỌ-  plaster of Paris              
    +VRỌ-  potash               
    +XRỌ-  saltpeter             
    +VYỌ-  silica      
    +VỌ-  table sugar
    +ŅỌ- talc or talcum        
    +ŦYỌ-  washing soda     
    +ĐYỌ-  zinc white         zinc oxide
    +LYỌ- ‘paint’
    +PFỌ- ‘oil (fatty liquid derived from plants/animals)’
    +TFỌ- ‘honey’
    +KFỌ- ‘vinegar’
    +ÇPỌ- acetone               
    +DVỌ- alcohol, grain      
    +BVỌ- alcohol, wood
    +TYỌ- ammonia
    +GVỌ- iodine   
    +ÇTỌ- mercury
    +MLỌ- brine      
    +TMỌ- benzene
    +NLỌ- lye or soda lye   
    +ÇKỌ- formalin             aqueous formaldehyde solution
    +PMỌ- rubbing alcohol              isopropyl alcohol
    +PNỌ- methanol            methyl alcohol

    +

    THE ROOT/STEM PATTERN OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS IS IDENTICAL TO THE ABOVE CLASS 3 ROOT : ZÒ - ‘GAS / FLUME’:
    + SLỌ- ‘carbon dioxide’
    + ZLỌ- ‘carbon monoxide’
    + ŠLỌ- Chlorine            
    + ŽLỌ- Argon    
    + SRỌ- Helium  
    + ZRỌ- Hydrogen          
    + ŠRỌ- Fluorine
    + ŽRỌ- Nitrogen            
    + MYỌ- Oxygen            
    + FYỌ- Neon    
    + NRỌ- Radon  
    + TNỌ- Xenon
    + NYỌ- ozone
    + ŻỌ- laughing gas          nitrous oxide
    +ŘỌ- air

    +

    CLASS V ROOTS:  spatio-dimensional concepts, form and motion

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    BŪ- ‘RECLINE / PRONE POSITION OR ORIENTATION / HORIZONTALITY

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. recline(d) / prone position (relative to long axis of object) / lie (down) / lay (out)

    1. horizontal (relative to gravity or plane of the earth’s surface) / orientation perpendicular to direction of gravity

    2. recumbent position / position of relaxation relative to gravity --> sprawl, loll

    2. occupying position of maximum repose or having a positional or dynamic orientation based on the path of least resistance relative to gravity

    3. flush / flat against / position or orientation level with some flat or even firmament / lay flat

    3. flatten(ed); collapse(d) or configure(d) to minimum height perpendicular to background firmament

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DŪ-  ‘PATH-ORIENTED TRANSLATIVE MOTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. move from one place to another; translative motion (i.e., motion from one place toward another)

    1. journey; to travel, traverse, to journey

    2. course/way/route/trajectory followed between two points

    2. route travelled/traversed on journey

    3. move between two points; motion along path from one point to another; to cross/go across from one side to another

    3. travel between two points / make a crossing / travel across

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. motion “outward”; go

    1. motion “inward”; come

    1. go travelling / be off

    1. journey toward

    2. movement away; go away (= increase distance between two objects)

    2. close in / get close(r) (= decrease distance between two objects)

    2. travel further away from

    2. reach vicinity of / close in on

    3. leave (= move away from one point toward some distant point)

    3. approach (= approach one point from direction of some distant point)

    3. departure; depart

    3. arrival; arrive / reach destination

    +

    Morphological derivations:  sojourn, set off / set out, set in motion; self-directed movement
    + THE PATTERN FOR THE ABOVE ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + ĐŪ- ‘VERTICAL MOTION / ASCENT & DESCENT / UP & DOWN’
    + NRŪ- ‘OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION’
    + BRŪ- ‘PLANAR RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional horizontal plane)
    + PRŪ- ‘VERTICAL RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional vertical plane)
    + TRŪ- ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE 3-DIMENSIONAL RANGE OF MOTION/3-DIMENSIONAL PERVASIVE MOVEMENT / MOVEMENT THROUGHOUT 3-D VOLUME’
    + KRŪ- ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG Y-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
    + BRŪ- ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG X-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
    + ĐRŪ- ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN HORIZONTAL PLANE’
    + ŽRŪ- ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN VERTICAL PLANE’
    + ŘŪ- ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE CIRCULAR MOTION’
    + BŽŪ- ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG HORIZONTAL PLANE’
    + GZŪ- ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG VERTICAL PLANE’
    + DRŪ- ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE SPIRAL MOTION’
    + GRŪ- ‘CIRCULAR VECTOR MOTION’ (i.e., “corkscrew” motion)
    + SRŪ- ‘SPIRAL VECTOR MOTION (i.e., corkscrew motion with increasing or decreasing amplitude)
    + ŠRŪ- ‘ARC / PARABOLIC MOTION RELATIVE TO GRAVITY’
    + SŦŪ- ‘CURVED MOTION / CURVE’
    + ŠTŪ-  ‘SWITCH BACK / VEER’
    + MRŪ-  ‘OBLIQUELY LINEAR  MOTION (relative to XYZ grid)
    + CŪ- ‘2-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR OUTSIDE EDGE’ encircle, surround
    + ZŪ ‘2-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG BOUNDARY OR INSIDE EDGE’
    + VŪ- ‘3-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR SURFACE OF’
    +SMŪ- ‘3-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG INTERNAL 3-D BOUNDARY OF’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FĒ-  ‘COMPONENTIAL PART OF WHOLE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. component/part of something + its function/purpose

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to a separable/detachable component/part, as opposed to INFORMAL stems which refer to an inalienable or integrated component/part

    2. appearance/condition of component/part + its function/purpose

    3. component/part as seen in relation to the greater whole

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. component/part itself

    1. function/purpose of component/part

    2. phsycial appearance/condition of component/part

    2. impact/effect of component’s/part’s condition on its function/purpose

    3. component/part itself as seen in relation to the greater whole

    3. function/purpose of component/part itself in relation to the greater whole

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + PĒ-  ‘front [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
    + TĒ- ‘rear, back part of [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
    + KĒ- ‘side/flank, lateral area’
    + KYĒ- ‘middle, center (as seen perpendicular to long axis of entity)
    + CĒ- ‘middle, center (as seen parallel to long axis of entity)
    + ČĒ- ‘top, peak, summit’
    + SĒ- ‘bottom, lowest part of, foundation’
    + ŠĒ- ‘upper part or “half”’
    + BĒ- ‘lower part or “half”’
    + DĒ- ‘edge’
    + GĒ- ‘interior, inner/internal part of, insides, innards’
    + JĒ- ‘exterior, outer/external part of, outside, “skin”’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GĀ- ‘UPRIGHT POSITION OR ORIENTATION/VERTICALITY/PERPENDICULAR/PROTRUSION

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. upright/erect position or orientation (relative to long axis of object) / stand (up)

    1. vertical (i.e., parallel to gravity or plane of earth’s surface)

    2.  stick up or out/ protrude

    2. occupying position of maximum contrast to a position of repose; position of maximum “alertness” or readiness or action

    3. perpendicular / position or orientation at right angles  to background firmament (relative to long axis of object); be or stand on end

    3. stretch(ed) outward; pull(ed) or configure(d) to maximum height perpendicular to background firmament

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GZĒ- ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE SHAPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.   generic 2-D outline shape (e.g., the shape of a close-course race-track, the outline of the shore of a lake, a drawing of a national border on a map, etc.)

    1. 2-D outline shape generically distorted

    2. generic 2-D outline horizontally elongated

    2. 2-D outline shape obliquely elongated / skewed along one axis

    3. generic 2-D outline vertically elongated

    3. 2-D outline shape medially compressed, i.e., “squished/pinched in the middle”

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

    The above root’s stem pattern is applied to all of the following roots:
    + XLĒ-: ‘square/rectangle/rhombus’
    + JĒ-:  ‘circle/ellipse’
    + FRŪ-: ‘oval’
    + ŠPĀ-:  ‘egg-shaped’
    + SNĒ-: ‘half-circle/semi-circle’
    + PFĀ-:  ‘sliver-moon shaped’
    + ŠŦĒ-:  ‘irregular/amorphous outline’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KLÎ - ‘MANNERCONDUCT/BEHAVIOR/DEMEANOR’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. manner (= the way something or someone acts or behaves)

    1. method, the way something happens, course of action; conduct

    2. guise, form; to take the form/guise of

    2. behave/comport/conduct onself = outward display of one’s personality/thoughts/emotions/motives; behavior/conduct/deportment

    3. practice/policy

    3. bearing/carriage/demeanor

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the manner/form/practice itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the method or behavior itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  process, procedure, regimen, strategy

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KLÓ- ‘TEMPORARY ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence + manifestation/effect]

    1. zone of high or low barometric pressure relative to surrounding pressure

    2. flash of lightning + peal of thunder [electrical phenomenon + associated sound]

    2. cold or warm air front

    3. cloud [in the sky]

    3. eye of a storm

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence]

    1. manifestation/effect of momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon

    1. low pressure zone

    1. high pressure zone

    2. flash of lightning

    2. peal of thunder

    2. cold air front

    2. warm air front

    3. cloud [in the sky] – physical occurrence

    3. impact/effect of cloud [in the sky], e.g., its hiding of the sun, it causing zero visibility as a plane flies through it, etc.

    3. eye of storm [physical occurrence]

    3. short-lived calm/still conditions associated with the eye of a storm

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KRĀ- ‘VERTICAL ELEVATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. level [= relative vertical elevation]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but as applied to buildings and other architectural forms/constructs

    2. layer/stratum

    3. degree of size/expanse of level relative to adjacent or surrounding level

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. low spot in relative elevation

    1. high spot in relative elevation

    2. low-layered; deep

    2. upper-layered; shallow

    3. plateau-like level, abuttmant; loft-like

    3. ridge-like formation; crest-like formation

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KNĒ- ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. strip [solid/rigid]

    1. ribbon-like shape [flexible]

    2. plane/planar [solid/rigid]

    2. sheet-like shape [flexible]

    3. tube/cylinder/cylindrical [solid/rigid]

    3. tube-like shape [flexible]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KRĒ- ‘INVERSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. orientational inversion

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is formal/authorized/permanent/abstract as described in Sec. 3.7

    2. unidirectional topological inversion [= mirror-image]

    3. three-dimensional topological inversion [= inside-out]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. orientational inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

    1. mirror-image inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

    2. mirror-image inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

    2. orientational inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

    3. orientational inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

    3. mirror-image inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŦŪ- ‘LATITUDE / NORTH-SOUTH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. north-south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    1. latitude

    2. north axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    2. north latitude

    3. south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    3. south latitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. north-south axial direction or orientation

    1. north-south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    1. polar area

    1. parallel [= line of latitude]

    2. north direction or orientation

    2. north geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    2. north polar area (Arctic)

    2. Northern Hemisphere

    3. south direction or orientation

    3. south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    3. south polar area (Antarctic)

    3. Eastern Hemisphere

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MĒ- ‘ACCESS/PASSAGE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. access point / passage; pass through, access

    1. doorway (= the access portal itself, not the door which opens/closes off access)

    2. passage or infiltration of one substance into another

    2. gateway / portal

    3. filter / screening [selective access]

    3. checkpoint

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. enter / go in / pass within / ingress

    1. exit / go out / egress

    1. enter (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

    1. exit (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

    2. infiltrate / imbue / immerse

    2. emit / dispense

    2. receive (= welcome) ; reception

    2. remove / dispel

    3. filter through

    3. filter out

    3. admittance; admit

    3. oust / eject

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: door, gate, let in, insert, introduce, take out, remove, penetrate, emanate, emerge

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PĀ- ‘INTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION INSIDE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. position/orientation somewhere inside (of), i.e., underneath or on other side of surface or boundary layer

    1. entirety of an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

    2. position/orientation somewhere inside of (2-D context), i.e., within the area defined by a boundary line

    2. entirety of an interior surface / functional planar area within the boundaries of

    3. position/orientation somewhere inside of (3-D context), i.e., within the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

    3. entirety of an interior volume / functional space within the boundaries of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    +

    compare to root GĒ-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PLĒ-  ‘2-DIMENSIONAL CURVATURE/DISTORTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself + object manifesting such curvature]

    1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself + object manifesting the depression]

    2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself + object manifesting the distortion]

    3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself]

    1. object manifesting a curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

    1. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself]

    2. object manifesting a dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

    2. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself]

    3. object manifesting an undefined distortion, blurring or anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself]

    3. object manifesting a volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  crease, pleat, wrinkle(s), curl up, crumple(d), wad(ded), zig-zag, groove/furrow

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PRĒ- ‘ANGULAR STRUCTURE / CORNER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (two-dimensional) angle

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

    2. (three-dimensional) vertex

    3. angle-based constraint on access or movement

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. interior angle of two-dimensional surface or analog

    1. exterior corner/vertex of two-dimensional surface or analog

    2. interior vertex/corner of three-dimensional space

    2. exterior corner/vertex of three dimensional space

    3. corner as constraint

    3. corner as opportunity for choice of movement

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠKĒ- ‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL (i.e., LINEAR) SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. point / dot [solid/fixed/rigid]

    1. point / dot [flexible/movable/fluid]

    2. line / linear [solid/fixed/rigid]

    2. line / linear [flexible/movable/fluid] / string-like

    3. hoop / ring [solid/fixed/rigid]

    3. hoop / ring [flexible/movable/fluid] / loop

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SMĀ-  ‘TERRAIN-BASED/GEOGRAPHICAL ELEVATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. relative elevation in comparison to other geological feature/terrain

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is geo-political or in terms of formal property [geographic ownership]

    2. geological layer/stratum

    3. flatland area/plain

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. v alley / geographic depression relative to surrounding terrain

    1. hill / upland / raised geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

    2. deep underground

    2. near-surface / shallow [in terms of depth underground]

    3. plateau / raised flat-topped geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

    3. ridge / crest / flat-linear edge between different geographic/geologically-based elevations

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    STĀ-  ‘FIT/HOLD/CONTAIN AS INTERNAL-EXTERNAL PARTITION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. holding area / containment area; hold/keep/contain

    1. room, chamber

    2. fit; to fit, contain (= have sufficient room for)

    2. reside, situate; room as place of residence, quasi-permanent situation or default location

    3. volume or boundary of containment area

    3. room boundaries (i.e., walls, floor, ceiling)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the physical boundaries (“walls”) which define the containment area and prevent contents from leaking or escaping

    same as above 3 stems referring to the space (“room”) within the holding area and protection of contents from external environment

    same as above 3 stems referring to the room as a container separating inside from outside

    same as abvoe 3 stems referring to the space within the room as shelter or sanctuary

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  ceiling, wall, floor, dividing panel, piece of furniture serving to divide room space
    +EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: house, building, cell, booth, closet; snug, snugness, loose, looseness, baggy, bagginess

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TĀ- ‘EXTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION OUTSIDE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. position/orientation somewhere outside (of), i.e., beyond or on other side of surface or boundary layer

    1. the space beyond/outside/excluded from an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

    2. position/orientation somewhere outside of (2-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the area defined by a boundary line

    2. an external surface / functional planar area beyond/outside the boundaries of (e.g., the “out of bounds” area of a tennis court)

    3. position/orientation somewhere outside of (3-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

    3. the space beyond/outside an interior volume / functional space outside the boundaries of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    +

    compare to root JĒ-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TÎ- ‘APPEAR/MANIFEST/SHOW/EXHIBIT/DISPLAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. appear/manifest/show = be/make observable to the senses of others; manifestation, appearance

    1. exhibit; display

    2. expose; exposure

    2. show off, flaunt

    3. bring/call attention to = make others aware of the appearance/showing of something

    3. announce; advertise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of manifestation/showing

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing manifested or shown

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of exhibiting or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing exhibited or displayed

    +

    Morphological derivations:  demonstrate, flourish, show off, display, spectacle, parade, promenade, procession, ostentation, gaudy, garish, pomp, pompous

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TNĒ- ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL BLOCK-LIKE SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cube [solid volume]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but as outline edges/frame only, not as solid volumes

    2. rectilinear block [solid volume]

    3. disc

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VĒ- ‘CURVATURE/BENDING/OPEN LINEAR FORMS OR SHAPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    1. obtuse angle [degree of size/openness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

    2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    2. acute angle [degree of size/narrownness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

    3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    3. mathematically determined form made of lines (e.g., polygon, quadrilateral, etc.) [pattern + object having the pattern]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

    1. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate

    1. obtuse angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of openness]

    1. obtuse angled object or bounded space

    2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

    2. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate

    2. acute angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of narrowness]

    2. acute angled object or bounded space

    3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself]

    3. object manifesting a linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic)

    3. mathematically determined form made of lines [the pattern]

    3. object manifesting a mathematically determined form made of lines

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  fold, bend, pleat, zig-zag/“sawtooth”/serrated pattern, undulate/undulation, S-curve, wave(s)/wavy, bent, crooked, jagged, serrated, curvature
    + The above root use PHASE and the iterative series of affixes to specify extent/number/pattern of folds.
    + SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 3:  parabola, hyperbola, exponential curve

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VRĒ-  ‘PATH/WAY/COURSE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. course/way [taken]

    1. route [taken]

    2. [marked] path [taken]

    2. road [taken]

    3. trajectory; move(ment) along a trajectory / “sail” / arc

    3. channel [taken]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the course/way/path/trajectory itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to following or travelling along the course/path/trajectory

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the route/road/channel itself

    same as a stems with focus on following or travelling along the route/road/channel

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: walkway, sidewalk, highway, street, slide, tunnel, conduit

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XĀ- ‘AMBULATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ambulate (as natural to specific species, e.g., walk, slither, fly, crawl, etc.)

    1. “formal” ambulation, e.g., march, prance

    2. rapid ambulation (as per specific species, e.g., run, gallop, scamper, scurry, etc.)

    2. purposeful rapid ambulation, e.g., flee, race

    3. unnatural or affected ambulation

    3. deliberately unnatural or affected ambulation, e.g., swagger, saunter

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

    same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

    same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

    same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: skip, shuffle, slink; lead, follow
    +SSD DERIVATIVES:  1) swim on surface  2) swim/glide underwater 3) slither 4) crawl 5) walk  6) hop 7) jump/leap  8) swing (e.g., through trees, from vines, etc.)  9) fly

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XŪ- ‘LONGITUDE / EAST-WEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. east-west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    1. longitude

    2. west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    2. West longitude

    3. east axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    3. East longitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. east-west axial direction or orientation

    1. east-west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    1. meridian

    1. zero meridian (Greenwich meridian)

    2. west direction or orientation

    2. west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    2. time zone

    2. Western Hemisphere

    3. east direction or orientation

    3. east geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    3. International Date Line

    3. Eastern Hemisphere

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZĒ- ‘SPATIAL ORIENTATION / POSITION / DIRECTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. general spatial position [currently or within context of utterance]; be situated at

    1. specific spatial position at “end point”; be situated at “end point” of

    2. general orientation (along or relative to directional axes); to “face” [toward]

    2. specific orientation toward “end point” of; to “face” squarely

    3. general direction/axis of movement; direct/move along axis of

    3. specific direction/axis of movement toward “end point” of; to head straight for

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. general position toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    1. general position toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    1. specific position at “one end” of opposed spatial points

    1. specific position at “other side” of opposed spatial points

    2. general orientation toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    2. general orientation toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    2. specific orientation toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

    2. specific orientation toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

    3. general direction toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    3. general direction toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    3. specific direction toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

    3. specific direction toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN OF STEMS IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA:
    + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT
    + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD
    + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE
    + 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS
    + KLĒ- ‘+X/+Y/+Z’
    + ŠLĒ- ‘+X/+Y/-Z’
    + MLĒ- ‘+X/-Y/+Z’
    + GRĒ- ‘+  X/-Y/-Z’
    + LYĒ- ‘-X/+Y/+Z’
    + BZĒ- ‘-X/+Y/-Z’
    + KMĒ- ‘-X/-Y/+Z’
    + SRĒ- ‘-X/-Y/-Z’
    + PLĀ- ‘+X/+Y/0’
    + ŇĀ- ‘+X/-Y/0’
    + RĀ- ‘-X/+Y/0’
    + ŘĀ- ‘-X/-Y/0’
    + TLĀ- ‘+X/0/+Z’
    + PSĀ- ‘+X/0/-Z’
    + KSĀ- ‘-X/0/+Z’
    + ŦĀ- ‘-X/0/-Z’
    + PŦĀ- ‘0/+Y/+Z’
    + PŘĀ- ‘0/+Y/-Z’
    + TŘĀ- ‘0/-Y/+Z’
    + KŘĀ- ‘0/-Y/-Z’
    + BŘĀ- ‘+X/0/0’
    + DŘĀ- ‘-X/0/0’
    + GŪ-  ‘0/+Y/0’
    + JŪ-  ‘0/-Y/0’
    + FŪ-  ‘0/0/+Z’
    + ŇŪ-  ‘0/0/-Z’
    + ZĒ- ‘0/0/0’
    + PLŪ- ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [linear unidimensional context, e.g., between two others in a queue]
    +KLŪ- ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [planar 2-dimensional context, e.g., among others in a crowded room]
    +FLŪ- ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [volume-based 3-dimensional context, e.g., sky crowded with balloonists]
    +MYŪ- ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components separable/extractable]
    +NŪ- ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components inseparable/mixed/permanently combined]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZRĒ- ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPHEROID SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sphere(oid) [rigid or solid]

    1. ball-like form [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    2. ovoid / elliptoid / round [rigid or solid]

    2. ovoid /elliptoid / round [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    3. torus / toroid (hoop/ring-like form with circular/elliptical/oval cross-section) [rigid or solid]

    3. torus / toroid [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    +

    CLASS VI ROOTS:  change, causation, interaction, state, occurrence, existence, relation, association, identity

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    BÎ- ‘APPEARANCE/SEMBLANCE/IMPRESSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. appear to be/seem/look as if/give (off) the impression of; appearance/semblance/impression

    1. ostensible/ostensibly

    2. on the face of it, on first blush

    2. resemble, look like

    3. on the surface/superficially/seemingly

    3. façade, veneer

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DÓ- ‘EXISTENCE/ONTOLOGY/METAPHYSICS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exist objectively; something that exists; be(ing) [both ontological and metaphysical]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except in reference to epistemological context [i.e., in relation to knowledge/awareness of ontological or metaphysical existence]

    2. law of nature / existential axiom

    3. natural/inherent

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontology / ontological aspect

    same as above 3 stems referring to metaphysics / metaphysical aspect

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KRÍ - TOOL/INSTRUMENT

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tool, instrument, implement as extension of bodily appendage(s) (e.g., as per force, strength, precision, reach, pressure, instrument as labor-saving or efficiency-increasing means etc.)

    1. utensil, specialized implement for assisting in refined task

    2. tool, instrument as means of “defying nature” (e.g., wheel, wedge, fulcrum, etc.

    2. mechanical/motorized/electric/electronic implement/device

    3. supply-like resource/implement used by itself or in  association with specific tool (e.g., nail, tack, clothespin, hook)

    3. supply-like resource/implement used as fuel or input for mechanical/electrical/electronic implement/device

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  equipment, gear (collection of associated tools/supplies), apparatus, appliance, paraphernalia, machine
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1: awl, pliers, screwdriver, wrench, pick, shovel/spade, chisel, file, stick/pole/bar
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  wheel, jack, wedge, fulcrum, pulley, sling, lever, gear, spool
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3: nail, tack, clip/fastener, hook, screw, bolt, nut, piece of wire, screwdriver bit/head
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  anvil, fork, spoon, scissors, vice/clamp, plane, saw, tweezers, puncher
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  drill, power saw, engine/motor
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  drill bit

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KSÓ- ‘TRANSCENDENCE / SPIRIT / RELIGION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. one’s spirit or soul / transcendent “connection” to the universe

    1. religious belief

    2. universal oneness / metaphysical interconnectedness between all things

    2. feeling of religious fervor or zeal

    3. striving/quest for ultimate destiny/purpose/”Omega point”

    3. striving/quest for salvation/redemption/enlightment (specific to particular religion)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

    same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

    same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MYÓ- ‘SIMILARITY/SAMENESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. similar(ity) to oneself (on another occasion)

    1. same (= selfsame)

    2. similar(ity) to (an)other entity/instance

    2. same (= identical to (an)other entity/instance)

    3. remind (one) of / reminder

    3. same (= copy/replacement)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on appearance or superficial impression

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on identity or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠNÎ- ‘SWITCH/ALTERATION BETWEEN MULTI-VALUED SETTINGS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. switch to a different value or setting

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

    2. veer, change course

    3. change to a less active or more active setting; increase or decrease intensity or setting

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. switch to higher/greater value or setting

    1. switch to lower/lesser value or setting

    2. change to more difficult, dangerous, or unpredictable course

    2. change to easier, safer, or more predictable course

    3. increase to higher/stronger intensity

    3. decrease to lower/weaker intensity

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SPÓ- ‘PHYSICAL CONTACT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. physical contact between 2 or more objects [contact + effect]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that the context is specific to physical contact by one’s “default” appendage(s) for volitional physical contact, i.e., hands/fingers, beak, snout, tongue, pseudopod, tendril, tentacle, etc.

    2. application of physical pressure/force + effect

    3. move or set in motion via physical contact + resulting motion

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on physical act of contact

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on resulting effect/movement

    +

    EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THESE STEMS: feel, push, stroke, caress, tap, nudge, hit, strike, slap, punch, shove, press, rub, knock over, fall [due to being pushed], injure [via striking], etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠÎ - ‘POSSESSION / OWNERSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. have/possess; physical possession (temporary/circumstantial and alienable – e.g., a library book in one’s hand)

    1. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right and in one’s immediate possession-, e.g., a hat I bought and am wearing)

    2. have/possess; possession (circumstantial and affective + (quasi-) inalienable, either permanent or temporary – e.g., a medical condition, an office at work I occupy, a seat at a cinema showing)

    2. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right, not necessarily in one’s immediate possession -, e.g., a hat I bought/own but am not necessarily wearing)

    3. have/possess; possession (genetic, intrinsic and inalienable, but not considered property – e.g., a sibling, a child, a limb, a memory)

    3. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (quasi-permanent and legally inalienable except through formal/legal separation process – e.g., a house I own, a pet dog I registered

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing possessed

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession/ownership

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing owned; piece of property

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠTÎ - ‘WEATHER CONDITION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (current) weather condition

    1. adverse weather condition

    2. amenable weather condition (warm seasons)

    2. adverse weather condition (warm seasons)

    3. amenable weather condition (cold seasons)

    3. adverse weather condition (cold seasons)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: climate, the weather, clime
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  mild, balmy, sunny, warm, still/calm, gently breezy
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  brisk, cool, clear, still/calm, crisp, light snowfall, drizzle
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2: mugginess, heat, drought, summer rainstorm, summer flood, mud, hurricane, smog, hot wind
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  fog/mist, cloudy/overcast, wind, rain, snow, blizzard, rainstorm, tornado/twister, flood

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TRÍ- ‘BINARY REVERSAL / POLARITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. switch to opposing or complementary value

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Sec. 3.7.

    2. switch or reverse [linear] direction

    3. toggle between active/positive or inactive/negative state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. set to positive, primary, or initial value

    1. set to negative, secondary, or complementary value

    2. change current course or direction

    2. reverse course or direction

    3. active / activate / turn on / render active / on / positive state

    3. inactive / deactivate / turn off / render inactive / off / negative state

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TRÓ - ‘LARGE IMPLEMENT FOR COUNTERING GRAVITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ladder [object itself + use]

    1. winch/windlass

    2. stair

    2. expandable boom

    3. bridge; span

    3. derrick

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  staircase, stairway

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VÍ- ‘VALUE/WORTH/PRICE/COST’
    + (Often used in conjunction with various Quantifying and Modulative affixes from Sections 7.7.6 and 7.7.7 to show relative degree of value within context)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of usefulness, convenience, efficacy, service, applicability]

    1. cost appraisal, assessment, estimate, quote

    2. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of personal desire or emotional attachment]

    2. cost, expense, expenditure [what is (to be) given up or released in exchange for something, either a commercial or non-commercial context]

    3. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of financial benefit or gain, profit, or remuneratively]

    3. rate (of payment); formula/terms for determining payment

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on intrinsic value

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on actual value (i.e., degree to which the intrinsic value can actually be utilized, consumed or manifested)

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to cost quoted or agreed to

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to actual payment

    +

    SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2: 1) fee/toll or service charge 2) tithe 3) duty/tariff/levy 4) ransom 5) tax 6) dues 7) wage(s) 8) fare  9) price/charge [in money or legal tender]

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÓ - WEAPON

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hand-held or hand-thrown bladed weapon for cutting or stabbing [object + use]

    1. ballistically launched projectile [projectile + use]

    2. pointed-tipped handheld or propelled weapon for piercing [object + use]

    2. explosive/incendiary substance/device [substance/device + use]

    3. blunt force-driven hand-held or propelled weapon [object + use]

    3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon [substance + use]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bladed weapon itself

    1. use/function of bladed weapon

    1. ballistically launched projectile

    1. use/function of ballistically launched projectile

    2. pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon itself

    2. use/function of pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon

    2. explosive/incendiary substance/device

    2. use/function of explosive/incendiary substance/device

    3. blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon itself

    3. use/function of blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon

    3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon

    3. use/function of gaseous/chemical/other weapon

    +

    SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1:  dagger, switchblade, axe, sword, scimitar, bayonet
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  arrow, lance, spear, javelin, harpoon
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  mace, club, hammer, catapult fodder, shot from slingshot. cudgel
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  bullet, shell, shrapnel, cannonball, shot, rocket, self-propelled missile
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  bomb, grenade, plastic explosive, firecracker, dynamite stick
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  gas irritant/poison, poison chemical vapor, liquid irritant/poison, radioactive compound used as weapon

    +

    NOTE:  In Ilaksh, guns, catapults, slings and all other firearms or devices for shooting/hurling projectiles utilize Degree 1 of the UTE suffix ('tool/implement for doing X'), as it is not the firearm/shooting device that kills but the projectile shot/fired from it. Thus a gun is a "bullet-implementer".  Care must be taken in assigning appropriate noun Cases or verbal Formats to stems associated with ballistic aerial weapons to distinguish the fact that it is the projectile that is the actual "weapon" and not the object it was fired/projected from. This is the good old "shoot bullets" vs. "shoot guns" vs. "shoot bullets from a gun" vs. "shoot him with a gun" vs. "shoot him with bullets from a gun" problem . This which would translate into Ithkuil/Ilaksh as "I bulleted him due to/enabled by a gun" or incorparatively as "I gun-bulleted him" using either the RESULTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him as a result of concurrently gun-activating") or the INSTRUMENTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him by the enabling means of gun-activating").

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XRÎ - ‘HAPPEN/OCCUR(ENCE)/MANIFEST/EVENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. happen / occur / take place / to “pass”

    1. step / act / action

    2. manifest / be or make real / reify

    2. phenomenon

    3. event (spacio-temporal context)

    3. incident

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

    +

    Various derivations from the above stems:  turn out, situation, chain of events, doings, process, phase, deed, result(s), consequence(s)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZLÍ-  ‘GROWTH/CULTIVATION/HUSBANDRY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. grow; stage of growth

    1. stage of plant growth; grow (plant)

    2. raise; look after; foster; function as guardian

    2. till/cultivate/raise crop; stage of cultivation (e.g., etc.)

    3. nurture / provide requirements for growth; husbandry

    3. to garden/specialized act of plant nurturage (e.g., prune, graft, weed, etc.)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

    +

    Stems of this root are often used with the MAT suffix
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2:  plow, sow, irrigate, fertilize; hoe, reap, pick, dry, store
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 3:  prune, graft, weed, transplant, thin out
    + Morphological Derivatives:  shepherd, garden, gardener, field (of crop), crop, harvest, plow/plough, hoe, etc.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    CLASS VII ROOTS :  Numerical and mathematical concepts, quantity, comparison, order, arrangement, configuration, time

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ČŌ ‘MAKE/CONSTRUCT/INTEGRATE/FORM’
    + (NOTE:  This root does not refer to ‘make/create’ meaning ‘emit/secrete/produce’as in ‘make noise’ or ‘make milk’, etc.)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. make/construct/create (non-mechanical) [= construct via integration of material resources]

    1. mechanically construct / build from a design

    2. to form/fashion/mix  (non-mechanical) [= combine ingredients/parts to form]

    2. integrate parts / integration of parts

    3. integrate/organize (non-mechanical)

    3. machine / mechanical device

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

    +

    NOTE:  The above meanings represent these stems as used in conjunction with the COMPLETIVE (CPT) version.  Their default PROCESSUAL (PCT) counterparts would translate as ‘plan (to)’, ‘design’, etc.
    + Derivations:  cobble together, rig, system, conspire

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FĪ - ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION MORE THAN ONE DAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. expanse of time/period/duration more than 1 day

    1. subjective long-term period/era

    2. lunar period / month

    2. geologic era

    3. solar year

    3. ‘lifetime’; timespan from beginning to end of something

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    +

    Use of SSD affix give equivalents to ‘decade’, ‘century,’ ‘millenium’, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FLÔ- ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS (ORNAMENTAL/SPECIALIZED)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tower

    1. window opening

    2. dome

    2. doorway

    3. spire/steeple

    3. balcony/terrace

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    GÔ- ‘GEOGRAPHICAL/GEOPOLITICAL ELEMENTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. geographical feature or element

    1. geopolitical feature or element

    2. geographical area / “land”

    2. geopolitical area / “land” or “country”

    3. natural piece of territory

    3. (piece of) property

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on geophysical feature or element

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus as natural habitat

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus as political entity

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on political boundaries/borders

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KĪ- ‘DAY/NIGHT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. day [= 24-hour period]

    same as for INFORMAL stems except applied to a particular date or scheduled day as in “my first day at work” or “Independence Day”

    2. sky

    3. degree of sunlight [use with EXN, EXD, SUF affixes, etc. from Sec. 7.7.6]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. daytime

    1. nighttime

    2. daytime sky

    2. nighttime sky

    3. daylight

    3. natural darkness

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dawn, sunrise, daybreak, evening, sunset, twilight, morning, evening, afternoon, mid-day, noontime, midnight, the “wee” hours [= Spanish ‘madrugada’]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KYÔ- ‘SEASON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. season, time of year

    1.  social behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., celebration, recreation, vacation, etc.)

    2. weather associated w/ particular season / seasonal weather

    2. weather-determined practice/behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., migration, mating, nesting, hibernation, etc.)

    3. cyclic state/condition of flora/fauna associated with a particular season

    3. practice/behavior/custom relating to maintenance/upkeep of crops, game and other material resources associated with a particular season (e.g., foraging, hunting, planting, harvest, storage, etc.)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

    +

    ABOVE PATTERN APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + RÔ-  ‘SPRING’
    + LÔ-  ‘SUMMER’
    + SÔ-  ‘AUTUMN/FALL’
    + TÔ-  ‘WINTER’
    + RYÔ-  ‘TROPICAL RAINY SEASON’
    + LYÔ-  ‘TROPICAL DRY SEASON’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŌ- ‘TWO/DUALITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set of two / a duo; to be two in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make dual / having 2 uses or aspects / bi- / twofold

    3. second one in a sequence; be/make second in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. twice the number of something; to double / multiply by two

    1. half; halve / divide by or into two

    2. two times [= iterations] / twice; to be/make/do twice

    2. be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)

    3. to the second power / squared; to square / raise to the second power

    3. to the negative second power / inverse square; to divide by the square of

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    NŌ- ‘SEVEN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 7 / a septet; to be 7 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make seven-faceted / having 7 uses or aspects / septi- / sevenfold

    3. seventh one in a sequence; be/make seventh in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 7 times the number of something; to septuple / multiply by 7

    1. a seventh / divide by 7 or into 7 parts

    2. 7 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 7 times

    2. be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts

    3. to the 7th power; raise to the 7th power

    3. to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN FOR ‘TWO’ AND ‘SEVEN’ APPLIES TO THE REMAINING NUMBER ROOTS AS FOLLOWS:
    + Š-S   ŠŌ-  ‘3’
    + P-S   PŌ- ‘4’
    + Ţ-S  ŦŌ-  ‘5’
    + T-S   TŌ- ‘6’
    + X-S   XŌ- ‘8’
    + F-S  FŌ- ‘9’
    + M-S  MŌ- ‘10’
    + R-S   RŌ- ‘100’
    + Q-S   KYŌ- ‘10,000’
    + Ç-S  ZŌ- ‘100,000,000’
    + Ċ-S  CŌ-  ‘10 QUADRILLION’

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    LŌ- ‘ONE/UNITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. one

    1. single entity / single / singular

    2. (something) alone/lone/sole

    2. (something) isolated

    3. (something) unique

    3. 9something) independent / self-reliant / self-sufficient

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. unit (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    1. unify/unite; unit (in terms of being indivisible)

    Same as above 3 stems in terms of there being no other instance/example thereof

    Same as above 3 stems in terms of entity being indivisible

    2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being indivisible)

    3. unique (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    3. unique (in terms of being indivisible)

    +

    EXAMPLES OF MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  individual(ity), solitude, lonely, loneliness

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MÔ - ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION LESS THAN ONE DAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. moment/instant

    1. ‘second’ [= basic unit of cyclic time, based on clapping of hands once together then once with back of hands together]

    2. a ‘while’

    2. ‘minute’ = 100 seconds

    3. portion of a day

    3. ‘hour’ = 100 minutes

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    +

    SSD affix used with FORMAL stems by degree:  1) 1/100 of time period 2) 1/10 3) ¼ 4) ½  5) exactly/precisely 6) twice the duration 7) 4 times 8) 10 times 9) 100 times

    +

    SSD affix used with INFORMAL Stem No. 3 by degree:  1) midnight to dawn period [Spanish ‘madrugada’] 2) dawn [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunrise’] 3) early morning 4) morning 5) midday 6) afternoon [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunset’] 7) twilight 8) evening 9) late night, from darkness till midnight

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PÔ- ‘WAIT/AWAIT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. wait (for), await; waiting, a wait

    1. vigil/a watch; be vigilant/watchful

    2. expect; expectation; expected/impending

    2. foresee; foresight; prospective/foreseeable

    3. predict; prediction

    3. prognosticate, forecast

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PRŌ- ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. column/pillar

    1. strut/buttress

    2. “side”/wall (external)

    2. partition

    3. floor [= base/ground]

    3. roof

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VŌ- ‘WHOLE NUMBER/INTEGER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a (whole) number, numeral, digit, integer

    Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to formal, authoritative, permanent context as per Section 3.7

    2. having more than one aspect; multifaceted

    3. numerical series/sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. multiply (by)

    1. divide (by)

    2. consisting of more than instance; multiple instance(s) of

    2. having more than one part; consisting of parts; non-unitary; non-unified

    3. exponential/logarithmic progression

    3. negative exponential/logarithmic progression

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VLÔ- ‘CONTAIN / HOLD / CONTENTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. contain(ment) via gravity (e.g., basin) + contents

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in quasi-permanent context or by intrinsic nature as opposed to the INFORMAL stems which convey an incidental or circumstantial context

    2. contain(ment) via enclosure / surrounding conveyance + contents

    3. contain(ment) via imbuement / as ingredient; to “carry” [as integrated component or ingredient] + contents

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to contents

    same as above 3 stems referring to the container

    +

    The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions: 1) bottle 2) jar/pot 3) barrel/cask 4) bin 5) vat / tub / basin [distinguished via SIZ affix] 6) can/tin 7) piece of furniture 8) purse/bag/satchel/pack 9) case/trunk

    +

     

    +

    CLASS VIII ROOTS:  Communication, learning, language, entertainment

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DÁ- ‘NAME/DESIGNATION/TITLE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. name + referent; to be named, to be called

    1. title + referent

    2. designation/reference + referent; refer to as

    2. formal designation + referent

    3. label / nickname + referent; to go by

    3. role

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FYÉ- ‘QUESTION/INQUIRY/ANSWER/RESPONSE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. question & answer [statement requesting information + the answer/reply/response thereto]

    1. inquire/inquiry + answer

    2. query/investigate [investigative act + discovery made]

    2. research + findings

    3. ponder/introspect [self-questioning + conclusion]

    3. analyze + results of analysis

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. question [statement requesting information]

    1. response/reply/answer [information desired or given]

    1. inquire/inquiry

    1. answer [i.e., result of inquiry]

    2. query

    2. answer (to query) [i.e., cause/reason for what is being looked into or investigated]

    2. research

    2. finding(s)/discovery made via research

    3. ponder/introspect; to question oneself mentally

    3. conclusion [(desired) result of self-analysis]

    3. analyze

    3. conclusion/results of analysis

    +

    Morphological derivations:  problem; solution; solve; resolution; resolve; elucidate

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KÁ- ‘REMEMBER/RECALL/MEMORY/RECORD’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. memory; remember (= recall) [whether unwilled/affective or self -willed/voluntary]

    1. trace/track/vestige

    2. retain / retention of something past into present

    2. memorial (object/action formally recognizing or acknowledging something/someone past)

    3. remember [= commit to memory] / memorize

    3. to record / a record

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. a memory itself (i.e., the content thereof)

    1. faculty of memory/recall (i.e., the process of using one’s memory)

    same as above 3 stems with focus on that which the physical manifestation memorializes or gives evidence/remembrance of

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the object/event/physical manifestation itself which conveys the memory or record

    2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the content thereof)

    2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the process thereof)

    3. thing remembered or memorized [=event/act/situation/state, etc. committed to memory]

    3. process of committing something to memory

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  recollect(ion), remind, memorize, memento, monument, archive, commemorate, commemoration, souvenir/keepsake, relic, to bear in mind, ponder/relish a memory, sear into one’s memory

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŦÚ-  ‘FANTASTIC OR IMAGINARY CREATURE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fantastic or imaginary creature/beast

    1. mythological/symbolic creature/beast

    2. winged fantastic creature/beast

    2. legendary being/creature/beast, allegedly real

    3. reptilian/saurian fantastic creature/beast

    3. alien/extraterrestrial being

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 1: 
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  dragon
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  centaur, sphinx, satyr, unicorn, chimera
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  vampyre, werewolf, yeti

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    LÁ- ‘SPEAK/VOICE/ORAL SOUND/INTERPRETATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. vocal utterance / oral sound; utter

    1. meaning or interpretation of vocal utterance; to mean or signify

    2. talk / speak / spoken utterance [parole]

    2. meaning or interpretation of word; to mean or signify

    3. rhetorical utterance / express [langue]

    3. meaning or interpretation of sentence or phrase; to mean or signify

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical production of sound

    same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

    same as above 3 stems referring to objective meaning, signification or denotation

    same as above 3 stems referring to subjective interpretation, connotation or “impact”

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: voice, (a) language, linguistic(s), yell, shout, cry, bark/meow/bleat/neigh, etc., [vocal] message, account, recount, story, tell, eloquence, glib(ness), smooth-talk, rhetoric, speech, dialect, slang

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    RÉ- ‘THOUGHT/IDEA/REASON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. think / cogitate + thought or idea cogitated

    1. to reason / use logic + content of reasoning

    2. consider + idea considered

    2. analyze + object of analysis

    3. propose + argument or idea proposed

    3. abstract (= to mentally construct) + concept

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. think / cogitate; an act of thinking

    1. a thought / an idea

    1. to reason / use logic; act of reasoning

    1. object of reasoning

    2. consider; an act of consideration

    2. a thought or idea considered

    2. analyze; act of analysis

    2. object of analysis

    3. propose / posit

    3. a proposition or argument

    3. to abstract / conceive / conceptualize; act of abstraction or conception

    3. concept

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: ponder, deliberate/deliberation, plan, contemplate, theory, hypothesis, deduce/deduction, postulate, infer(ence), judge, conclude/conclusion

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SÉ- ‘MUSIC’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. musical note or tone / produce [i.e., play] musical note or tone [sound + its playing]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except that they apply to the production of song, i.e., vocal music or for voice with musical accompaniment

    2. consciously select musical note [for purpose of composition] + sound of note

    3. a musical beat or measure [sound + its playing]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. sound of musical note or tone

    1. producing/playing of musical note or tone

    2. sound of selected musical note

    2. conscious selection of musical note [for purpose of composition]

    3. sound of a musical beat or measure

    3. production/playing of a musical beat or measure

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: piece of music, melody, music [abstract concept], composition, musical instrument, musician, composer, rhythm, band, orchestra, song

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    STÚ- ‘COMPARISON/MEASUREMENT/WEIGH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. compare/contrast

    1. measure

    2. discriminate/distinguish

    2. discern

    3. “weigh”/ponder choice/pro-con analysis

    3. relate/collate/determine relationships between

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or outcome

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TÁ- ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/DOCUMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. inscribe [= make written symbol]; written symbol

    1. written record / thing containing writing

    2. write message; written content

    2. document

    3. “write” [= compose via writing] / to author

    3. a writing / a written work

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical act of inscription

    same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

    ame as above 3 stems referring to the physical document

    same as above 3 stems referring to the content

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: book, treatise, manuscript, author, archive

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŦÚ ‘MIND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mind / mental (faculty + use)

    1. sentience / capacity for self awareness and self-identity + act of self-reflection

    2. perception / awareness (faculty + use)

    2. conscious + subconscious mind

    3. instinct (faculty + practice)

    3. intellect / wits /mind as efficacious tool

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. mental faculty / mind

    1. application of mental faculty; act of mentation / use one’s mind

    1. feeling of sentience

    1. act of self-reflection

    2. faculty of perception or awareness

    2. use of perception or awareness; to perceive / be aware of

    2. conscious mind

    2. subconscious mind

    3. instinct

    3. instinctual act; to act instinctively

    3. intellect; use one’s intellect

    3. product of one’s intellect / intellectual feat

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: philosophy, metaphysics

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TLÁ- ‘DEITY / SPIRITUAL ENTITY / SUPERNATURAL ENTITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (a) spirit / supernatural entity

    1. angel

    2. deity / god / “overseer” spirit

    2. God / Supreme Being / Creator deity

    3. demon

    3. the Devil / Satan

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VÉ- ‘FACT/KNOW/LEARN/UNDERSTAND/EXPERTISE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ontological fact;  observe/notice an ontological fact

    1. study/practice [= formal process to acquire skill or knowledge]

    2. epistemological/conventionalized fact; know fact

    2. realize/understand/comprehension via act of insight

    3. experience/proficiency [= know via familiarity]

    3. understand [= know via sharing/communication of knowledge]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of knowing

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing known

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of study/understanding

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing studied or understood

    +

    INFORMAL Stem Derivations:  find out, discover, determine, wisdom
    + FORMAL Stem Derivations:  learn, insight, enlightenment, education, school, scholar, student, university

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VYÚ- ‘GOOD/BENEFICIAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. good [= beneficial to context]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to concrete, range-of-moment tangible contexts, whereas INFORMAL stems are applied to general, metaphysical contexts.

    2. good [= morally right; beneficial metaphysically]

    3. good [= advantageous/effective]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act, event or situation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on desired outcome/reward/benefit

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    CLASS IX ROOTS:  Feelings, emotion, affect, preferences, volition, choice

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ČÊ- ‘DEGREE OF PLEASURE/FULFILLMENT/SATISFACTION/HAPPINESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of physical/sensual pleasure [both feeling and cause]

    1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented pleasure/contentment [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of emotional/psychological contentment/pleasure [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of happiness
    + (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of physical satisfaction/satiety [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of emotional/psychological satisfaction and fulfillment [both feeling and cause]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a pleasant visit’ or ‘a satisfying meal’

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a happy home’ or ‘a fulfilling job’

    +

    Derivations:  gratify/gratification, satiety, ecstasy, joy

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ĐÛ- ‘LOVE/AFFECTION/EMOTIONAL BOND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act of affection / display of fondness or endearment

    1. like / value as source of emotional fulfillment

    2. familial/genetically-tied bond of love

    2. love of country, heritage, race, etc.

    3. act/feeling of romantic love

    3. love of or emotional allegiance to abstract idea (e.g., freedom, life, wealth)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

    +

    Morphological Derivations:  love, tenderness, infatuation, obsession, passion, passionate
    + SSD Derivatives from INFORMAL Stem 1:  kiss, embrace, hug, hold hand, cuddle, caress, massage, pat, wink

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FÂ- ‘AFFECTIVE/NON-VOLITIONAL MENTAL STATE/PROCESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mood; be in a mood

    1. rationalization; rationalize

    2. instinct; act/behave on instinct [state + content]

    2. delusion; (be) delude(d)

    3. dream [state + content]

    3. hallucination; hallucinate

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    C-H    FÊ-  ‘PLAY/RECREATION/LEISURE’
    + (These stems are often used with the various Valence categories (Section 6.2) to specify the manner of participation)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. play/recreate/amuse oneself (activity + feeling of enjoyment derived) = self-involved activity, e.g., play w/ a toy, play hide-and-seek, etc.

    1. play/recreate (activity + feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived) = formal rule-oriented activity, e.g., a board game, a sport, etc.

    2. element of participitory or self-involved leisure activity (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived), e.g., a dance, a hike, fishing, camping

    2. attend/view a formal entertainment (activity + feeling of enjoyment/diversion derived), e.g., view a show, live performance, movie, a sporting event, etc.)

    3. practice hobby or pastime (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived)

    3. engage in (a) sport activity (activity + feeling of competitive spirit) for motive of formal competition, e.g., victory-oriented

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed, i.e., a toy, game or diversion

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

    +

    SSD Derivatives:
    + sports, toys, traditional board games, participitory outdoor games

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KÛ- ‘PRIDE/EGO/RESPECT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. feel proud (of oneself); feeling of pride (in oneself)

    1. self-esteem

    2. feel proud (of someone); feeling of pride (of someone)

    2. respect/admiration

    3. one’s feelings/sensibilities (e.g., to hurt one’s feelings)

    3. ego/sense of self-identity; to sense (some)one’s ego / to gain an impression of someone’s self-identity

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  arrogance/arrogant, haughtiness/haughty, pomposity/pompous, put on airs, vainglorious; magisterial/imperious

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    LYÂ- ‘ “HEART” / “ESSENCE” / VALUES ’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. metaphorical/psychological seat of one’s personality and emotions, i.e., “heart”, “soul”, mind

    1. personal value(s)/ what one holds dearest or as most important

    2. degree/depth of one’s emotions / “feelings” / experience a certain depth of emotion

    2. personal virtues/ personality traits

    3. essence; essential subjective/intangible qualities of an entity

    3. personal principles

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

    +

    Derivations:  personality

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    MYÛ-   ‘DEGREE OF WAKEFULNESS OR CONSCIOUSNESS’
    + Note: Stems from this root are used in conjunction with various degree indicator affixes such as the EXN, EXD and SUF affixes from Sec. 7.7.6 in order to distinguish which polarity (awake vs. asleep) is implied.

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of consciousness or unconsciousness

    1. degree of activity/vivaciousness/“energy”

    2. degree of wakefulness or sleepiness

    2. degree of dormancy or hibernation

    3. degree of alertness/focus/attention/awareness or lack thereof

    3. degree of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. capacity for or faculty of consciousness

    1. object/entity/thought of which one is conscious

    1. state of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

    1. object of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

    2. capacity for or faculty of wakefulness/sleepiness

    2. that which stimulates awakening or lulls into sleep

    2. state of dormancy/hibernation

    2. object of dormancy/hibernation

    3. capacity for or faculty of alertness/attention/awareness

    3. that to or of which one is alert/attentive/aware

    3. state of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

    3. object of one’s intent/diligence/enterprise

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sleepy, listless(ness), grogginess, “fresh”, unconscious, dull, inattentive, vigilant, to “stir”, frisky, ardent, eager, persevere, bustling, zeal

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    NYÛ- ‘CHOICE/ALTERNTIVE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. choose/choice [from open selection]

    1. select/pick [from limited selection]

    2. prefer(ence)

    2. alternative/option

    3. settle (for)

    3. vote [w/ CPT = elect]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PÂ-  ‘DEGREE OF PAIN/LOSS/DISSATISFACTION/MISERY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of physical pain [both feeling and cause]

    1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented displeasure/discontent [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of emotional/psychological discontent/pain [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of unhappiness/misery
    + (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of physical dissatisfaction/lack [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of emotional/psychological dissatisfaction and loss/lack [both feeling and cause]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unpleasant visit’ or ‘a terrible meal’

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unhappy home’ or ‘a miserable job’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PYÂ- ‘HUMOR/WIT/JEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something funny or humorous = comical

    1. a jest or prank; make a jest or pull a prank = act or situation designed to evoke humor

    2. something witty = subtlely and cleverly humorous

    2. a joke; make a joke  = communicated situation or message designed to evoke humor

    3. something farcical = something humorous based in irony

    3. something sardonic = double-edged humor based in sarcasm

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

    +

    SSD derivatives:  pun, riddle

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SLÊ- ‘EXPERIENCE / UNDERGO A STATE OR FEELING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of a state/feeling/emotion; feel (an) emotion [state + content]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of the particular emotion.

    2. act or action caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling

    3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on process itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential state/feeling itself

    +

    The stem patterns of the above root are applied to all of the following roots:
    + TMÊ-:  ‘excitement/thrill’
    + PSÛ-:  ‘agitation/disquietude’
    + MRÛ:  ‘awe / be or feel impressed / humbleness in face of something’
    + BZÂ-:  ‘depression / be or feel depressed’
    + ŦRÂ-: ‘eagerness / fervor / zeal’
    + TMÂ:  ‘cordiality/benevolence’
    + PSÂ:  ‘hysteria/loss of control’
    + GŽÊ-:  ‘commitment/loyalty’  Derivations:  ‘intransigence’, ‘stubbornness’
    + LÊ-:  ‘tenderness/nuturing/caring’
    + PSÊ-: ‘feel hurt/offended’
    + NLÛ-:  ‘spite’
    + DYÛ-: ‘stoicism/repression’
    + TLÊ-:  ‘nonchalance/indifference’ Derivations:  ‘callousness’
    + SKÛ-:  ‘torpor/lethargy’ Derivations: ‘stupor’, ‘catatonia’
    + ÇTÂ-:  ‘numbness / emotional saturation’
    + MRÂ-:  ‘wonder/enthrallment’
    + VRÛ-:  ‘inspiration / feeling of positive energy’
    + DŘÛ-: ‘fear/fright’
    + ČÂ-:  ‘uplift/inspiration (e.g., by beauty, art, music, etc.)
    + TMÛ-:  ‘jollity/merriment/gayness’
    + DYÊ-: ‘feeling carefree / frivolity / relaxed’
    + XLÂ-:  ‘stress / feel pressured’
    + GYÛ-:  ‘worry / feel preoccupied’
    + KRÛ:  ‘grief / sadness from loss’
    + ŠMÊ-: ‘angst / weltschmertz’
    + STÂ-  ‘regret, repining’
    + PÛ-  ‘woe, despair, desolation’
    + JÊ-  ‘sorrow, lamentation’
    +BÂ-  ‘wistfulness, bitter sweetness’
    +GÛ-  ‘bittersweet longing’ (Portuguese “saudade”)
    +KÂ-  ‘anticipate; feeling of anticipation’
    + DVÂ-: ‘feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that achievement of long-awaited vengeance or vindication is hollow and meaningless due to personal maturation or present irrelevance of original circumstances’
    + BZÊ-: ‘mix of humor and shame felt upon pulling joke on someone or at their expense but the target doesn’t “get it” or remains ignorant of the joke’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TÂ- ‘SEEK/SEARCH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. search, seek, look for something unknown [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

    1. hunt, hunt for [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

    2. search, seek, look for something lost [i.e., something known to exist which is missing]

    2. pursue, track down [i.e., existence certain, location surmisable]

    3. inspect

    3. quest / seek to accomplish/achieve something

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

    +

    Morphological Derivations: find, scan, reconnoiter, ransack, pry, ferret out, winnow through, fulfill a quest

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TÊ- ‘DEGREE OF FUN/MERRIMENT/JOVIALITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fun/ merriment; feel/be merry, have fun (both cause/source + feeling derived)

    1. be jovial/jocular/jolly; express/manifest joviality, jollity

    2. frolic, skylark = aimless, innocent pursuit of fun and amusement (both cause/source + feeling derived)

    2. formal amusement (activity or cause + feeling derived), e.g., from/at party, fete, show, performance, etc.

    3. whim, impulsive moment for purpose of amusement

    3. revel; an instance of revelry

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of merriment derived

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of merriment/amusement derived

    +

    carouse, with wild abandon, spree, escapade, jaunt, romp, party, fete

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XÛ-  ‘WANT/DESIRE/REQUEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) want/desire [emotion + object of desire]

    1. request [desire + thing requested]

    2. conscious desire based on need/lack/goal

    2. need/lack/necessity + thing needed or lacking

    3. hope/wish [feeling + thing wished/hoped for]

    3. ambition/goal/aspiration; aspire

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire

    same as above 3 stems referring to the thing desired

    same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire/need

    same as above 3 stems referring to the thing requested/needed

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: whim, fancy, inclination, appetite, “hunger”, greed, covet, propensity, aptness, eagerness, longing, crave, urge, passion, attract, tempt, persuade, allure, popularity, demand

    +

     

    +

    CLASS X ROOTS:  Socially or externally-induced affectations, intersocial volition

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    BĂ- ‘REPUTE/NOTORIETY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. repute/reputation

    1. distinction/mark

    2. public image/persona

    2. degree of eminence [= power or influence]

    3. notoriety [= degree of renown/recognition by others]

    3. degree of prestige/status

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

    +

    This root is usually used in conjunction with the NOTORIETY affix.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DĔ- ‘MANNERS/DECORUM/DIGNITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. well-mannered, well-behaved; display a sense of manners

    1. decorum/cultural appropriateness; have/display a sense of decorum, politeness and civility

    2. dignified; have/display a sense of dignity

    2. courtly/stately/refined; stateliness

    3. noble, distinguished, cultivated; have/display a noble, distinguished or cultivated air

    3. aristocratic, well-bred; having/displaying a sense of aristocracy, nobility and breeding

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

    +

    Morphological derivatives:  polite(ness); courtesy/courteous

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    JĂ-  ‘MANAGE/GUIDANCE/COMPLIANCE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. guide / guideline + compliance

    1. rule, precept + obedience

    2. manage / direct + compliance

    2. preside over / mete out law / govern + abidance

    3. discipline + submission/obedience

    3. moral guideline + personal rectitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. guide / guideline

    1. follow guide / follow guideline

    1. rule, precept

    1. obey rule or precept

    2. manage / direct

    2. comply / follow direction(s)

    2. preside over / met out law / govern

    2. abide by law / obey law

    3. apply discipline

    3. submit to discipline

    3. moral guideline

    3. personal rectitude

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: guidance, management, morality, law, president, ruler; set of rules, steer, administer, order, drive; oversee, custom, “norm”, authority

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŬ- ‘GRATITUDE/THANKFULNESS/PRAISE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to unexpected favor or convenience performed

    1. praise

    2. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to being relieved/rescued from negative situation

    2. gratefulness; feeling or manifestation of being beholden to someone or something [feeling is justified and an honor to be feeling]

    3. thank(s) / offer gratitude within ironic circumstances or merely as a courtesy, i.e., where expectation of thanks is for an unwanted, unnecessary, or purely symbolic act or required little or no effort on doer’s part

    3. feeling or manifestation of being beholden or obliged to someone or something [feeling is resented and unwanted]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on intent to convey gratitude

    same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of gratitude

    same as above 3 stems with focus on desire/intent to convey the feeling

    same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of the feeling

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  worship, indebted(ness)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŠŬ- ‘FOOL/CLOWN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fool(ish); dupe

    1. town fool, village idiot

    2. buffoon, laughingstock

    2. clown

    3. nerd, dweeb

    3. jester

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems in non-serious context of “in fun” or “for laughs”

    Same as above 3 stems in poignant, sorrowful, pathetic context

    Same as above 3 stems in context of entertainment

    Same as above 3 stems in context of parody or as a foil for society

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KYĂ- ‘SALUTATION/GREETING/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. acknowledge/demonstrate awareness of

    1. greet(ings) / salutation(s)

    2. hail / get attention of / bring attention to

    2. formal welcome or farewell

    3. congratulate

    3. socially introduce / to socially present

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    +

    SSD affix for FORMAL Stem Nos. 1 and 2 by degree:  1) bow upon arrival/introduction 2) shake hands upon arrival/introduction  3) wave hand or arm upon arrival/introduction/seeing 4)verbal salutation only upon arrival/introduction/seeing 5) words used in greeting/salutation/farewell  6) say goodbye  7) wave goodbye 8) shake hands upon farewell/leavetaking 9) bow upon farewell/leavetaking

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    NĂ-  ‘TRANSFER OF POSSESSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. temporary, circumstantial, incidental direct transfer of possession (i.e., give / take)

    1. quasi-permanent or official transfer of possession (i.e., rendering/reception; render, receive)

    2. temporary, circumstantial, incidental indirect transfer (i.e., to leave for someone / to take based on discernment of availability)

    2. quasi-permanent or official transfer (i.e., bestowal or bequest/acquisition; bestow/acquire)

    3. temporary, circumstantial, incidental transfer over distance (i.e., to bring something / to leave with something)

    3. deliver/take ownership of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. give, lend

    1. take, borrow

    1. donate; donation

    1. receive; reception

    2. leave (something for someone), make available

    2. get, obtain

    2. leave to heir

    2. inherit; inheritance

    3. thing given, gift (given)

    3. thing taken, gift (taken)

    3. bestow; bequest

    3. acquire; acquisition

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  procure(ment), requisition, accept (= willingly receive)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    NŬ- ‘GOODWILL/FRIENDLINESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. being nice [= emotional/spiritual/physical support of another’s interests]

    1. good samaritanship, going out of the way to help

    2. goodwill, benevolent intent, kindness

    2. peace / fellowship

    3. amicability / friendliness

    3. friendship (unidirectional)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

    +

    Derivations:  altruism, being friends, affable

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PYĂ - ‘CELEBRATORY ACT/ CEREMONIAL RITE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act of jubilation (as manifestation of personal joy, contentment, freedom, self-indulgence, etc.) [both act + cause/reason]

    1. solemn act of commemoration/memorial

    2. act of celebration (in positive recognition of something) [both act + cause/reason]

    2. solemn act of recognition/acknowledgement

    3. joyful or celebratory symbolic/ceremonial rite [both act + cause/reason]

    3. solemn symbolic/ceremonial rite

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  party, celebration, fête, festivities, ceremony

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŘĂ -  ‘ATTRACTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. feel/be attracted to (physical attraction to other person)

    1. feel/be attracted/drawn to (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

    2. feel/be attractive (physical attraction to other person)

    2. be attractive/seductive (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing, idea or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

    3. act/gesture indicating or hinting of attraction to; “(give) clue/hint” (physical attraction to other person)

    3. “selling point” / a “pro” (vs. “con”)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL Derivations:  seduce, seduction

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŠŬ- ‘ROMANTIC AND/OR SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.  state of sexual/romantic relationship

    1. significant other / boyfriend or girlfriend

    2.  erotic/sexual act; engage in a sexual/erotic activity

    2. lover / sex partner

    3.  to date / to court; pursue romantic relationship

    3. dating partner

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. sexual/romantic relationship itself

    1. emotional / hormonal basis underlying sexual relationship

    1. boyfriend

    1. girlfriend

    2. sexual/erotic act itself

    2. feeling of lust or other motive underlying sexual act

    2. male lover

    2. female lover

    3. particular act involved in dating or courtship

    3. feeling of hope or long-term goal of monogamous relationship or marriage underlying pursuit of romantic relationship

    3. male dating partner

    3. female dating partner

    +

    have sex, make love, cheat, monogamous relationship

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    VĂ-  ‘EFFORT/WORK’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exert / expend energy

    1. perform / operate / act / function

    2. work / labor / effort

    2. job task / employment-related task; perform job task

    3. handiwork / craftsmanship

    3. act of industry or enterprise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

    Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: strain, struggle, “fight”, toil, strenuous, persevere, operation, job, achievement, industry, enterprise, employment, employer, employee

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SKĂ-  ‘EXCHANGE/PURCHASE’
    + Note: The stems below are generally used in conjunction with PROCESSUAL versus COMPLETIVE version (See Secs. 5.3.1 and 5.3.2) in order to distinguish an offer of exchange from a completed exchange. Alternately, the distinction between MONOACTIVE and COMPLEMENTARY valence (Sec. 5.2) can be used for the same purpose.

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exchange / swap

    1. act of trade / act of barter

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange

    2. purchase / commercial transaction; buy(ing) and sell(ing)

    3. change out / supplant / replace

    3. invest(ment)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. exchange (focus on entity given)

    1. exchange (focus on entity taken)

    1. to trade for / acquire through trade; act of acquiring via trade

    1. to trade away / give up through trade; act of given away via trade

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted into new function/place)

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted out of old function/place)

    2. buy; acquisition via purchase

    2. sell; act of selling

    3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity newly placed)

    3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity taken out of action)

    3. acquire via investment; act of acquisition via investment

    3. release interest in / sell one’s investment

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: commercial venture, a purchase, acquisition via trade, acquisition via investment; purvey, goods, thing sold, market, warehouse, buyer, seller, agent, business

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TĂ- ‘OCCUPANCY/RESIDENCY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. entity present + presence

    1. tenant + domicile

    2. occupant + place occupied

    2. resident + residence

    3. denizen + claimed property

    3. citizen + property

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. entity present

    1. presence of entity

    1. tenant

    1. domicile

    2. occupant

    2. place occupied

    2. resident

    2. residence

    3. denizen

    3. claimed property

    3. citizen

    3. property

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dwelling, quarters, population, community, town, village, city, hamlet, county, geopolitical area, state/province, nation, geopolitical bloc; nest, lair, den

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZBĔ- ‘CONFLICT-BASED HOSTILITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hostility / anger / be angry [both emotion and display/actions]

    1. authoritative/official (i.e., police/military, etc.) use of force / act of aggression

    2. threat(en) [reason for plus act]

    2. threat of official/authoritative use of force

    3. defend oneself / defense [reason for plus act]

    3. official/authoritative defense

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. feeling of anger

    1. show/display of anger

    1. rationale/cause behind military agression

    1. official/authoritative act of force/agression

    2. cause/rationale for threat

    2. effect of threat or being threatened

    2. cause/rationale for official/authoritative/ military threat

    2. effect of official/authoritative/ military threat or being threatened

    3. situation/rationale for defensive act

    3. defend / take defensive action

    3. situation/rationale for official/authoritative/ military defensive act

    3. defend / take official/authoritative/ military defensive action

    +

    Derivations:  peeved, conflict, intimidate, fight, battle, skirmish, military operation or campaign, war

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ZŬ- ‘MARITAL/SPOUSAL RELATIONSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.  state of marriage / marital state / state of being married

    1. spouse

    2. act of infidelity / extramarital liaison / to be unfaithful / to betray spouse

    2. extramarital sex partner / mistress or gigolo

    3.  betrothal / engagement; be betrothed, be engaged

    3. fiancé(e) / being a fiancé(e)

     

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1.  formal/legal state of marriage

    1. emotional bond of love/fidelity underlying marriage

    1. husband

    1. wife

    2. physical act of infidelity/betrayal

    2. breaking of emotional bond underlying marriage

    2. gigolo, kept man (male equivalent of mistress)

    2. mistress

    3. formal/legal status of being betrothed/engaged

    3. emotional bond of love/fealty underlying betrothal/engagement

    3. fiancé

    3. fiancée

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  wed, wedded, marry, get married, marriage, wedding ceremony, cuckold (male or female)

    +

     

    +

     

    +
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    1+ M

    personal reference:  speaker + mixed 3rd party

    1+2m

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic listener

    1+2m+M

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic  listener + mixed 3rd party

    1+2m+ma

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic listener + monadic animate 3rd party

    1+2m+mi

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party

    1+2m+ua

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic listener + unbounded animate 3rd party

    1+2m+ui

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    1+2u

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener

    1+2u+M

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener + mixed 3rd party

    1+2u+ma

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener + monadic animate 3rd party

    1+2u+mi

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party

    1+2u+ua

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener + unbounded animate 3rd party

    1+2u+ui

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    1+ma

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic animate 3rd party

    1+mi

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic inanimate 3rd party

    1+ua

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded animate 3rd party

    1+ui

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    2m

    personal reference:  monadic listener

    2m+M

    personal reference:  monadic listener + mixed 3rd party

    2m+ma

    personal reference:  monadic listener + monadic animate 3rd party

    2m+mi

    personal reference:  monadic listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party

    2m+ua

    personal reference:  monadic listener + unbounded animate 3rd party

    2m+ui

    personal reference:  monadic listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    2u

    personal reference:  unbounded listener

    2u+M

    personal reference:  unbounded listener + mixed 3rd party

    2u+ma

    personal reference:  unbounded listener + monadic animate 3rd party

    2u+mi

    personal reference:  unbounded listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party

    2u+ua

    personal reference:  unbounded listener + unbounded animate 3rd party

    2u+ui

    personal reference:  unbounded listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    A

    Abstract perspective

    ABE

    Abessive case

    ABL

    Ablative case

    ABS

    Absolutive case

    Abt

    personal reference:  Abstract referent

    ACC

    Accordative modality

    ACP

    Acceptive bias

    ACQ

    Suffix: Acquisition 

    ACS

    Accessive case

    ACT

    Activative case

    ADM

    Admonitive illocution

    ADV

    Advocative modality

    AFF

    Affective case

    AFM

    Affirmative validation

    AFI

    Affinitive format

    AFT

    Suffix:  Degree of Affect

    AGC

    Suffix:  Degree of Agency

    AGG

    Aggregative configuration

    AGN

    Suffix:  Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness

    ALG

    Allegative sanction

    ALL

    Allative case

    ALP

    Allapsive case

    AMG

    Amalgamative context

    ANT

    Anticipative modality

    APL

    Applicative case

    APR

    Suffix:  Degree of Contextual Appropriateness

    APT

    Suffix:  Various Aspects

    ASC

    Ascriptive mood

    ASI

    Assimilative case

    ASM

    Assumptive mood

    ASO

    Associative affiliation

    ASP

    Aspirative modality

    ASR

    Assertive illocution

    ASS

    Assessive case

    ASU

    Assurative bias

    ATC

    Suffix:  Degree Of Anticipation

    ATH

    Authoritative format

    ATN

    Suffix:  Degree of Attention or Determination

    ATT

    Attributive case

    AUT

    Suffix: Authorization

    AVR

    Aversive case

    AXM

    Axiomatic sanction

    BEH

    Suffix: Degree of Subjective Effect or Behavioral Appropriateness

    BEN

    Benefactive case

    BOD

    Suffix:  Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’

    CAL

    Suffix: Calendrical Sequencing - days, months, years, decades, centuries, millenia

    CAP

    Suffix:  Degree of Potential or Capability

    CCL

    Conclusive aspect

    CCM

    Concommitant format

    CFD

    Suffix:  Degree of Forthrightness, Confidence or Humility

    CGL

    Suffix:  Motive/Reason for Conglomeration/Coming Together of Gestalt Entity

    CLA

    Classificative case

    CLM

    Climactic aspect

    CLS

    Compulsory modality

    CML

    Compulsive modality

    CMM

    Commutative case

    CMP

    Comparative case

    CMP1A

    Comparative 1A case

    CMP1B

    Comparative 1B case

    CMP1C

    Comparative 1C case

    CMP2A

    Comparative 2A case

    CMP2B

    Comparative 2B case

    CMP2C

    Comparative 2C case

    CMP3A

    Comparative 3A case

    CMP3B

    Comparative 3B case

    CMP3C

    Comparative 3C case

    CMP4A

    Comparative 4A case

    CMP4B

    Comparative 4B case

    CMP4C

    Comparative 4C case

    CMP5A

    Comparative 5A case

    CMP5B

    Comparative 5B case

    CMP5C

    Comparative 5C case

    CMP6A

    Comparative 6A case

    CMP6B

    Comparative 6B case

    CMP6C

    Comparative 6C case

    CMP7A

    Comparative 7A case

    CMP7B

    Comparative 7B case

    CMP7C

    Comparative 7C case

    CMP8A

    Comparative 8A case

    CMP8B

    Comparative 8B case

    CMP8C

    Comparative 8C case

    CNC

    Suffix:  Degree of Concern or Consideration

    CNF

    Confirmative validation

    CNG

    Contingent valence

    CNJ

    Conjunctive case

    CNM

    Suffix:  Type of Container/Packaging/Conveyance/Holder

    CNQ

    Suffix:  Degree of Consequentiality, Finality or Irrevocability

    CNR

    Concursive case

    CNS

    Suffix:  Degree of Consent

    CNT

    Continuative aspect

    CNV

    Conductive case

    COA

    Coalescent affiliation

    COH

    Coherent configuration

    COI

    Coincidental bias

    Col

    personal reference:  collective entity

    COM

    Comitative case

    CON

    Concessive case

    COO

    Suffix:  Adjunctive Coordination

    COR

    Correlative case

    COS

    Suffix:  Comparison Specifications (Used with Levels ) - see Section 6.2 and Section 6.2.5

    COU

    Counterfactive mood

    CPC

    Capacitative modality

    CPL

    Complementary valence

    CPN

    Componential configuration

    CPS

    Compositive case

    CPT

    Completive version

    CRD

    Credential modality

    CRI

    Suffix:  Cycle or circular motion in place (spin, revolve)

    CRO

    Corollary valence

    CRR

    Corrective bias

    CRS

    Contrastive case

    CRV

    Suffix:  Cycle or circular motion over linear vector (e.g., train wheels, bike wheels)

    CSD

    Considerative case

    CSL

    Consolidative affiliation

    CSM

    Consumptive aspect

    CSQ

    Consequential aspect

    CSS

    Cessative aspect

    CST

    Composite configuration

    CTC

    Suffix:  Degree of Contact

    CTN

    Suffix:  Degree of Contrariness to Expectation(s) or Shift in Subject

    CTP

    Contemptive bias

    CTR

    Suffix:  Contrastive Coordination

    CTV

    Contemplative bias

    CTX

    Contextual phase

    CUL

    Culminative aspect

    CVS

    Conversive case

    CVT

    Suffix:  Degree of Covertness versus Overtness

    CVY

    Suffix: Means of Transportation/Conveyance

    CYN

    Cynical bias

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DAT

    Dative case

    DBI

    Suffix:  Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’

    DCI

    Suffix:  Decrease then Increase

    DCL

    Disclusive aspect

    DCR

    Suffix:  Decrease

    DCS

    Suffix:  Degree of Decisiveness, Commitment or Emphasis

    DCT

    Discrete configuration

    DCV

    Decisive modality

    DEC

    Declarative illocution

    DEF

    Suffix:  Degree Of Definiteness

    DEL

    Delimitive extension

    DEM

    Demonstrative valence

    DEP

    Dependent case

    DER

    Derivative case

    DES

    Desiderative modality

    DEV

    Suffix:  Degree of Development

    DEX

    Suffix:  Deixis Categories

    DFC

    Deficient level

    DFF

    Diffusive case

    DGR

    Suffix:  Exactness of Degree

    DIR

    Directive illocution

    DLB

    Suffix:  Degree of Deliberateness/Agency

    DPL

    Depletive extension

    DPR

    Suffix:  Dispersion or Separability of a Configurative Set

    DPT

    Suffix: Depiction/Representation/Record

    DPV

    Desperative bias

    DPX

    Duplex configuration

    DRC

    Suffix:  Degree of Directness

    DSC

    Descriptive function

    DSG

    Suffix:  Degree of Design or Purposefulness

    DSM

    Dismissive bias

    DSP

    Dispositive modality

    DSR

    Suffix:  Degree Of Discretion

    DST

    Suffix:  Distributive Coordination

    DUB

    Dubitative validation

    DUP

    Duplicative valence

    DVR

    Divertive modality

    DVT

    Devotive modality

    DXX

    Suffix:  Additional Deixis Categories

    DYN

    Dynamic function

    Ea

    personal reference:  universal animate

    EFC

    Effective version

    EFF

    Effectuative Case

    EFI

    Suffix:  Degree of Efficiency or Efficacy

    EFT

    Suffix:  Degree of Effort

    Ei

    personal reference:  universal inanimate

    ELP

    Elapsive case

    ENG

    Suffix:  Degree of Engagement/Involvement

    ENB

    Suffix:  Degree of Enablement

    EPD

    Expeditive aspect

    EPI

    Epistemic sanction

    EPS

    Episodic case

    EQU

    Equative level

    ERG

    Ergative case

    ERR

    Suffix:  Degree of Correctness versus Error

    ESS

    Essive case

    EUP

    Euphemistic bias

    EXA

    Exasperative bias

    EXC

    Exceptive case

    EXD

    Suffix:  Dynamically Changing Degree or Extent

    EXH

    Exhortative modality

    EXN

    Suffix:  Degree or Extent

    EXP

    Experiential aspect

    EXS

    Existential context

    EXT

    Suffix:  Exactness of Identity / Identity As a Referent Or Standard

    EXV

    Expatiative sanction

    EPC

    Expectative modality

    FAC

    Factual mood

    FAM

    Suffix:  Degree Of Familiarity

    FEA

    Suffix: Featural Properties 

    FLC

    Fluctuative phase

    FLS

    Suffix:  Degree of Fluctuation/Stability

    FML

    Formal designation

    FMS

    Suffix: Material States/Forms (non-solid or quasi-solid) 

    FNC

    Functional context

    FNS

    Suffix:  Material States/Forms (solids) 

    FRAMED

    Framed relation

    FRC

    Suffix:  Degree of Physical Force Exerted

    FRE

    Frequentative phase

    FRG

    Fragmentative phase

    FRM

    Suffix:  Degree of Formality

    FRQ

    Suffix:  Degree Of Frequency

    FUN

    Functive case

    GEN

    Genitive case

    GRA

    Graduative extension

    GRT

    Gratificative bias

    HAB

    Habitual aspect

    HOR

    Hortative illocution

    HPB

    Hyperbolic bias

    HRC

    Suffix:  Position on Social, Occupational, or (Para-) Military Hierarchy

    HYP

    Hypothetical mood

    ICD

    Suffix:  Increase then Decrease

    ICL

    Inclinative modality

    ICP

    Incipient extension

    ICR

    Suffix:  Increase

    ICS

    Incessative aspect

    IDa

    personal reference:  indefinite animate

    IDC

    Indicative valence

    IDG

    Indignative bias

    IDi

    personal reference:  indefinite inanimate

    IDP

    Interdependent case

    IDR

    Suffix:  Random/Varying Increases and Decreases

    IFL

    Informal designation

    IFR

    Inferior level

    IMD

    Intermediative aspect

    IMM

    Imminent aspect

    IMP

    Suffix:  Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome

    IMS

    Impositive modality

    IMT

    Imitative valence

    INB

    Suffix: Inability/Incapacity Due To 

    INC

    Incompletive version

    IND

    Inducive case

    INE

    Ineffectual version

    INF

    Inferential validation

    INL

    Suffix:  Degree Of Inclusion

    INP

    Interpolative case

    INS

    Instrumental case

    IPa

    personal reference:  impersonal animate

    IPB

    Improbable validation

    IPi

    personal reference:  impersonal in animate

    IPL

    Implicative mood

    IPS

    Impressional modality

    IPT

    Suffix: Degree of importance/impact/signficance

    IPU

    Imputative sanction

    IRG

    Interrogative illocution

    IRO

    Ironic bias

    ISR

    Instrumentative format

    ITC

    Intercommutative aspect

    ITG

    Suffix:  Degree of Intelligence Manifested

    ITM

    Intermittent phase

    ITN

    Suffix:  Degree of Iteration

    ITP

    Interpretative case

    ITR

    Iterative phase

    ITU

    Intuitive validation

    ITV

    Intentive modality

    ITY

    Suffix:  Degree of Speed (i.e., Intensity of Movement or Change)

    LAT

    Suffix:  Degree Of Lateness/Earliness

    LCT

    Suffix:  Locational Octant Markers for Object Being Located (see Section 10.3.3)

    LIM

    Limitative case

    LOC

    Locative case

    LTL

    Literal bias

    LVL

    Suffix:  Levels (see Sec. 6.2)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M

    Monadic perspective

    ma

    personal reference:  monadic animate 3rd party

    MAT

    Suffix:  Degree of Maturation

    MD01

    Suffix:  resigned to

    MD02

    Suffix:  devoted; committed to / devoted to

    MD03

    Suffix:  desired / sought-after; want to

    MD04

    Suffix:  attempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt to

    MD05

    Suffix:  capable, able; can / able to / capable of

    MD06

    Suffix:  knowledgeable; can = know how to / familiar with

    MD07

    Suffix:  mandatory; must / have to

    MD08

    Suffix:  required; should / be to

    MD09

    Suffix:  expected; be supposed to

    MD10

    Suffix:  intended; mean to / intend to / shall

    MD11

    Suffix:  chosen, selected; choose to / elect to

    MD12

    Suffix:  …on impulse; feel like X-ing

    MD13

    Suffix:  promised; promise to

    MD14

    Suffix:  well-liked; like (to)

    MD15

    Suffix:  feared; fear (to)

    MD16

    Suffix:  willing; willing to

    MD17

    Suffix:  prepared / ready; prepared to/ready to

    MD18

    Suffix:  necessary / needed; need to

    MD19

    Suffix:  Daring; dare to

    MD20

    Suffix:  decided-upon; decide to

    MD21

    Suffix:  offered/offer of; offer to

    MD22

    Suffix:  aided / assisted; help to / aid in X-ing

    MD24

    Suffix:  not unexpected; be prone to / be apt to / tend to

    MD25

    Suffix:  agreed-upon; agree to

    MD26

    Suffix:  responsible for/in charge of

    MD27

    Suffix:  remember to

    MD28

    Suffix:  feel a need to / feel one should / feel one must / feel driven to

    MD29

    Suffix:  to guess or think [that]…

    MD30

    Suffix:  available; available to/for

    MD31

    Suffix:  potential; can = have potential to

    MD32

    Suffix:  permitted; can = permitted to

    MD33

    Suffix:  hoped-for; hope/wish to

    MDL

    Suffix:  Random pattern of modulation (unpredictable/irregular movement pattern)

    MDN

    Suffix:  Degree of Age or Modernity

    MEC

    Suffix:  Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’

    MED

    Mediative case

    MET

    Suffix:  Metonymic Categories

    mi

    personal reference:  monadic inanimate 3rd party

    MIN

    Minimal level

    MLR

    Suffix: Meta-level representation/coordination/analysis

    MLT

    Multiform configuration

    MNF

    Manifestive function

    MNO

    Monoactive valence

    MOT

    Suffix:  Degree of Self-Conscious Deliberation or Motivation

    MTA

    Suffix:  Additional Motivation for an Action or State

    MTV

    Motive aspect

    MUT

    Mutual valence

    MVT

    Suffix:  Degree of Stillness/Movement

    Mx

    personal reference:  mixed third party (animate + inanimate and/or monadic + unbounded)

    N

    Gnomic perspective

    NA1

    Suffix:  Negation/affirmation of all morphological components

    NA2

    Suffix:  Negation/affirmation of stem + affixes but not adjunct information

    NA3

    Suffix:  Negation/affirmation of all morphological components except Modality

    NAR

    Suffix:  Negation/affirmation of all but aspectual or Modality information

    NAV

    Navigative case

    NEC

    Necessitative modality

    NEW

    Suffix:  Degree of Newness/Revision

    NNN

    Suffix:  n-numbered angles/facets/faces/sides/points/forms

    NNR

    Nonrelational valence

    NRM

    Normal essence

    NTR

    Suffix:  Degree of Notoriety, Acceptance, Respect, Honor

    OAU

    Suffix: Origin/Association/Utilization 

    OBG

    Obligative modality

    OBJ

    Objective format

    OBL

    Oblique case

    Obv

    personal reference:  obviative

    OGN

    Originative case

    OPF

    Suffix: Degree of Operational Functionality

    OPR

    Opportunitive modality

    OPT

    Optimal level

    ORI

    Orientative case

    PAR

    Partitive case

    PAU

    Pausal aspect

    PCL

    Preclusive aspect

    PCN

    Suffix:  Degree of Care, Precision or Scrutiny

    PCR

    Postcursive case

    PCS

    Precessive aspect

    PCT

    Punctual phase

    PCV

    Precursive case

    PDC

    Productive case

    PER

    Periodic case

    PFT

    Preferential modality

    PHS

    Suffix:  Phase categories

    PHY

    Suffix:  Degree of Physical Control

    PLA

    Suffix:  Place, State, Setting Where…

    PLE

    Suffix: Degree of (Un-)Pleasantness (of Effect or Result) 

    PLM

    Prolimitive case

    PLV

    Suffix:  polarity / logical valence values

    PMP

    Preemptive aspect

    PMS

    Promissory modality

    POS

    Possessive case

    PPS

    Propositional sanction

    PPT

    Purportive validation

    PPT2

    Purportive 2 validation

    PPV

    Propositive bias

    PRB

    Suffix:  Degree of Probability or Likelihood

    PRC

    Processual version

    PRD

    Predicative case

    PRE

    Preparative modality

    PRG

    Progressive aspect

    PRL

    Parallel valence

    PRM

    Permissive modality

    PRO

    Prolapsive case

    PRP

    Proprietive case

    PRS

    Prospective aspect

    PRT

    Precurrent format

    PRX

    Proximal extension

    PSM

    Presumptive validation

    PSM2

    Presumptive 2 validation

    PST

    Positive version

    PSV

    Procursive case

    PTC

    Protractive aspect

    PTF

    Suffix:  Part/Whole Functional Metaphors

    PTG

    Suffix:  Part/Whole Gestalt Componential Metaphors

    PTI

    Participative valence

    PTL

    Postulative case

    PTN

    Potential modality

    PTT

    Suffix:  Non-Contiguous (i.e., Intermixed) Portion of the Whole

    PTV

    Proclivitive modality

    PTW

    Suffix:  Contiguous Portion of the Whole

    PTY

    Suffix:  Degree of Prototypicalness

    PUR

    Purposive case

    PUT

    Putative validation

    PVS

    Provisional case

    PXM

    Suffix:  Degree of Proximity

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    QUA

    Suffix:  Degree of Quality, Effectiveness or Adequacy

    RAC

    Reactive bias

    RCO

    Suffix:  Recoil in place (spring back; snap back; fall back into place)

    RCP

    Reciprocal valence

    RCS

    Recessative aspect

    RCT

    Recurrent phase

    REA

    Suffix:  Degree of Genuineness or Veracity

    REB

    Rebuttative sanction

    REF

    Referential case

    REG

    Regulative aspect

    REP

    Repetitive phase

    REQ

    Requisitive modality

    RES

    Resistive valence

    RFU

    Refutative sanction

    RGR

    Regressive aspect

    RNC

    Suffix: Renunciation 

    ROL

    Suffix:  Role

    RPN

    Suffix:  Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set Members

    RPS

    Representational context

    RPT

    Reportive validation

    RPV

    Representative essence

    RSL

    Resultative format

    RSM

    Resumptive aspect

    RSN

    Suffix:  Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action

    RTR

    Retrospective aspect

    RVL

    Revelative bias

    SBE

    Subequative level

    SBQ

    Subsequent format

    SBS

    Suffix:  Subset of Configurative Set

    SBT

    Suffix:  Degree of Subtlety

    SCH

    Schematic format

    SCO

    Suffix:  Dynamic Change of Size

    SCS

    Suffix:  Degree of Success versus Failure

    SCT

    Suffix:  Degree of Shift/Change/Transition (used for both spatial and temporal contexts)

    SDP

    Suffix:  Subset of Duplex Set

    SEG

    Segmentative configuration

    SEL

    Selective bias

    SEP

    Suffix:  Spatio-Temporal Separability of a Configurative Set

    SEQ

    Suffix:  Numerical Sequence

    SGS

    Suggestive bias

    SIM

    Suffix:  Degree Of Similarity

    SIT

    Situative case

    SIZ

    Suffix:  Degree of Size

    SKP

    Skeptical bias

    SML

    Simultaneitive case

    SOC

    Suffix:  Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’

    SOL

    Solicitive bias

    SPD

    Suffix:  Degree of Speed (i.e., Velocity = Distance Over Time)

    SPE

    Speculative mood

    SPQ

    Superequative level

    SPH

    Suffix:  Degree of Sophistication

    SPL

    Superlative level

    SPS

    Suffix: Supersets/Multi-Level Gestalts 

    SQC

    Suffix:  Sequence of Cause and Effect

    SQN

    Sequential aspect

    SQT

    Suffix:  Sequence Relative to Present Context

    SSD

    Suffix:  Stem-Specific Derivatives

    STA

    Stative function

    STG

    Suffix: Stage of a Process 

    STR

    Suffix:  Degree of Physical Strength Possible or Used

    STU

    Stupefactive bias

    SUB

    Subjunctive mood

    SUD

    Suffix:  Degree of Suddenness

    SUF

    Suffix:  Degree Of Sufficiency

    SUR

    Surpassive level

    SWR

    Suffix:  Switch-reference

    TAL

    Suffix: Degree of Capacity or Talent For 

    TEM

    Suffix:  Alternative Temporal Aspects

    TEN

    Tentative validation

    TFI

    Suffix:  Back & forth; to & fro in place (e.g., pendulum, wagging tail)

    TFM

    Transformative case

    TFV

    Suffix:  Back & forth over linear vector (e.g., snake-like; zig-zag)

    THR

    Theoretical sanction

    TMP

    Temporary aspect

    TNS

    Transitional aspect

    TPD

    Suffix: Temporary Duration 

    TPF

    Suffix:  Topic, Frame and Focus

    TPI

    Suffix:  Impact or Duration Over Time

    TPP

    Suffix:  Temporal Position Relative to Present

    TPR

    Suffix:  Temporal Placement/Reaction/Viewpoint

    TRD

    Tardative aspect

    TRF

    Suffix: Transformation for Use

    TRM

    Terminative extension

    TSP

    Transpositive case

    TYP

    Suffix:  Degree of Typicalness

    U

    Unbounded perspective

    ua

    personal reference:  unbounded animate 3rd party

    ui

    personal reference:  unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    UNFRAMED

    Unframed relation

    UNI

    Uniplex configuration

    UNQ

    Suffix:  Degree of Specialness or Uniqueness

    UTE

    Suffix:  Utilitative or Enabling Means

    UTL

    Utilitative case

    VAR

    Variative affiliation

    VOC

    Vocative case

    VOL

    Voluntative modality

    VWP

    Suffix: From Viewpoint/Perspective Of 

    WAK

    Suffix:  Spread/wake/trail/area/expanse created by passage of entity

    XPT

    Suffix:  Expectation of Outcome

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    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/abbreviations.html.orig b/2004-en/abbreviations.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..83ded63 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/abbreviations.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2280 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Abbreviations List + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

    		  
    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    + +


    +    List of Morphological Abbreviations

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    1+ M

    personal reference:  speaker + mixed 3rd party

    1+2m

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic listener

    1+2m+M

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic  listener + mixed 3rd party

    1+2m+ma

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic listener + monadic animate 3rd party

    1+2m+mi

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party

    1+2m+ua

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic listener + unbounded animate 3rd party

    1+2m+ui

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    1+2u

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener

    1+2u+M

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener + mixed 3rd party

    1+2u+ma

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener + monadic animate 3rd party

    1+2u+mi

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party

    1+2u+ua

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener + unbounded animate 3rd party

    1+2u+ui

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    1+ma

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic animate 3rd party

    1+mi

    personal reference:  speaker + monadic inanimate 3rd party

    1+ua

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded animate 3rd party

    1+ui

    personal reference:  speaker + unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    2m

    personal reference:  monadic listener

    2m+M

    personal reference:  monadic listener + mixed 3rd party

    2m+ma

    personal reference:  monadic listener + monadic animate 3rd party

    2m+mi

    personal reference:  monadic listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party

    2m+ua

    personal reference:  monadic listener + unbounded animate 3rd party

    2m+ui

    personal reference:  monadic listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    2u

    personal reference:  unbounded listener

    2u+M

    personal reference:  unbounded listener + mixed 3rd party

    2u+ma

    personal reference:  unbounded listener + monadic animate 3rd party

    2u+mi

    personal reference:  unbounded listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party

    2u+ua

    personal reference:  unbounded listener + unbounded animate 3rd party

    2u+ui

    personal reference:  unbounded listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    A

    Abstract perspective

    ABE

    Abessive case

    ABL

    Ablative case

    ABS

    Absolutive case

    Abt

    personal reference:  Abstract referent

    ACC

    Accordative modality

    ACP

    Acceptive bias

    ACQ

    Suffix: Acquisition 

    ACS

    Accessive case

    ACT

    Activative case

    ADM

    Admonitive illocution

    ADV

    Advocative modality

    AFF

    Affective case

    AFM

    Affirmative validation

    AFI

    Affinitive format

    AFT

    Suffix:  Degree of Affect

    AGC

    Suffix:  Degree of Agency

    AGG

    Aggregative configuration

    AGN

    Suffix:  Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness

    ALG

    Allegative sanction

    ALL

    Allative case

    ALP

    Allapsive case

    AMG

    Amalgamative context

    ANT

    Anticipative modality

    APL

    Applicative case

    APR

    Suffix:  Degree of Contextual Appropriateness

    APT

    Suffix:  Various Aspects

    ASC

    Ascriptive mood

    ASI

    Assimilative case

    ASM

    Assumptive mood

    ASO

    Associative affiliation

    ASP

    Aspirative modality

    ASR

    Assertive illocution

    ASS

    Assessive case

    ASU

    Assurative bias

    ATC

    Suffix:  Degree Of Anticipation

    ATH

    Authoritative format

    ATN

    Suffix:  Degree of Attention or Determination

    ATT

    Attributive case

    AUT

    Suffix: Authorization

    AVR

    Aversive case

    AXM

    Axiomatic sanction

    BEH

    Suffix: Degree of Subjective Effect or Behavioral Appropriateness

    BEN

    Benefactive case

    BOD

    Suffix:  Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’

    CAL

    Suffix: Calendrical Sequencing - days, months, years, decades, centuries, millenia

    CAP

    Suffix:  Degree of Potential or Capability

    CCL

    Conclusive aspect

    CCM

    Concommitant format

    CFD

    Suffix:  Degree of Forthrightness, Confidence or Humility

    CGL

    Suffix:  Motive/Reason for Conglomeration/Coming Together of Gestalt Entity

    CLA

    Classificative case

    CLM

    Climactic aspect

    CLS

    Compulsory modality

    CML

    Compulsive modality

    CMM

    Commutative case

    CMP

    Comparative case

    CMP1A

    Comparative 1A case

    CMP1B

    Comparative 1B case

    CMP1C

    Comparative 1C case

    CMP2A

    Comparative 2A case

    CMP2B

    Comparative 2B case

    CMP2C

    Comparative 2C case

    CMP3A

    Comparative 3A case

    CMP3B

    Comparative 3B case

    CMP3C

    Comparative 3C case

    CMP4A

    Comparative 4A case

    CMP4B

    Comparative 4B case

    CMP4C

    Comparative 4C case

    CMP5A

    Comparative 5A case

    CMP5B

    Comparative 5B case

    CMP5C

    Comparative 5C case

    CMP6A

    Comparative 6A case

    CMP6B

    Comparative 6B case

    CMP6C

    Comparative 6C case

    CMP7A

    Comparative 7A case

    CMP7B

    Comparative 7B case

    CMP7C

    Comparative 7C case

    CMP8A

    Comparative 8A case

    CMP8B

    Comparative 8B case

    CMP8C

    Comparative 8C case

    CNC

    Suffix:  Degree of Concern or Consideration

    CNF

    Confirmative validation

    CNG

    Contingent valence

    CNJ

    Conjunctive case

    CNM

    Suffix:  Type of Container/Packaging/Conveyance/Holder

    CNQ

    Suffix:  Degree of Consequentiality, Finality or Irrevocability

    CNR

    Concursive case

    CNS

    Suffix:  Degree of Consent

    CNT

    Continuative aspect

    CNV

    Conductive case

    COA

    Coalescent affiliation

    COH

    Coherent configuration

    COI

    Coincidental bias

    Col

    personal reference:  collective entity

    COM

    Comitative case

    CON

    Concessive case

    COO

    Suffix:  Adjunctive Coordination

    COR

    Correlative case

    COS

    Suffix:  Comparison Specifications (Used with Levels ) - see Section 6.2 and Section 6.2.5

    COU

    Counterfactive mood

    CPC

    Capacitative modality

    CPL

    Complementary valence

    CPN

    Componential configuration

    CPS

    Compositive case

    CPT

    Completive version

    CRD

    Credential modality

    CRI

    Suffix:  Cycle or circular motion in place (spin, revolve)

    CRO

    Corollary valence

    CRR

    Corrective bias

    CRS

    Contrastive case

    CRV

    Suffix:  Cycle or circular motion over linear vector (e.g., train wheels, bike wheels)

    CSD

    Considerative case

    CSL

    Consolidative affiliation

    CSM

    Consumptive aspect

    CSQ

    Consequential aspect

    CSS

    Cessative aspect

    CST

    Composite configuration

    CTC

    Suffix:  Degree of Contact

    CTN

    Suffix:  Degree of Contrariness to Expectation(s) or Shift in Subject

    CTP

    Contemptive bias

    CTR

    Suffix:  Contrastive Coordination

    CTV

    Contemplative bias

    CTX

    Contextual phase

    CUL

    Culminative aspect

    CVS

    Conversive case

    CVT

    Suffix:  Degree of Covertness versus Overtness

    CVY

    Suffix: Means of Transportation/Conveyance

    CYN

    Cynical bias

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    DAT

    Dative case

    DBI

    Suffix:  Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’

    DCI

    Suffix:  Decrease then Increase

    DCL

    Disclusive aspect

    DCR

    Suffix:  Decrease

    DCS

    Suffix:  Degree of Decisiveness, Commitment or Emphasis

    DCT

    Discrete configuration

    DCV

    Decisive modality

    DEC

    Declarative illocution

    DEF

    Suffix:  Degree Of Definiteness

    DEL

    Delimitive extension

    DEM

    Demonstrative valence

    DEP

    Dependent case

    DER

    Derivative case

    DES

    Desiderative modality

    DEV

    Suffix:  Degree of Development

    DEX

    Suffix:  Deixis Categories

    DFC

    Deficient level

    DFF

    Diffusive case

    DGR

    Suffix:  Exactness of Degree

    DIR

    Directive illocution

    DLB

    Suffix:  Degree of Deliberateness/Agency

    DPL

    Depletive extension

    DPR

    Suffix:  Dispersion or Separability of a Configurative Set

    DPT

    Suffix: Depiction/Representation/Record

    DPV

    Desperative bias

    DPX

    Duplex configuration

    DRC

    Suffix:  Degree of Directness

    DSC

    Descriptive function

    DSG

    Suffix:  Degree of Design or Purposefulness

    DSM

    Dismissive bias

    DSP

    Dispositive modality

    DSR

    Suffix:  Degree Of Discretion

    DST

    Suffix:  Distributive Coordination

    DUB

    Dubitative validation

    DUP

    Duplicative valence

    DVR

    Divertive modality

    DVT

    Devotive modality

    DXX

    Suffix:  Additional Deixis Categories

    DYN

    Dynamic function

    Ea

    personal reference:  universal animate

    EFC

    Effective version

    EFF

    Effectuative Case

    EFI

    Suffix:  Degree of Efficiency or Efficacy

    EFT

    Suffix:  Degree of Effort

    Ei

    personal reference:  universal inanimate

    ELP

    Elapsive case

    ENG

    Suffix:  Degree of Engagement/Involvement

    ENB

    Suffix:  Degree of Enablement

    EPD

    Expeditive aspect

    EPI

    Epistemic sanction

    EPS

    Episodic case

    EQU

    Equative level

    ERG

    Ergative case

    ERR

    Suffix:  Degree of Correctness versus Error

    ESS

    Essive case

    EUP

    Euphemistic bias

    EXA

    Exasperative bias

    EXC

    Exceptive case

    EXD

    Suffix:  Dynamically Changing Degree or Extent

    EXH

    Exhortative modality

    EXN

    Suffix:  Degree or Extent

    EXP

    Experiential aspect

    EXS

    Existential context

    EXT

    Suffix:  Exactness of Identity / Identity As a Referent Or Standard

    EXV

    Expatiative sanction

    EPC

    Expectative modality

    FAC

    Factual mood

    FAM

    Suffix:  Degree Of Familiarity

    FEA

    Suffix: Featural Properties 

    FLC

    Fluctuative phase

    FLS

    Suffix:  Degree of Fluctuation/Stability

    FML

    Formal designation

    FMS

    Suffix: Material States/Forms (non-solid or quasi-solid) 

    FNC

    Functional context

    FNS

    Suffix:  Material States/Forms (solids) 

    FRAMED

    Framed relation

    FRC

    Suffix:  Degree of Physical Force Exerted

    FRE

    Frequentative phase

    FRG

    Fragmentative phase

    FRM

    Suffix:  Degree of Formality

    FRQ

    Suffix:  Degree Of Frequency

    FUN

    Functive case

    GEN

    Genitive case

    GRA

    Graduative extension

    GRT

    Gratificative bias

    HAB

    Habitual aspect

    HOR

    Hortative illocution

    HPB

    Hyperbolic bias

    HRC

    Suffix:  Position on Social, Occupational, or (Para-) Military Hierarchy

    HYP

    Hypothetical mood

    ICD

    Suffix:  Increase then Decrease

    ICL

    Inclinative modality

    ICP

    Incipient extension

    ICR

    Suffix:  Increase

    ICS

    Incessative aspect

    IDa

    personal reference:  indefinite animate

    IDC

    Indicative valence

    IDG

    Indignative bias

    IDi

    personal reference:  indefinite inanimate

    IDP

    Interdependent case

    IDR

    Suffix:  Random/Varying Increases and Decreases

    IFL

    Informal designation

    IFR

    Inferior level

    IMD

    Intermediative aspect

    IMM

    Imminent aspect

    IMP

    Suffix:  Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome

    IMS

    Impositive modality

    IMT

    Imitative valence

    INB

    Suffix: Inability/Incapacity Due To 

    INC

    Incompletive version

    IND

    Inducive case

    INE

    Ineffectual version

    INF

    Inferential validation

    INL

    Suffix:  Degree Of Inclusion

    INP

    Interpolative case

    INS

    Instrumental case

    IPa

    personal reference:  impersonal animate

    IPB

    Improbable validation

    IPi

    personal reference:  impersonal in animate

    IPL

    Implicative mood

    IPS

    Impressional modality

    IPT

    Suffix: Degree of importance/impact/signficance

    IPU

    Imputative sanction

    IRG

    Interrogative illocution

    IRO

    Ironic bias

    ISR

    Instrumentative format

    ITC

    Intercommutative aspect

    ITG

    Suffix:  Degree of Intelligence Manifested

    ITM

    Intermittent phase

    ITN

    Suffix:  Degree of Iteration

    ITP

    Interpretative case

    ITR

    Iterative phase

    ITU

    Intuitive validation

    ITV

    Intentive modality

    ITY

    Suffix:  Degree of Speed (i.e., Intensity of Movement or Change)

    LAT

    Suffix:  Degree Of Lateness/Earliness

    LCT

    Suffix:  Locational Octant Markers for Object Being Located (see Section 10.3.3)

    LIM

    Limitative case

    LOC

    Locative case

    LTL

    Literal bias

    LVL

    Suffix:  Levels (see Sec. 6.2)

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M

    Monadic perspective

    ma

    personal reference:  monadic animate 3rd party

    MAT

    Suffix:  Degree of Maturation

    MD01

    Suffix:  resigned to

    MD02

    Suffix:  devoted; committed to / devoted to

    MD03

    Suffix:  desired / sought-after; want to

    MD04

    Suffix:  attempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt to

    MD05

    Suffix:  capable, able; can / able to / capable of

    MD06

    Suffix:  knowledgeable; can = know how to / familiar with

    MD07

    Suffix:  mandatory; must / have to

    MD08

    Suffix:  required; should / be to

    MD09

    Suffix:  expected; be supposed to

    MD10

    Suffix:  intended; mean to / intend to / shall

    MD11

    Suffix:  chosen, selected; choose to / elect to

    MD12

    Suffix:  …on impulse; feel like X-ing

    MD13

    Suffix:  promised; promise to

    MD14

    Suffix:  well-liked; like (to)

    MD15

    Suffix:  feared; fear (to)

    MD16

    Suffix:  willing; willing to

    MD17

    Suffix:  prepared / ready; prepared to/ready to

    MD18

    Suffix:  necessary / needed; need to

    MD19

    Suffix:  Daring; dare to

    MD20

    Suffix:  decided-upon; decide to

    MD21

    Suffix:  offered/offer of; offer to

    MD22

    Suffix:  aided / assisted; help to / aid in X-ing

    MD24

    Suffix:  not unexpected; be prone to / be apt to / tend to

    MD25

    Suffix:  agreed-upon; agree to

    MD26

    Suffix:  responsible for/in charge of

    MD27

    Suffix:  remember to

    MD28

    Suffix:  feel a need to / feel one should / feel one must / feel driven to

    MD29

    Suffix:  to guess or think [that]…

    MD30

    Suffix:  available; available to/for

    MD31

    Suffix:  potential; can = have potential to

    MD32

    Suffix:  permitted; can = permitted to

    MD33

    Suffix:  hoped-for; hope/wish to

    MDL

    Suffix:  Random pattern of modulation (unpredictable/irregular movement pattern)

    MDN

    Suffix:  Degree of Age or Modernity

    MEC

    Suffix:  Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’

    MED

    Mediative case

    MET

    Suffix:  Metonymic Categories

    mi

    personal reference:  monadic inanimate 3rd party

    MIN

    Minimal level

    MLR

    Suffix: Meta-level representation/coordination/analysis

    MLT

    Multiform configuration

    MNF

    Manifestive function

    MNO

    Monoactive valence

    MOT

    Suffix:  Degree of Self-Conscious Deliberation or Motivation

    MTA

    Suffix:  Additional Motivation for an Action or State

    MTV

    Motive aspect

    MUT

    Mutual valence

    MVT

    Suffix:  Degree of Stillness/Movement

    Mx

    personal reference:  mixed third party (animate + inanimate and/or monadic + unbounded)

    N

    Gnomic perspective

    NA1

    Suffix:  Negation/affirmation of all morphological components

    NA2

    Suffix:  Negation/affirmation of stem + affixes but not adjunct information

    NA3

    Suffix:  Negation/affirmation of all morphological components except Modality

    NAR

    Suffix:  Negation/affirmation of all but aspectual or Modality information

    NAV

    Navigative case

    NEC

    Necessitative modality

    NEW

    Suffix:  Degree of Newness/Revision

    NNN

    Suffix:  n-numbered angles/facets/faces/sides/points/forms

    NNR

    Nonrelational valence

    NRM

    Normal essence

    NTR

    Suffix:  Degree of Notoriety, Acceptance, Respect, Honor

    OAU

    Suffix: Origin/Association/Utilization 

    OBG

    Obligative modality

    OBJ

    Objective format

    OBL

    Oblique case

    Obv

    personal reference:  obviative

    OGN

    Originative case

    OPF

    Suffix: Degree of Operational Functionality

    OPR

    Opportunitive modality

    OPT

    Optimal level

    ORI

    Orientative case

    PAR

    Partitive case

    PAU

    Pausal aspect

    PCL

    Preclusive aspect

    PCN

    Suffix:  Degree of Care, Precision or Scrutiny

    PCR

    Postcursive case

    PCS

    Precessive aspect

    PCT

    Punctual phase

    PCV

    Precursive case

    PDC

    Productive case

    PER

    Periodic case

    PFT

    Preferential modality

    PHS

    Suffix:  Phase categories

    PHY

    Suffix:  Degree of Physical Control

    PLA

    Suffix:  Place, State, Setting Where…

    PLE

    Suffix: Degree of (Un-)Pleasantness (of Effect or Result) 

    PLM

    Prolimitive case

    PLV

    Suffix:  polarity / logical valence values

    PMP

    Preemptive aspect

    PMS

    Promissory modality

    POS

    Possessive case

    PPS

    Propositional sanction

    PPT

    Purportive validation

    PPT2

    Purportive 2 validation

    PPV

    Propositive bias

    PRB

    Suffix:  Degree of Probability or Likelihood

    PRC

    Processual version

    PRD

    Predicative case

    PRE

    Preparative modality

    PRG

    Progressive aspect

    PRL

    Parallel valence

    PRM

    Permissive modality

    PRO

    Prolapsive case

    PRP

    Proprietive case

    PRS

    Prospective aspect

    PRT

    Precurrent format

    PRX

    Proximal extension

    PSM

    Presumptive validation

    PSM2

    Presumptive 2 validation

    PST

    Positive version

    PSV

    Procursive case

    PTC

    Protractive aspect

    PTF

    Suffix:  Part/Whole Functional Metaphors

    PTG

    Suffix:  Part/Whole Gestalt Componential Metaphors

    PTI

    Participative valence

    PTL

    Postulative case

    PTN

    Potential modality

    PTT

    Suffix:  Non-Contiguous (i.e., Intermixed) Portion of the Whole

    PTV

    Proclivitive modality

    PTW

    Suffix:  Contiguous Portion of the Whole

    PTY

    Suffix:  Degree of Prototypicalness

    PUR

    Purposive case

    PUT

    Putative validation

    PVS

    Provisional case

    PXM

    Suffix:  Degree of Proximity

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    QUA

    Suffix:  Degree of Quality, Effectiveness or Adequacy

    RAC

    Reactive bias

    RCO

    Suffix:  Recoil in place (spring back; snap back; fall back into place)

    RCP

    Reciprocal valence

    RCS

    Recessative aspect

    RCT

    Recurrent phase

    REA

    Suffix:  Degree of Genuineness or Veracity

    REB

    Rebuttative sanction

    REF

    Referential case

    REG

    Regulative aspect

    REP

    Repetitive phase

    REQ

    Requisitive modality

    RES

    Resistive valence

    RFU

    Refutative sanction

    RGR

    Regressive aspect

    RNC

    Suffix: Renunciation 

    ROL

    Suffix:  Role

    RPN

    Suffix:  Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set Members

    RPS

    Representational context

    RPT

    Reportive validation

    RPV

    Representative essence

    RSL

    Resultative format

    RSM

    Resumptive aspect

    RSN

    Suffix:  Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action

    RTR

    Retrospective aspect

    RVL

    Revelative bias

    SBE

    Subequative level

    SBQ

    Subsequent format

    SBS

    Suffix:  Subset of Configurative Set

    SBT

    Suffix:  Degree of Subtlety

    SCH

    Schematic format

    SCO

    Suffix:  Dynamic Change of Size

    SCS

    Suffix:  Degree of Success versus Failure

    SCT

    Suffix:  Degree of Shift/Change/Transition (used for both spatial and temporal contexts)

    SDP

    Suffix:  Subset of Duplex Set

    SEG

    Segmentative configuration

    SEL

    Selective bias

    SEP

    Suffix:  Spatio-Temporal Separability of a Configurative Set

    SEQ

    Suffix:  Numerical Sequence

    SGS

    Suggestive bias

    SIM

    Suffix:  Degree Of Similarity

    SIT

    Situative case

    SIZ

    Suffix:  Degree of Size

    SKP

    Skeptical bias

    SML

    Simultaneitive case

    SOC

    Suffix:  Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’

    SOL

    Solicitive bias

    SPD

    Suffix:  Degree of Speed (i.e., Velocity = Distance Over Time)

    SPE

    Speculative mood

    SPQ

    Superequative level

    SPH

    Suffix:  Degree of Sophistication

    SPL

    Superlative level

    SPS

    Suffix: Supersets/Multi-Level Gestalts 

    SQC

    Suffix:  Sequence of Cause and Effect

    SQN

    Sequential aspect

    SQT

    Suffix:  Sequence Relative to Present Context

    SSD

    Suffix:  Stem-Specific Derivatives

    STA

    Stative function

    STG

    Suffix: Stage of a Process 

    STR

    Suffix:  Degree of Physical Strength Possible or Used

    STU

    Stupefactive bias

    SUB

    Subjunctive mood

    SUD

    Suffix:  Degree of Suddenness

    SUF

    Suffix:  Degree Of Sufficiency

    SUR

    Surpassive level

    SWR

    Suffix:  Switch-reference

    TAL

    Suffix: Degree of Capacity or Talent For 

    TEM

    Suffix:  Alternative Temporal Aspects

    TEN

    Tentative validation

    TFI

    Suffix:  Back & forth; to & fro in place (e.g., pendulum, wagging tail)

    TFM

    Transformative case

    TFV

    Suffix:  Back & forth over linear vector (e.g., snake-like; zig-zag)

    THR

    Theoretical sanction

    TMP

    Temporary aspect

    TNS

    Transitional aspect

    TPD

    Suffix: Temporary Duration 

    TPF

    Suffix:  Topic, Frame and Focus

    TPI

    Suffix:  Impact or Duration Over Time

    TPP

    Suffix:  Temporal Position Relative to Present

    TPR

    Suffix:  Temporal Placement/Reaction/Viewpoint

    TRD

    Tardative aspect

    TRF

    Suffix: Transformation for Use

    TRM

    Terminative extension

    TSP

    Transpositive case

    TYP

    Suffix:  Degree of Typicalness

    U

    Unbounded perspective

    ua

    personal reference:  unbounded animate 3rd party

    ui

    personal reference:  unbounded inanimate 3rd party

    UNFRAMED

    Unframed relation

    UNI

    Uniplex configuration

    UNQ

    Suffix:  Degree of Specialness or Uniqueness

    UTE

    Suffix:  Utilitative or Enabling Means

    UTL

    Utilitative case

    VAR

    Variative affiliation

    VOC

    Vocative case

    VOL

    Voluntative modality

    VWP

    Suffix: From Viewpoint/Perspective Of 

    WAK

    Suffix:  Spread/wake/trail/area/expanse created by passage of entity

    XPT

    Suffix:  Expectation of Outcome

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

    		  
    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +
    + +

     

    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +
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    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + +
    HomeFAQs about Ithkuil
    A Grammar of the Ithkuil LanguageLinks of Interest
    +
    +
    +

    Frequently Asked Questions

    +

     

    +

    Below are some questions I’ve been asked over the years relating to my work. For those questions that are generic and not specific to Ithkuil, I’ve taken the liberty (i.e., the lazy person’s approach) of linking elsewhere to someone who’s already answered the question better than I could.

    +

     

    +

    What is a constructed language or “conlang”?

    +
    +

    See here for an explanation of constructed languages.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Why would anyone want to create their own language?

    +

    Please refer to David Peterson’s “Conlang Manifesto.”

    +
    +

     

    +

    How fluent are you in Ithkuil? Can you speak/read/understand it?

    +
    +

    The only portion of Ithkuil in which I am “fluent†is the morphology. I have never tried to memorize the lexicon. I am fairly proficient in knowing the characters of the script but still need to look up the rules when writing it.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Are you a professional linguist? How many languages do you speak or understand?

    +
    +

    I have a bachelor’s (undergraduate) degree in linguistics. Poverty and circumstances prevented me from attending graduate school. Nevertheless, I have continued to study linguistics as a personal hobby my entire adult life. I am not a linguist professionally. Besides my native language English, I speak French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese sufficiently well to converse with natives as long as the conversation doesn’t get too technical or specialized. I speak enough fractured German to get myself in trouble. I also read Catalan and the auxiliary language Interlingua fairly well, although I do not speak them.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Is Ithkuil an attempt to create a working version of Robert Heinlein’s Speedtalk language? Is conciseness the primary purpose of Ithkuil?

    +
    +

    Many persons have compared Ithkuil to the “Speedtalk” language in Robert Heinlein’s novella Gulf, in which every morpheme (meaningful word-part) is apparently represented by a single phoneme (sound). However, Heinlein’s Speedtalk appears to focus only on the morpho-phonological component of language (i.e., the correspondence between sound and individual grammatical components) without any corresponding focus on the logical redesign of a language’s morphology, lexico-morphology, or lexico-semantics to provide an equally “compressed” morpho-syntactical and lexical component. Ithkuil has been designed with an equal focus on these latter linguistic components. Additionally, the apparent purpose of Heinlein’s language is simple rapidity/brevity of speech and thought, while Ithkuil is focused on maximal communication of cognitive intent in the most efficient manner, a somewhat different purpose, in which brevity per se is irrelevant.
    +

    +
    +
    +

    Most descriptions of Ithkuil that I’ve read misrepresent the purpose of the language to be this sort of morpho-phonological conciseness, i.e., the “Speedtalk” factor. In fact, Ithkuil’s primary purpose is to demonstrate how human language could be used to convey much deeper levels of human cognition and semantic nuance/exactitude than are found in natural human languages. As for morpho-phonological conciseness, it is merely a secondary goal to ensure that the greater amount of morpho-semantic information conveyed by the language (as compared to natural languages) does not cause phrases and sentences to become long-winded.

    +
    +

     

    +

    How did the idea of Ithkuil come to you? Have you worked on the language on a + regular basis? 

    +
    +

    At university, I studied linguistics, and it was there that I gained the knowledge and tools for understanding how languages are structured. However, the more languages I read about and studied, the more I came to realize how inefficiently most languages function in terms of conveying thought in both a precise and a concise manner. I also noticed that certain languages were subjectively “better†than others in the manner that they were able to convey a specific task. For example, I noticed how elegant and efficient the three-letter root structure of Semitic languages like Arabic and Hebrew were as a means of building words compared to European languages. I noticed how the perfective versus imperfective verbal aspect of Slavonic languages like Russian were able to convey certain verbal distinctions easily which languages like English had to use whole phrases to convey. In other cases, I found certain languages that grammaticalized thoughts that most other languages did not (such as the “4th person†distinction of certain American Indian languages). I also fell in love with all the exotic and difficult-topronounce consonant sounds of Caucasian languages like Abkhaz and Ubykh, as well as the numerous vowels of Uralic and Altaic languages.

    +

    Anyway, the idea came to me that I might try to create a language which “combined†the most efficient and interesting features of all the languages I was familiar with. And so the seed of the language which eventually evolved into Ithkuil was born. The more I worked on it over the years, the more of my own ideas went into it, as opposed to simply borrowing ideas from existing languages. Then, during the 1980s, I discovered the new cognitive school of linguistics that was beginning to arise in the United States (specifically the writings of George Lakoff and Ronald Langacker). These writings opened up a whole new level of understanding regarding the relationship between human thought and language which led to a major overhaul and expansion of the language I was working on in my spare time. It was at this point that I got the idea that I would try to accomplish the seemingly incompatible goals of creating a language capable of conveying much more information than natural human languages do, while simultaneously being more brief and concise than natural human languages (previously, all versions of the language were very long-winded).

    +

    The work was slow, painstaking, and often frustrating. Between the mid-1980s and the mid-1990s, I abandoned the work at least a dozen times out of frustration (aggravated by the fact that every time I thought I was getting nearly finished, I would decide to scrap about 75% of what I had and start over with better ideas). Sometimes several months would go by before I would pick up where I left off. The breakthrough came around 1996 when my interest was re-ignited by discovery of the writings of two other cognitive linguists, Gilles Fauconnier and Len Talmy. Their research and findings on the structure of human thought and language renewed my interest in wanting to finish the project. By 1999, the grammar was about 95% finished and it was time to start finalizing the script and the lexicon. Incidentally, it was at this point that I discovered Robert Heinlein’s description of “Speedtalk†from his novella “Gulf.†At first I was surprised and mildly disappointed that someone had already thought of doing what I was working on, but then I realized that Speedtalk was only a shallow attempt which worked at the morpho-phonological level of language only, while the language I was creating took the same principles and applied them to all the different structural levels of language. It took me another four years to reach the point where I felt the work was complete enough to show the world, then it took me another year to write it all up formally on the computer (the language was developed entirely using pencil and paper) and create a website.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Some people have claimed that using Ithkuil, a person would be able to think five times faster. Do you believe this?

    +
    +

    This oft-repeated claim apparently started with Stanislav Kozlovskiy in his 2004 article “The Speed of Thought†published in the Russian-language science magazine Kompyuterra. The question presupposes that thought is linguistic in nature, which is certainly debatable. Personally, I believe only complex conceptual thought is linguistic, not simple conceptual thought and certainly not thought at the perceptual level (i.e., I certainly don’t mentally say to myself “I’m in pain†when I stub my toe). At any rate, even if we grant that thought is linguistic, any supposed “speeding up†of thought using the concise morpho-phonology of Ithkuil would most likely be offset by the sheer volume of morphological information which Ithkuil requires one to express (and therefore mentally consider when formulating a sentence). For example, the mere example of saying (or thinking) that it’s raining outside would require a hypothetical Ithkuil speaker to consider the evidential source of the information (direct observation? hearsay? inference?) and its reliability (Validation), the pattern and timing of the raindrops (Phase), the purpose/intent of the utterance (Sanction), whether the rainfall is being considered as a gestalt versus a sequence of discrete componential events (Configuration), whether the context of the thought/utterance is descriptive, purposefully important, metaphorical, or a component of a holistic situation (Context), and so on.

    +

    For these reasons, I believe use of Ithkuil would probably allow one to think more deeply, critically, and analytically; but think faster? I doubt it.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Assuming Ithkuil were to be used in the real world, wouldn’t its complexity cause it to break down within one or two generations into a vulgar form which operates like natural languages, undermining the whole point of ithkuil’s construction?

    +
    +

    As for a hypothetical community of Ithkuil-speakers, I do not think Ithkuil would serve the + purpose of being the primary day-to-day language, as I agree the language would quickly + degenerate into a “vulgar†form due to its + complexity. I see Ithkuil’s hypothetical usage as being a specialized language for specific purposes where + exactitude and clarity of cognitive intention is called for, and to make deliberate obfuscation difficult, e.g., political debate, the teaching and + discussion of scientific disciplines, the discussion of philosophy, the written presentation and + preservation of history. As such, it would be a “learned†+ language (like learning a computer programming language or the predicate calculus) whose structure would be + consciously preserved by its speakers. An analogy might be the way that Classical Latin continued to be used for over a milennium after the death of its last native spearker for academic and religious purposes. A similar analogy is the use of Modern Standard Arabic (essentially a modernized version of Classical Arabic) in official and academic contexts.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Most Ithkuil morphemes (i.e., units of meaning) are only a single syllable, even a single phoneme, in length. Doesn’t this lack of morpho-phonological redundancy create a problem given that ambient noise or mispronunciation could easily prevent comprehension or change the meaning of a word or sentence?

    +
    +

    Other than the difficulty of pronunciation, the issues of signal-to-noise ratio and non-redundancy are the most frequent criticisms of the language. I don’t consider these to really be a problem for the following reasons:

    +

    (1) As stated in the answer to the previous question, I see the contexts in which a hypothetical Ithkuil-speaking community would utilize the language as very limited and highly specialized, in which there would be little, if any ambient, noise;

    +

    (2) the issue of mispronunciation is no different than for any learner of a foreign language, and Ithkuil’s inventory of 58 phonemes pales in comparison to the number of phonemes in several Caucasian languagues or Khoi-San languages of Africa—if a person can pronounce Chechen or Abkhaz or !Xóõ, they can likely pronounce Ithkuil;

    +

    (3) the precedent for a low signal-to-noise ratio and lack of morpho-phonological redundancy is well established in natural languages, e.g., the phonetic difference between English I can do it versus I can’t do it, or He’s a natural versus He’s unnatural, or I got him first versus I got in first. And many languages (e.g., the Northwest Caucasian languages) are replete with single-phoneme morphemes, e.g., the Ubykh single-word sentence wantwaan they give you to him, which contains six phonemes, each of which is a separate morpheme:

    +
      +
    • /w/ - 2nd singular absolutive
      • +
    • /a/ - 3rd singular dative
      • +
    • /n/ - 3rd ergative
      • +
    • /tw/ - to give
      • +
    • /aa/ - ergative plural
      • +
    • /n/ - present tense
      • +
    +

    If such single-phoneme morphemes are good enough for real-world natural languages, they’re good enough for Ithkuil.

    +
    +

     

    +

    How long and how hard have you practiced to pronounce Ithkuil sentences ?

    +
    +

    The old version of the language would take me about three or four attempts to be able to speak an entire Ithkuil sentence without + making a mistake, as often due to the tones as due to the “exotic†consonants. The problem with pronouncing tones correctly was especially acute for Ilaksh, which utilized tone shifts much more prominently than Ithkuil. The new version of the language is much easier to pronounce for me than either of its predecessors.

    +
    +

     

    +

    How long does it take for you to make an Ithkuil sentence?

    +
    +

    It takes me up to ten minutes to translate a simple sentence if the necessary word-roots/stems already exist; much longer if new word-roots/stems are required, as the creation of roots takes careful thinking and planning (see the next question below). Long complex sentences can take up to half an hour. It then takes another five to fifteen minutes to look up the rules for writing the sentence in the script depending on the length of the sentence.

    +
    +

     

    +

    What is your criteria for choosing word roots ? How do you build the taxonomy of + concepts ?

    +

    There are essentially two criteria: (1) adaptability to the derivational structures of the morphology and (2) consideration for what cognitive psychologists and cognitive linguists call “base-level†categorization.

    +

    The first criterion can basically be explained by performing the following analysis: say I need an + Ithkuil translation for the English word X. Before I simply create a root meaning X, is there any + way I can use Ithkuil morphological categories or the 150 or so suffix categories to derive this + word from a more general or primary word? If so, can that more general or primary word in turn + be derived from another? And so, before one goes and create an Ithkuil root for “book†one first + remembers that a book is a collection or pages of writing bound together in a coherent fashion by + which to convey a superset of information beyond the content of any specific page of the book. + Well, Ithkuil morphology has all sorts of categories for designating coherent gestalt entities + formed from interconnected subcomponents, so we realize we don’t need a word for book. + Instead, all we need is the root for “writing/written message†declined into appropriate + Configuraton and Affiliation categories, with consideration for the Context category given that + the resulting entity only functions within the context of human social structures, with consideration for an additional suffix indicating that the entity has a container-like covering, etc., etc.

    +

    As for the second criterion, base-level categorization, this is best explained by example. Let’s take animals. First of all, identifying animals means dealing with a hierarchical taxonomy ranging from general to specific, for example:

    +
    +
      +
    • mammal
      • +
    • equine
      • +
    • horse
      • +
    • thoroughbred
      • +
    • Arabian thoroughbred
      • +
    • Arabian thoroughbred gelding
      • +
    +
    +

    Another example:

    +
    +
      +
    • mammal
      • +
    • primate
      • +
    • monkey
      • +
    • chimpanzee
      • +
    • male chimpanzee
      • +
    • pet male chimpanzee
      +
      • +
    +
    +

    So, how should Ithkuil deal with such hierarchies? Research by cognitive psychologists show that human cognition tends to manifest base-level categorization, where a particular element in the hierarchy is psychologically + viewed as being the most easy concept to grasp and understand, and is usually the first concept + of the hierarchy learned by children, and usually represents the shortest, most common word in + the speaker’s language of all the elements in the hierarchy. This base-level category (what + psychologists call the most cognitively “salient†category level) usually appears in the middle of + the range from general to specific. In the examples above, it would be the words “horse†and “monkey.†Therefore, a person is far more likely to spontaneously say “Hey, there’s a + horse in my yard!†rather than “Hey, there’s an equine in my yard†or “There’s an Arabian + thoroughbred.†Likewise, a child at the zoo is more likely to say either “I want to see the + monkeys!†or “I want to see the snakes!†than “I want to see the primates†or “I want to see the + rattlesnakes and the pythons!â€

    +

    Secondly, one of the purposes of Ithkuil is efficiency in communication (you might think of this + simplistically as the “Speedtalk†factor). Since base-level cognition implies that the concept “dog†or “spider†is going to be used by people more often and in more contexts than “canine†or “arachnid†it doesn’t make sense for Ithkuil to only have roots for “canine†and “arachnid†with + the words for “dog†and “spider†being simply derivations of these roots. It defeats the purpose of + morpho-phonological efficiency if to say “I fear spidersâ€, an Ithkuil speaker has to say literally “I + fear the-most-common-arachnid-example.â€

    +

    Now, the reader may think that surely Ithkuil’s 3600 roots do not allow for base-level naming all of the animals in the world. No, of course not. But there is no need. Despite the thousands of different names of animal species, only + about fifty or so are common enough to qualify for such base-level naming. Other + animals are simply not sufficienlty common or well-known to require such. + Therefore, it makes sense that Ithkuil have a root for “bear†but it can probably do without a + separate root for “wolverine†which it can name by derivational means from another root (quite + possibly “bearâ€). We see this in English with names of animals that are derivations or compounds + such as “polar bear†and “sea lion†(the latter having nothing at all to do with a lion!). There + simply aren’t any base-level single-word names for these animals in English. + Finally, by establishing this base-level category at the level of the root in Ithkuil (instead of the + stem), it allows me to use the stems to refer to contextual and omplementary manifestations of + the root, i.e., male versus female, wild versus domesticated, the animal itself versus its function as food/prey/resource. In turn, I can use the SSD derivational suffix to generate words for associated concepts and products such as eggs, oil, fat, fur/feathers, flesh/meat, etc.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Have you invented other languages?
    +

    +
    +

    Prior to beginning the language which eventually evolved into Ithkuil, I invented several sketches of other languages mostly for fun. They were not serious efforts to address the purposes which Ithkuil addresses. Since 1978, all my conlanging efforts have been oriented toward creating the language which eventually became Ithkuil.

    +
    +

    +


    + Is the 2011 version of the language the final version of the language?
    +

    +
    +

    To the extent that I can foresee, yes, this new version for 2011 will be the final version of the language. I have neither the desire nor intention to redesign it again, especially given that I am finally pleased with this new revision (unlike the revision into Ilaksh, which I was never satisfied with).

    +
    +

     

    +

    Will you continue to work on the language?
    +

    +
    +

    I intend to continue adding more examples, enhance the explanations, and add new entries to the Lexicon on an ongoing (albeit perhaps infrequent) basis. I also plan on eventually developing a section on how Ithkuil handles mathematical concepts and equations.

    +

    Additionally, I will be adding longer texts to the Texts page of the site, as time and interest permit. This Texts chapter will eventually showcase original Ithkuil poetry that I envision composing in the next few years; it is my belief that the morpho-semantic flexibility, richness and conciseness of the language would allow for a kind of poetry not possible in other languages, and I am looking forward to exploring this.

    +
    +

     

    +

    What’s with the clowns?

    +
    +

    Just indulging my warped sense of humor. I am fascinated by all aspects of life that have a truth-is-stranger-than-fiction quality, and I consider the phenomenon of clowns to fall into this category. I mean, think about it ... really....

    +

    +

    Anyway, I have peppered the Ithkuil grammar with their ridiculous and ghastly visages plus clown-related example sentences as a reminder not to take anything, including myself, too seriously.

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + +
    HomeFAQs about Ithkuil
    A Grammar of the Ithkuil LanguageLinks of Interest
    +

    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/faqs.html.orig b/2004-en/faqs.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8654d82 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/faqs.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,263 @@ + + + + +FAQs + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + +
    HomeFAQs about Ithkuil
    A Grammar of the Ithkuil LanguageLinks of Interest
    +
    +
    +

    Frequently Asked Questions

    +

     

    +

    Below are some questions I’ve been asked over the years relating to my work. For those questions that are generic and not specific to Ithkuil, I’ve taken the liberty (i.e., the lazy person’s approach) of linking elsewhere to someone who’s already answered the question better than I could.

    +

     

    +

    What is a constructed language or “conlang”?

    +
    +

    See here for an explanation of constructed languages.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Why would anyone want to create their own language?

    +

    Please refer to David Peterson’s “Conlang Manifesto.”

    +
    +

     

    +

    How fluent are you in Ithkuil? Can you speak/read/understand it?

    +
    +

    The only portion of Ithkuil in which I am “fluent†is the morphology. I have never tried to memorize the lexicon. I am fairly proficient in knowing the characters of the script but still need to look up the rules when writing it.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Are you a professional linguist? How many languages do you speak or understand?

    +
    +

    I have a bachelor’s (undergraduate) degree in linguistics. Poverty and circumstances prevented me from attending graduate school. Nevertheless, I have continued to study linguistics as a personal hobby my entire adult life. I am not a linguist professionally. Besides my native language English, I speak French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese sufficiently well to converse with natives as long as the conversation doesn’t get too technical or specialized. I speak enough fractured German to get myself in trouble. I also read Catalan and the auxiliary language Interlingua fairly well, although I do not speak them.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Is Ithkuil an attempt to create a working version of Robert Heinlein’s Speedtalk language? Is conciseness the primary purpose of Ithkuil?

    +
    +

    Many persons have compared Ithkuil to the “Speedtalk” language in Robert Heinlein’s novella Gulf, in which every morpheme (meaningful word-part) is apparently represented by a single phoneme (sound). However, Heinlein’s Speedtalk appears to focus only on the morpho-phonological component of language (i.e., the correspondence between sound and individual grammatical components) without any corresponding focus on the logical redesign of a language’s morphology, lexico-morphology, or lexico-semantics to provide an equally “compressed” morpho-syntactical and lexical component. Ithkuil has been designed with an equal focus on these latter linguistic components. Additionally, the apparent purpose of Heinlein’s language is simple rapidity/brevity of speech and thought, while Ithkuil is focused on maximal communication of cognitive intent in the most efficient manner, a somewhat different purpose, in which brevity per se is irrelevant.
    +

    +
    +
    +

    Most descriptions of Ithkuil that I’ve read misrepresent the purpose of the language to be this sort of morpho-phonological conciseness, i.e., the “Speedtalk” factor. In fact, Ithkuil’s primary purpose is to demonstrate how human language could be used to convey much deeper levels of human cognition and semantic nuance/exactitude than are found in natural human languages. As for morpho-phonological conciseness, it is merely a secondary goal to ensure that the greater amount of morpho-semantic information conveyed by the language (as compared to natural languages) does not cause phrases and sentences to become long-winded.

    +
    +

     

    +

    How did the idea of Ithkuil come to you? Have you worked on the language on a + regular basis? 

    +
    +

    At university, I studied linguistics, and it was there that I gained the knowledge and tools for understanding how languages are structured. However, the more languages I read about and studied, the more I came to realize how inefficiently most languages function in terms of conveying thought in both a precise and a concise manner. I also noticed that certain languages were subjectively “better†than others in the manner that they were able to convey a specific task. For example, I noticed how elegant and efficient the three-letter root structure of Semitic languages like Arabic and Hebrew were as a means of building words compared to European languages. I noticed how the perfective versus imperfective verbal aspect of Slavonic languages like Russian were able to convey certain verbal distinctions easily which languages like English had to use whole phrases to convey. In other cases, I found certain languages that grammaticalized thoughts that most other languages did not (such as the “4th person†distinction of certain American Indian languages). I also fell in love with all the exotic and difficult-topronounce consonant sounds of Caucasian languages like Abkhaz and Ubykh, as well as the numerous vowels of Uralic and Altaic languages.

    +

    Anyway, the idea came to me that I might try to create a language which “combined†the most efficient and interesting features of all the languages I was familiar with. And so the seed of the language which eventually evolved into Ithkuil was born. The more I worked on it over the years, the more of my own ideas went into it, as opposed to simply borrowing ideas from existing languages. Then, during the 1980s, I discovered the new cognitive school of linguistics that was beginning to arise in the United States (specifically the writings of George Lakoff and Ronald Langacker). These writings opened up a whole new level of understanding regarding the relationship between human thought and language which led to a major overhaul and expansion of the language I was working on in my spare time. It was at this point that I got the idea that I would try to accomplish the seemingly incompatible goals of creating a language capable of conveying much more information than natural human languages do, while simultaneously being more brief and concise than natural human languages (previously, all versions of the language were very long-winded).

    +

    The work was slow, painstaking, and often frustrating. Between the mid-1980s and the mid-1990s, I abandoned the work at least a dozen times out of frustration (aggravated by the fact that every time I thought I was getting nearly finished, I would decide to scrap about 75% of what I had and start over with better ideas). Sometimes several months would go by before I would pick up where I left off. The breakthrough came around 1996 when my interest was re-ignited by discovery of the writings of two other cognitive linguists, Gilles Fauconnier and Len Talmy. Their research and findings on the structure of human thought and language renewed my interest in wanting to finish the project. By 1999, the grammar was about 95% finished and it was time to start finalizing the script and the lexicon. Incidentally, it was at this point that I discovered Robert Heinlein’s description of “Speedtalk†from his novella “Gulf.†At first I was surprised and mildly disappointed that someone had already thought of doing what I was working on, but then I realized that Speedtalk was only a shallow attempt which worked at the morpho-phonological level of language only, while the language I was creating took the same principles and applied them to all the different structural levels of language. It took me another four years to reach the point where I felt the work was complete enough to show the world, then it took me another year to write it all up formally on the computer (the language was developed entirely using pencil and paper) and create a website.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Some people have claimed that using Ithkuil, a person would be able to think five times faster. Do you believe this?

    +
    +

    This oft-repeated claim apparently started with Stanislav Kozlovskiy in his 2004 article “The Speed of Thought†published in the Russian-language science magazine Kompyuterra. The question presupposes that thought is linguistic in nature, which is certainly debatable. Personally, I believe only complex conceptual thought is linguistic, not simple conceptual thought and certainly not thought at the perceptual level (i.e., I certainly don’t mentally say to myself “I’m in pain†when I stub my toe). At any rate, even if we grant that thought is linguistic, any supposed “speeding up†of thought using the concise morpho-phonology of Ithkuil would most likely be offset by the sheer volume of morphological information which Ithkuil requires one to express (and therefore mentally consider when formulating a sentence). For example, the mere example of saying (or thinking) that it’s raining outside would require a hypothetical Ithkuil speaker to consider the evidential source of the information (direct observation? hearsay? inference?) and its reliability (Validation), the pattern and timing of the raindrops (Phase), the purpose/intent of the utterance (Sanction), whether the rainfall is being considered as a gestalt versus a sequence of discrete componential events (Configuration), whether the context of the thought/utterance is descriptive, purposefully important, metaphorical, or a component of a holistic situation (Context), and so on.

    +

    For these reasons, I believe use of Ithkuil would probably allow one to think more deeply, critically, and analytically; but think faster? I doubt it.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Assuming Ithkuil were to be used in the real world, wouldn’t its complexity cause it to break down within one or two generations into a vulgar form which operates like natural languages, undermining the whole point of ithkuil’s construction?

    +
    +

    As for a hypothetical community of Ithkuil-speakers, I do not think Ithkuil would serve the + purpose of being the primary day-to-day language, as I agree the language would quickly + degenerate into a “vulgar†form due to its + complexity. I see Ithkuil’s hypothetical usage as being a specialized language for specific purposes where + exactitude and clarity of cognitive intention is called for, and to make deliberate obfuscation difficult, e.g., political debate, the teaching and + discussion of scientific disciplines, the discussion of philosophy, the written presentation and + preservation of history. As such, it would be a “learned†+ language (like learning a computer programming language or the predicate calculus) whose structure would be + consciously preserved by its speakers. An analogy might be the way that Classical Latin continued to be used for over a milennium after the death of its last native spearker for academic and religious purposes. A similar analogy is the use of Modern Standard Arabic (essentially a modernized version of Classical Arabic) in official and academic contexts.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Most Ithkuil morphemes (i.e., units of meaning) are only a single syllable, even a single phoneme, in length. Doesn’t this lack of morpho-phonological redundancy create a problem given that ambient noise or mispronunciation could easily prevent comprehension or change the meaning of a word or sentence?

    +
    +

    Other than the difficulty of pronunciation, the issues of signal-to-noise ratio and non-redundancy are the most frequent criticisms of the language. I don’t consider these to really be a problem for the following reasons:

    +

    (1) As stated in the answer to the previous question, I see the contexts in which a hypothetical Ithkuil-speaking community would utilize the language as very limited and highly specialized, in which there would be little, if any ambient, noise;

    +

    (2) the issue of mispronunciation is no different than for any learner of a foreign language, and Ithkuil’s inventory of 58 phonemes pales in comparison to the number of phonemes in several Caucasian languagues or Khoi-San languages of Africa—if a person can pronounce Chechen or Abkhaz or !Xóõ, they can likely pronounce Ithkuil;

    +

    (3) the precedent for a low signal-to-noise ratio and lack of morpho-phonological redundancy is well established in natural languages, e.g., the phonetic difference between English I can do it versus I can’t do it, or He’s a natural versus He’s unnatural, or I got him first versus I got in first. And many languages (e.g., the Northwest Caucasian languages) are replete with single-phoneme morphemes, e.g., the Ubykh single-word sentence wantwaan they give you to him, which contains six phonemes, each of which is a separate morpheme:

    +
      +
    • /w/ - 2nd singular absolutive
      • +
    • /a/ - 3rd singular dative
      • +
    • /n/ - 3rd ergative
      • +
    • /tw/ - to give
      • +
    • /aa/ - ergative plural
      • +
    • /n/ - present tense
      • +
    +

    If such single-phoneme morphemes are good enough for real-world natural languages, they’re good enough for Ithkuil.

    +
    +

     

    +

    How long and how hard have you practiced to pronounce Ithkuil sentences ?

    +
    +

    The old version of the language would take me about three or four attempts to be able to speak an entire Ithkuil sentence without + making a mistake, as often due to the tones as due to the “exotic†consonants. The problem with pronouncing tones correctly was especially acute for Ilaksh, which utilized tone shifts much more prominently than Ithkuil. The new version of the language is much easier to pronounce for me than either of its predecessors.

    +
    +

     

    +

    How long does it take for you to make an Ithkuil sentence?

    +
    +

    It takes me up to ten minutes to translate a simple sentence if the necessary word-roots/stems already exist; much longer if new word-roots/stems are required, as the creation of roots takes careful thinking and planning (see the next question below). Long complex sentences can take up to half an hour. It then takes another five to fifteen minutes to look up the rules for writing the sentence in the script depending on the length of the sentence.

    +
    +

     

    +

    What is your criteria for choosing word roots ? How do you build the taxonomy of + concepts ?

    +

    There are essentially two criteria: (1) adaptability to the derivational structures of the morphology and (2) consideration for what cognitive psychologists and cognitive linguists call “base-level†categorization.

    +

    The first criterion can basically be explained by performing the following analysis: say I need an + Ithkuil translation for the English word X. Before I simply create a root meaning X, is there any + way I can use Ithkuil morphological categories or the 150 or so suffix categories to derive this + word from a more general or primary word? If so, can that more general or primary word in turn + be derived from another? And so, before one goes and create an Ithkuil root for “book†one first + remembers that a book is a collection or pages of writing bound together in a coherent fashion by + which to convey a superset of information beyond the content of any specific page of the book. + Well, Ithkuil morphology has all sorts of categories for designating coherent gestalt entities + formed from interconnected subcomponents, so we realize we don’t need a word for book. + Instead, all we need is the root for “writing/written message†declined into appropriate + Configuraton and Affiliation categories, with consideration for the Context category given that + the resulting entity only functions within the context of human social structures, with consideration for an additional suffix indicating that the entity has a container-like covering, etc., etc.

    +

    As for the second criterion, base-level categorization, this is best explained by example. Let’s take animals. First of all, identifying animals means dealing with a hierarchical taxonomy ranging from general to specific, for example:

    +
    +
      +
    • mammal
      • +
    • equine
      • +
    • horse
      • +
    • thoroughbred
      • +
    • Arabian thoroughbred
      • +
    • Arabian thoroughbred gelding
      • +
    +
    +

    Another example:

    +
    +
      +
    • mammal
      • +
    • primate
      • +
    • monkey
      • +
    • chimpanzee
      • +
    • male chimpanzee
      • +
    • pet male chimpanzee
      +
      • +
    +
    +

    So, how should Ithkuil deal with such hierarchies? Research by cognitive psychologists show that human cognition tends to manifest base-level categorization, where a particular element in the hierarchy is psychologically + viewed as being the most easy concept to grasp and understand, and is usually the first concept + of the hierarchy learned by children, and usually represents the shortest, most common word in + the speaker’s language of all the elements in the hierarchy. This base-level category (what + psychologists call the most cognitively “salient†category level) usually appears in the middle of + the range from general to specific. In the examples above, it would be the words “horse†and “monkey.†Therefore, a person is far more likely to spontaneously say “Hey, there’s a + horse in my yard!†rather than “Hey, there’s an equine in my yard†or “There’s an Arabian + thoroughbred.†Likewise, a child at the zoo is more likely to say either “I want to see the + monkeys!†or “I want to see the snakes!†than “I want to see the primates†or “I want to see the + rattlesnakes and the pythons!â€

    +

    Secondly, one of the purposes of Ithkuil is efficiency in communication (you might think of this + simplistically as the “Speedtalk†factor). Since base-level cognition implies that the concept “dog†or “spider†is going to be used by people more often and in more contexts than “canine†or “arachnid†it doesn’t make sense for Ithkuil to only have roots for “canine†and “arachnid†with + the words for “dog†and “spider†being simply derivations of these roots. It defeats the purpose of + morpho-phonological efficiency if to say “I fear spidersâ€, an Ithkuil speaker has to say literally “I + fear the-most-common-arachnid-example.â€

    +

    Now, the reader may think that surely Ithkuil’s 3600 roots do not allow for base-level naming all of the animals in the world. No, of course not. But there is no need. Despite the thousands of different names of animal species, only + about fifty or so are common enough to qualify for such base-level naming. Other + animals are simply not sufficienlty common or well-known to require such. + Therefore, it makes sense that Ithkuil have a root for “bear†but it can probably do without a + separate root for “wolverine†which it can name by derivational means from another root (quite + possibly “bearâ€). We see this in English with names of animals that are derivations or compounds + such as “polar bear†and “sea lion†(the latter having nothing at all to do with a lion!). There + simply aren’t any base-level single-word names for these animals in English. + Finally, by establishing this base-level category at the level of the root in Ithkuil (instead of the + stem), it allows me to use the stems to refer to contextual and omplementary manifestations of + the root, i.e., male versus female, wild versus domesticated, the animal itself versus its function as food/prey/resource. In turn, I can use the SSD derivational suffix to generate words for associated concepts and products such as eggs, oil, fat, fur/feathers, flesh/meat, etc.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Have you invented other languages?
    +

    +
    +

    Prior to beginning the language which eventually evolved into Ithkuil, I invented several sketches of other languages mostly for fun. They were not serious efforts to address the purposes which Ithkuil addresses. Since 1978, all my conlanging efforts have been oriented toward creating the language which eventually became Ithkuil.

    +
    +

    +


    + Is the 2011 version of the language the final version of the language?
    +

    +
    +

    To the extent that I can foresee, yes, this new version for 2011 will be the final version of the language. I have neither the desire nor intention to redesign it again, especially given that I am finally pleased with this new revision (unlike the revision into Ilaksh, which I was never satisfied with).

    +
    +

     

    +

    Will you continue to work on the language?
    +

    +
    +

    I intend to continue adding more examples, enhance the explanations, and add new entries to the Lexicon on an ongoing (albeit perhaps infrequent) basis. I also plan on eventually developing a section on how Ithkuil handles mathematical concepts and equations.

    +

    Additionally, I will be adding longer texts to the Texts page of the site, as time and interest permit. This Texts chapter will eventually showcase original Ithkuil poetry that I envision composing in the next few years; it is my belief that the morpho-semantic flexibility, richness and conciseness of the language would allow for a kind of poetry not possible in other languages, and I am looking forward to exploring this.

    +
    +

     

    +

    What’s with the clowns?

    +
    +

    Just indulging my warped sense of humor. I am fascinated by all aspects of life that have a truth-is-stranger-than-fiction quality, and I consider the phenomenon of clowns to fall into this category. I mean, think about it ... really....

    +

    +

    Anyway, I have peppered the Ithkuil grammar with their ridiculous and ghastly visages plus clown-related example sentences as a reminder not to take anything, including myself, too seriously.

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + +
    HomeFAQs about Ithkuil
    A Grammar of the Ithkuil LanguageLinks of Interest
    +

    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/favorites.html b/2004-en/favorites.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed3a937 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/favorites.html @@ -0,0 +1,205 @@ + + + + + + +Links of Interest + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Home FAQs about Ithkuil
    A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language  Links of Interest
    +


    +A Few of My Favorite Things . . .

    +


    +

    +

    What is life without cinema, art, literature, and music? Here are my favorites:

    +

     

    +
    +

    Favorite movies (in chronological order):

    +
    +

    W.S. Van Dyke – The Thin Man (1934)
    + George Cukor - The Philadelphia Story (1940)
    + Mervyn LeRoy – Random Harvest (1942)
    + William Wyler – Mrs. Miniver (1942)
    + Billy Wilder – Double Indemnity (1944)
    + Alfred Hitchcock – Rope (1948)
    + Akira Kurosawa – Roshomon (1950)
    + William Wyler – Roman Holiday (1953)
    + Alfred Hitchcock – Dial M For Murder (1954)
    + Akira Kurosawa – Seven Samurai (1954)
    + Billy Wilder – Witness For the Prosecution (1957)
    + Sidney Lumet – Twelve Angry Men (1957)
    + Alfred Hitchcock – Vertigo (1958)
    + Ralph Nelson – Lillies of the Field (1961)
    + John Frankenheimer – The Manchurian Candidate (1962)
    + Robert Mulligan – To Kill a Mockingbird (1962)
    + Norman Jewison – In the Heat of the Night (1967)
    + Stanley Kubrick – 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968)
    + George Lucas: THX-1138 (1971)
    + Stanley Kubrick – A Clockwork Orange (1971)
    + George Roy Hill - Slaughterhouse Five (1972)
    + Robin Hardy - The Wicker Man (1973)
    + Akira Kurosawa – Dersu Uzala (1975)
    + Sidney Lumet – Network (1976)
    + Paul Verhoeven – Soldier of Orange (1977)
    + Ridley Scott – Alien (1979)
    + Andrei Tarkovsky – Stalker (1979)
    + Bob Fosse - All That Jazz (1979)
    + Hal Ashby - Being There (1979)
    + Woody Allen – Manhattan (1979)
    + Hugh Hudson - Chariots of Fire (1981)
    + John Boorman – Excalibur (1981)
    + Ridley Scott – Blade Runner (1982)
    + Paul Verhoeven - The Fourth Man (1983)
    + Terry Jones – Monty Python’s The Meaning of Life (1983)
    + David Lynch – Dune (1984)
    + Milos Forman – Amadeus (1984)
    + Woody Allen – Broadway Danny Rose (1984)
    + David Lynch – Blue Velvet (1986)
    + Jean-Jacques Annaud – The Name of the Rose (1986)
    + Gabriel Axel – Babette’s Feast (1987)
    + Stanley Kubrick – Full Metal Jacket (1987)
    + Woody Allen - Another Woman (1988)
    + David Cronenberg - Naked Lunch (1991)
    + Henry Selick – Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993)
    + Brian Singer – The Usual Suspects (1995)
    + David Cronenberg – Crash (1996)
    + Cameron Crowe - Jerry Maguire (1996)
    + Alejandro González Iñárritu – Amores Perros (2000)
    + Peter Jackson – The Lord of the Rings (2001-2003)
    + Nigel Cole – Calendar Girls (2003)
    + István Szabó – Being Julia (2004)
    + Walter Salles – The Motorcycle Diaries (2004)
    + Jason Reitman – Thank You For Smoking (2005)
    + Stephen Frears – Mrs. Henderson Presents (2005)
    + Terry George – Hotel Rwanda (2005)
    + Paul Verhoeven – Black Book (2006)
    + Pedro Almodóvar – Volver (2006)
    + Mike Nichols – Charlie Wilson’s War (2007)
    + Woody Allen – Midnight in Paris (2011)

    +
    +

     

    +

    Favorite Painters: Mario Sironi, Edward Hopper, Yves Tanguy, Xul Solar, Tamara de Lempicka, Jan Vermeer, Juan Gris, George Tooker, Giorgio de Chirico, Camille Pissarro
    +
    +

    +

    Favorite Authors: Jorge Luís Borges, Milan Kundera, Knut Hamsun, Ayn Rand, Jerzy Kosinski, Ursula K. LeGuin, Arthur C. Clarke, Jim Thompson, Kurt Vonnegut, Isaac Asimov
    +
    +

    +

    Favorite Music Composers/Artists (by genre):

    +
    +

    Classical (in chronological order): Thomas Tallis, Tomaso Albinoni, Johann Christian Bach, Franz Joseph Haydn, Ludwig van Beethoven, Antonin Dvořák, Aleksandr Glazunov, Gabriel Fauré, Maurice Ravel, Jean Sibelius, Ralph Vaughn Williams, Francis Poulenc, György Ligeti, Krzysztof Penderecki, Arvo Pärt
    +
    + 1930s – 1940s Big Band Orchestras:  Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Glen Miller, Tommy Dorsey
    +
    + 1940s – 1960s Jazz vocalists: Frank Sinatra, Helen Forrest, Nat King Cole, Lurlean Hunter, Mel Tormé, Jeri Southern, Jack Jones, Bobby Darin
    +
    + 1960s Pop and Soul/R&B: The Beatles, Creedence Clearwater Revival, The Hollies, The Supremes, Marvin Gaye, Smokey Robinson & The Miracles, The Rascals, The Beach Boys, The Doors, The Mamas & the Papas, Petula Clark, Simon & Garfunkel
    +
    + 1970s Classic Rock & Pop: Led Zeppelin, Heart, Santana, Styx, Tom Petty, Bruce Springsteen, Van Halen, Supertramp, Boston, Chicago, America, David Bowie, The Doobie Brothers, Be-Bop Deluxe, Bad Company, The Cars, Crosby Stills Nash (& Young), Fleetwood Mac, Robin Trower, Dire Straits, The Rolling Stones, The Carpenters, Abba
    +
    + 1970s Soul/R&B: Al Green, The Spinners, Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, Staple Singers
    +
    + 1970s Krautrock and Kosmische Musik: Amon Düül II, Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Klaus Schulze
    +
    + 1970s – 1980s Progressive Rock and Progressive Jazz Fusion: Yes, Genesis, Camel, Triumvirat, Starcastle, Renaissance, Rush, Eloy, Gentle, Giant, Locanda delle Fate, Passport, Al Dimeola, Iceberg, Guadalquivir
    +

    +

    1970s – 1980s Zeuhl: Magma, Weidorje, Eskaton

    +

    1970s Punk Rock: The Ramones, The Clash, The Drones, The Saints, The Vibrators, Generation X, The Buzzcocks
    +
    + 1970s – 1980s Post-Punk/New Wave: The Jam, Wire, Joy Division, The Stranglers, Japan, Talking Heads, The Police, Siouxsie & the Banshees, Magazine, U2, Simple Minds, Ultravox, XTC, The Teardrop Explodes, Wah!, TV21, The Psychedelic Furs, Gary Numan & Tubeway Army, Missing Persons, New Musik, The Pretenders, Bill Nelson/Red Noise, Bauhaus, Killing Joke, Duran Duran, Depeche Mode, The English Beat, Flock of Seagulls, The Human League, Blondie, Big Country, Echo & the Bunnymen, The B-52s, The Cure
    +
    + 1970s-1980s Roots Reggae: The Wailing Souls, Burning Spear, The Mighty Diamonds, Culture, The Meditations, Dennis Brown, Steel Pulse, Gregory Isaacs, The Itals, Ijahman, Israel Vibration, Bob Marley & the Wailers
    +
    + 1980s-2000s World Music (zouk, soukous, mbalax, makossa, rai, samba, soca, world fusion, etc.): Kassav’, Angelique Kidjo, Baaba Maal, Youssou Ndour, Guy Lobé, Tshala Muana, Ismaël Lô, Touré Kunda, Khaled, Mahmoud Ahmed, Hamelmal Abate, Pablo Lubadika, Papa Wemba, Tarika, Gal Costa, Gilberto Gil, Ricardo Lemvo & Makina Loca
    +
    + 1990s Alternative Rock: Ride, Catherine Wheel, Pearl Jam, Stone Temple Pilots, Green Day, K’s Choice, Lightning Seeds, Our Lady Peace, Smashing Pumpkins, Lush, Curve, The Clarks, Dubstar
    +

    2000s - 2010s Alternative Rock: Minus the Bear, Kemopetrol, Iris (the American darkwave band), Little Purple Circles, The Gathering, Paatos

    +

    Contemporary Catalan Rock/Pop/Folk: Relk, Xot, Dept., Vuit, La Porta dels Somnis

    +

    Contemporary Mellow Jazz Pianists: John Taylor (including his work with the Peter Erskine group), Alan Pasqua, Fred Hirsch

    +

    Indian Classical Raga: Nikhil Banerjee, Ali Akbar Khan, Ravi Shankar, Ram Narayan

    +

    Other Music Favorites: Patsy Cline, Los Lobos, Michael Jackson, Mafalda Arnauth, Miles Davis (his cool bop period), Farlanders, Inna Zhelannaya, Michael Bublé

    + +
    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Home FAQs about Ithkuil
    A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language  Links of Interest
    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/favorites.html.orig b/2004-en/favorites.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..99a1896 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/favorites.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,205 @@ + + + + + + +Links of Interest + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Home FAQs about Ithkuil
    A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language  Links of Interest
    +


    +A Few of My Favorite Things . . .

    +


    +

    +

    What is life without cinema, art, literature, and music? Here are my favorites:

    +

     

    +
    +

    Favorite movies (in chronological order):

    +
    +

    W.S. Van Dyke – The Thin Man (1934)
    + George Cukor - The Philadelphia Story (1940)
    + Mervyn LeRoy – Random Harvest (1942)
    + William Wyler – Mrs. Miniver (1942)
    + Billy Wilder – Double Indemnity (1944)
    + Alfred Hitchcock – Rope (1948)
    + Akira Kurosawa – Roshomon (1950)
    + William Wyler – Roman Holiday (1953)
    + Alfred Hitchcock – Dial M For Murder (1954)
    + Akira Kurosawa – Seven Samurai (1954)
    + Billy Wilder – Witness For the Prosecution (1957)
    + Sidney Lumet – Twelve Angry Men (1957)
    + Alfred Hitchcock – Vertigo (1958)
    + Ralph Nelson – Lillies of the Field (1961)
    + John Frankenheimer – The Manchurian Candidate (1962)
    + Robert Mulligan – To Kill a Mockingbird (1962)
    + Norman Jewison – In the Heat of the Night (1967)
    + Stanley Kubrick – 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968)
    + George Lucas: THX-1138 (1971)
    + Stanley Kubrick – A Clockwork Orange (1971)
    + George Roy Hill - Slaughterhouse Five (1972)
    + Robin Hardy - The Wicker Man (1973)
    + Akira Kurosawa – Dersu Uzala (1975)
    + Sidney Lumet – Network (1976)
    + Paul Verhoeven – Soldier of Orange (1977)
    + Ridley Scott – Alien (1979)
    + Andrei Tarkovsky – Stalker (1979)
    + Bob Fosse - All That Jazz (1979)
    + Hal Ashby - Being There (1979)
    + Woody Allen – Manhattan (1979)
    + Hugh Hudson - Chariots of Fire (1981)
    + John Boorman – Excalibur (1981)
    + Ridley Scott – Blade Runner (1982)
    + Paul Verhoeven - The Fourth Man (1983)
    + Terry Jones – Monty Python’s The Meaning of Life (1983)
    + David Lynch – Dune (1984)
    + Milos Forman – Amadeus (1984)
    + Woody Allen – Broadway Danny Rose (1984)
    + David Lynch – Blue Velvet (1986)
    + Jean-Jacques Annaud – The Name of the Rose (1986)
    + Gabriel Axel – Babette’s Feast (1987)
    + Stanley Kubrick – Full Metal Jacket (1987)
    + Woody Allen - Another Woman (1988)
    + David Cronenberg - Naked Lunch (1991)
    + Henry Selick – Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993)
    + Brian Singer – The Usual Suspects (1995)
    + David Cronenberg – Crash (1996)
    + Cameron Crowe - Jerry Maguire (1996)
    + Alejandro González Iñárritu – Amores Perros (2000)
    + Peter Jackson – The Lord of the Rings (2001-2003)
    + Nigel Cole – Calendar Girls (2003)
    + István Szabó – Being Julia (2004)
    + Walter Salles – The Motorcycle Diaries (2004)
    + Jason Reitman – Thank You For Smoking (2005)
    + Stephen Frears – Mrs. Henderson Presents (2005)
    + Terry George – Hotel Rwanda (2005)
    + Paul Verhoeven – Black Book (2006)
    + Pedro Almodóvar – Volver (2006)
    + Mike Nichols – Charlie Wilson’s War (2007)
    + Woody Allen – Midnight in Paris (2011)

    +
    +

     

    +

    Favorite Painters: Mario Sironi, Edward Hopper, Yves Tanguy, Xul Solar, Tamara de Lempicka, Jan Vermeer, Juan Gris, George Tooker, Giorgio de Chirico, Camille Pissarro
    +
    +

    +

    Favorite Authors: Jorge Luís Borges, Milan Kundera, Knut Hamsun, Ayn Rand, Jerzy Kosinski, Ursula K. LeGuin, Arthur C. Clarke, Jim Thompson, Kurt Vonnegut, Isaac Asimov
    +
    +

    +

    Favorite Music Composers/Artists (by genre):

    +
    +

    Classical (in chronological order): Thomas Tallis, Tomaso Albinoni, Johann Christian Bach, Franz Joseph Haydn, Ludwig van Beethoven, Antonin Dvořák, Aleksandr Glazunov, Gabriel Fauré, Maurice Ravel, Jean Sibelius, Ralph Vaughn Williams, Francis Poulenc, György Ligeti, Krzysztof Penderecki, Arvo Pärt
    +
    + 1930s – 1940s Big Band Orchestras:  Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Glen Miller, Tommy Dorsey
    +
    + 1940s – 1960s Jazz vocalists: Frank Sinatra, Helen Forrest, Nat King Cole, Lurlean Hunter, Mel Tormé, Jeri Southern, Jack Jones, Bobby Darin
    +
    + 1960s Pop and Soul/R&B: The Beatles, Creedence Clearwater Revival, The Hollies, The Supremes, Marvin Gaye, Smokey Robinson & The Miracles, The Rascals, The Beach Boys, The Doors, The Mamas & the Papas, Petula Clark, Simon & Garfunkel
    +
    + 1970s Classic Rock & Pop: Led Zeppelin, Heart, Santana, Styx, Tom Petty, Bruce Springsteen, Van Halen, Supertramp, Boston, Chicago, America, David Bowie, The Doobie Brothers, Be-Bop Deluxe, Bad Company, The Cars, Crosby Stills Nash (& Young), Fleetwood Mac, Robin Trower, Dire Straits, The Rolling Stones, The Carpenters, Abba
    +
    + 1970s Soul/R&B: Al Green, The Spinners, Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, Staple Singers
    +
    + 1970s Krautrock and Kosmische Musik: Amon Düül II, Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Klaus Schulze
    +
    + 1970s – 1980s Progressive Rock and Progressive Jazz Fusion: Yes, Genesis, Camel, Triumvirat, Starcastle, Renaissance, Rush, Eloy, Gentle, Giant, Locanda delle Fate, Passport, Al Dimeola, Iceberg, Guadalquivir
    +

    +

    1970s – 1980s Zeuhl: Magma, Weidorje, Eskaton

    +

    1970s Punk Rock: The Ramones, The Clash, The Drones, The Saints, The Vibrators, Generation X, The Buzzcocks
    +
    + 1970s – 1980s Post-Punk/New Wave: The Jam, Wire, Joy Division, The Stranglers, Japan, Talking Heads, The Police, Siouxsie & the Banshees, Magazine, U2, Simple Minds, Ultravox, XTC, The Teardrop Explodes, Wah!, TV21, The Psychedelic Furs, Gary Numan & Tubeway Army, Missing Persons, New Musik, The Pretenders, Bill Nelson/Red Noise, Bauhaus, Killing Joke, Duran Duran, Depeche Mode, The English Beat, Flock of Seagulls, The Human League, Blondie, Big Country, Echo & the Bunnymen, The B-52s, The Cure
    +
    + 1970s-1980s Roots Reggae: The Wailing Souls, Burning Spear, The Mighty Diamonds, Culture, The Meditations, Dennis Brown, Steel Pulse, Gregory Isaacs, The Itals, Ijahman, Israel Vibration, Bob Marley & the Wailers
    +
    + 1980s-2000s World Music (zouk, soukous, mbalax, makossa, rai, samba, soca, world fusion, etc.): Kassav’, Angelique Kidjo, Baaba Maal, Youssou Ndour, Guy Lobé, Tshala Muana, Ismaël Lô, Touré Kunda, Khaled, Mahmoud Ahmed, Hamelmal Abate, Pablo Lubadika, Papa Wemba, Tarika, Gal Costa, Gilberto Gil, Ricardo Lemvo & Makina Loca
    +
    + 1990s Alternative Rock: Ride, Catherine Wheel, Pearl Jam, Stone Temple Pilots, Green Day, K’s Choice, Lightning Seeds, Our Lady Peace, Smashing Pumpkins, Lush, Curve, The Clarks, Dubstar
    +

    2000s - 2010s Alternative Rock: Minus the Bear, Kemopetrol, Iris (the American darkwave band), Little Purple Circles, The Gathering, Paatos

    +

    Contemporary Catalan Rock/Pop/Folk: Relk, Xot, Dept., Vuit, La Porta dels Somnis

    +

    Contemporary Mellow Jazz Pianists: John Taylor (including his work with the Peter Erskine group), Alan Pasqua, Fred Hirsch

    +

    Indian Classical Raga: Nikhil Banerjee, Ali Akbar Khan, Ravi Shankar, Ram Narayan

    +

    Other Music Favorites: Patsy Cline, Los Lobos, Michael Jackson, Mafalda Arnauth, Miles Davis (his cool bop period), Farlanders, Inna Zhelannaya, Michael Bublé

    + +
    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Home FAQs about Ithkuil
    A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language  Links of Interest
    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/front_cover-novel.png b/2004-en/front_cover-novel.png new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ca6bd67 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/front_cover-novel.png differ diff --git a/2004-en/front_cover-small.png b/2004-en/front_cover-small.png new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3413e5d Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/front_cover-small.png differ diff --git a/2004-en/hovercraft.mp3 b/2004-en/hovercraft.mp3 new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8fb30b9 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/hovercraft.mp3 differ diff --git a/2004-en/ilaksh-logo.gif b/2004-en/ilaksh-logo.gif new file mode 100644 index 0000000..75a053f Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/ilaksh-logo.gif differ diff --git a/2004-en/images/Glyph-Halves.JPG b/2004-en/images/Glyph-Halves.JPG new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bee2955 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/images/Glyph-Halves.JPG differ diff --git a/2004-en/images/Reversed Glyphs 1-2-3-31-32-43.gif 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    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022224id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Welcome!
    +

    +


    +     This website presents a comprehensive grammar of a constructed human language, Ithkuil. The original version of the language was posted to the Inthttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022224id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ernet in January 2004. A variation on the language called Ilaksh, designed for easier pronunciation was posted in June 2007. These two versions of the language have now been replaced by https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022224id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/a new, definitive (and final) version of the language as of July 2011.

    +

    For those familiar with the history of artificial language construction, Ithkuil represents a cross between + an a priori philosophical language and a logical language. + It is by no means intended to function as a “natural” human language. + Ithkuil exists as an exercise in exploring how human languages could function, +not how human languages do function.

    +

    While I enjoy the idea of inventing fictional languages whttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022224id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/hich + mimic natural languages, it is not enough for me to add simply ahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022224id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nother language + to the thousands that already exist or have existed. For me, thhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022224id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/e greater goal + is to attempt the creation of what human beings, left to their own devices, + would never create naturally, but rather only by conscious effort — an idealized language whose aim is the highest possible degree of logic, efficiency, + detail, and accuracy in cognitive expression via spoken human language, while + minimizing the ambiguity, vagueness, illogic, redundancy, polysemy (multiple + meanings) and overall arbitrariness that is seemingly ubiquitous in natural + human language. This new version of Ithkuil represents the culmination of over thirty years +of personal effort toward creating such a language.

    +

    Acknowledgements: I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil, including Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of so many people in the Russian-speaking world. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian and to fellow linguist and conlanger David J. Peterson for bestowing upon Ithkuil the 2008 Smiley Award.

    +
    + + + + + +
     —John Quijada
    +


    +

    +
    + +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    +
    +


    + ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/index.htm.orig b/2004-en/index.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7e42aa8 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/index.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,230 @@ + + + +A Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Philosophical Language + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Welcome!
    +

    +


    +     This website presents a comprehensive grammar of a constructed human language, Ithkuil. The original version of the language was posted to the Internet in January 2004. A variation on the language called Ilaksh, designed for easier pronunciation was posted in June 2007. These two versions of the language have now been replaced by a new, definitive (and final) version of the language as of July 2011.

    +

    For those familiar with the history of artificial language construction, Ithkuil represents a cross between + an a priori philosophical language and a logical language. + It is by no means intended to function as a “natural” human language. + Ithkuil exists as an exercise in exploring how human languages could function, +not how human languages do function.

    +

    While I enjoy the idea of inventing fictional languages which + mimic natural languages, it is not enough for me to add simply another language + to the thousands that already exist or have existed. For me, the greater goal + is to attempt the creation of what human beings, left to their own devices, + would never create naturally, but rather only by conscious effort — an idealized language whose aim is the highest possible degree of logic, efficiency, + detail, and accuracy in cognitive expression via spoken human language, while + minimizing the ambiguity, vagueness, illogic, redundancy, polysemy (multiple + meanings) and overall arbitrariness that is seemingly ubiquitous in natural + human language. This new version of Ithkuil represents the culmination of over thirty years +of personal effort toward creating such a language.

    +

    Acknowledgements: I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil, including Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of so many people in the Russian-speaking world. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian and to fellow linguist and conlanger David J. Peterson for bestowing upon Ithkuil the 2008 Smiley Award.

    +
    + + + + + +
     —John Quijada
    +


    +

    +
    + +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    +
    +


    + ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/index.html b/2004-en/index.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b44d1b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/index.html @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Welcome!

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Ilaksh Logo
    Ithkuil Logo
     
    +

    The above two links will take you to the comprehensive grammars +of two artificially constructed human languages: the first is Ithkuil, originally introduced in January 2004. The second is Ilaksh, which is new as of June 2007. Ilaksh represents a complete revision of the sound system (phonology and morpho-phonology) of Ithkuil, designed for the many persons who have expressed an interest in wanting to learn and speak Ithkuil, but have been daunted by its complex sound system.

    +

    Both Ithkuil and Ilaksh represent a cross between + an a priori philosophical language and a logical language. + They are by no means intended to function as “natural” human languages. + Ithkuil and Ilaksh exist as exercises in how human languages could function, + not as human languages do function.

    +

    While I enjoy the idea of inventing fictional languages which + mimic natural languages, it is not enough for me to add simply another language + to the thousands that already exist or have existed. For me, the greater goal + is to attempt the creation of what human beings, left to their own devices, + would never create naturally, but rather only by conscious intellectual effort — an idealized language whose aim is the highest possible degree of logic, efficiency, + detail, and accuracy in cognitive expression via spoken human language, while + minimizing the ambiguity, vagueness, illogic, redundancy, polysemy (multiple + meanings) and overall arbitrariness that is seemingly ubiquitous in natural + human language. Ithkuil and Ilaksh represent the culmination of over a quarter-century +of personal effort toward creating such a language.

    +

    I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil and Ilaksh. I especially wish to thank Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of so many people. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian. And finally, my appreciation to fellow linguist and conlanger David J. Peterson for bestowing upon Ithkuil the 2008 Smiley Award.

    +

                                                                                 — John Quijada +

    Smiley Award

    +


    +
    +

    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of either the Ithkuil or Ilaksh web pages provided you give full attribution +to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/index.html.orig b/2004-en/index.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e6cd66a --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/index.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Welcome!

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Ilaksh Logo
    Ithkuil Logo
     
    +

    The above two links will take you to the comprehensive grammars +of two artificially constructed human languages: the first is Ithkuil, originally introduced in January 2004. The second is Ilaksh, which is new as of June 2007. Ilaksh represents a complete revision of the sound system (phonology and morpho-phonology) of Ithkuil, designed for the many persons who have expressed an interest in wanting to learn and speak Ithkuil, but have been daunted by its complex sound system.

    +

    Both Ithkuil and Ilaksh represent a cross between + an a priori philosophical language and a logical language. + They are by no means intended to function as “natural” human languages. + Ithkuil and Ilaksh exist as exercises in how human languages could function, + not as human languages do function.

    +

    While I enjoy the idea of inventing fictional languages which + mimic natural languages, it is not enough for me to add simply another language + to the thousands that already exist or have existed. For me, the greater goal + is to attempt the creation of what human beings, left to their own devices, + would never create naturally, but rather only by conscious intellectual effort — an idealized language whose aim is the highest possible degree of logic, efficiency, + detail, and accuracy in cognitive expression via spoken human language, while + minimizing the ambiguity, vagueness, illogic, redundancy, polysemy (multiple + meanings) and overall arbitrariness that is seemingly ubiquitous in natural + human language. Ithkuil and Ilaksh represent the culmination of over a quarter-century +of personal effort toward creating such a language.

    +

    I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil and Ilaksh. I especially wish to thank Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of so many people. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian. And finally, my appreciation to fellow linguist and conlanger David J. Peterson for bestowing upon Ithkuil the 2008 Smiley Award.

    +

                                                                                 — John Quijada +

    Smiley Award

    +


    +
    +

    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of either the Ithkuil or Ilaksh web pages provided you give full attribution +to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/intro-1.jpg b/2004-en/intro-1.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..66e7cc1 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/intro-1.jpg differ diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9bc298a --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2154 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 1: Phonology + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 1: Phonology

    + +

    The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound + system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized + phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically + convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system + of Ithkuil is detailed in the sections below.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    1.1 NOTE ON + ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION

    +
    +

    The native script used to represent Ithkuil is both alien and + complex (employing over 3600 characters). It is explained in Chapter + 11. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed + throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic + structure of Ithkuil words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in + transliterating the large number of phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ithkuil, + the following diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system: the + acute, grave and circumflex accents, the umlaut or dieresis, the cedilla, a + superposed dot, and the apostrophe. The uses of these diacritics are explained + in the sections below. Additionally, digraphs with a superscript letter h + are employed to represent various aspirated consonants.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    1.2 PHONEMIC + INVENTORY

    +
    +

    In furtherance of morpho-phonological efficiency (one of the + language’s goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have + a large phonemic inventory, specifically 65 consonants and 17 vowels, illustrated + by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized + orthography. Because this is far more than most Western languages, Ithkuil has + many sounds alien to speakers of English or other Western languages. Consequently, + readers other than trained phoneticians (or perhaps speakers of such obscure + languages as Chechen or Abkhaz) will likely have difficulty pronouncing the + language accurately.
    +

    +

    Tables 1(a) + and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory

    +

    Table 1(a): Consonantal + Inventory

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    PLOSIVES
    AFFRICATES
    +
    Fricatives
    Nasals
    Taps/
    + Trills
    Liquids
    Approximants
     
    plain
    aspirated
    ejective
    plain
    aspirated
    ejective
     
    un-
    +     voiced
    +voice
    +

    un-
    +     voiced

    +
    un-
    +     voiced
    un-
    +     voiced
    +voice
    un-
    +     voiced
    un-
    +     voiced
    un-
    +     voiced
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    BILABIAL
    p
    b
    p’
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    m
    _
    _
    _
    LABIO-VELAR
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    w
    LABIO-DENTAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    f
    v
    _
    _
    _
    _
    DENTAL
    t
    d
    t’
    _
    _
    _
    _
    n
    _
    _
    _
    ALVEOLAR
    _
    _
    _
    _
    c
    c’
    s
    z
    _
    _
    _
    _
    ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX
    _
    _
    _
    _
    ’
    _
    r
    _
    POST-ALVEOLAR
    _
    _
    _
    _
    j
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    _
    PALATAL
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    ç’
    ç
    _
    _
    _
    y
    VELAR
    k
    g
    k’
    _
    _
    _
    x’
    x
    _
    _
    _
    UVULAR
    q
    q’
    _
    _
    _
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    _
    PHARYNGAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    GLOTTAL
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    h
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    LATERAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    l
    _
    VELARIZED LATERAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    +

     

    +

    Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    FRONT
    CENTRAL
    BACK
    unrounded
    rounded
    unrounded
    rounded
    unrounded
    rounded
    High
    î
    ÿ
    _ +
    ü
    ï +
    û +
    Mid-High
    i
    _ +
    _ +
    _ +
    _ +
    u
    Mid
    + ê
    ø
    _ +
    _ +
    ë +
    ô
    Mid-Low
    e
    ö
    _ +
    _ + _
    _ +
    o
    Low
    ä
    _ +
    a
    _ +
    â
    _ +
    +


    + 1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants

    +

    The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal + sounds of Ithkuil. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol + of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well + as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these + phonetic representation systems. Sound files of actual Ithkuil words have been + provided for those consonants which are uncommon or difficult to pronounce for + English speakers, as well as in other cases to compare and distinguish two similar + but distinct phonemes, e.g., k + versus , + or c vs. + + vs. , + etc.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    b
    As in English. A voiced + bilabial unaspirated plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [b].
    +
    +
    c
    +

    As in English bits. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [ts]. + X-SAMPA [ + t_s ]. Example sound files: ____
    +

    +
    No English equivalent. Similar to the + sound immediately above except that the s-component of the affricate + is made up of the Ithkuil alveolar retroflex s-sound + (see below). This sound occurs in most Chinese languages, as well as the + Basque language, where it is spelled ts. A voiceless unaspirated + apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [ t_s` + ]. Example sound files:
    +
    +     + +
    + +
    +
    +
    As in English chin + but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff + of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [ t_S + ]. Example sound files:       
    +
    + + +
    + + +
    +
    +
    ç
    Like the initial sound in English human, + huge, hue, or the + sound in German ich. A voiceless dorso-palatal + non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [ç]. + X-SAMPA [C]. + Example sound files:
    + +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    d
    Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar + ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An unaspirated + voiced apico-dental plosive; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [d_d]. +
    +
    +
    As in English this, + bathe, weather. A + voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [ð]. + X-SAMPA [D]. +
    +
    +
    f
    As in English. A voiceless labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [f]. +
    +
    +
    g
    Always as in English gag; + never as in ginger. A voiced dorso-velar unaspirated plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [g]. + Example sound file:       
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiced dorso-uvular + unaspirated plosive found in Inuit and several Paleo-Siberian languages + such as Chukchi and Nivkh. Similar to the hard g-sound above + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + The resulting sound has a characteristic “gulped” quality. + The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil q below; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [G\]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of x below. Can be approximated by putting the tongue + in the position to pronounce English g as in gag + then, without moving the tongue, trying to say ‘uh’ instead. + A voiced dorso-velar fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [G]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    h
    As in English hall. + Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable + in Ithkuil. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [h]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiceless + radico-pharyngal fricative found in Arabic and several Northeast Caucasian + languages. A deep raspy sound produced by pronouncing an h-sound + while constricting the pharynx and trying to press the root of the tongue + against the back wall of the pharynx. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [X\]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    j
    As in English judge + but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. An unaspirated + non-labialized voiced lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [d_Z]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of Ithkuil + below. Found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled gy and + d´ respectively. Sort of like a g+y sound + as in English big year pronounced rapidly, with + the g-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate + as opposed to the soft palate. A voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive. + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [J\]. + Example sound files:
    +     ‘day + (24-hour period)’
    +
    +
    +
    k
    Similar to English k + but without aspiration. Like the k-sound of the Romance languages, + e.g., Spanish or Italian casa. A voiceless unaspirated + dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [k]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. Like a k-sound + but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced + farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, + not the soft palate as with English k. The result + should sound somewhat like a k+y as in backyard + when spoken rapidly. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [c]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    l
    The “light” l-sound + of the Romance languages, or as in British English leader; + not the “dark” (velarized) l-sound of American English + lull. A voiced apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [l]. + Example sound files:
    +     +
    +
    +
    +
    The “dark” (velarized) l-sound + of American English lull, not + the “light” l-sound of the Romance languages or British + English leader. A voiced velarized apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [5]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-bilateral fricative as found in Welsh llan. + Can best be approximated by putting the tongue in position as if to say + an l-sound, and while holding the position, make a forceful h-sound + instead; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [K]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +     + +
    +
    +
    m
    As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal + continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [m].
    +
    +
    n
    Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages, + not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant + obstruent; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [n_d].
    +
    +
    The English ng-sound as in + song or ringer; NEVER + as in finger. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant + obstruent;. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [N].
    +
    +
    p
    Similar to English, but without aspiration. + As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [p].
    +
    +
    q
    No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American + Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated k-sound + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + IPA and X-SAMPA [q]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    This sound is a combination of a heavily + aspirated and palatal Ithkuil (see + above) released laterally (i.e., along the two sides of the tongue) into + a voiceless lateral fricative (IPA []). + This sound occurs in some North American Indian and North Caucasian languages. + An aspirated voiceless palatal-lateral affricate. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [c_K_h]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    r
    This sound is a single flap of the tongue + tip as in Spanish caro or pero. + When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish carro + or perro. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex + flap/trill; IPA [], + [r]. + X-SAMPA [4], + [r]. + Example sound files:
    + +
    +
    +
    +
    Pronounced similarly to the English + retroflex r-sound except that there is no lip-rounding and the + tongue is in direct contact with the alveolar gum ridge behind the upper + teeth, giving the sound an l-coloring. A voiced apico-alveolar + retroflex liquid continuant; the closest IPA symbol is [] + (a voiced rhoticized retroflex lateral approximant). (No X-SAMPA equivalent). + Example sound files:
    + +
    +
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. Like the throaty + or “gargled” r-sound found in colloquial French and + German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA []. + X-SAMPA [R]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    s
    As in English sister. + A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA + [s]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The retroflex + s-sound heard in Castilian (but not Latin American) Spanish. + Also found in Basque, Catalan, and most Chinese languages. Similar to + an English s-sound, but with the blade of the tongue curved convexly + away from the roof of the mouth, as with an English r-sound, + so that the tongue curls back and touches the alveolar ridge. The result + should sound halfway between an English s and sh. A + voiceless apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [ s`]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    +
    š
    As in English shoeshine + but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [S].Example + sound file:
    + +
    +
    +
    t
    Similar to English but without aspiration + and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against + the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless apico-dental + unaspirated plosive; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [t_d].
    +
    +
    As in English thin, + bath. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [T].
    +
    +
    v
    As in English. A voiced labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [v].
    +
    +
    w
    +

    As in English well, worry. + A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [w].
    +

    +
    x
    No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless + dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled x + in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish j. + Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce + a k-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing + an h-sound instead. Should be distinguished from + below; IPA and X-SAMPA [x]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The rough voiceless + dorso-uvular fricative (or trill) found in German ach. + Can be approximated by means of a dry gargle without vocal chord vibration. + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [X]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    y
    As in English yet, + yam. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [ j + ]. Example sound file: +
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to ç above. This is the “intensive” + y-sound heard in Castilian and some Latin American varieties + of Spanish. Like the sound in English yet, yam + but with the blade of the tongue held more closely to the hard palate, + so that audible friction occurs. A voiced dorso-palatal fricative; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [j\]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    z
    As in English zoo, + wizard. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; + IPA and X-SAMPA [z]. + Example sound file:
    +

    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil + + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative. IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [ z`]. + Example sound file: + +
    +

    		The voiced counterpart of š + above. Similar to the sound in English pleasure + or leisure, but without lip-rounding. A voiced + lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [Z]. + Example sound file:
    + +
    Like an English d+z + sound, as in roads, adze. + A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [dz]. + X-SAMPA [d_z]. + Example sound file: +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [d_z`]. + Example sound file:
    +
    ’
    This sound is the glottal stop heard + between the two vowels in English oh-oh or as the sound heard + in most American English speakers’ pronunciation of the word fattening. + This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, + Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA []. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

    1.2.1.1 Aspirated Consonants: The consonants + are + all unaspirated, i.e., without the accompanying puff of air characteristic of + English voiceless stops and affricates. In Ithkuil each of these has an aspirated + counterpart, pronounced like the unaspirated version but with a distinct expulsion + of air, more so than in English. These aspirated counterparts are written with + a following superscript h; thus: + Example sound files:

    +
    +

    +
    + +
    +
    + +

    +
    +

    1.2.1.2 Ejective Consonants: The same eight + consonants immediately above also have ejective counterparts, which do not exist + in any major Western language, but are found in languages such as Armenian, + Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian + languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied + by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which + gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives + are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: . + Note: the lateral affricate + has an allophone (alternate pronunciation) as an ejective as well. Example sound + files:

    +
    +

    +
    + +
    +
    + +

    +
    +

    In addition to the above ejectives, there are three additional + ejective consonants, all of them affricates, ç’, + x’, + and ’, + whose rather difficult and exotic pronunciations are described below.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ç’ +
    This sound is a combination of Ithkuil + + + Ithkuil ç + (the voiceless palatal slit fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [’]. + X-SAMPA [c_C_>]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    x’ +
    This sound is a combination of Ithkuil k + + Ithkuil x (the voiceless velar fricative described + above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. + When pronounced properly, it should be a harsh, sudden, emphatic k-sound, + accompanied by a high-pitched sound of static, as if someone is verbally + imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [kx’]. + X-SAMPA [k_x_>]. + Example sound file:
    +
    ’ +
    This sound is a combination of Ithkuil q + + Ithkuil + (the voiceless uvular fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [q’]. + X-SAMPA [q_X_>]. + This sound is found in a few obscure Northeast Caucasian languages (e.g., + Dido, Archi). Example sound file:
    +
    +
    +
    +

    1.2.1.3 Syllabic consonants. Six consonants, + , + can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of + syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions + such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ + (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants n + and l as in the second syllable of words like button and little. + Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words nda ‘no’, + and ndíghílii ‘sunflower.’ In Ithkuil, these + six syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant + as in + However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where + the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate + syllable. Examples: .

    +

    +

    1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels

    +

    There are 17 vowels, all of which are pure sounds, not glided + into diphthongs as in English. These include the five primary vowels a, + e, i, o, u. + The vowel a is phonetically an unrounded central low vowel, + IPA [a], + as in Spanish or Italian. The vowels e and o + are similar to the vowels in American English let + and short, phonetically IPA [] + and [], + although both sounds are actually somewhat higher, being between low-mid and + mid in height. The vowels i and u are lower + than in Romance languages: i is about halfway between the vowels + in English pit and machine; + u is halfway between English cook + and kook. Sound files: a + e i o u

    +

    The vowel â is pronounced as in Western + U.S. all, IPA []; + ê and ô are mid-height, IPA [e] + and [o] + as in Spanish estos or in French + poésie; î and û + are high (i.e., fully closed) as in Spanish or Italian i and u, + IPA [i] + and [u]. + Example sound files: â + ê î ô û

    +

    The vowel ä is slightly higher than the + vowel in American English sat but not as high as in + set, IPA [æ^]. The vowel ö + is the rounded equivalent of e, that is, the vowel in French + boeuf or German könnte, + IPA [œ]. + The vowel ë is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American + English cut or nut, although, + more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel ô but without rounding + of the lips, a vowel which occurs in Estonian, IPA []. + The vowel ï is pronounced as an unrounded û, + an obscure vowel found in Turkish and Japanese, IPA . + The vowel ü is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel, + as found in Norwegian hus or the Highland Scottish + pronunciation of English book or good, + IPA []. + The vowel ø is the rounded equivalent of ê, + as in French feu or German schön, + IPA [ø]; + the vowel ÿ represents the front rounded vowel of French + du and German über, + IPA [y]. + Example sound files: ä + ë ï ö ø ü ÿ +

    +


    + 1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions

    +

    Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation + of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that + phoneme occurs. These variances, while audible to a trained linguist, are often + indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these + allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional + role in the language. As an example, compare the two t-sounds in the + English words top and stop. + The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while + the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. + However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, + the difference in the two t-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers + of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages + where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other + Indic languages).

    +

    Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within + a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely + regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration + in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning + a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign + accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, + and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without + aspirating the initial t-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration + in Romance languages.)

    +

    The particular phonetic variants of a particular phoneme are + known as allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ithkuil are + as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    h
    This phoneme is a simple + (bi-)glottal fricative as in English head when in a syllable-initial position + and in word-final position. However, at the end of a syllable when preceded + by a vowel and followed by another consonant, this sound approaches a + voiceless bilabial fricative, similar to the bilabial sound of Japanese + h as pronounced before u (usually transliterated into + Roman orthography as f). IPA []. +
    +
    hh
    The geminated version of Ithkuil h is + pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is + completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along + their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre + to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English thin) + as well as the English f-sound, however there is absolutely no + contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound. + No IPA equivalent. Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    This aspirated lateral affricate is + in free variation with (i.e., may be alternately pronounced as) its non-aspirated + ejective counterpart (IPA []); + in word-initial position it is more common to pronounce it ejectively. + Example sound files:
    + +
    + + +
    +
    +
    In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced + as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar + to the throaty r-sound found in colloquial French and German, + IPA []. + However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound + becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [].
    +
    +
    w
    Normally pronounced as a voiced labio-velar + approximant (i.e., labialized dorso-velar approximant) as in English wet + (IPA [w]), + when followed by the Ithkuil vowel û, this sound, + takes on even greater lip-rounding to become a voiced labio-velar fricative + (i.e., labialized dorso-velar fricative) (IPA []). +
    +
    +
    +
    w’
    In this word-initial combination of + voiced labio-velar approximant followed by a glottal stop is found, the + w is pronounced followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, + Ithkuil ï, followed by the glottal stop (IPA []). +
    +
    +
    +
    y’
    Similarly to the combination above, + this word-initial combination has its voiced dorso-palatal approximant + followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, followed by the glottal + stop (IPA []). +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    bm, + dn, km, kn, pm, tn
    +
     
    When in word-initial position, the first + consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral + release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to + pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to + pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the + tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead. IPA []. +
    +
    +
    hl, + hm, hn, h, hr, h, + hw
    +
    +
    Each of these consonant conjuncts, when + word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not + pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts + to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct, + i.e., IPA + To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce + an Ithkuil l, + m, n, n, r, + , + or w, + and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear h-sound + instead.
    +

     

    + + + + +
    1.3 PHONOLOGICAL + PROCESSES AND RULES
    +

    Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages + have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are + combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, + the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ithkuil + productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and + tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends.
    +

    +

    1.3.1 Gemination

    +

    Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in + length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination + does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological + grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ + versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based + gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, + Finnish).

    +

    In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy + is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and + word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination + in Ithkuil:

    +

    1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination. All consonants + are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except + for y and w.

    +

    1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination. + The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, + are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: +

    +
    +

    +
    +

    The consonant + can be geminated in word-initial position.

    +

    1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants. + Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite + duration), specifically are + simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated + r is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like + rr in Spanish or Italian. Example sound files:

    +
    +

    +
    + +
    + +
    + +

    +
    +

    The non-aspirated plosive consonants b, + d, g, + , + , + k, , + p, q, + and t, when + geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two d-sounds + in the English phrase bad dog when spoken rapidly. + Example sound file:

    +
    +

    +

    +
    +

    The aspirated plosives + are likewise held momentarily before release, the aspiration occurring upon + release, much like the two t-sounds in the English phrase hot + tar when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives k’, + ’, + p’, q’, and + t’ are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic + ejectivization occurring upon release. Example sound files:

    +
    +

    +

    +
    +

    The pronunciation of affricates () + when geminated depends on whether or not they are in word-final position. If + not in word-final position, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial + stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative + or sibilant portion. Aspiration or ejectivization, if present, occurs during + release of the plosive into the sibilant or fricative component, e.g., + is pronounced as IPA [ttš]. + For those affricates which can appear as word-final geminates (), + geminated pronunciation in word-final position is achieved by simply lengthening + the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of + each affricate). Thus, + in word-final position is pronounced as IPA [tšš], + + as IPA []. + Example sound files:

    +
    +

    +
    + +
    + + +

    +
    +

    1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates. + Single character consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g., + bb, dd, nn, šš. + Aspirated digraph-consonants have the first letter of the digraph written doubled + followed by a single superscript h, e.g., + Geminated ejective consonants are likewise written with the initial character + doubled followed by a single apostrophe, e.g., + Exceptions to this rule exist for the ejective affricates ç’, + x’, + and ’. + Because the non-apostrophed forms of these three characters do not correspond + to non-ejectivized versions of the apostrophed form, these geminates are written + as

    +


    + 1.3.2 Pitch and Tone

    +

    Ithkuil is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other + Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages + and some American Indian languages. This means that pitch or tone of voice is + used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone + and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic + features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, + while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other + attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words + themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories).

    +

    There are five tones used in Ithkuil, one of which, mid-low + tone, is considered morpho-phonologically neutral. The other four tones are + falling, high, broken (i.e., mid to low to mid-low), and rising (i.e., mid-low + to mid-high) and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries + one significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously + carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed + syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid-low tone. Therefore, + the function of mid-low tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since + any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid-low. Like most tone languages, + the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual + speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    (mid-low)
    falling
    high
    broken
    rising
    +

    The four significant tones are indicated in the Roman transliteration + by small superscript symbols at the end of each word, as follows: falling tone + is unmarked, high tone is marked by a superscript hyphen (or macron), broken + tone by a superscript backslash, and rising tone by a superscript forward slash. + This is illustrated in the example words/sound files below.

    +
    +

    + + [falling tone]
    + + + [high tone]
    + + + [broken tone]
    + + + [rising tone]
    +

    +
    +


    + 1.3.3 Syllabic Stress

    +

    Stress normally falls on the penultimate (next-to-last) + syllable but can shift to either the ultimate (last) syllable + of a word, to the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable, + and occasionally to the preantepenultimate (fourth-from-last) + syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations.

    +

    When transliterating Ithkuil into Roman characters, the number + of vowels in Ithkuil requires the use of diacritics due to the limited number + of Roman vowel characters. As a result, the orthographic representation of stress + using the system of romanization becomes complicated. It is explained as follows: +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1)All monosyllabic words are unmarked for stress.
    2)The grave accent ( ` + ) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted, + e.g., in distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as au + and ei from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts aù + and eì.
    3)Penultimate stress. Polysyllabic words having penultimate + stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing the dissyllabic + phonemes ì or ù as the penultimate + syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word iskoùt + (stress on the o), if adding the syllable -ma, + becomes iskoútma + (stress on the u).
    4)

    Ultimate stress. Polysyllabic words which have ultimate + stress indicate this in one of the following ways:

     
      +
    • the unmarked vowels a, e, i, + o, u, and the marked disyllabic vowels + ì and ù take an acute + accent, e.g., á, é, + í, ó, ú.
      • +
    • if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other + than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, or syllabic liquid + or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate + syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., ròihnäl.
      • +
    • If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs + in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then a grave accent over + the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress + (as the grave accent would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate + stress), e.g. òspätlök.
      • +
    • if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate + syllables already have diacritic marks (other than the grave accent) + then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., ksûtpäär. +
      • +
    5)Antepenultimate stress. To show antepenultimate stress + (third syllable from the end):
     
      +
    • if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant) + does not carry a diacritic (other than the grave accent), it takes the + acute accent, e.g., áksiyor
      • +
    • if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave + accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack of acute accent on + the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate + stress, e.g., ëitlàrrun, + ôrümzìl. + (Note that the use of the grave accent over the i in + ôrümzìl + would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress, therefore + its presence implies antepenultimate stress).
      • +
    • if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules, + then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., öömoläk.
      • +
    6)Preantepenultimate stress. To show preantepenultimate + stress (i.e., fourth syllable from the end) apply the same rules as for + antepenultimate stress above, but to the preantepenultimate syllable.
    +

    Note that the acute accent on the stressed second member of + the bi-syllabic geminate clusters + distinguishes them from their standard geminate counterparts . +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    1.4 PHONOTAXIS

    +

    In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, + and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to + what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or + word. This concept is called phonotaxis and such rules are + known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain + why sprelch could be a hypothetical word in English, while znatk + could not be, even though znatk is as easily pronounced by a linguist + as sprelch. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, + and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis

    +

    Equally important are the optional rules each language employs + to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics + or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly + responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” + of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are + described in the sections below.

    +


    + 1.4.1 Syllable Structure

    +

    The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable + forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable, + or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are + shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents + a mandatory vowel or diphthong.

    +

    Table 2: + Syllabic Structure

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Syllable + Type
    Structure
    Examples
    Consonantal + Word
    C(C)(C) + where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless + fricative continuant
    		s, + h,, + ll, mm, pçç
    Monosyllabic
    (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
    		a, ui, öt, + isk, du, tuil, kleb, tliqs, pskarn, xxoršt
    Word-initial
    (C)(C)(C)V(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
    		uran, + tahin, ui’wá, + prinu, klatma, + xmoiskra, kstollap, + ltuirbis, mpeilt’um
    Word-medial
    -(C)(C)V(C)(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
    		kialun, + ruentik, isteixlam, + ïkspûzqai,
    Word-final
    -(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
    		lua, + antoi, tial, eifqés, + poxšurn, ultrönn, + +
    +

    The following rules apply:

    +
    +
      +
    • A single non-syllabic intervocalic consonant is syllabically part of the + vowel following, not preceding.
      +
      • +
    • An intervocalic bi-consonantal conjunct is considered dissyllabic (i.e., + each consonant is part of a different syllable), even if the conjunct is + a geminate consonant.
      +
      • +
    • If a triple-consonant conjunct occurs in the middle of a word, the first + consonant of the three must be in a separate syllable from the last consonant + of the three. The middle consonant will be in the same syllable as whichever + of the two surrounding consonants it forms a permissible word-initial or + word-final cluster. If it can form permissible clusters with either surrounding + consonant, it will be considered part of the syllable with which it is morphemically + associated. Section 1.4.4 below details which specific + consonants can form such clusters.
      +
      • +
    +
    +

    1.4.2 Diphthongs

    +

    An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination + of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil diphthongs are + “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives + the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred + to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 24 diphthongs + in Ithkuil, described as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    ai + +
    Pronounced as in Spanish + or Italian; like English i in white or ice. +
    +
    äi + +
    No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English y-sound. +
    +
    ei +
    As in Spanish or Italian; like English + ai in rain or ei in rein.
    +
    ëi + +
    No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English y-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the i + in ice.
    +
    oi +
    As in Spanish or Italian; as in English + boy or voice.
    +
    öi + +
    No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English y-sound. + Somewhat like the French word oeil.
    +
    ui + +
    As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of Spanish or Italian “pure” u + (i.e., without the glide into -w as in English rude) + + an English y-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this + diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the u-sound + is reduced to a w- (the result sounding like English wee). +
    +
    au + +
    As in Spanish or Italian; like English + ou in loud or ow in cow.
    +
    äu + +
    No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English w-sound. +
    +
    eu + +
    As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of “pure” e (i.e., without + the glide into –y as in English they) + an English w-sound. +
    +
    ëu + +
    No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English w-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word oh!. +
    +
    iu + +
    No English equivalent; a combination + of the Ithkuil vowel i (which is more open than the Spanish + or Italian “pure” i (i.e., closer to English i + in bit) + an English w-sound.
    +
    ou + +
    Like the o + w-glide + of English road or mode. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese + roupa.
    +
    öu + +
    No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English w-sound. + Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the + word oh!.
    _aï, + eï, ëï, iï, oï, uï + +
    +
    Each of these is a combination of a + vowel with the back central vowel ï. No English + equivalents, although the sound can be approximated by pronouncing the + first vowel followed by the velarized “dark” l-sound + of American English lull but without touching the tip of the + tongue to the gum ridge behind the upper teeth; the tongue tip should + remain low instead. The resulting diphthongs should sound somewhat like + English all, ell (as in bell), ull + (as in dull), eel, ole (as in pole), + and ool (as in tool), as pronounced by someone speaking + in an indistinct, slurred voice. For those familiar with IPA, these diphthongs + may be represented as
    _äï, + öï, üï
    As with the series of diphthongs immediately + above, these are combinations of the Ithkuil vowels ä, + ö, and ü with the back central + vowel ï. IPA
    ae + +
    No English equivalent. A combination + of Ithkuil a + ê. Sounds like + a more “open” version of Ithkuil ai. Tolkien’s + Sindarin language also has this diphthong.
    +

    All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are + pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing + the many two-vowel combinations beginning with u- and i- + into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a w-sound or y-sound. + This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives + the syllabic stress.

    +


    + 1.4.3 Constraints on Vowels

    +

    All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts + previously mentioned can occur in any syllable in any position with the following + exceptions:

    +
      +
    • +
      In a word of two syllables or more, the only vowels, + diphthongs, or vowel conjuncts that may occur in word-final position are: + -a, -â, -ï, + -u, -ü, û, + -ia, -ua and diphthongs ending in i, + u, or ï. Note that this constraint + does not apply to monosyllabic words.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      No more than two vowels may occur in conjunction within + a word, i.e., combinations of three vowels, even if two represent a diphthong, + are not permissible.
      +
      • +
    +

     

    +

    1.4.4 Constraints on Consonants

    +
      +
    • +
      The consonants w, y, + and cannot + appear in syllable-final position and must always be followed by a vowel, + or in the case of w and y, by a glottal + stop plus a vowel (e.g., w’+vowel).
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      The glottal stop (’) does not + occur word-initially except as a juncture feature (i.e., where two separate + words come together). Specifically, when a word ends in a vowel and the + next word begins with a vowel, Ithkuil phonetically separates the words + by inserting a glottal stop at the beginning of the second word so that + the word-final vowel of the first word does not combine with the word-initial + vowel of the second. This serves to keep the two words separate and distinct. + This glottal stop is unmarked in both the Roman transliteration and in the + Ithkuil script. Elsewhere, the glottal stop may appear following w + or y if preceding a vowel, or may follow a vowel.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      No more than four consonants can occur in conjunction. + Such four-consonant conjuncts can only occur intervocalically (or across + word boundaries), and the first two and last two consonants must each form + permissible syllable-final and syllable initial pairs respectively, or alternately, + the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-final + conjunct or the last three of the four consonants must form a permissible + syllable-initial conjunct.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      For intervocalic three-consonant conjuncts either the + first consonant or the last consonant of the conjunct must be in a separate + syllable than the other two consonants. If the first consonant is dissyllabic + from the other two, then those other two consonants must be a permissible + syllable-initial conjunct. If the third consonant is dissyllabic from the + first two, then the first two must be a permissible syllable-final conjunct.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      For word-initial and word-final triple consonant conjuncts, + these are generally permissible if the both the first two consonants are + permissible as a conjunct by themselves and the last two consonants of the + conjunct are permissible as a conjunct by themselves.
      +
      • +
    +

    Table 3 below shows the permissible structures for word-initial + consonant conjuncts, while Table 4 shows the permissible structures for consonant + conjuncts in word-final position. Note that not all the possible conjuncts are + shown, merely examples of each type of combination. There are many combinations + of consonants permitted in Ithkuil which would never be allowed as conjuncts + in Western languages.

    +


    + Table 3: Permissible Structure of Initial Consonant Conjuncts
    +
    +

    +


    + Table 4: Permissible Structure of Word-Final Consonant Conjuncts

    +

    +


    + 1.4.5 Phonaesthetic Rules

    +

    Phonaesthetic rules refer to the generally applied rules and + preferences peculiar to each language for structuring the patterns of phonemes + for purposes of phonological euphony. The following such principles apply to + Ithkuil.

    +
      +
    • +
      While “open” syllables (syllables ending + in a single vowel) are tolerated in Ithkuil, “closed” syllables + (i.e., ending in a consonant) are preferred, especially for the stressed + syllable of a word. Ithkuil morphology often allows for more than one way + to structure the various morphemes of a particular word, especially words + of three syllables or more. (Morphemes are the individual meaningful parts + of a word, e.g., the root, any affix, any mutation, or any other phonological + manifestation of a grammatical category.) It is common to restructure words + via morpho-phonological manipulation so that they contain closed syllables, + particularly in the stressed syllable. This rule is not often applied to + two-syllable words, which have fewer options in their structure. The rule + is inapplicable to monosyllabic words, where open syllables are common.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Words of six syllables or more are considered euphonically + undesirable, and it is common to morphologically restructure a word to reduce + the number of syllables to five or less. This morpho-phonological restructuring + is accomplished by alternating adjunct and suffix forms (as explained in + Chapters + 7 and 8).
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      In words having multiple affixes, it is common to use + one of the affixes in an adjunct form instead, if this will reduce the number + of syllables.
      +
      • +
    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    +


    +

    +


    +

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fc86cd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2154 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 1: Phonology + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 1: Phonology

    + +

    The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound + system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized + phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically + convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system + of Ithkuil is detailed in the sections below.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    1.1 NOTE ON + ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION

    +
    +

    The native script used to represent Ithkuil is both alien and + complex (employing over 3600 characters). It is explained in Chapter + 11. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed + throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic + structure of Ithkuil words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in + transliterating the large number of phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ithkuil, + the following diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system: the + acute, grave and circumflex accents, the umlaut or dieresis, the cedilla, a + superposed dot, and the apostrophe. The uses of these diacritics are explained + in the sections below. Additionally, digraphs with a superscript letter h + are employed to represent various aspirated consonants.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    1.2 PHONEMIC + INVENTORY

    +
    +

    In furtherance of morpho-phonological efficiency (one of the + language’s goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have + a large phonemic inventory, specifically 65 consonants and 17 vowels, illustrated + by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized + orthography. Because this is far more than most Western languages, Ithkuil has + many sounds alien to speakers of English or other Western languages. Consequently, + readers other than trained phoneticians (or perhaps speakers of such obscure + languages as Chechen or Abkhaz) will likely have difficulty pronouncing the + language accurately.
    +

    +

    Tables 1(a) + and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory

    +

    Table 1(a): Consonantal + Inventory

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    PLOSIVES
    AFFRICATES
    +
    Fricatives
    Nasals
    Taps/
    + Trills
    Liquids
    Approximants
     
    plain
    aspirated
    ejective
    plain
    aspirated
    ejective
     
    un-
    +     voiced
    +voice
    +

    un-
    +     voiced

    +
    un-
    +     voiced
    un-
    +     voiced
    +voice
    un-
    +     voiced
    un-
    +     voiced
    un-
    +     voiced
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    +voice
    BILABIAL
    p
    b
    p’
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    m
    _
    _
    _
    LABIO-VELAR
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    w
    LABIO-DENTAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    f
    v
    _
    _
    _
    _
    DENTAL
    t
    d
    t’
    _
    _
    _
    _
    n
    _
    _
    _
    ALVEOLAR
    _
    _
    _
    _
    c
    c’
    s
    z
    _
    _
    _
    _
    ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX
    _
    _
    _
    _
    ’
    _
    r
    _
    POST-ALVEOLAR
    _
    _
    _
    _
    j
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    _
    PALATAL
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    ç’
    ç
    _
    _
    _
    y
    VELAR
    k
    g
    k’
    _
    _
    _
    x’
    x
    _
    _
    _
    UVULAR
    q
    q’
    _
    _
    _
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    _
    PHARYNGAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    GLOTTAL
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    h
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    LATERAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    l
    _
    VELARIZED LATERAL
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    _
    +

     

    +

    Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    FRONT
    CENTRAL
    BACK
    unrounded
    rounded
    unrounded
    rounded
    unrounded
    rounded
    High
    î
    ÿ
    _ +
    ü
    ï +
    û +
    Mid-High
    i
    _ +
    _ +
    _ +
    _ +
    u
    Mid
    + ê
    ø
    _ +
    _ +
    ë +
    ô
    Mid-Low
    e
    ö
    _ +
    _ + _
    _ +
    o
    Low
    ä
    _ +
    a
    _ +
    â
    _ +
    +


    + 1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants

    +

    The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal + sounds of Ithkuil. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol + of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well + as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these + phonetic representation systems. Sound files of actual Ithkuil words have been + provided for those consonants which are uncommon or difficult to pronounce for + English speakers, as well as in other cases to compare and distinguish two similar + but distinct phonemes, e.g., k + versus , + or c vs. + + vs. , + etc.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    b
    As in English. A voiced + bilabial unaspirated plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [b].
    +
    +
    c
    +

    As in English bits. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [ts]. + X-SAMPA [ + t_s ]. Example sound files: ____
    +

    +
    No English equivalent. Similar to the + sound immediately above except that the s-component of the affricate + is made up of the Ithkuil alveolar retroflex s-sound + (see below). This sound occurs in most Chinese languages, as well as the + Basque language, where it is spelled ts. A voiceless unaspirated + apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [ t_s` + ]. Example sound files:
    +
    +     + +
    + +
    +
    +
    As in English chin + but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff + of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [ t_S + ]. Example sound files:       
    +
    + + +
    + + +
    +
    +
    ç
    Like the initial sound in English human, + huge, hue, or the + sound in German ich. A voiceless dorso-palatal + non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [ç]. + X-SAMPA [C]. + Example sound files:
    + +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    d
    Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar + ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An unaspirated + voiced apico-dental plosive; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [d_d]. +
    +
    +
    As in English this, + bathe, weather. A + voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [ð]. + X-SAMPA [D]. +
    +
    +
    f
    As in English. A voiceless labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [f]. +
    +
    +
    g
    Always as in English gag; + never as in ginger. A voiced dorso-velar unaspirated plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [g]. + Example sound file:       
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiced dorso-uvular + unaspirated plosive found in Inuit and several Paleo-Siberian languages + such as Chukchi and Nivkh. Similar to the hard g-sound above + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + The resulting sound has a characteristic “gulped” quality. + The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil q below; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [G\]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of x below. Can be approximated by putting the tongue + in the position to pronounce English g as in gag + then, without moving the tongue, trying to say ‘uh’ instead. + A voiced dorso-velar fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [G]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    h
    As in English hall. + Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable + in Ithkuil. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [h]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiceless + radico-pharyngal fricative found in Arabic and several Northeast Caucasian + languages. A deep raspy sound produced by pronouncing an h-sound + while constricting the pharynx and trying to press the root of the tongue + against the back wall of the pharynx. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [X\]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    j
    As in English judge + but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. An unaspirated + non-labialized voiced lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [d_Z]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of Ithkuil + below. Found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled gy and + d´ respectively. Sort of like a g+y sound + as in English big year pronounced rapidly, with + the g-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate + as opposed to the soft palate. A voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive. + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [J\]. + Example sound files:
    +     ‘day + (24-hour period)’
    +
    +
    +
    k
    Similar to English k + but without aspiration. Like the k-sound of the Romance languages, + e.g., Spanish or Italian casa. A voiceless unaspirated + dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [k]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. Like a k-sound + but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced + farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, + not the soft palate as with English k. The result + should sound somewhat like a k+y as in backyard + when spoken rapidly. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [c]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    l
    The “light” l-sound + of the Romance languages, or as in British English leader; + not the “dark” (velarized) l-sound of American English + lull. A voiced apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [l]. + Example sound files:
    +     +
    +
    +
    +
    The “dark” (velarized) l-sound + of American English lull, not + the “light” l-sound of the Romance languages or British + English leader. A voiced velarized apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [5]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-bilateral fricative as found in Welsh llan. + Can best be approximated by putting the tongue in position as if to say + an l-sound, and while holding the position, make a forceful h-sound + instead; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [K]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +     + +
    +
    +
    m
    As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal + continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [m].
    +
    +
    n
    Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages, + not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant + obstruent; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [n_d].
    +
    +
    The English ng-sound as in + song or ringer; NEVER + as in finger. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant + obstruent;. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [N].
    +
    +
    p
    Similar to English, but without aspiration. + As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [p].
    +
    +
    q
    No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American + Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated k-sound + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + IPA and X-SAMPA [q]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    This sound is a combination of a heavily + aspirated and palatal Ithkuil (see + above) released laterally (i.e., along the two sides of the tongue) into + a voiceless lateral fricative (IPA []). + This sound occurs in some North American Indian and North Caucasian languages. + An aspirated voiceless palatal-lateral affricate. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [c_K_h]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    r
    This sound is a single flap of the tongue + tip as in Spanish caro or pero. + When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish carro + or perro. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex + flap/trill; IPA [], + [r]. + X-SAMPA [4], + [r]. + Example sound files:
    + +
    +
    +
    +
    Pronounced similarly to the English + retroflex r-sound except that there is no lip-rounding and the + tongue is in direct contact with the alveolar gum ridge behind the upper + teeth, giving the sound an l-coloring. A voiced apico-alveolar + retroflex liquid continuant; the closest IPA symbol is [] + (a voiced rhoticized retroflex lateral approximant). (No X-SAMPA equivalent). + Example sound files:
    + +
    +
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. Like the throaty + or “gargled” r-sound found in colloquial French and + German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA []. + X-SAMPA [R]. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    s
    As in English sister. + A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA + [s]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The retroflex + s-sound heard in Castilian (but not Latin American) Spanish. + Also found in Basque, Catalan, and most Chinese languages. Similar to + an English s-sound, but with the blade of the tongue curved convexly + away from the roof of the mouth, as with an English r-sound, + so that the tongue curls back and touches the alveolar ridge. The result + should sound halfway between an English s and sh. A + voiceless apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [ s`]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    +
    š
    As in English shoeshine + but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [S].Example + sound file:
    + +
    +
    +
    t
    Similar to English but without aspiration + and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against + the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless apico-dental + unaspirated plosive; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [t_d].
    +
    +
    As in English thin, + bath. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [T].
    +
    +
    v
    As in English. A voiced labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [v].
    +
    +
    w
    +

    As in English well, worry. + A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [w].
    +

    +
    x
    No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless + dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled x + in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish j. + Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce + a k-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing + an h-sound instead. Should be distinguished from + below; IPA and X-SAMPA [x]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The rough voiceless + dorso-uvular fricative (or trill) found in German ach. + Can be approximated by means of a dry gargle without vocal chord vibration. + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [X]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    y
    As in English yet, + yam. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [ j + ]. Example sound file: +
    +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to ç above. This is the “intensive” + y-sound heard in Castilian and some Latin American varieties + of Spanish. Like the sound in English yet, yam + but with the blade of the tongue held more closely to the hard palate, + so that audible friction occurs. A voiced dorso-palatal fricative; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [j\]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    z
    As in English zoo, + wizard. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; + IPA and X-SAMPA [z]. + Example sound file:
    +

    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil + + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative. IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [ z`]. + Example sound file: + +
    +

    		The voiced counterpart of š + above. Similar to the sound in English pleasure + or leisure, but without lip-rounding. A voiced + lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [Z]. + Example sound file:
    + +
    Like an English d+z + sound, as in roads, adze. + A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [dz]. + X-SAMPA [d_z]. + Example sound file: +
    +
    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [d_z`]. + Example sound file:
    +
    ’
    This sound is the glottal stop heard + between the two vowels in English oh-oh or as the sound heard + in most American English speakers’ pronunciation of the word fattening. + This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, + Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA []. + Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

    1.2.1.1 Aspirated Consonants: The consonants + are + all unaspirated, i.e., without the accompanying puff of air characteristic of + English voiceless stops and affricates. In Ithkuil each of these has an aspirated + counterpart, pronounced like the unaspirated version but with a distinct expulsion + of air, more so than in English. These aspirated counterparts are written with + a following superscript h; thus: + Example sound files:

    +
    +

    +
    + +
    +
    + +

    +
    +

    1.2.1.2 Ejective Consonants: The same eight + consonants immediately above also have ejective counterparts, which do not exist + in any major Western language, but are found in languages such as Armenian, + Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian + languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied + by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which + gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives + are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: . + Note: the lateral affricate + has an allophone (alternate pronunciation) as an ejective as well. Example sound + files:

    +
    +

    +
    + +
    +
    + +

    +
    +

    In addition to the above ejectives, there are three additional + ejective consonants, all of them affricates, ç’, + x’, + and ’, + whose rather difficult and exotic pronunciations are described below.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ç’ +
    This sound is a combination of Ithkuil + + + Ithkuil ç + (the voiceless palatal slit fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [’]. + X-SAMPA [c_C_>]. + Example sound file:
    +
    +
    x’ +
    This sound is a combination of Ithkuil k + + Ithkuil x (the voiceless velar fricative described + above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. + When pronounced properly, it should be a harsh, sudden, emphatic k-sound, + accompanied by a high-pitched sound of static, as if someone is verbally + imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [kx’]. + X-SAMPA [k_x_>]. + Example sound file:
    +
    ’ +
    This sound is a combination of Ithkuil q + + Ithkuil + (the voiceless uvular fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [q’]. + X-SAMPA [q_X_>]. + This sound is found in a few obscure Northeast Caucasian languages (e.g., + Dido, Archi). Example sound file:
    +
    +
    +
    +

    1.2.1.3 Syllabic consonants. Six consonants, + , + can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of + syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions + such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ + (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants n + and l as in the second syllable of words like button and little. + Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words nda ‘no’, + and ndíghílii ‘sunflower.’ In Ithkuil, these + six syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant + as in + However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where + the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate + syllable. Examples: .

    +

    +

    1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels

    +

    There are 17 vowels, all of which are pure sounds, not glided + into diphthongs as in English. These include the five primary vowels a, + e, i, o, u. + The vowel a is phonetically an unrounded central low vowel, + IPA [a], + as in Spanish or Italian. The vowels e and o + are similar to the vowels in American English let + and short, phonetically IPA [] + and [], + although both sounds are actually somewhat higher, being between low-mid and + mid in height. The vowels i and u are lower + than in Romance languages: i is about halfway between the vowels + in English pit and machine; + u is halfway between English cook + and kook. Sound files: a + e i o u

    +

    The vowel â is pronounced as in Western + U.S. all, IPA []; + ê and ô are mid-height, IPA [e] + and [o] + as in Spanish estos or in French + poésie; î and û + are high (i.e., fully closed) as in Spanish or Italian i and u, + IPA [i] + and [u]. + Example sound files: â + ê î ô û

    +

    The vowel ä is slightly higher than the + vowel in American English sat but not as high as in + set, IPA [æ^]. The vowel ö + is the rounded equivalent of e, that is, the vowel in French + boeuf or German könnte, + IPA [œ]. + The vowel ë is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American + English cut or nut, although, + more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel ô but without rounding + of the lips, a vowel which occurs in Estonian, IPA []. + The vowel ï is pronounced as an unrounded û, + an obscure vowel found in Turkish and Japanese, IPA . + The vowel ü is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel, + as found in Norwegian hus or the Highland Scottish + pronunciation of English book or good, + IPA []. + The vowel ø is the rounded equivalent of ê, + as in French feu or German schön, + IPA [ø]; + the vowel ÿ represents the front rounded vowel of French + du and German über, + IPA [y]. + Example sound files: ä + ë ï ö ø ü ÿ +

    +


    + 1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions

    +

    Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation + of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that + phoneme occurs. These variances, while audible to a trained linguist, are often + indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these + allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional + role in the language. As an example, compare the two t-sounds in the + English words top and stop. + The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while + the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. + However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, + the difference in the two t-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers + of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages + where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other + Indic languages).

    +

    Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within + a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely + regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration + in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning + a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign + accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, + and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without + aspirating the initial t-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration + in Romance languages.)

    +

    The particular phonetic variants of a particular phoneme are + known as allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ithkuil are + as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    h
    This phoneme is a simple + (bi-)glottal fricative as in English head when in a syllable-initial position + and in word-final position. However, at the end of a syllable when preceded + by a vowel and followed by another consonant, this sound approaches a + voiceless bilabial fricative, similar to the bilabial sound of Japanese + h as pronounced before u (usually transliterated into + Roman orthography as f). IPA []. +
    +
    hh
    The geminated version of Ithkuil h is + pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is + completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along + their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre + to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English thin) + as well as the English f-sound, however there is absolutely no + contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound. + No IPA equivalent. Example sound files:
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    This aspirated lateral affricate is + in free variation with (i.e., may be alternately pronounced as) its non-aspirated + ejective counterpart (IPA []); + in word-initial position it is more common to pronounce it ejectively. + Example sound files:
    + +
    + + +
    +
    +
    In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced + as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar + to the throaty r-sound found in colloquial French and German, + IPA []. + However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound + becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [].
    +
    +
    w
    Normally pronounced as a voiced labio-velar + approximant (i.e., labialized dorso-velar approximant) as in English wet + (IPA [w]), + when followed by the Ithkuil vowel û, this sound, + takes on even greater lip-rounding to become a voiced labio-velar fricative + (i.e., labialized dorso-velar fricative) (IPA []). +
    +
    +
    +
    w’
    In this word-initial combination of + voiced labio-velar approximant followed by a glottal stop is found, the + w is pronounced followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, + Ithkuil ï, followed by the glottal stop (IPA []). +
    +
    +
    +
    y’
    Similarly to the combination above, + this word-initial combination has its voiced dorso-palatal approximant + followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, followed by the glottal + stop (IPA []). +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    bm, + dn, km, kn, pm, tn
    +
     
    When in word-initial position, the first + consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral + release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to + pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to + pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the + tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead. IPA []. +
    +
    +
    hl, + hm, hn, h, hr, h, + hw
    +
    +
    Each of these consonant conjuncts, when + word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not + pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts + to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct, + i.e., IPA + To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce + an Ithkuil l, + m, n, n, r, + , + or w, + and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear h-sound + instead.
    +

     

    + + + + +
    1.3 PHONOLOGICAL + PROCESSES AND RULES
    +

    Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages + have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are + combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, + the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ithkuil + productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and + tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends.
    +

    +

    1.3.1 Gemination

    +

    Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in + length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination + does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological + grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ + versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based + gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, + Finnish).

    +

    In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy + is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and + word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination + in Ithkuil:

    +

    1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination. All consonants + are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except + for y and w.

    +

    1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination. + The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, + are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: +

    +
    +

    +
    +

    The consonant + can be geminated in word-initial position.

    +

    1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants. + Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite + duration), specifically are + simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated + r is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like + rr in Spanish or Italian. Example sound files:

    +
    +

    +
    + +
    + +
    + +

    +
    +

    The non-aspirated plosive consonants b, + d, g, + , + , + k, , + p, q, + and t, when + geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two d-sounds + in the English phrase bad dog when spoken rapidly. + Example sound file:

    +
    +

    +

    +
    +

    The aspirated plosives + are likewise held momentarily before release, the aspiration occurring upon + release, much like the two t-sounds in the English phrase hot + tar when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives k’, + ’, + p’, q’, and + t’ are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic + ejectivization occurring upon release. Example sound files:

    +
    +

    +

    +
    +

    The pronunciation of affricates () + when geminated depends on whether or not they are in word-final position. If + not in word-final position, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial + stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative + or sibilant portion. Aspiration or ejectivization, if present, occurs during + release of the plosive into the sibilant or fricative component, e.g., + is pronounced as IPA [ttš]. + For those affricates which can appear as word-final geminates (), + geminated pronunciation in word-final position is achieved by simply lengthening + the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of + each affricate). Thus, + in word-final position is pronounced as IPA [tšš], + + as IPA []. + Example sound files:

    +
    +

    +
    + +
    + + +

    +
    +

    1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates. + Single character consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g., + bb, dd, nn, šš. + Aspirated digraph-consonants have the first letter of the digraph written doubled + followed by a single superscript h, e.g., + Geminated ejective consonants are likewise written with the initial character + doubled followed by a single apostrophe, e.g., + Exceptions to this rule exist for the ejective affricates ç’, + x’, + and ’. + Because the non-apostrophed forms of these three characters do not correspond + to non-ejectivized versions of the apostrophed form, these geminates are written + as

    +


    + 1.3.2 Pitch and Tone

    +

    Ithkuil is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other + Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages + and some American Indian languages. This means that pitch or tone of voice is + used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone + and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic + features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, + while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other + attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words + themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories).

    +

    There are five tones used in Ithkuil, one of which, mid-low + tone, is considered morpho-phonologically neutral. The other four tones are + falling, high, broken (i.e., mid to low to mid-low), and rising (i.e., mid-low + to mid-high) and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries + one significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously + carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed + syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid-low tone. Therefore, + the function of mid-low tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since + any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid-low. Like most tone languages, + the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual + speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    (mid-low)
    falling
    high
    broken
    rising
    +

    The four significant tones are indicated in the Roman transliteration + by small superscript symbols at the end of each word, as follows: falling tone + is unmarked, high tone is marked by a superscript hyphen (or macron), broken + tone by a superscript backslash, and rising tone by a superscript forward slash. + This is illustrated in the example words/sound files below.

    +
    +

    + + [falling tone]
    + + + [high tone]
    + + + [broken tone]
    + + + [rising tone]
    +

    +
    +


    + 1.3.3 Syllabic Stress

    +

    Stress normally falls on the penultimate (next-to-last) + syllable but can shift to either the ultimate (last) syllable + of a word, to the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable, + and occasionally to the preantepenultimate (fourth-from-last) + syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations.

    +

    When transliterating Ithkuil into Roman characters, the number + of vowels in Ithkuil requires the use of diacritics due to the limited number + of Roman vowel characters. As a result, the orthographic representation of stress + using the system of romanization becomes complicated. It is explained as follows: +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1)All monosyllabic words are unmarked for stress.
    2)The grave accent ( ` + ) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted, + e.g., in distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as au + and ei from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts aù + and eì.
    3)Penultimate stress. Polysyllabic words having penultimate + stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing the dissyllabic + phonemes ì or ù as the penultimate + syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word iskoùt + (stress on the o), if adding the syllable -ma, + becomes iskoútma + (stress on the u).
    4)

    Ultimate stress. Polysyllabic words which have ultimate + stress indicate this in one of the following ways:

     
      +
    • the unmarked vowels a, e, i, + o, u, and the marked disyllabic vowels + ì and ù take an acute + accent, e.g., á, é, + í, ó, ú.
      • +
    • if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other + than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, or syllabic liquid + or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate + syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., ròihnäl.
      • +
    • If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs + in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then a grave accent over + the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress + (as the grave accent would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate + stress), e.g. òspätlök.
      • +
    • if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate + syllables already have diacritic marks (other than the grave accent) + then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., ksûtpäär. +
      • +
    5)Antepenultimate stress. To show antepenultimate stress + (third syllable from the end):
     
      +
    • if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant) + does not carry a diacritic (other than the grave accent), it takes the + acute accent, e.g., áksiyor
      • +
    • if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave + accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack of acute accent on + the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate + stress, e.g., ëitlàrrun, + ôrümzìl. + (Note that the use of the grave accent over the i in + ôrümzìl + would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress, therefore + its presence implies antepenultimate stress).
      • +
    • if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules, + then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., öömoläk.
      • +
    6)Preantepenultimate stress. To show preantepenultimate + stress (i.e., fourth syllable from the end) apply the same rules as for + antepenultimate stress above, but to the preantepenultimate syllable.
    +

    Note that the acute accent on the stressed second member of + the bi-syllabic geminate clusters + distinguishes them from their standard geminate counterparts . +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    1.4 PHONOTAXIS

    +

    In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, + and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to + what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or + word. This concept is called phonotaxis and such rules are + known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain + why sprelch could be a hypothetical word in English, while znatk + could not be, even though znatk is as easily pronounced by a linguist + as sprelch. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, + and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis

    +

    Equally important are the optional rules each language employs + to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics + or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly + responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” + of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are + described in the sections below.

    +


    + 1.4.1 Syllable Structure

    +

    The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable + forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable, + or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are + shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents + a mandatory vowel or diphthong.

    +

    Table 2: + Syllabic Structure

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Syllable + Type
    Structure
    Examples
    Consonantal + Word
    C(C)(C) + where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless + fricative continuant
    		s, + h,, + ll, mm, pçç
    Monosyllabic
    (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
    		a, ui, öt, + isk, du, tuil, kleb, tliqs, pskarn, xxoršt
    Word-initial
    (C)(C)(C)V(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
    		uran, + tahin, ui’wá, + prinu, klatma, + xmoiskra, kstollap, + ltuirbis, mpeilt’um
    Word-medial
    -(C)(C)V(C)(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
    		kialun, + ruentik, isteixlam, + ïkspûzqai,
    Word-final
    -(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
    		lua, + antoi, tial, eifqés, + poxšurn, ultrönn, + +
    +

    The following rules apply:

    +
    +
      +
    • A single non-syllabic intervocalic consonant is syllabically part of the + vowel following, not preceding.
      +
      • +
    • An intervocalic bi-consonantal conjunct is considered dissyllabic (i.e., + each consonant is part of a different syllable), even if the conjunct is + a geminate consonant.
      +
      • +
    • If a triple-consonant conjunct occurs in the middle of a word, the first + consonant of the three must be in a separate syllable from the last consonant + of the three. The middle consonant will be in the same syllable as whichever + of the two surrounding consonants it forms a permissible word-initial or + word-final cluster. If it can form permissible clusters with either surrounding + consonant, it will be considered part of the syllable with which it is morphemically + associated. Section 1.4.4 below details which specific + consonants can form such clusters.
      +
      • +
    +
    +

    1.4.2 Diphthongs

    +

    An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination + of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil diphthongs are + “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives + the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred + to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 24 diphthongs + in Ithkuil, described as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    ai + +
    Pronounced as in Spanish + or Italian; like English i in white or ice. +
    +
    äi + +
    No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English y-sound. +
    +
    ei +
    As in Spanish or Italian; like English + ai in rain or ei in rein.
    +
    ëi + +
    No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English y-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the i + in ice.
    +
    oi +
    As in Spanish or Italian; as in English + boy or voice.
    +
    öi + +
    No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English y-sound. + Somewhat like the French word oeil.
    +
    ui + +
    As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of Spanish or Italian “pure” u + (i.e., without the glide into -w as in English rude) + + an English y-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this + diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the u-sound + is reduced to a w- (the result sounding like English wee). +
    +
    au + +
    As in Spanish or Italian; like English + ou in loud or ow in cow.
    +
    äu + +
    No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English w-sound. +
    +
    eu + +
    As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of “pure” e (i.e., without + the glide into –y as in English they) + an English w-sound. +
    +
    ëu + +
    No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English w-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word oh!. +
    +
    iu + +
    No English equivalent; a combination + of the Ithkuil vowel i (which is more open than the Spanish + or Italian “pure” i (i.e., closer to English i + in bit) + an English w-sound.
    +
    ou + +
    Like the o + w-glide + of English road or mode. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese + roupa.
    +
    öu + +
    No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English w-sound. + Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the + word oh!.
    _aï, + eï, ëï, iï, oï, uï + +
    +
    Each of these is a combination of a + vowel with the back central vowel ï. No English + equivalents, although the sound can be approximated by pronouncing the + first vowel followed by the velarized “dark” l-sound + of American English lull but without touching the tip of the + tongue to the gum ridge behind the upper teeth; the tongue tip should + remain low instead. The resulting diphthongs should sound somewhat like + English all, ell (as in bell), ull + (as in dull), eel, ole (as in pole), + and ool (as in tool), as pronounced by someone speaking + in an indistinct, slurred voice. For those familiar with IPA, these diphthongs + may be represented as
    _äï, + öï, üï
    As with the series of diphthongs immediately + above, these are combinations of the Ithkuil vowels ä, + ö, and ü with the back central + vowel ï. IPA
    ae + +
    No English equivalent. A combination + of Ithkuil a + ê. Sounds like + a more “open” version of Ithkuil ai. Tolkien’s + Sindarin language also has this diphthong.
    +

    All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are + pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing + the many two-vowel combinations beginning with u- and i- + into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a w-sound or y-sound. + This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives + the syllabic stress.

    +


    + 1.4.3 Constraints on Vowels

    +

    All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts + previously mentioned can occur in any syllable in any position with the following + exceptions:

    +
      +
    • +
      In a word of two syllables or more, the only vowels, + diphthongs, or vowel conjuncts that may occur in word-final position are: + -a, -â, -ï, + -u, -ü, û, + -ia, -ua and diphthongs ending in i, + u, or ï. Note that this constraint + does not apply to monosyllabic words.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      No more than two vowels may occur in conjunction within + a word, i.e., combinations of three vowels, even if two represent a diphthong, + are not permissible.
      +
      • +
    +

     

    +

    1.4.4 Constraints on Consonants

    +
      +
    • +
      The consonants w, y, + and cannot + appear in syllable-final position and must always be followed by a vowel, + or in the case of w and y, by a glottal + stop plus a vowel (e.g., w’+vowel).
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      The glottal stop (’) does not + occur word-initially except as a juncture feature (i.e., where two separate + words come together). Specifically, when a word ends in a vowel and the + next word begins with a vowel, Ithkuil phonetically separates the words + by inserting a glottal stop at the beginning of the second word so that + the word-final vowel of the first word does not combine with the word-initial + vowel of the second. This serves to keep the two words separate and distinct. + This glottal stop is unmarked in both the Roman transliteration and in the + Ithkuil script. Elsewhere, the glottal stop may appear following w + or y if preceding a vowel, or may follow a vowel.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      No more than four consonants can occur in conjunction. + Such four-consonant conjuncts can only occur intervocalically (or across + word boundaries), and the first two and last two consonants must each form + permissible syllable-final and syllable initial pairs respectively, or alternately, + the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-final + conjunct or the last three of the four consonants must form a permissible + syllable-initial conjunct.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      For intervocalic three-consonant conjuncts either the + first consonant or the last consonant of the conjunct must be in a separate + syllable than the other two consonants. If the first consonant is dissyllabic + from the other two, then those other two consonants must be a permissible + syllable-initial conjunct. If the third consonant is dissyllabic from the + first two, then the first two must be a permissible syllable-final conjunct.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      For word-initial and word-final triple consonant conjuncts, + these are generally permissible if the both the first two consonants are + permissible as a conjunct by themselves and the last two consonants of the + conjunct are permissible as a conjunct by themselves.
      +
      • +
    +

    Table 3 below shows the permissible structures for word-initial + consonant conjuncts, while Table 4 shows the permissible structures for consonant + conjuncts in word-final position. Note that not all the possible conjuncts are + shown, merely examples of each type of combination. There are many combinations + of consonants permitted in Ithkuil which would never be allowed as conjuncts + in Western languages.

    +


    + Table 3: Permissible Structure of Initial Consonant Conjuncts
    +
    +

    +


    + Table 4: Permissible Structure of Word-Final Consonant Conjuncts

    +

    +


    + 1.4.5 Phonaesthetic Rules

    +

    Phonaesthetic rules refer to the generally applied rules and + preferences peculiar to each language for structuring the patterns of phonemes + for purposes of phonological euphony. The following such principles apply to + Ithkuil.

    +
      +
    • +
      While “open” syllables (syllables ending + in a single vowel) are tolerated in Ithkuil, “closed” syllables + (i.e., ending in a consonant) are preferred, especially for the stressed + syllable of a word. Ithkuil morphology often allows for more than one way + to structure the various morphemes of a particular word, especially words + of three syllables or more. (Morphemes are the individual meaningful parts + of a word, e.g., the root, any affix, any mutation, or any other phonological + manifestation of a grammatical category.) It is common to restructure words + via morpho-phonological manipulation so that they contain closed syllables, + particularly in the stressed syllable. This rule is not often applied to + two-syllable words, which have fewer options in their structure. The rule + is inapplicable to monosyllabic words, where open syllables are common.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Words of six syllables or more are considered euphonically + undesirable, and it is common to morphologically restructure a word to reduce + the number of syllables to five or less. This morpho-phonological restructuring + is accomplished by alternating adjunct and suffix forms (as explained in + Chapters + 7 and 8).
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      In words having multiple affixes, it is common to use + one of the affixes in an adjunct form instead, if this will reduce the number + of syllables.
      +
      • +
    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    +


    +

    +


    +

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..af18cd2 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1445 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics

    + +

    The term lexico-semantics refers to the relationship + between the lexicon of a language (i.e., its root-words and word-stems) and + the various possible semantic categories created by the human mind. Every language + (and particularly every language family) divides the world up differently in + terms of what sorts of concepts are made into words and how the meanings of + those words reflect the reality around us. In other words, the lexico-semantics + of a language answers the questions what semantic concepts does this language + psycho-linguistically categorize into autonomous words and how are each of these + categories internally organized?

    +

    Lexico-semantics is extremely important in Ithkuil for two + related reasons:

    +

    1) Ithkuil morpho-phonology only allows for 3600 possible root + words, as explained in Chapter 2. This means that the concepts chosen to be + conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the widest range + of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework.

    +

    2) We have seen throughout this work how Ithkuil’s matrix-like + grammatical structure allows for an incredible amount of synergy in terms of + morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, emergent concepts from + word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent derivations. + In order to ensure the maximum amount of dynamism in deriving new concepts morphologically + from existing word-roots, it is important that those initial roots be carefully + selected in terms of meaning.

    +

    In this chapter, we will examine the many considerations that + go in to the assigning of concepts to those 3600 roots, in order to optimally + accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using the dynamics + of Ithkuil morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more + autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting + the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.”

    +

    We will start first with a review of key components in the + systemic design of Ithkuil morphology. This will be followed by sections on + those areas of Ithkuil lexico-semantics which are most profoundly distinct from + Western languages.

    +

    The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, + examining how Ithkuil lexico-semantics reinterprets certain concepts considered + “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.

    +

     

    + + + + + +

    10.1 SYSTEMIC MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATION

    +

    Ithkuil systematically uses its myriad of morphological categories + to derive secondary concepts from more basic concepts, often eliminating the + need for separate lexicalization, i.e., eliminating the need to create separate + word-roots for new but related concepts as is so often the case in Western languages. + We will explore this system of morphological derivation more closely, particularly + in regard to its universality across the spectrum of Ithkuil word-roots.

    +


    + 10.1.1 Stem Derivation from Roots

    +

    We have already seen many applied examples of the above-described + concepts, particularly in Section + 2.3 et seq. regarding the use of three different sets of vocalic infixes + to a root to generate a trinary array of interrelated stems, as well as varying + the mutation patterns of those trinary sets to in turn derive two separate arrays + of complementary stems from the initial holistic array of stems. Through this + system of vowel patterns and mutation, we saw how a single root generates no + less than eighteen formative stems, each functioning as a noun or verb. This + is illustrated below using the example root h-f + ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’.

    +

    +

    +

    As described in Chapter 2, this hierarchical pattern of stem + derivation and division into complementary stems from a more basic or underlying + “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number + of word-roots necessary compared to Western languages, as words that are semantically + interrelated in a hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically + from a basic root, as opposed to being assigned separate word-roots as in other + languages. The above root h-f + demonstrates how concepts such come versus go + are expressed as complementary derivations of a single underlying concept TRANSLATIVE + MOTION. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective + are similarly patterned, e.g., lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take, etc.

    +

    Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation + from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” + classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. Biological + taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, as illustrated + below:

    +

    +

    Using the nine degrees of the Stem + Specific Derivative + affix -V1t’ + from Sec. 7.7.13 on such a root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific + parts, products or derived resources such as a the milk, oil, meat, skin or + hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The Degree + of Maturity + affix -V0k + from Sec. 7.7.10 is also applied to indicate the developmental stage of the + animal.

    +

    A different pattern applies to individual animal species, first + dividing the two Forms (Designations) of the root into the animal itself versus + the animal as a resource, the holistic stems indicating first the generic species + then male versus female. The complementary stems then make the further distinction + between wild versus domesticated for the informal stem and between food/prey + and derived or processed products for the formal stem. The + affix is again used to specify parts or products of the animal, while the + affix distinguishes the developmental stages, providing derived equivalents + to words such as foal, fawn, lamb or cub, from horse, + deer, goat, or lion.

    +


    + 10.1.2 The Use of Affixes

    +

    In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the 150-odd affix categories + can be used to generate both derivative concepts (e.g., xäl + ‘hill’ + V1x/7 + ‘very large’ + xälïx ‘very large hill’) as + well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning (e.g., xäl + ‘hill’ + V2x/7 + ‘very large’ + xälëx ‘mountain’). As an example, + here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes + from the stem köl ‘say something [i.e., + communicate a verbal message]’:

    +
    +
     
    +
    +
    +

    +
    +


    + Similarly the use of the Consent , + Reason , + Expectation , + Deliberateness , + Enablement , + Agency/Intent + and Impact affixes + from Section 7.7.12 + in conjunction w/ Transrelative cases (Sec. + 4.3), provides a means for describing extremely subtle scenarios of causation, + willingness, enablement, hindrance, etc. which other languages can only capture + via long-winded paraphrase. Employing this array of affixes and cases, a sentence + such as The singer stopped the boys from playing around can be translated + into Ithkuil in many syntactically equivalent (but morphologically distinct) + ways to indicate whether the singer used physical force or persuasion to stop + the boys, whether she stopped them via an indirect enabling means (such as turning + out the lights), or whether it was the boys themselves who stopped upon hearing + her voice or seeing her beauty, or even by her mere presence interrupting them + (such as walking in on them inadvertently), as well as the degree of willingness + or consent with which they stopped. The following example sentence further illustrates + the complex detail which these suffixes make possible:
    +

    +
    +


    +
    + Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally + killed it without even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting + it out of the house._________    _ + Listen:

    +
    +


    + The + affix from Sec. 7.7.9, + in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of English such + as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate + the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in Ithkuil this affix is productive + for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with Modality + categories (Sec. 5.5) and Modality + affixes (Sec. 7.7.11) + to extend the system of modalities, as illustrated by the following:

    +
    +
    promise to + = + foreswear, vow never to
    + can (know how to) + + = be ignorant of
    + decide to + + = avoid
    + offer to + + = refuse to
    + agree upon/to + + = decline to/abstain from
    + like to + + = loathe
    + fear to + + = love to
    + need to + + = dispensable, unnecessary to, can dispense with
    +
    +

     

    +

    10.1.3 The Use of Configuration, Affiliation, and Context +

    +

    Each of these categories has means to generate amalgamate, + holistic, or emergent concepts from a more basic underlying stem.

    +

    10.1.3.1 Configuration: In Sec. + 3.1 we saw how applying each of the nine Configuration categories to a stem + often generates forms based on amalgamation of sets which require complete relexification + when translated into English. Examples are:

    +
    +

    bone + skeleton
    + strut/girder frame + framework
    + component structure + system
    + ingredient compound
    + food dish + meal
    + tool toolset
    + do/perform coordinate
    + vehicle convoy
    + person group + crowd masses
    + activity process    .

    +
    +

    10.1.3.2 Affiliation: In Sec. + 3.2 we saw how the four Affiliations can generate new concepts based on + delineations of purpose, benefit, or function. Examples include:

    +
    +

    group team, +
    + grove orchard
    + assortment collection + junk
    + process plan

    +
    +

    10.1.3.3 Context: In Sec. + 3.6.4 we encountered the AMALGAMATE context, which + serves to identify a stem specifically as a gestalt entity, composed of objective + and subjective/social elements or components which contribute to the overall + nature of the stem. Depending on the stem to which it is applied, the use of + the amalgamate can cause relexification in translating to English. Examples:

    +
    +

    demeanor + personality
    + craftsmanship artistry
    + career livelihood
    + (one’s) past (one’s) + life
    + to look after/tend nurture

    +
    +

    +

    10.1.4 The Use of Designation and Version

    +

    In Section + 3.7 on Designation as well as Sec. + 5.3 on Version, we saw how both of these morphological categories create + distinctions in word-stems which usually require relexification in translation. + The following word pairs illustrate such relexification:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    (the) past + historysee + observe
    writings + literatureone + single/singular
    wordplay + rhetorichear + listen
    behavior + demeanordesire + request
    wander + travelquery + research
    eat + dineponder + analyze
    containment + storagepath + route
    +
    +

    Again we see that application of morphological categories + to word-stems serves to generate forms which substitute for lexical distinctions + in other languages, thus helping to reduce the size of the Ithkuil lexicon.

    +
    +
     
    +
    + +

    10.1.5 The Use of Phase and Extension

    +

    The use of the nine Phases, as explained in Sec. + 6.2, used in conjunction with the category of Extension (Sec. + 3.4) gives rise to an elaborate means by which to describe phenomena in + terms of duration, periodicity, repetition, iterativity, and cyclic phenomena. + When used in conjunction with the twelve Modulative affixes from Sec. + 7.7.7, the Iteration + and Repetition + affixes from Sec. 7.7.5 + and the Intensity + affix from Sec. 7.7.10, + Phase becomes an extremely powerful means to describe with great subtlety all + phenomena which display vibratory, oscillative, wavering, on-off, or variative + movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific application of the various + phases combined with the aforementioned affixes and other affix categories to + a single stem + ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following + English words:

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    acoustic
    + audible
    + auditory
    + bang
    + blast
    + boom
    + buzz
    + cacophony
    + calm
    + click
    + clickety-clack
    + clink
    + crack
    + crackle
    + crash
    + din
    + discord
    + dissonance
    + drone
    + echo
    + explosion    		faint + sound
    + fizz
    + gag
    + grate
    + hiss
    + howl
    + hullabaloo
    + hum
    + hush
    + jangle
    + kerplunk
    + knock
    + loud(ness)
    + lull
    + moan
    + muffle
    + murmur
    + mute
    + noise
    + pandemonium
    + peal
    +

    pit-a-pat
    + plink
    + pop
    + quaver
    + quiet
    + racket
    + rap
    + rat-a-tat
    + rattle
    + raucous
    + resonant
    + reverberate
    + ring
    + roar
    + rumble
    + rush of sound
    + rustle
    + screech
    + shrill
    + silence
    + snap

    		sonorous
    + sound
    + staccato
    + stifle
    + strident
    + stutter
    + swirl
    + swish
    + tap
    + thump
    + tick
    + toot
    + twang
    + uproar
    + vibration
    + whir
    + whistle
    + whiz
    + whoosh
    +
    +

    The same principles applied to other types of stems give rise + to a plethora of complex and subtle means for describing motions, paths, trajectories, + movement in situ, light emanation, reflection, consistency, texture, variation + in shape, visual complexity, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.2 PHONOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROOTS
    +

    Many languages have class systems for both nouns and verbs, + in which a specific pattern of morpho-phonological markers are assigned to a + specified set of roots. Often, class membership is quite arbitrary as in the + three conjugational classes of Spanish, Italian, or French verbs. In other cases, + class membership roughly corresponds to an underlying semantic category, as + seen in the masculine versus feminine versus neuter class system of many languages. + Non-Western languages often delineate a greater number of classes determined + by categories of shape, purpose, socio-cultural factors, and other objective + or subjective semantic factors.

    +

    Ithkuil displays a pattern of 17 morpho-semantic classes for + its 3600 roots. In Ithkuil, class is delineated by the C2 + consonantal radical (see Sec. + 2.2.1), i.e., the C2 radical indicates + to which of the 17 classes a root belongs. In this manner, the consonant pattern + of an Ithkuil root always provides a clue as to general meaning of the root. + The seventeen Ithkuil classes with their corresponding C2 radicals are shown + in the table below.

    +


    + Table 34: Ithkuil Morpho-Semantic Classes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CLASS
    C2 MARKERS
    SIGNIFICATION
    1
    		s, s or + šnumerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics
    2
    		 p, t, k + or q intellectual concepts, thought, ideas, propositions
    3
    		c, + or concepts relating to change and causation
    4
    		m, n or + + concepts relating to the physical attributes of organic matter
    5
    		l, r or + + concepts relating to communication, learning and language
    6
    		b, d, g + or concepts relating to the physical attributes of inorganic matter
    7
    		 f, , + ç or spatio-dimensional concepts, form and motion
    8
    		p, + t, k + or q + taxonomies of organic life
    9
    		p’, t’, + k’ or q’taxonomies of physical substances
    10
    		c’, ’ + or ’ relational concepts, identity, associations
    11
    		c, + + or concepts relating to order, arrangement, configuration
    12
    		, + ç’, x’ or ’ + socially or externally-induced affectations
    13
    		v, , + + or personal affect, emotion, feelings, preferences
    14
    		 z, or + ž concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations
    15
    		, +   + or j + concepts relating to existence, state, occurrence, subjectiveness
    16
    		x, , + h or concepts relating to individual volition and choice
    17
    		, + , + ’ + or   temporal concepts
    + +

     

    + + + + +

    10.3 DIMENSIONAL AND DESCRIPTIVE OPPOSITIONS

    +

    Another area of the lexicon where Western languages tend to + divide up reality into binary oppositions is the realm of spatial dimensions, + where pairs such as near/far, small/large, thin/thick, narrow/wide, tall/short, + light/heavy, hot/cold, etc. are commonplace. As with the perspective-based + oppositions seen in the preceding section, again Ithkuil lexico-semantics treats + such concepts in a wholly different way. Rather than lexicalize such concepts + as pairs of binary oppositions, Ithkuil delineates these qualities as varying + points along a continuous range. In other words, in Ithkuil you do not + say X is cold and Y is hot, but rather X has less temperature + and Y has greater temperature. Similarly, one does not say A is + near to me and B is far from me, but rather the distance from + me to A (or proximity of A to me) is less than the distance from me + to B (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for + the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ + becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ithkuil formative is ‘amount + of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western + descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ithkuil as + mere variance in the quantity of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, + or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum.

    + +

     

    + + + + +

    10.4 SPATIAL POSITION AND ORIENTATION

    +

    Concepts of spatial position and orientation are expressed + very differently in Ithkuil as compared to Western languages such as English. + The three major differences are explained below, each of which will be explored + in detail in the sections which follow.

    +

    1) Ithkuil does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial + relationships, position, and orientation are designated by nominal/verbal formatives.

    +

    2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference + to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic + intent, Ithkuil subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexico-semantic + level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What + this means is that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional + reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance + is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in fact, + the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful + relationship (where a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), + the Ithkuil sentence will describe this function or purpose, not the spatial + relationship. For example, in answer to the question Where’s Billy? + an English speaker might give answers such as (a) He’s standing right + next to Sam, or (b) He’s in bed, or (c) He’s in + the bathtub. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only + the first is truly intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while + sentences (b) and (c) imply information that is, in fact, more relevant than + the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s + sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s + bathing.’ An Ithkuil speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) + in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question Where’s + Billy? is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position + in absolute space. If the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial + information, he/she would have asked the Ithkuil equivalent of What’s + Billy doing? or What’s happening with Billy? to which a + Ithkuil speaker would answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions + of (b) or (c), not their original versions.

    +

    3) Ithkuil utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative + spacial reference, not a relative one as found in most languages. Note the positional + ambiguity inherent in sentences such as He’s standing to the left + of the desk. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose + perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, + the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of + the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, + or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) + Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages employ a relative coordinate + system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. Ithkuil + spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective + of a participant (e.g., the speaker or addressee) or referent object (i.e., + the thing(s) whose position is being described), as opposed to the relative + coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ithkuil system allows listeners + to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) + in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal + perspective.

    +


    + 10.4.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions

    +

    Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- + and three-dimensional space in different ways than in Western languages, Ithkuil + has no prepositions. Rather, Ithkuil utilizes formatives which describe a spatial + relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, + the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a + verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western + preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.” + The dynamics of such formatives become very apparent when combined with the + numerous verbal Conflation/Derivation + Format combinations which Ithkuil offers + the speaker (see Sec. 5.4).

    +

     

    +

    10.4.2 Underlying Cognitive Purpose of an Utterance

    +

    Ithkuil grammar considers the functional relationship between + two objects to be primarily relevant, not their spatial orientation or position + relative to each other (or between an object and its background). When it comes + to describing an object against a background or the relationship between two + objects, Ithkuil grammar is more interested in answering the question How + do X and Y function relative to each other, rather than How are X and + Y positioned in space relative to each other?

    +

    For example: in uttering the English sentence The vase + is on the table, is the intention of the sentence to tell the listener + the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, + or to tell the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against + gravity) by the table? If the intention is the former, the corresponding Ithkuil + sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest + self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction + of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support + against gravity, the Ithkuil sentence would not utilize a spatial reference + at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as The table is supporting + the vase. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in + Ithkuil are used far less often than corresponding prepositions and spatial + constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the following examples + illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ + (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ithkuil + using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ENGLISH + SENTENCE
    CONCEPT + CORRESPONDING TO 'IN(SIDE or INTO)'
    NEAREST + TRANSLATION TO ITHKUIL EQUIVALENT
    The man works in(side) that building.general locational + reference where idea of interiority or containment is incidentalThe man works at that building.
    The book is in that box.physical containment + only with no specific purpose That box contains the book.
    You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can.incidental, temporary, + or circumstantial constraint/holder to prevent spillage from gravityThe small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.
    I poured soup in(to) the bowl.same as aboveI enabled the bowl to hold soup
    We stayed in(side) due to the rain.shelter, containment + for purpose of protectionWe shelter ourselves from the rain.
    He placed the sword in(side or into) its sheath.containment in fitted + covering for purposes of protectionHe sheathed the sword.
    He stayed in(side) his room.containment for purpose + of privacyHe shuttered himself.
    The tiger was kept in(side) a cage.containment to prevent + escapeThe tiger remained captured.
    There are high concentrations of lead in(side) that + pottery.ingredient, composite + substance That pottery contains much lead.
    Microchips can be found in(side) any machine these + days.inherent or integral + componentThese days, any machine incorporates microchips.
    I put fuel in the gas tank.integral component + having function to hold or contain other componentI (re-)fueled the gas tank.
    We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head.intangible containmentWe’ll never know her thoughts.
    He has a tumor in(side) his pancreas.enveloped to inaccessible + depth by surrounding mediumHis pancreas “harbors” a tumor.
    He hammered a nail in(to) the wall.fastening/connectingHe fastened the nail to the wall with a hammer.
    The child tried putting the square block in(side or + into) the round hole.fitting together one + object to anotherThe child tried to fit the round hole and the square + block together.
    +


    +     This functional prioritization notwithstanding, Ithkuil is nevertheless + able, if necessary, to describe true spatial relationships and orientations + quite specifically. However, it does so in ways that are very unfamiliar in + terms of Western grammar. These are described in the following section.

    +


    + 10.4.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates

    +

    While Western languages are capable of describing the physical + position and orientation of object in absolute terms (e.g., My hometown + is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N), it is not normal + to do so in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation + is normally relative, i.e., described from the dynamic perspective of the two + objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party observer (usually, + but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of + objects in my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, + phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue + is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ + and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information + without first having to establish a common frame of reference based on where + the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard (in order to interpret + what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing + relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), + perhaps even the orientation of the shape of the yard relative to some external + absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, E, + W).

    +

    In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ + change completely if I turn my body 180 degrees. Confusion also occurs when + I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of + the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left + side of the chair from the perspective of someone sitting in the chair?

    +

    Ithkuil avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute + coordinate system of spatial reference as opposed to a relative system (similar + in nature to the absolute system used in navigation based on the four cardinal + points.). Very few languages on Earth utilize such absolute systems to the exclusion + of relative systems. (Examples include Guugu Yimidhirr, an Australian aboriginal + language; Tzeltal, a Yucatec Mayan language; and Yurok, an Algonquian Indian + language of Northern California). Ithkuil utilizes three different absolute + coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. These + coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid + superimposed upon space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular + to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), + the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the direction of gravity (which + may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which + differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three + points of reckoning depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. + The three schemes are as follows:

    +

    1) Solar-based system. This is the standard + Ithkuil system of reckoning. The line of the Y-axis runs parallel to the rising + and setting points of the sun in mid-summer, with the vector oriented in the + direction of the setting sun. Note that the alignment of this Y-axis relative + to the X-axis is variable; i.e., the line connecting the rising and setting + points of the sun merely designate the direction of the Y-axis, not + it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships + can be made using a “quadrant locator” system based on this grid, + where any two objects can be made to lie within different quadrants relative + to each other (this will be illustrated below).

    +

    Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime + and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge + and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of + the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective + understanding of the orientation of the building/structure/room relative to + the solar-based Y-axis (i.e., everyone in the room can still tell the orientation + of the outdoor Y-axis, whether by sight through windows, or by noticing that + the length-width ratios of the room are aligned with the outdoor Y-axis).

    +

    2) Length vs. width of enclosed space or room. + In indoor situations where the orientation of the outdoor solar-based Y-axis + is unknown (or cannot be readily determined on a continuous basis as new speakers + enter the room), an arbitrary Y-axis is connoted by the length of the room in + a direction away from whichever end of the room displays a visibly unique feature + (e.g., the doorway, a window, an alcove, an imposing piece of furniture, a stage + or dais, etc.), this symbolically substituting for the position of the rising + sun. This is the coordinate system which would be employed in theaters, enclosed + banquet halls without windows, and cellars without windows or ready access to + outside orientation.

    +

    3) Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, + objects, or persons. This is similar to a Western relative system in + which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An Ithkuil + speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method + of reckoning. Nevertheless, it is possible to designate a personally defined + reckoning system using words to designate the origin point and direction of + the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on + a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between + the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the NAVIGATIVE + case (see Sec. 4.8.12). + The primary use for this system of reckoning is literary or narrative, such + as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in which he/she wishes + to describe spatial relationships solely within the context of the story in + order to convey a mental map or image of the goings-on to his/her audience.

    +


    + 10.4.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects. + Using such a triaxial three-dimensional grid, Ithkuil then lexically divides + up space into “quadrants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” + of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight. (I know, I know, technically, I should use the term "octant", but considering the latter term refers to a seafaring navigational instrument, I will stick to the term "quadrant.")

    +
    +

    +X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant + 1 = Root: pl - f
    + +X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2 = Root: - + f
    + +X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3 = Root: + r - f
    + +X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4 = Root: - + f
    + -X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5 = Root: + - f
    + -X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6 = Root: ps + - f
    + -X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7 = Root: ks + - f
    + -X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8 = Root: p + - f

    +
    +

    There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above + where either one or two of the X/Y/Z values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent + English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight + down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight + up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc. The above quadrants are + indicated in the illustrations below.

    +

    Because the lateral alignment (but not direction) of the solar-based + X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each can be slid laterally relative to the + other axis), any two objects whose relative positions are to be described can + be made to fall within two different quadrants, as illustrated in figures A, + B, C and D below (Figure A represents the background context for which Figures + B, C and D present varying positional frames of reference).
    +
    +

    +
    +

    +

     

    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    +
    +


    + It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional + grid that allows Ithkuil to easily describe the relative position of objects + in an absolute manner. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two objects + each fall into different quadrants, a series of quadrant-to-quadrant relationships + between the two objects can be lexified. Thus, each of the above roots has a + stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, designates a spatial relationship + between an object occupying that quadrant and a second object occupying any + of the seven other quadrants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call + each of these quadrant-to-quadrant static relationships a “positional + frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while + 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. + Used to mark the participant nouns with motion sentences described below.)

    +

    Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker + to describe exactly the spatial relationships between 2 objects in motion relative + to each other. This is done in Ithkuil by stating that two object are moving + from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by + “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, + not a specific location in space, it can be seen how such a simple formula easily + describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An Ithkuil speaker is describing + exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short sentence + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship the two objects have to start with, and + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship they will have when the motion is ended. + The root used to describe the motion indicates the nature of the motion in terms + of its smoothness, speed, etc.

    +

    To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing + where the speaker or addressee or third party is situated relative to the two + objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is added to the + sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) + which states the positional frame between that third party and the FIRST party + (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the + ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame + of the dog and ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog.

    +

    Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ithkuil can be + in describing relative position between objects in an absolute manner. This + is best illustrated by narrowly translating into English an Ithkuil sentence + which describes a three-party positional situation.
    +

    +
    +


    +

    +
    +

    There is no way to translate this Ithkuil sentence into everyday + English except via inadequate approximation, thus: The woman stood still + as something made the boy run from ahead and above her, then past her, while + I watched them from behind and below. However, a more exact, narrow translation + of this sentence, capturing all of the positional/orientational specificity + of the original, would run as follows:

    +
    +

    As the woman held still, something made the boy run from + a position above, ahead of, and to the right of her relative to the direction + of the sunrise-to-sunset vector, a plane perpendicular to it, and the axis + of gravity, toward a position still above, but behind and to the left of her + relative to the same directional vector, perpendicular plane and gravitational + axis, as I was watching them from below, behind, and to the right of her relative + to the same vector, plane, and axis.
    +

    +
    + +10.4.3.2 Object-Internal Shape and Orientation. Note that, in +addition the above concepts of a positional grid for locating objects in space +and in positional relation to each other, Ithkuil also employs a whole set of +vocabulary to describe the physical topology, shape and internal self-orientation +of an object by itself. These are similar to words such as “face, back, +front, sides, top, bottom, appendage, tail, arm, etc., although it should be noted +that the equivalent Ithkuil terms are wholly autonomous and bear no metaphorical +relationship whatsoever to anthropomorphic body parts. Therefore, the “legs” +of a chair correspond more accurately to its “supports” or “struts” +in Ithkuil, while the “face” of a blackboard would correspond to a +word translatable only periphrastically as “main functional surface” +or “primary interface area” (although note that even this paraphrase +cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme “-face”). +

     

    + + + + +

    10.5 LEXICAL GENERALIZATION

    +

    In a word-for-word comparison to a Eurocentric vocabulary, + especially one as large as that of English, the Ithkuil lexicon appears very + overgeneralized in many respects. At first impression, it appears that shades + of meaning expressed by multiple words in English are expressed by only one + root in Ithkuil. As we have seen repeatedly throughout this work, this is primarily + due to the fact that shades of meaning for a single underlying cognitive concept + are normally differentiated at the morphological level in Ithkuil, as opposed + to the lexical. Nevertheless, there are several lexico-semantic areas where + Ithkuil truly does generalize in comparison to Western languages. This occurs + primarily where (1) Western vocabulary distinguishes separate lexemes for a + redundant concept based on different participants to, practitioners of, or manifestations + of that concept, and (2) where lexification is at an arbitrarily detailed or + particularized level. These topics are discussed in detail in the following + sections.

    +


    + 10.5.1 Consolidation of Unnecessary Distinctions

    +
    As an example of lexical generalization in Ithkuil (or over-lexicalization + in English!), compare the following words for animal vocal sounds: meow, + bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray, etc. Each of these words mean merely to + make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ithkuil utilizes only + a single stem for this concept (essentially meaning vocal sound/vocalize + – from the same root which gives the stem for (human) voice), + based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or + moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate + lexically the innate vocal sound being made by an animal if the animal making + the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one might argue that English + allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in The + sergeant barked out orders to the platoon, or The baby squealed in + delight. Such constructions are perfectly captured in Ithkuil via the ESSIVE + and ASSIMILATIVE + cases, as in He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog, or The + baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight, or + via the manipulation of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see Sec. + 5.4).
    +

    Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem + in Ithkuil would be (1) herd, flock, pride, gaggle, etc.; (2) hair, + fur, fleece, coat, etc.; (3) skin, hide, pelt, pellicle, peel, rind, + lambskin, leather, integument, etc.

    +

     

    +

    10.5.2 Translative Motion, Paths and Trajectories

    +

    By translative motion is meant the idea of an object moving + (or being moved) from one location to another. English is particularly rich + in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such an object, + not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, + but also the means of initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as to + toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run, or pass a ball or + other object. In reaching its destination, the object can fly, float, wing, + pass, arc, sail, plummet, drop, fall, thread, hop, leap, bounce, roll, zig-zag, + slide, glide, slither, or jump its way there.

    +

    As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ithkuil lexifies + concepts of translative motion with a focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, + not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. + Essentially, Ithkuil is less concerned with how the object gets there and is + more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For + example, look at the following two columns of English sentences :

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    I tossed it into + the basket.

    +
    		It sailed + into the basket.
    +

    I flung it into the + basket.

    +
    		It flew into the basket.
    +

    I hurled it into + the basket.

    +
    		It arced its way into + the basket.
    +

    I pitched it into + the basket.

    +
    		It fell into the basket.
    +
    +

    The sentences in the lefthand column + describes how I initiate the action while those in the righthand column describe + how the object moves. In Ithkuil the lefthand column of sentences would normally + all be translated by a single sentence narrowly translatable as I made it + end up inside the basket, while the righthand column of sentences would + all be translated by the exact same sentence minus the ERGATIVE + personal referent I, thus: It ended up inside the basket.

    +

    So where are the words translating the range of descriptive + nuance surrounding the means of sending it into the basket and the different + trajectories it takes there? In normal Ithkuil speech, such distinctions would + be considered irrelevant. This is because Ithkuil grammar questions all acts, + conditions and events as to their underlying cognitive purpose. For the above + sentences, Ithkuil views them as all having the same underlying purpose: to + express that I have caused an object to pass from a state of being in my alienable + possession to a state of being within the basket, by passing through the physical + space between me and the basket. Therefore there is only one translation for + the varying sentence pairs.

    +

    Before the reader begins to think that Ithkuil is incapable + of distinguishing the shades of meaning present in the above examples, it should + be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by additional affixes + and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to + indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ithkuil can + augment the sentence I made it end up inside the basket to include + affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes + indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly + translatable as Using my hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I + caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully inside the basket.

    +

    While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances + of English “flung,” Ithkuil first makes us stop and ask ourselves, + why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force + initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English + speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or + “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in + the above sentence, would his/her speaker be considered to have been given information + any less sufficient or essential for understanding the message and its purpose? + All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ithkuil lexico-semantics: if + a complex, highly detailed morphology already conveys a high degree of semantic + and cognitive nuance, why belabor the obvious by reinforcing such nuances at + the lexical level if the context and underlying cognitive purpose of the utterance + does not require it? Thus the Ithkuil language not only captures levels of cognitive + detail beyond the scope of Western languages, but it also allows the speaker + to avoid having to provide such detail when it is inessential.

    +

     

    +

    10.5.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying + Processes

    +

    In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ithkuil perspective, + an example would be limp, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ + Ithkuil recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not + the condition per se that is relevant, but rather the manner in which + the condition causes the person to move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously + in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” + expectation of walking. Ithkuil speakers would consider English limp + to represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative + movement. To a Ithkuil speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. + The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping + or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” + is an underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity + which causes the person to move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead + of He has a limp because of his war wound, a Ithkuil speaker would + say He walks asymmetrically/irregularly because of his war wound.

    +

    To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when + dancing to rock music, has a tendency to jerk his/her head to the left at the + sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it ludicrous over-lexicalization + to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s + head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical + sentence She spreggles to rock music. Yet, from the Ithkuil standpoint, + there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” + and the actual word ‘limp.’

    +

    Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both + animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ithkuil has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ + ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ + or ‘paralysis.’ In Ithkuil, one simply says He can’t see, + She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t + move, or alternately His faculty of sight (or other sense or innate + faculty) doesn’t function/no longer functions. [Note: each of + these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, + case, voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, + whether temporary or permanent, whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally + caused or inherently developed, etc.]

    + +

     

    + + + + +

    10.6 LEXICAL DIFFERENTIATION

    +

    While we have examined the many ways in which the dynamism + and logic of Ithkuil grammar eliminates whole swaths of equivalent English vocabulary, + there are, nevertheless, many concepts where Ithkuil provides autonomous lexical + roots and stems for which neither English nor other Western languages provide + similar words and must resort to paraphrase in order to translate. Such concepts + are particularly found in the realm of human emotions, social relationships, + functional interrelationships between objects, philosophy, psychology, and sensory + phenomena.

    +

    Underlying such differentiation is the idea that the Ithkuil + language is meant to reflect in linguistic terms as close a representation of + human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is possible + in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure + mathematical logic. Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded + in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented + in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language + which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require + many more words to describe that life than are commonly available in existing + human languages.

    + +

     

    + + + + +

    10.7 COMPARISON TO WESTERN CATEGORIZATION

    +

    Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which + there is no exactly corresponding equivalent in Ithkuil. These include the concepts + embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ithkuil + has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” + or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership + equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ithkuil grammar + and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or + inherent existential possession as true semantic functional categories or fundamental + cognitive primitives.

    +


    + 10.7.1 Translating “To Be”

    +

    Ithkuil grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, + at any and all moments, and on all scales large and small, in a state of flux. + The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately identified as + “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ithkuil grammar + has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or + “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that + are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different + from moment to moment, if only because the mere passage of time itself renders + the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. + Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” + anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” + or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something + else. Fundamental to Ithkuil grammar are the notions of function and purpose, + not mere description; results, not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. + This explains why there is no true distinction between nouns and verbs in Ithkuil, + both being mere differences in functional roles played by any given formative + concept whose underlying meaning is not inherently nominal or verbal, but rather + a conceptual primitive waiting to be manifested as either (1) a representation + of an action, process, or event, (i.e., a verb), or (2) as a concrete or abstract + entity that is representative of, or embodies the underlying concept (i.e., + a noun).

    +

    So, an Ithkuil speaker does not say I am John, She is a + cook, The leaf is green, Stan is ill, or Murder is wrong, but + rather One calls me John, She cooks [for a living], The leaf [currently] + manifests a green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease], and Murder + controverts morality.

    +


    + 10.7.2 Translating ‘To Have’

    +

    In regard to “have” or “having,” Ithkuil + views the concept of possession as breaking down into more specific functional + states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation + to each other.

    +


    + 10.7.3 Translating Questions

    +

    As was discussed earlier in Sec. + 5.1.6 on the INTERROGATIVE illocution, the Ithkuil + language does not have a way of forming questions. Instead, Ithkuil grammar + treats an interrogative as reflecting an underlying cognitive demand for information + and/or a validation of the truth or factuality of a statement. Therefore, a + specific kind of imperative command is employed, telling the addressee to provide + the required validation or information. In some instances, questions in Western + languages are rhetorical and in fact represent a request or command. As might + be expected, Ithkuil translates such rhetorical questions as the commands they + truly are. The following examples illustrate how questions are handled in Ithkuil.

    +

    Do you know the way to San Jose?
    + [= Validate whether you know the way to San Jose.]

    +

    Will you please leave me alone?
    + [= I request that you leave me alone.]

    +

    Will you sing us a song?
    + [= We request that you sing us a song.]

    +

    What is the square root of 400?
    + [= State the square root of 400.]

    +

    Do you speak Ithkuil?
    + [= Demonstrate that you can speak in Ithkuil.]

    +

    Which bird is the one that was injured?
    + [= Indicate which bird was injured.]

    +

    How old are you?
    + [= State the amount/number of years you have lived.]

    +


    + 10.7.4 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections

    +

    As there are no interjections in Ithkuil, there are no true + equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ithkuil. Nevertheless, + there are abbreviated ways of answering the requests for information or commands + for validation that substitute for questions in Ithkuil. The closest approximations + are a few standardized sentences that answer commands using the validative mode. + These sentences translate in various ways, such as “It functions/happens/manifests + in that manner” or “It does not function/happen/manifest in that + manner”; or, “I can(not) validate that information based on... [state + evidence for validation].”

    +

    Observe how this operates in the following examples.

    +

    “Do you want to dance?” “No.”
    + [“State whether you will dance with me.” “I do not want to + dance with you.”

    +

    Ithkuil grammar also allows for the use of bias affixes (see + Sec. 6.6) to function + as autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to + interjections in Western languages. This phenomenon has already been discussed + in Section 8.6.2. + Additionally, Section + 8.4 described how affixual adjuncts may be used to convey information similarly + to autonomous interjections.

    +


    + 10.7.5 Translating Metaphorically Structured Phrases

    +

    Ithkuil grammar recognizes that much of our understanding and + expression of everyday experience is structured in terms of metaphor and metonymy + (the latter being the reference to an entity by one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business). + Ithkuil allows for the overt designation of metaphorical concepts by several + means. These include the REPRESENTATIONAL + context, Conflation and Derivation, + the metonymic affix + -V0qt, + and the two part-whole + affixes -V0 + and -V0š.

    +

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 11: The Script > >

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ccb88cc --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,1445 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics

    + +

    The term lexico-semantics refers to the relationship + between the lexicon of a language (i.e., its root-words and word-stems) and + the various possible semantic categories created by the human mind. Every language + (and particularly every language family) divides the world up differently in + terms of what sorts of concepts are made into words and how the meanings of + those words reflect the reality around us. In other words, the lexico-semantics + of a language answers the questions what semantic concepts does this language + psycho-linguistically categorize into autonomous words and how are each of these + categories internally organized?

    +

    Lexico-semantics is extremely important in Ithkuil for two + related reasons:

    +

    1) Ithkuil morpho-phonology only allows for 3600 possible root + words, as explained in Chapter 2. This means that the concepts chosen to be + conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the widest range + of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework.

    +

    2) We have seen throughout this work how Ithkuil’s matrix-like + grammatical structure allows for an incredible amount of synergy in terms of + morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, emergent concepts from + word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent derivations. + In order to ensure the maximum amount of dynamism in deriving new concepts morphologically + from existing word-roots, it is important that those initial roots be carefully + selected in terms of meaning.

    +

    In this chapter, we will examine the many considerations that + go in to the assigning of concepts to those 3600 roots, in order to optimally + accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using the dynamics + of Ithkuil morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more + autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting + the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.”

    +

    We will start first with a review of key components in the + systemic design of Ithkuil morphology. This will be followed by sections on + those areas of Ithkuil lexico-semantics which are most profoundly distinct from + Western languages.

    +

    The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, + examining how Ithkuil lexico-semantics reinterprets certain concepts considered + “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.

    +

     

    + + + + + +

    10.1 SYSTEMIC MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATION

    +

    Ithkuil systematically uses its myriad of morphological categories + to derive secondary concepts from more basic concepts, often eliminating the + need for separate lexicalization, i.e., eliminating the need to create separate + word-roots for new but related concepts as is so often the case in Western languages. + We will explore this system of morphological derivation more closely, particularly + in regard to its universality across the spectrum of Ithkuil word-roots.

    +


    + 10.1.1 Stem Derivation from Roots

    +

    We have already seen many applied examples of the above-described + concepts, particularly in Section + 2.3 et seq. regarding the use of three different sets of vocalic infixes + to a root to generate a trinary array of interrelated stems, as well as varying + the mutation patterns of those trinary sets to in turn derive two separate arrays + of complementary stems from the initial holistic array of stems. Through this + system of vowel patterns and mutation, we saw how a single root generates no + less than eighteen formative stems, each functioning as a noun or verb. This + is illustrated below using the example root h-f + ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’.

    +

    +

    +

    As described in Chapter 2, this hierarchical pattern of stem + derivation and division into complementary stems from a more basic or underlying + “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number + of word-roots necessary compared to Western languages, as words that are semantically + interrelated in a hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically + from a basic root, as opposed to being assigned separate word-roots as in other + languages. The above root h-f + demonstrates how concepts such come versus go + are expressed as complementary derivations of a single underlying concept TRANSLATIVE + MOTION. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective + are similarly patterned, e.g., lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take, etc.

    +

    Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation + from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” + classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. Biological + taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, as illustrated + below:

    +

    +

    Using the nine degrees of the Stem + Specific Derivative + affix -V1t’ + from Sec. 7.7.13 on such a root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific + parts, products or derived resources such as a the milk, oil, meat, skin or + hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The Degree + of Maturity + affix -V0k + from Sec. 7.7.10 is also applied to indicate the developmental stage of the + animal.

    +

    A different pattern applies to individual animal species, first + dividing the two Forms (Designations) of the root into the animal itself versus + the animal as a resource, the holistic stems indicating first the generic species + then male versus female. The complementary stems then make the further distinction + between wild versus domesticated for the informal stem and between food/prey + and derived or processed products for the formal stem. The + affix is again used to specify parts or products of the animal, while the + affix distinguishes the developmental stages, providing derived equivalents + to words such as foal, fawn, lamb or cub, from horse, + deer, goat, or lion.

    +


    + 10.1.2 The Use of Affixes

    +

    In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the 150-odd affix categories + can be used to generate both derivative concepts (e.g., xäl + ‘hill’ + V1x/7 + ‘very large’ + xälïx ‘very large hill’) as + well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning (e.g., xäl + ‘hill’ + V2x/7 + ‘very large’ + xälëx ‘mountain’). As an example, + here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes + from the stem köl ‘say something [i.e., + communicate a verbal message]’:

    +
    +
     
    +
    +
    +

    +
    +


    + Similarly the use of the Consent , + Reason , + Expectation , + Deliberateness , + Enablement , + Agency/Intent + and Impact affixes + from Section 7.7.12 + in conjunction w/ Transrelative cases (Sec. + 4.3), provides a means for describing extremely subtle scenarios of causation, + willingness, enablement, hindrance, etc. which other languages can only capture + via long-winded paraphrase. Employing this array of affixes and cases, a sentence + such as The singer stopped the boys from playing around can be translated + into Ithkuil in many syntactically equivalent (but morphologically distinct) + ways to indicate whether the singer used physical force or persuasion to stop + the boys, whether she stopped them via an indirect enabling means (such as turning + out the lights), or whether it was the boys themselves who stopped upon hearing + her voice or seeing her beauty, or even by her mere presence interrupting them + (such as walking in on them inadvertently), as well as the degree of willingness + or consent with which they stopped. The following example sentence further illustrates + the complex detail which these suffixes make possible:
    +

    +
    +


    +
    + Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally + killed it without even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting + it out of the house._________    _ + Listen:

    +
    +


    + The + affix from Sec. 7.7.9, + in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of English such + as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate + the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in Ithkuil this affix is productive + for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with Modality + categories (Sec. 5.5) and Modality + affixes (Sec. 7.7.11) + to extend the system of modalities, as illustrated by the following:

    +
    +
    promise to + = + foreswear, vow never to
    + can (know how to) + + = be ignorant of
    + decide to + + = avoid
    + offer to + + = refuse to
    + agree upon/to + + = decline to/abstain from
    + like to + + = loathe
    + fear to + + = love to
    + need to + + = dispensable, unnecessary to, can dispense with
    +
    +

     

    +

    10.1.3 The Use of Configuration, Affiliation, and Context +

    +

    Each of these categories has means to generate amalgamate, + holistic, or emergent concepts from a more basic underlying stem.

    +

    10.1.3.1 Configuration: In Sec. + 3.1 we saw how applying each of the nine Configuration categories to a stem + often generates forms based on amalgamation of sets which require complete relexification + when translated into English. Examples are:

    +
    +

    bone + skeleton
    + strut/girder frame + framework
    + component structure + system
    + ingredient compound
    + food dish + meal
    + tool toolset
    + do/perform coordinate
    + vehicle convoy
    + person group + crowd masses
    + activity process    .

    +
    +

    10.1.3.2 Affiliation: In Sec. + 3.2 we saw how the four Affiliations can generate new concepts based on + delineations of purpose, benefit, or function. Examples include:

    +
    +

    group team, +
    + grove orchard
    + assortment collection + junk
    + process plan

    +
    +

    10.1.3.3 Context: In Sec. + 3.6.4 we encountered the AMALGAMATE context, which + serves to identify a stem specifically as a gestalt entity, composed of objective + and subjective/social elements or components which contribute to the overall + nature of the stem. Depending on the stem to which it is applied, the use of + the amalgamate can cause relexification in translating to English. Examples:

    +
    +

    demeanor + personality
    + craftsmanship artistry
    + career livelihood
    + (one’s) past (one’s) + life
    + to look after/tend nurture

    +
    +

    +

    10.1.4 The Use of Designation and Version

    +

    In Section + 3.7 on Designation as well as Sec. + 5.3 on Version, we saw how both of these morphological categories create + distinctions in word-stems which usually require relexification in translation. + The following word pairs illustrate such relexification:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    (the) past + historysee + observe
    writings + literatureone + single/singular
    wordplay + rhetorichear + listen
    behavior + demeanordesire + request
    wander + travelquery + research
    eat + dineponder + analyze
    containment + storagepath + route
    +
    +

    Again we see that application of morphological categories + to word-stems serves to generate forms which substitute for lexical distinctions + in other languages, thus helping to reduce the size of the Ithkuil lexicon.

    +
    +
     
    +
    + +

    10.1.5 The Use of Phase and Extension

    +

    The use of the nine Phases, as explained in Sec. + 6.2, used in conjunction with the category of Extension (Sec. + 3.4) gives rise to an elaborate means by which to describe phenomena in + terms of duration, periodicity, repetition, iterativity, and cyclic phenomena. + When used in conjunction with the twelve Modulative affixes from Sec. + 7.7.7, the Iteration + and Repetition + affixes from Sec. 7.7.5 + and the Intensity + affix from Sec. 7.7.10, + Phase becomes an extremely powerful means to describe with great subtlety all + phenomena which display vibratory, oscillative, wavering, on-off, or variative + movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific application of the various + phases combined with the aforementioned affixes and other affix categories to + a single stem + ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following + English words:

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    acoustic
    + audible
    + auditory
    + bang
    + blast
    + boom
    + buzz
    + cacophony
    + calm
    + click
    + clickety-clack
    + clink
    + crack
    + crackle
    + crash
    + din
    + discord
    + dissonance
    + drone
    + echo
    + explosion    		faint + sound
    + fizz
    + gag
    + grate
    + hiss
    + howl
    + hullabaloo
    + hum
    + hush
    + jangle
    + kerplunk
    + knock
    + loud(ness)
    + lull
    + moan
    + muffle
    + murmur
    + mute
    + noise
    + pandemonium
    + peal
    +

    pit-a-pat
    + plink
    + pop
    + quaver
    + quiet
    + racket
    + rap
    + rat-a-tat
    + rattle
    + raucous
    + resonant
    + reverberate
    + ring
    + roar
    + rumble
    + rush of sound
    + rustle
    + screech
    + shrill
    + silence
    + snap

    		sonorous
    + sound
    + staccato
    + stifle
    + strident
    + stutter
    + swirl
    + swish
    + tap
    + thump
    + tick
    + toot
    + twang
    + uproar
    + vibration
    + whir
    + whistle
    + whiz
    + whoosh
    +
    +

    The same principles applied to other types of stems give rise + to a plethora of complex and subtle means for describing motions, paths, trajectories, + movement in situ, light emanation, reflection, consistency, texture, variation + in shape, visual complexity, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    10.2 PHONOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROOTS
    +

    Many languages have class systems for both nouns and verbs, + in which a specific pattern of morpho-phonological markers are assigned to a + specified set of roots. Often, class membership is quite arbitrary as in the + three conjugational classes of Spanish, Italian, or French verbs. In other cases, + class membership roughly corresponds to an underlying semantic category, as + seen in the masculine versus feminine versus neuter class system of many languages. + Non-Western languages often delineate a greater number of classes determined + by categories of shape, purpose, socio-cultural factors, and other objective + or subjective semantic factors.

    +

    Ithkuil displays a pattern of 17 morpho-semantic classes for + its 3600 roots. In Ithkuil, class is delineated by the C2 + consonantal radical (see Sec. + 2.2.1), i.e., the C2 radical indicates + to which of the 17 classes a root belongs. In this manner, the consonant pattern + of an Ithkuil root always provides a clue as to general meaning of the root. + The seventeen Ithkuil classes with their corresponding C2 radicals are shown + in the table below.

    +


    + Table 34: Ithkuil Morpho-Semantic Classes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CLASS
    C2 MARKERS
    SIGNIFICATION
    1
    		s, s or + šnumerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics
    2
    		 p, t, k + or q intellectual concepts, thought, ideas, propositions
    3
    		c, + or concepts relating to change and causation
    4
    		m, n or + + concepts relating to the physical attributes of organic matter
    5
    		l, r or + + concepts relating to communication, learning and language
    6
    		b, d, g + or concepts relating to the physical attributes of inorganic matter
    7
    		 f, , + ç or spatio-dimensional concepts, form and motion
    8
    		p, + t, k + or q + taxonomies of organic life
    9
    		p’, t’, + k’ or q’taxonomies of physical substances
    10
    		c’, ’ + or ’ relational concepts, identity, associations
    11
    		c, + + or concepts relating to order, arrangement, configuration
    12
    		, + ç’, x’ or ’ + socially or externally-induced affectations
    13
    		v, , + + or personal affect, emotion, feelings, preferences
    14
    		 z, or + ž concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations
    15
    		, +   + or j + concepts relating to existence, state, occurrence, subjectiveness
    16
    		x, , + h or concepts relating to individual volition and choice
    17
    		, + , + ’ + or   temporal concepts
    + +

     

    + + + + +

    10.3 DIMENSIONAL AND DESCRIPTIVE OPPOSITIONS

    +

    Another area of the lexicon where Western languages tend to + divide up reality into binary oppositions is the realm of spatial dimensions, + where pairs such as near/far, small/large, thin/thick, narrow/wide, tall/short, + light/heavy, hot/cold, etc. are commonplace. As with the perspective-based + oppositions seen in the preceding section, again Ithkuil lexico-semantics treats + such concepts in a wholly different way. Rather than lexicalize such concepts + as pairs of binary oppositions, Ithkuil delineates these qualities as varying + points along a continuous range. In other words, in Ithkuil you do not + say X is cold and Y is hot, but rather X has less temperature + and Y has greater temperature. Similarly, one does not say A is + near to me and B is far from me, but rather the distance from + me to A (or proximity of A to me) is less than the distance from me + to B (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for + the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ + becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ithkuil formative is ‘amount + of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western + descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ithkuil as + mere variance in the quantity of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, + or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum.

    + +

     

    + + + + +

    10.4 SPATIAL POSITION AND ORIENTATION

    +

    Concepts of spatial position and orientation are expressed + very differently in Ithkuil as compared to Western languages such as English. + The three major differences are explained below, each of which will be explored + in detail in the sections which follow.

    +

    1) Ithkuil does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial + relationships, position, and orientation are designated by nominal/verbal formatives.

    +

    2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference + to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic + intent, Ithkuil subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexico-semantic + level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What + this means is that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional + reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance + is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in fact, + the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful + relationship (where a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), + the Ithkuil sentence will describe this function or purpose, not the spatial + relationship. For example, in answer to the question Where’s Billy? + an English speaker might give answers such as (a) He’s standing right + next to Sam, or (b) He’s in bed, or (c) He’s in + the bathtub. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only + the first is truly intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while + sentences (b) and (c) imply information that is, in fact, more relevant than + the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s + sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s + bathing.’ An Ithkuil speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) + in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question Where’s + Billy? is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position + in absolute space. If the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial + information, he/she would have asked the Ithkuil equivalent of What’s + Billy doing? or What’s happening with Billy? to which a + Ithkuil speaker would answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions + of (b) or (c), not their original versions.

    +

    3) Ithkuil utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative + spacial reference, not a relative one as found in most languages. Note the positional + ambiguity inherent in sentences such as He’s standing to the left + of the desk. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose + perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, + the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of + the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, + or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) + Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages employ a relative coordinate + system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. Ithkuil + spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective + of a participant (e.g., the speaker or addressee) or referent object (i.e., + the thing(s) whose position is being described), as opposed to the relative + coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ithkuil system allows listeners + to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) + in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal + perspective.

    +


    + 10.4.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions

    +

    Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- + and three-dimensional space in different ways than in Western languages, Ithkuil + has no prepositions. Rather, Ithkuil utilizes formatives which describe a spatial + relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, + the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a + verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western + preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.” + The dynamics of such formatives become very apparent when combined with the + numerous verbal Conflation/Derivation + Format combinations which Ithkuil offers + the speaker (see Sec. 5.4).

    +

     

    +

    10.4.2 Underlying Cognitive Purpose of an Utterance

    +

    Ithkuil grammar considers the functional relationship between + two objects to be primarily relevant, not their spatial orientation or position + relative to each other (or between an object and its background). When it comes + to describing an object against a background or the relationship between two + objects, Ithkuil grammar is more interested in answering the question How + do X and Y function relative to each other, rather than How are X and + Y positioned in space relative to each other?

    +

    For example: in uttering the English sentence The vase + is on the table, is the intention of the sentence to tell the listener + the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, + or to tell the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against + gravity) by the table? If the intention is the former, the corresponding Ithkuil + sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest + self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction + of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support + against gravity, the Ithkuil sentence would not utilize a spatial reference + at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as The table is supporting + the vase. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in + Ithkuil are used far less often than corresponding prepositions and spatial + constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the following examples + illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ + (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ithkuil + using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ENGLISH + SENTENCE
    CONCEPT + CORRESPONDING TO 'IN(SIDE or INTO)'
    NEAREST + TRANSLATION TO ITHKUIL EQUIVALENT
    The man works in(side) that building.general locational + reference where idea of interiority or containment is incidentalThe man works at that building.
    The book is in that box.physical containment + only with no specific purpose That box contains the book.
    You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can.incidental, temporary, + or circumstantial constraint/holder to prevent spillage from gravityThe small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.
    I poured soup in(to) the bowl.same as aboveI enabled the bowl to hold soup
    We stayed in(side) due to the rain.shelter, containment + for purpose of protectionWe shelter ourselves from the rain.
    He placed the sword in(side or into) its sheath.containment in fitted + covering for purposes of protectionHe sheathed the sword.
    He stayed in(side) his room.containment for purpose + of privacyHe shuttered himself.
    The tiger was kept in(side) a cage.containment to prevent + escapeThe tiger remained captured.
    There are high concentrations of lead in(side) that + pottery.ingredient, composite + substance That pottery contains much lead.
    Microchips can be found in(side) any machine these + days.inherent or integral + componentThese days, any machine incorporates microchips.
    I put fuel in the gas tank.integral component + having function to hold or contain other componentI (re-)fueled the gas tank.
    We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head.intangible containmentWe’ll never know her thoughts.
    He has a tumor in(side) his pancreas.enveloped to inaccessible + depth by surrounding mediumHis pancreas “harbors” a tumor.
    He hammered a nail in(to) the wall.fastening/connectingHe fastened the nail to the wall with a hammer.
    The child tried putting the square block in(side or + into) the round hole.fitting together one + object to anotherThe child tried to fit the round hole and the square + block together.
    +


    +     This functional prioritization notwithstanding, Ithkuil is nevertheless + able, if necessary, to describe true spatial relationships and orientations + quite specifically. However, it does so in ways that are very unfamiliar in + terms of Western grammar. These are described in the following section.

    +


    + 10.4.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates

    +

    While Western languages are capable of describing the physical + position and orientation of object in absolute terms (e.g., My hometown + is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N), it is not normal + to do so in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation + is normally relative, i.e., described from the dynamic perspective of the two + objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party observer (usually, + but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of + objects in my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, + phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue + is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ + and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information + without first having to establish a common frame of reference based on where + the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard (in order to interpret + what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing + relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), + perhaps even the orientation of the shape of the yard relative to some external + absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, E, + W).

    +

    In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ + change completely if I turn my body 180 degrees. Confusion also occurs when + I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of + the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left + side of the chair from the perspective of someone sitting in the chair?

    +

    Ithkuil avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute + coordinate system of spatial reference as opposed to a relative system (similar + in nature to the absolute system used in navigation based on the four cardinal + points.). Very few languages on Earth utilize such absolute systems to the exclusion + of relative systems. (Examples include Guugu Yimidhirr, an Australian aboriginal + language; Tzeltal, a Yucatec Mayan language; and Yurok, an Algonquian Indian + language of Northern California). Ithkuil utilizes three different absolute + coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. These + coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid + superimposed upon space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular + to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), + the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the direction of gravity (which + may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which + differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three + points of reckoning depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. + The three schemes are as follows:

    +

    1) Solar-based system. This is the standard + Ithkuil system of reckoning. The line of the Y-axis runs parallel to the rising + and setting points of the sun in mid-summer, with the vector oriented in the + direction of the setting sun. Note that the alignment of this Y-axis relative + to the X-axis is variable; i.e., the line connecting the rising and setting + points of the sun merely designate the direction of the Y-axis, not + it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships + can be made using a “quadrant locator” system based on this grid, + where any two objects can be made to lie within different quadrants relative + to each other (this will be illustrated below).

    +

    Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime + and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge + and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of + the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective + understanding of the orientation of the building/structure/room relative to + the solar-based Y-axis (i.e., everyone in the room can still tell the orientation + of the outdoor Y-axis, whether by sight through windows, or by noticing that + the length-width ratios of the room are aligned with the outdoor Y-axis).

    +

    2) Length vs. width of enclosed space or room. + In indoor situations where the orientation of the outdoor solar-based Y-axis + is unknown (or cannot be readily determined on a continuous basis as new speakers + enter the room), an arbitrary Y-axis is connoted by the length of the room in + a direction away from whichever end of the room displays a visibly unique feature + (e.g., the doorway, a window, an alcove, an imposing piece of furniture, a stage + or dais, etc.), this symbolically substituting for the position of the rising + sun. This is the coordinate system which would be employed in theaters, enclosed + banquet halls without windows, and cellars without windows or ready access to + outside orientation.

    +

    3) Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, + objects, or persons. This is similar to a Western relative system in + which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An Ithkuil + speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method + of reckoning. Nevertheless, it is possible to designate a personally defined + reckoning system using words to designate the origin point and direction of + the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on + a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between + the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the NAVIGATIVE + case (see Sec. 4.8.12). + The primary use for this system of reckoning is literary or narrative, such + as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in which he/she wishes + to describe spatial relationships solely within the context of the story in + order to convey a mental map or image of the goings-on to his/her audience.

    +


    + 10.4.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects. + Using such a triaxial three-dimensional grid, Ithkuil then lexically divides + up space into “quadrants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” + of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight. (I know, I know, technically, I should use the term "octant", but considering the latter term refers to a seafaring navigational instrument, I will stick to the term "quadrant.")

    +
    +

    +X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant + 1 = Root: pl - f
    + +X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2 = Root: - + f
    + +X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3 = Root: + r - f
    + +X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4 = Root: - + f
    + -X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5 = Root: + - f
    + -X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6 = Root: ps + - f
    + -X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7 = Root: ks + - f
    + -X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8 = Root: p + - f

    +
    +

    There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above + where either one or two of the X/Y/Z values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent + English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight + down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight + up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc. The above quadrants are + indicated in the illustrations below.

    +

    Because the lateral alignment (but not direction) of the solar-based + X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each can be slid laterally relative to the + other axis), any two objects whose relative positions are to be described can + be made to fall within two different quadrants, as illustrated in figures A, + B, C and D below (Figure A represents the background context for which Figures + B, C and D present varying positional frames of reference).
    +
    +

    +
    +

    +

     

    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    +
    +


    + It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional + grid that allows Ithkuil to easily describe the relative position of objects + in an absolute manner. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two objects + each fall into different quadrants, a series of quadrant-to-quadrant relationships + between the two objects can be lexified. Thus, each of the above roots has a + stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, designates a spatial relationship + between an object occupying that quadrant and a second object occupying any + of the seven other quadrants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call + each of these quadrant-to-quadrant static relationships a “positional + frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while + 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. + Used to mark the participant nouns with motion sentences described below.)

    +

    Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker + to describe exactly the spatial relationships between 2 objects in motion relative + to each other. This is done in Ithkuil by stating that two object are moving + from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by + “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, + not a specific location in space, it can be seen how such a simple formula easily + describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An Ithkuil speaker is describing + exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short sentence + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship the two objects have to start with, and + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship they will have when the motion is ended. + The root used to describe the motion indicates the nature of the motion in terms + of its smoothness, speed, etc.

    +

    To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing + where the speaker or addressee or third party is situated relative to the two + objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is added to the + sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) + which states the positional frame between that third party and the FIRST party + (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the + ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame + of the dog and ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog.

    +

    Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ithkuil can be + in describing relative position between objects in an absolute manner. This + is best illustrated by narrowly translating into English an Ithkuil sentence + which describes a three-party positional situation.
    +

    +
    +


    +

    +
    +

    There is no way to translate this Ithkuil sentence into everyday + English except via inadequate approximation, thus: The woman stood still + as something made the boy run from ahead and above her, then past her, while + I watched them from behind and below. However, a more exact, narrow translation + of this sentence, capturing all of the positional/orientational specificity + of the original, would run as follows:

    +
    +

    As the woman held still, something made the boy run from + a position above, ahead of, and to the right of her relative to the direction + of the sunrise-to-sunset vector, a plane perpendicular to it, and the axis + of gravity, toward a position still above, but behind and to the left of her + relative to the same directional vector, perpendicular plane and gravitational + axis, as I was watching them from below, behind, and to the right of her relative + to the same vector, plane, and axis.
    +

    +
    + +10.4.3.2 Object-Internal Shape and Orientation. Note that, in +addition the above concepts of a positional grid for locating objects in space +and in positional relation to each other, Ithkuil also employs a whole set of +vocabulary to describe the physical topology, shape and internal self-orientation +of an object by itself. These are similar to words such as “face, back, +front, sides, top, bottom, appendage, tail, arm, etc., although it should be noted +that the equivalent Ithkuil terms are wholly autonomous and bear no metaphorical +relationship whatsoever to anthropomorphic body parts. Therefore, the “legs” +of a chair correspond more accurately to its “supports” or “struts” +in Ithkuil, while the “face” of a blackboard would correspond to a +word translatable only periphrastically as “main functional surface” +or “primary interface area” (although note that even this paraphrase +cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme “-face”). +

     

    + + + + +

    10.5 LEXICAL GENERALIZATION

    +

    In a word-for-word comparison to a Eurocentric vocabulary, + especially one as large as that of English, the Ithkuil lexicon appears very + overgeneralized in many respects. At first impression, it appears that shades + of meaning expressed by multiple words in English are expressed by only one + root in Ithkuil. As we have seen repeatedly throughout this work, this is primarily + due to the fact that shades of meaning for a single underlying cognitive concept + are normally differentiated at the morphological level in Ithkuil, as opposed + to the lexical. Nevertheless, there are several lexico-semantic areas where + Ithkuil truly does generalize in comparison to Western languages. This occurs + primarily where (1) Western vocabulary distinguishes separate lexemes for a + redundant concept based on different participants to, practitioners of, or manifestations + of that concept, and (2) where lexification is at an arbitrarily detailed or + particularized level. These topics are discussed in detail in the following + sections.

    +


    + 10.5.1 Consolidation of Unnecessary Distinctions

    +
    As an example of lexical generalization in Ithkuil (or over-lexicalization + in English!), compare the following words for animal vocal sounds: meow, + bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray, etc. Each of these words mean merely to + make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ithkuil utilizes only + a single stem for this concept (essentially meaning vocal sound/vocalize + – from the same root which gives the stem for (human) voice), + based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or + moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate + lexically the innate vocal sound being made by an animal if the animal making + the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one might argue that English + allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in The + sergeant barked out orders to the platoon, or The baby squealed in + delight. Such constructions are perfectly captured in Ithkuil via the ESSIVE + and ASSIMILATIVE + cases, as in He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog, or The + baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight, or + via the manipulation of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see Sec. + 5.4).
    +

    Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem + in Ithkuil would be (1) herd, flock, pride, gaggle, etc.; (2) hair, + fur, fleece, coat, etc.; (3) skin, hide, pelt, pellicle, peel, rind, + lambskin, leather, integument, etc.

    +

     

    +

    10.5.2 Translative Motion, Paths and Trajectories

    +

    By translative motion is meant the idea of an object moving + (or being moved) from one location to another. English is particularly rich + in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such an object, + not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, + but also the means of initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as to + toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run, or pass a ball or + other object. In reaching its destination, the object can fly, float, wing, + pass, arc, sail, plummet, drop, fall, thread, hop, leap, bounce, roll, zig-zag, + slide, glide, slither, or jump its way there.

    +

    As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ithkuil lexifies + concepts of translative motion with a focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, + not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. + Essentially, Ithkuil is less concerned with how the object gets there and is + more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For + example, look at the following two columns of English sentences :

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    I tossed it into + the basket.

    +
    		It sailed + into the basket.
    +

    I flung it into the + basket.

    +
    		It flew into the basket.
    +

    I hurled it into + the basket.

    +
    		It arced its way into + the basket.
    +

    I pitched it into + the basket.

    +
    		It fell into the basket.
    +
    +

    The sentences in the lefthand column + describes how I initiate the action while those in the righthand column describe + how the object moves. In Ithkuil the lefthand column of sentences would normally + all be translated by a single sentence narrowly translatable as I made it + end up inside the basket, while the righthand column of sentences would + all be translated by the exact same sentence minus the ERGATIVE + personal referent I, thus: It ended up inside the basket.

    +

    So where are the words translating the range of descriptive + nuance surrounding the means of sending it into the basket and the different + trajectories it takes there? In normal Ithkuil speech, such distinctions would + be considered irrelevant. This is because Ithkuil grammar questions all acts, + conditions and events as to their underlying cognitive purpose. For the above + sentences, Ithkuil views them as all having the same underlying purpose: to + express that I have caused an object to pass from a state of being in my alienable + possession to a state of being within the basket, by passing through the physical + space between me and the basket. Therefore there is only one translation for + the varying sentence pairs.

    +

    Before the reader begins to think that Ithkuil is incapable + of distinguishing the shades of meaning present in the above examples, it should + be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by additional affixes + and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to + indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ithkuil can + augment the sentence I made it end up inside the basket to include + affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes + indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly + translatable as Using my hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I + caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully inside the basket.

    +

    While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances + of English “flung,” Ithkuil first makes us stop and ask ourselves, + why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force + initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English + speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or + “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in + the above sentence, would his/her speaker be considered to have been given information + any less sufficient or essential for understanding the message and its purpose? + All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ithkuil lexico-semantics: if + a complex, highly detailed morphology already conveys a high degree of semantic + and cognitive nuance, why belabor the obvious by reinforcing such nuances at + the lexical level if the context and underlying cognitive purpose of the utterance + does not require it? Thus the Ithkuil language not only captures levels of cognitive + detail beyond the scope of Western languages, but it also allows the speaker + to avoid having to provide such detail when it is inessential.

    +

     

    +

    10.5.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying + Processes

    +

    In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ithkuil perspective, + an example would be limp, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ + Ithkuil recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not + the condition per se that is relevant, but rather the manner in which + the condition causes the person to move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously + in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” + expectation of walking. Ithkuil speakers would consider English limp + to represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative + movement. To a Ithkuil speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. + The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping + or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” + is an underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity + which causes the person to move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead + of He has a limp because of his war wound, a Ithkuil speaker would + say He walks asymmetrically/irregularly because of his war wound.

    +

    To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when + dancing to rock music, has a tendency to jerk his/her head to the left at the + sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it ludicrous over-lexicalization + to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s + head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical + sentence She spreggles to rock music. Yet, from the Ithkuil standpoint, + there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” + and the actual word ‘limp.’

    +

    Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both + animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ithkuil has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ + ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ + or ‘paralysis.’ In Ithkuil, one simply says He can’t see, + She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t + move, or alternately His faculty of sight (or other sense or innate + faculty) doesn’t function/no longer functions. [Note: each of + these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, + case, voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, + whether temporary or permanent, whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally + caused or inherently developed, etc.]

    + +

     

    + + + + +

    10.6 LEXICAL DIFFERENTIATION

    +

    While we have examined the many ways in which the dynamism + and logic of Ithkuil grammar eliminates whole swaths of equivalent English vocabulary, + there are, nevertheless, many concepts where Ithkuil provides autonomous lexical + roots and stems for which neither English nor other Western languages provide + similar words and must resort to paraphrase in order to translate. Such concepts + are particularly found in the realm of human emotions, social relationships, + functional interrelationships between objects, philosophy, psychology, and sensory + phenomena.

    +

    Underlying such differentiation is the idea that the Ithkuil + language is meant to reflect in linguistic terms as close a representation of + human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is possible + in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure + mathematical logic. Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded + in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented + in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language + which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require + many more words to describe that life than are commonly available in existing + human languages.

    + +

     

    + + + + +

    10.7 COMPARISON TO WESTERN CATEGORIZATION

    +

    Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which + there is no exactly corresponding equivalent in Ithkuil. These include the concepts + embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ithkuil + has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” + or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership + equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ithkuil grammar + and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or + inherent existential possession as true semantic functional categories or fundamental + cognitive primitives.

    +


    + 10.7.1 Translating “To Be”

    +

    Ithkuil grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, + at any and all moments, and on all scales large and small, in a state of flux. + The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately identified as + “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ithkuil grammar + has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or + “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that + are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different + from moment to moment, if only because the mere passage of time itself renders + the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. + Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” + anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” + or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something + else. Fundamental to Ithkuil grammar are the notions of function and purpose, + not mere description; results, not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. + This explains why there is no true distinction between nouns and verbs in Ithkuil, + both being mere differences in functional roles played by any given formative + concept whose underlying meaning is not inherently nominal or verbal, but rather + a conceptual primitive waiting to be manifested as either (1) a representation + of an action, process, or event, (i.e., a verb), or (2) as a concrete or abstract + entity that is representative of, or embodies the underlying concept (i.e., + a noun).

    +

    So, an Ithkuil speaker does not say I am John, She is a + cook, The leaf is green, Stan is ill, or Murder is wrong, but + rather One calls me John, She cooks [for a living], The leaf [currently] + manifests a green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease], and Murder + controverts morality.

    +


    + 10.7.2 Translating ‘To Have’

    +

    In regard to “have” or “having,” Ithkuil + views the concept of possession as breaking down into more specific functional + states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation + to each other.

    +


    + 10.7.3 Translating Questions

    +

    As was discussed earlier in Sec. + 5.1.6 on the INTERROGATIVE illocution, the Ithkuil + language does not have a way of forming questions. Instead, Ithkuil grammar + treats an interrogative as reflecting an underlying cognitive demand for information + and/or a validation of the truth or factuality of a statement. Therefore, a + specific kind of imperative command is employed, telling the addressee to provide + the required validation or information. In some instances, questions in Western + languages are rhetorical and in fact represent a request or command. As might + be expected, Ithkuil translates such rhetorical questions as the commands they + truly are. The following examples illustrate how questions are handled in Ithkuil.

    +

    Do you know the way to San Jose?
    + [= Validate whether you know the way to San Jose.]

    +

    Will you please leave me alone?
    + [= I request that you leave me alone.]

    +

    Will you sing us a song?
    + [= We request that you sing us a song.]

    +

    What is the square root of 400?
    + [= State the square root of 400.]

    +

    Do you speak Ithkuil?
    + [= Demonstrate that you can speak in Ithkuil.]

    +

    Which bird is the one that was injured?
    + [= Indicate which bird was injured.]

    +

    How old are you?
    + [= State the amount/number of years you have lived.]

    +


    + 10.7.4 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections

    +

    As there are no interjections in Ithkuil, there are no true + equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ithkuil. Nevertheless, + there are abbreviated ways of answering the requests for information or commands + for validation that substitute for questions in Ithkuil. The closest approximations + are a few standardized sentences that answer commands using the validative mode. + These sentences translate in various ways, such as “It functions/happens/manifests + in that manner” or “It does not function/happen/manifest in that + manner”; or, “I can(not) validate that information based on... [state + evidence for validation].”

    +

    Observe how this operates in the following examples.

    +

    “Do you want to dance?” “No.”
    + [“State whether you will dance with me.” “I do not want to + dance with you.”

    +

    Ithkuil grammar also allows for the use of bias affixes (see + Sec. 6.6) to function + as autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to + interjections in Western languages. This phenomenon has already been discussed + in Section 8.6.2. + Additionally, Section + 8.4 described how affixual adjuncts may be used to convey information similarly + to autonomous interjections.

    +


    + 10.7.5 Translating Metaphorically Structured Phrases

    +

    Ithkuil grammar recognizes that much of our understanding and + expression of everyday experience is structured in terms of metaphor and metonymy + (the latter being the reference to an entity by one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business). + Ithkuil allows for the overt designation of metaphorical concepts by several + means. These include the REPRESENTATIONAL + context, Conflation and Derivation, + the metonymic affix + -V0qt, + and the two part-whole + affixes -V0 + and -V0š.

    +

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 11: The Script > >

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch11-script.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch11-script.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1e02e04 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch11-script.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1265 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 11: The Script + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 11: The Ithkuil Script

    + +


    + The Ithkuil writing system, like the language itself, although + extremely complex in its structure and usage, is strictly logical and highly + efficient in its ability to convey information. In previous chapters we have + seen the high degree of detail and multi-level functionality and dynamism inherent + in the language’s morpho-phonology, morpho-syntax, and lexico-semantics. + The workings of the Ithkuil writing system are no different. For example, just + as the consonants and vowels of nominal and verbal stems can mutate into new + forms, so, too, do the characters of the Ithkuil script mutate into other forms + based on morpho-phonological rules.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    11.1 A “MORPHO-PHONEMIC” SCRIPT

    +
    +

    Such dynamism in a language’s writing system can be achieved + because the Ithkuil script has the unique distinction of being “morpho-phonemic,” + i.e., the individual characters of the script do not merely convey phonemic + content like an alphabet or syllabary, but also convey morphological (grammatical) + information. Additionally, the phonemic and grammatical information conveyed + by a specific character changes depending on the position of that character + within a word. This dynamism allows individual Ithkuil words to be written with + a fewer number of characters than in alphabetic or syllabic writing systems, + particularly those words which are highly inflected and/or have multiple affixes. + As a consequence of such a system, however, it is impossible to learn how to + write in the script unless and until one is first familiar with the grammar + of the language. As an example, the following diagram presents an analysis of + the phonological and grammatical information contained in each written character + of the following Ithkuil sentence:

    + + + + + + + + + +
     
     
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    +     		+
    		+
    		+
    		+
    		+
    		+
    		+
    		+
    +
    1
    2
    3
    4
    5
    6
    7
    8
    9
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    1
    		Consonantal + character, Grade 1, alternate form. Word-initial position implies C1 + phonemic Value = /l/. Alternate form shows word carries + ultimate stress. Phonemic value in conjunction with position preceding a + personal reference adjunct infix indicates word is a single-referent personal + reference adjunct.
    +
    2
    		Personal Reference + Adjunct infix character. Values: AFFECTIVE Case; Affix + Degree 1.
    +
    3
    		Consonantal character, + Grade 1, primary form. Position immediately following a personal reference + adjunct infix implies C2 phonemic Value = /’/. + Consonantal character being in this position in a single-referent adjunct + indicates character represents an affix rather than a case-marker.
    +
    +
    4
    		Character is a composite + aspectual adjunct infix character with following values: INTUITIVE + validation; ALLEGATIVE sanction. Position relative + to previous characters indicates that it is part of a different word.
    +
    5
    		Vocalic character /â/, + Series A, primary but hook-reversed form. Position immediately following + an aspectual adjunct infix character indicates start of new word. Position + preceding two consonantal characters indicates word is a formative. Primary + form indicates NORMAL essence. Hook-reversed form + indicates a Form II stem, i.e., FORMAL designation. + Absence of dot diacritic indicates word carries falling tone.
    +
    6
    		Consonantal character, + Grade 1, primary form. Phonemic value: /q/. Position following + vocalic character and preceding another consonantal character indicates + it is a C1 radical. Adjacent “wedge” diacritic, + in absence of similar diacritic on either the preceding vocalic character + or the following consonantal character indicates STATIVE + conflation.
    +
    7
    		Consonantal character, + Grade 1, primary form. Phonemic value //. + Position indicates it is a C2 radical. Underposed + dot in absence of diacritic dot on preceding character indicates stem is + Pattern 1, Stem 3. Primary form in conjunction with primary form of preceding + character indicates word carries penultimate stress.
    +
    8
    		Consonantal character, + Grade 5, primary form. Position following a C2 radical + indicates a consonantal affix. Phonemic value /q’/. + Grade 5 = affix-degree 5. Absence of diacritic indicates affix-type 1, non-geminated.
    +
    9
    		Consonantal character, + Grade 5, primary form. Position following a C2 radical + indicates a consonantal affix. Phonemic value /d/. Grade + 5 = affix-degree 5. Absence of diacritic indicates affix-type 1, non-geminated.
    +
    +


    +
    + ‘I feel that nowadays everyone everywhere is happy.’ +
    + _Listen! + +

    +
    +

    Notice how the above analysis shows that the only purely phonemic + information given by the Ithkuil written characters in this sentence is for + /l/, /’/, + /â/, /q/, //, + /q’/ and + /d/. All remaining information represented by the characters + is wholly morphological, by which the reader “constructs” the pronunciation + of the sentence as a whole. Such is a morpho-phonemic script.

    +

    It is important to recognize that while the phonological component + of the Ithkuil script gives information as to the phonemes associated with the + stem and affixes of a noun or verb, it does not operate alphabetically to tell + the reader the specific pronunciation of a word. The reader must be familiar + with the grammar of the language in order to know how to interpret the phonological + component of the script (including the possibility of allowable alternative + pronunciations or transliterations). This morpho-phonemic principle can be illustrated + by showing how affixes to a noun or verb are represented in the script. The + Ithkuil translation of the English sentence I am a sufficiently large man + can be said in all of the following equivalent ways, due to the flexibility + of Ithkuil affixation rules (see Sec. + 6.5):

    +
    + + + + + +

    Ta + yâqomüxduï.
    + Ta yâqomüxiäd.
    + Ta yâqomduïxü.
    + Ta yâqomiädüx    .
    + Ta xü’a + yâqomiäd.
    + Ta duï’a + yâqomxü.
    +     Ta + duï’’üx + yâqom.
    + Ta xü’’iäd + yâqom.
    +

    +
    +

    +
    +
    +

    Even though there are eight possible ways to say this sentence + in Ithkuil, they are all written the same, as shown above. This is because the + script does not indicate specific choices of alternatives in the position of + morphemes (phonological units having a particular semantic or grammatical function). + The first symbol of the phrase above indicates the initial consonant element + t- of the personal-reference adjunct tawa + (or ta), while the second symbol conveys OBLIQUE + case for the adjunct, interpretable as -a or –awa. + The third symbol represents the vocalic prefix â-, as + well as the form, tone, mode, and vocalic mutation series of the stem. The fourth + and fifth characters represents the C1 + and C2 consonants of the root respectively, + along with the mutational grade, stem number, vowel pattern, syllabic stress + and conflation information which transforms the initial â- + prefix to yâ-. The last two characters represent the + two affixes including their degree and affix-type.

    +

    It should be noted what the written form of this word does + not convey. It does not tell us what vowel is to be infixed between the C1 + and C2 consonant consonants (as this + is predictable based on the form, set, mutation series and vocalic pattern), + it does not tell us whether or how to pronounce the affixes as suffixes or prefixes + to the stem or in adjunct form, nor in which order to pronounce them. Consequently, + the script functions more like a template or code for the basic phonemes of + roots plus the grammatical information necessary for a speaker of the language + to interpolate these into actual spoken words. Note also that there is no space + between the two written words, as the third character, being a vowel character + following a specialized adjunct character, automatically indicates the beginning + of a new word.

    +

    While such a multi-functional system of writing is extremely + complex and impossible to use without a thorough understanding of Ithkuil morpho-phonology + and morpho-syntax, it makes for a very abbreviated written representation of + words, in that all parts of a spoken word whose phonological component is predictable + from the grammar, need not be written, while those parts of a word which are + not predictable can be represented by symbols which convey much more than a + sound, but rather also convey the grammatical information necessary to construct + the unwritten parts of the word. As a result, the script acts to “compress” + the written form of the language as opposed to the spoken form, much like computerized + “compression” software stores computer files in a space-saving manner + in which all components of a file whose construction is predictable based on + other components, can be eliminated in the stored version, and restored when + accessed. Similarly, the “compressed” form of words in the Ithkuil + written language are restored to full pronunciation when spoken or read.

    +

     

    + +
    + + + + +

    11.2 NUMBER OF CHARACTERS

    +
    +

    The script is based on 252 core characters used to write both + formatives and adjuncts, plus 54 specialized combinatory elements used only + with adjuncts. Of the core characters, 48 of these represent vowel elements, + 60 represent consonantal elements, and 84 represent characters associated with + valence/version adjuncts. Each of the 48 core vowel characters has three modified + variants for a total of four variations, each of which then mutates into eight + other characters for a total of 864 vowel symbols. Each of the 60 core consonant + characters has one alternate version, this alternate and the original both mutating + into eight other forms for a total of 1080 consonant characters. The 54 combinatory + elements are divided into two sets of 27, each set comprised of three subsets + of nine components. A single component of each subset combines with a component + from the other two to render a tripartite composite, rendering a total of 789 + possible composite characters for each of the two sets. Combined with the 2028 + variations and mutations of the core characters, this renders a grand total + of 3606 characters. Additionally there are a few symbols which correspond roughly + to punctuation marks. A further set of numerical symbols will be discussed in + Chapter 12.

    +

     

    + +
    + + + + +

    11.3 PHYSICAL DESIGN OF THE CHARACTERS

    +
    +

    The physical form of the characters in the script is based + on two different types of written strokes: straight “bar”-like elements, + and pointed sickle-like “hooks.” These bars and hooks are joined + to one another in a variety of angular “offset” connections. While + there can be a number of different bar-like elements comprising a given character, + only one arc or hook can occur in a character. These bars and hooks can be easily + discerned in the sample of Ithkuil writing shown here.

    +
    +
    +
    +


    +

    +
    +

    11.3.1 Character Archetypes and Derivation

    +

    The four primary character archetypes of the Ithkuil script + are as follows: ___ +

    +

    These can then be turned upside down, combine with each other, + and have their lines bent at angles to generate additional secondary archetypes:

    + +
    +

    +
    +

    From these archetypes, the thousands of remaining characters + are derived. Examples of some of the various patterns of derivation are shown + in the chart below:

    +
    +


    +

    +
    +

    11.3.2 Direction Of Writing

    +

    Up to this point example phrases and sentences in this work + have shown the script written in what appears as a familiar left-to-right horizontal + style. However, such a format is used only for brief autonomous phrases or sentences + which take up a single line. Similarly, the individual Ithkuil characters themselves + are normally written in this horizontal fashion when listed by themselves as + in the various tables throughout this chapter.

    + + + + + +
    For passages taking up more + than one line, as in general narrative passages or “paragraphs,” + the script is normally written in a vertical boustrophedon fashion + (Greek for “as the ox plows”); specifically, it is written + in vertical columns starting at the upper left of a page, with the first + column being written top-to-bottom and each character oriented sideways + and opening downward, then reversing direction in the second column and + being written bottom-to-top with each character facing or opening upward. + Each line continues this “zig-zag” approach from the left + side of the page to the right, every other line running one direction + as opposed to the preceding and following lines. This is illustrated by + analogy with Roman letters to the left and can be seen in the sample of + an Ithkuil passage below.
    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    +
    		 

    TRANSLITERATION:
    +
    +
    + _Listen! + +
    +

    +

    TRANSLATION:
    + As our vehicle leaves the ground and plunges over the edge of the cliff + toward the valley floor, I ponder whether it is possible that one might + allege I am guilty of an act of moral failure, having failed to maintain + a proper course along the roadway.

    + +

     

    + + + + +

    11.4 HOW THE SCRIPT OPERATES

    +

    As previously stated, writing Ithkuil requires a knowledge + of both the morpho-phonological and morpho-syntactical rules of the language. + Recall that Ithkuil has two parts of speech: formatives and adjuncts. The rules + for writing formatives are separate from the rules for writing adjuncts. We + will first examine the rules for writing formatives.
    +

    +

    11.4.1 Writing Formatives

    +

    As described in Chapter + 2, formatives derive morphologically from a stem of the form C1ViC2, + where C1 is one of 60 consonantal radicals, + C2 is one of 60 consonantal radicals, + and Vi is a vocalic infix determined + by the Form, Pattern and Stem. Specifically each abstract semantic root generates + three Stems within two Modes, and each Stem in turn has two Forms and three + Patterns. For convenience, the following table, originally shown in Sec. + 2.2.3 is repeated here to illustrate these relationships.

    +

    Table 35: + Vocalic Infixes for Stems by Mode, Pattern & Form

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Primary + Mode
    Secondary + Mode
    Pattern + 1
    Pattern + 2
    Pattern + 3
    Pattern + 1
    Pattern + 2
    Pattern + 3
    Form + I
    stem + 1
    a
    e
    ä
    aî
    eì
    aì
    stem + 2
    u
    o
    ö
    uî
    oi
    uì
    stem + 3
    i
    ë
    ü
    eî
    oì
    ëì
    Form + II
    stem + 1
    â
    ê
    ae
    aû
    aè
    aù
    stem + 2
    û
    ô
    ø
    oû
    où
    ëù
    stem + 3
    î
    ÿ
    iu
    eû
    eù
    iù
    +

    As shown in the above table and described in detail in Chapter + 2, it is the vocalic infix of a formative, not the consonantal radicals + that convey and differentiate the morphological components of Mode, Pattern, + Form and Stem. However, the Ithkuil script does not overtly represent symbols + for this vocalic infix. An Ithkuil formative (not including suffixes) is represented + by three characters: an initial vowel character whose phonological component + represents the initial Affiliation/Extension prefix (see Sec. + 3.4), plus characters representing the C1 and C2 + characters. Therefore it is these three characters which, in addition to their + phonological component, must convey the above-named morphological components, + additional morphological components of Focus and Conflation, as well as additional + phonological information such as tone and stress. The following paragraphs describe + how the Ithkuil script accomplishes these tasks.

    +


    + 11.4.1.1 Representing C1 + Consonantal Radicals. Distinct written symbols exist for each of the + 60 C1 consonantal radicals. Just as each C1 + radical can mutate into one of eight other forms for a total of nine mutational + grades (see Sec 2.4), so these + 60 written characters can be mutated into eight other characters, each corresponding + to the nine mutational grades. This is illustrated below for the C1 + radical .

    +

    Standard Forms
    +

    +

    Additionally, each C1 symbol pattern + has an alternate pattern, used under certain morphological circumstances described + later. The alternate pattern for the C1 radical + + is illustrated below.

    +

    Alternate Forms
    +

    +

    Note the similarity of these alternate forms to the standard + forms. In the case of the C1 radical , + the alternate pattern is shown by a mere point-like extension at the base of + each character while the rest of the pattern remains identical. For all consonantal + characters, the nine grades of mutation are differentiated by variations in + the top “half” of the character, while alternate versions of characters + are shown in the bottom half of the character. For example, compare the standard + and alternate forms of + above with those of the C1 radical k + below.

    +

    Standard Forms
    +

    +

    Alternate Forms
    +

    +

    For formatives, one of these 120 symbols (the 60 C1 + radicals and their alternates) or their eight grades of variants will always + constitute either the first or second symbol of a word. For those formatives + where it is the second symbol, the first symbol will always be a vowel character. + Vowel characters are distinguished from consonantal characters because the former + always contain a sickle-like “hook” element while consonant characters + do not. Consequently, it is always possible to tell which is the C1 + symbol of a formative.

    +

    11.4.1.2 Representing C2 Consonantal + Radicals. As for symbols denoting the C2 consonantal + radical, they are the same 60 symbols (plus alternates and eight grades of variants) + used to represent C1 forms, however they do not necessarily + represent the same phonemic values as when used for C1 + forms. If we compare Tables 6 and 7 in Section + 2.4 we see that of the 60 C2 radicals in Grade 1, + only 24 of them can also be C1 radicals, and even these + 24 mutate in a completely different manner than their C1 + counterparts. In other words, the same written symbol often represents completely + different consonantal forms, depending on whether it is being used to represent + a C1 radical or a C2 radical. Thus, + for example, the written symbol for k + in Grade 4 will be interpreted as + if representing a C1 radical, but must be interpreted + as sk if representing + a C2 radical.

    +

    So how is the reader supposed to know if it is a C1 + versus C2 radical being represented? By the position of + the symbol in the word, i.e., whether it is the first consonantal symbol in + the word (indicating it is C1) or whether it is the second + consonantal symbol in the word (indicating it is C2). + The second consonantal symbol in a formative will always represent one of the + nine grades of a C2 consonantal radical. Let us illustrate + this principle by examples.

    + +
    +

    +
    +

    Note how it is mere position within the word that distinguishes + the interpretation to be given to what are otherwise identical written symbols, + allowing six phonologically different radicals to be represented by only three + different symbols. In this manner, Ithkuil can make do with symbols for C1 + radicals without requiring separate symbols for C2 radicals.

    +

    As for those C2 radicals in Grade 1 that + do not correspond to any C1 radicals in Grade 1 (i.e., + b, d, , + g, , + j, v, ), + Ithkuil represents these using C1 symbols as well. They + simply have completely different phonological values than for their usage as + C1 symbols. As an example, the C1 + symbol for šp + becomes the symbol for r + when representing a C2 radical. Again, it is mere position + in the word that clues the reader into interpreting the symbol as a C2 + radical, rather than C1.

    +

    11.4.1.3 Representing Pattern and Stem. The + three Stems and three Patterns associated with each root are shown by a specific + pattern of diacritic dots on the two radical consonants of the stem. This diacritic + pattern is distinguished both by the selection of which consonantal radical + is marked, as well as whether the diacritic is placed below the character or + alongside. This is illustrated in the table below.

    +

    Table 36: Diacritic Markings + for Displaying Pattern and Stem
    +

    +

     

    +

    11.4.1.4 Representing Stress. The four stress + patterns (see Sec. 1.3.3) are shown + by the four-way alternation between standard versus alternate forms of the two + consonant radicals, as previously described and illustrated in Sec. + 11.4.1.1. Therefore, if we represent the standard forms of the C1 + and C2 radicals as S and alternate forms + as A, and the initial vowel character as V, + the representation of the four stress patterns using the C1/C2 + sequence of characters is as follows:

    +


    + Table 37: Pattern of Character Alternations Indicating Stress
    +
    +

    +

    11.4.1.5 Representing Vowels, Mode, and Form. + As we have seen elsewhere, the value of any vowel in an Ithkuil formative is + completely predictable based on the morphology of the formative itself, with + the exception of the vocalic prefixes used to show Affiliation, Extension and + Conflation (see Secs. + 3.2, 3.4 and + 5.4.1 respectively). Therefore, + it is unnecessary to represent vowels in a Ithkuil written word except for a + character representing the vocalic prefix which also conveys the additional + morphological information necessary to determine the vowels to be infixed elsewhere + within the stem. Consequently, a written Ithkuil formative will contain only + one symbol representing a vowel, and this symbol will indicate the vocalic prefix + (if any), as well as the Mode, the Form, the vocalic mutation series, and tone + of the word. The details of how this vowel symbol conveys this information is + described in the paragraphs below.

    +

    There are 24 possible vocalic prefixes to Ithkuil formatives + which indicate Affiliation and Extension for nouns or for the first of the seven + conflations for verbs. Consequently there are 24 basic vowel characters whose + phonetic value corresponds to these prefixes. These 24 characters in turn have + an alternate form called the secondary used to indicate the secondary mode of + the stem (i.e., corresponding to REPRESENTATIVE essence + as per Secs. 2.2.3 and 3.8.1). + Both primary and secondary forms in turn have “hook-reversed” forms, + i.e., forms identical to the primary and secondary forms, but with the sickle-like + hook portion of the character curved in the opposite direction; these hook-reversed + forms are used to indicate Form II of the formative, corresponding to the FORMAL + designation as explained in Secs. + 2.2.3 and 3.7. + The alternate and hook-reversed forms added to the 24 primary vowel characters, + renders 96 characters. These 96 in turn have eight modifications to indicate + the nine mutational series of a stem’s vocalic infix (see Sec. + 2.5), resulting in 864 vowel characters. One of these 864 vowel symbols + will always be the first character of an Ithkuil written formative. The following + table illustrates an example of the basic vowel character ä + with its mutations, along with its alternate and hook-reversed forms. Note that, + like consonantal characters, the top half of the character carries the distinctions + between the nine degrees of mutation.

    +

    Primary Form
    +

    +

    Primary Form with + Reversed Hook
    +

    +

    Secondary Form
    +

    +

    Secondary Form with Reversed + Hook
    +

    +


    +
    +     11.4.1.6 Representing Tone. + The four functional tones are indicated by patterns of diacritic dots written + in conjunction with the word-initial vocalic symbol as shown below.

    +

    Table 38: + Tone Diacritics
    +

    +


    + 11.4.1.7 Representing Conflation. Conflation is one of the + three morphological categories shown by the initial vocalic prefix to a verbal + formative, the other two being Affiliation and Extension. We have already seen + that the 24 Affiliation/Extension prefixes associated with nouns and the first + Conflation of verbs (the OPERATIVE) is shown by 24 autonomous + characters. The remaining six conflations are shown by a pattern of diacritic + marks placed alongside the vocalic prefix and the two consonantal radical characters. + The diacritic itself is a wedge-shaped mark ( + ) which changes to a short bar ( + or ) if replacing + a diacritic dot (indicating Pattern, Stem or Tone) already present. The pattern + is as follows:

    +

    Table 39: Diacritic Markings + for Displaying Conflation
    +

    +

     

    +

    11.4.1.8 Representing Affixes. Although every + affix to a formative generally has both a prefix and a suffix form, only the + suffix form is represented in the Ithkuil writing system, i.e., any consonantal + prefix to a formative in the spoken language appears as a suffix in the written + language. As detailed in Chapter 7, + the suffix consists of a consonant preceded by a vowel determined by one of + three affix-types and one of nine degrees. In writing, the 60 C1/C2 + characters are used to represent these affixes, each with its own independent + consonantal value when used as an affix. In other words, the phonemic value + associated with these 60 symbols when written as a suffix is independent of + their value when written as a C1 or C2 + radical. As with C1 and C2 representations, + the reader’s clue to interpreting the symbol as an affix is by position + within the word; the suffix will always be the third (or more) consonantal symbol + in a word. Note that affixes which contain geminated (i.e., doubled) consonants + (e.g., mm, + ss, + tt, + etc.) are shown by the character corresponding to their ungeminated form plus + an additional underposed dot, e.g., n nn + + .

    +

    Affix Degree. The nine affixual degrees associated + with a given consonantal affix category are represented by the same character + mutations used to show the nine grades of C1/C2 + mutation.

    +

    Affix-Type. Affixes containing Type-1 vocalic + infixes are unmarked. Affixes having Type-2 vocalic infixes are marked with + a diacritic dot alongside the letter. Affixes having Type-3 vocalic infixes + are marked with the wedge-shaped diacritic mark alongside the character (the + same mark used with C1/C2 radical + characters to show conflation). If a Type-3 affix character is geminated, this + gemination may be shown by modifying the wedge-diacritic to a short bar (as + explained above for Conflation) and deleting the underposed dot usually used + for gemination.

    +

    11.4.1.9 Representing Focus. POSITIVE + focus is shown by placing a special diacritic, an underposed vertical bar + under any available character in the word.

    +

    11.4.1.10 Representing Illocution. In Sec. + 5.1 we saw that Ithkuil indicates the morphological category of Illocution + primarily by a consonantal infix between the word-initial vocalic prefix and + the C1 consonantal radical. However, in Sec. 7.7.13 we + saw an alternative method of conveying Illocution using the ILL + suffix -V2, + used when the infixed form is not phonologically permissible. Generally, the + Ithkuil script conveys only the suffixed form. An exception is made however, + for the DIRECTIVE illocution, for which an optional “shortcut” + notation exists, consisting of placing a special diacritic, a horizontal bar + + under the C1 character.

    +


    + 11.4.2 Writing Adjuncts

    +

    The rules for writing aspectual adjuncts and personal reference + adjuncts in Ithkuil script are distinct from writing formatives, employing a + different type of written symbol, specifically “composite” characters + made up of three separate character elements. Note that other adjuncts such + as combination adjuncts and affixual adjuncts are not represented autonomously + in the Ithkuil writing system, as these adjuncts exist purely for euphonic and + phonotactical considerations which are either optional, or where not optional, + predictable. Since combination and affixual adjuncts are alternative formats + for more standard morpho-phonological representations of these categories, they + are always represented in their standard formatting when written, regardless + of how they are interpreted in the spoken language.

    +

    11.4.2.1 Aspectual Adjuncts. These take the + written form of VP(Cb)CX, + where the first VP + represents the word-initial vocalic prefix indicating aspect, Cb + represents a Bias suffix from Sec. + 6.6.1 represented by a C1/C2 + character carrying its C1 phonological value (with the + glottal stop portion of the bias suffix is not represented), and the final CX + represents a specialized composite character explained below. Stress and tone + (indicating Mood) are shown by a specialized diacritic explained later below. + VP + utilizes primary vowel forms in both standard and hook-reversed forms, depending + on the specific phonological value of the vowel or diphthong. Any second aspect + shown in the adjunct is indicated by the VP + character as well, by means of its various mutations and secondary forms, as + follows: Series 2 through 9 of the primary character represent additional aspects + 1 through 8 as shown in Table + 19 of Sec. 6.4.1; Series 2 through 9 of the secondary form of the character + indicate additional aspects 9 through 16; Series 2 through 9 of the primary + character plus an underposed dot indicate additional aspect 17 through 24; Series + 2 through 9 of the secondary form of the character plus underposed dot indicate + additional aspects 25-32.

    +

    As detailed in Chapter 6, the CX + consonantal infix of an aspectual adjunct synthetically represents the three + morphological categories of Validation, Phase, and Sanction. Each of these categories + contain nine possible values for a total of 93 combinations, i.e., 789 possible + infixes. Rather than create 789 autonomous symbols to represent CX, + Ithkuil utilizes 27 character components (nine representing Validation, nine + representing Phase, nine representing Sanction) which are then combined into + one tripartite composite character. The general physical structure of this composite + character is as follows:

    +

    +

    +

    These twenty-seven component elements are shown below along + with three example composite characters, .
    +
    +
    + Tables 40, 41 and 42: Components + for Written Validation-Phase-Sanction Symbols
    +
    +

    +


    + Stress and tone on an aspectual adjunct, indicating Mood, are shown by varied + patterns of diacritic dots on the tripartite composite character, as per the + following examples using the composite character .

    +

    Table 43: + Mood Diacritics
    +
    +

    +

    11.4.2.2 Personal Reference Adjuncts. As described + in Sec. 8.1, these + are of two types: single-referent and dual-referent. Single-referent adjuncts + have both a short form and a long form. The form of dual-referent adjuncts is + identical to the long form of the single-referent adjunct, with the addition + of suffixed elements. When representing these adjuncts in writing, it is always + the long form of the adjunct that is represented, regardless of whether the + speaker chooses to pronounce it as the short form. The morphological elements + of this long form are represented by the following combined formula, whose elements + are described in the list below:

    + +
    +

    (+)++(VB+Cw(+Ve + (+Cb)))

    +
    +

    + = optional vocalic prefix indicating the Configuration, Affiliation, Designation, + Focus and Essence of Referent 1, the values of which are given in Table + 25 from Sec. 8.1.2 and Table + 28 in Sec. 8.1.3.
    + + = the single or dual personal-referent consonantal infix from Sec. + 8.1.3, Table 30.
    + + = the vocalic case infix for Referent 1, as described in Section + 8.1.2 and whose values are summarized in Table 24 in that Section.
    + VB + = a vocalic infix indicating either the Designation and Context of Referent + 2 (labeled + in Sec. 8.1.3) + in a dual-referent adjunct, OR a vocalic + suffix indicating the Context of Referent 1 in a single-referent adjunct (labeled + + in Sec. 8.1.2), + OR the degree and affix-type of a formative + suffix in a single-referent adjunct (labeled + in Sec. 8.1.2). +
    + Cw + = a consonantal form representing either the consonantal case infix and Affiliation + for Referent 2 (described as + in Section 8.1.3 with values given in Table + 31) in a dual-referent adjunct, OR + the consonantal formative suffix of a Form 3 single-referent adjunct as described + in Sec. 8.1.2 and + labeled .
    + Ve + = a vocalic affix either showing the Context for Referent 1 in a single-referent + adjunct (labelled + in Sec. 8.1.2) + or showing Affiliation for Referent 2 in a dual-referent adjunct (labelled + in Sec. 8.1.3).
    + Cb + = one of the 48 consonantal Bias affixes from Table 20 in Sec. + 6.6.1.

    +

    The above combined formula, when represented in Ithkuil script, + is written as ()(Cw(Cb)), + where each character is written as follows:

    +

    + utilizes the characters for a, e, u + and i used with formatives depending on which of the four affiliations + is required, the nine mutations of each being used to show Configuration and; + for FORMAL designation, the hook-reversed forms of the + four vowel characters are used; for INFORMAL designation + plus POSITIVE focus, the characters for â, + ê, û and î + are used, their hook-reversed forms indicating FORMAL + designation. For REPRESENTATIVE essence, the above patterns + are used but with the vowel character in its secondary form.

    +

    + utilizes the 60 C1/C2 consonantal + characters (in all nine degrees) interpreted as having their C1 + phonological value for each degree (e.g., the + value -xt-, + equivalent to x+ç, + would be written using the 5th degree mutation of the C1 + character for kt, + whose value is xt).

    +

    Before discussing the + + VB + character, we will discuss the representation of Cw, + Ve + and Cb.

    +

    The Cw + character utilizes the 60 C1/C2 + consonantal characters but interpreted as having their C2 + phonological value, unless the alternate form of the character is used, in which + case it has its C1 phonological value. The nine mutations + of which are used to represent either the Configuration of Referent 2, or the + affix-type of the formative suffix + (using mutations 1, 2, and 3). Note that if + is a glottal stop it is represented by an underposed dot to the + character rather than by a Cw + character.

    +

    Ve + is shown via the Cw + character, as follows: C = + a, C + = u, C + = â, C + = û.

    +

    Cb + is shown via the 60 C1/C2 characters, + interpreted as having their C1 phonological value

    +

    Stress is shown via the + character as follows: penultimate stress is unmarked; ultimate stress is shown + by employing the alternate form of the + character; antepenultimate stress is indicated by an underposed dot; preantepenultimate + stress by a combination of alternate form of the character and an underposed + dot.

    +

    Tone is indicated in the written personal reference adjunct + by means of the diacritic pattern from Sec. 11.4.1.6 + above, applied to the initial + character; in the absence of a + character, tone is indicated on the + character using the following diacritics: C + = falling, + C + = high, + C + = rising, + C + = broken.

    +

    + + VB + is represented by a specialized vocalic character used only in personal reference + adjuncts. It consists of an upper and lower set of symbols which are essentially + a counting system indicating one of the 81 cases (see Chapter + 4). The two sets of symbols are bifurcated by one of nine horizontal bar-like + elements which represent VB + (NOTE: when VB + represents Vz + from Sec. 8.1.2, + only the first four of the nine bar elements are used). These symbols are shown + below along with a diagram showing the composition of three example + + VB + characters, respectively Case 1 with VB + =1, Case 23 with VB + = 5, and Case 50 with VB + = 8.

    +

    Tables 44, + 45 and 46: Components of Specialized Personal Reference Adjunct Symbols
    +

    +

    +

    11.4.2.3 Valence/Version/Conflation Adjuncts. + These are written per the formula (Vm)(CN)CV + where Vm + is the vocalic modality suffix from Sec. + 5.5, CN + is the consonantal derivation prefix from Sec. + 5.4.3, and CV + is a specialized character indicating both valence and version as per the table + below. Vm + is written using standard primary vowel characters; the use of secondary forms + indicates positive focus; the four tones indicated by series A through D mutational + forms. CN + is written using the 60 C1/C2 characters + with their C1 phonological value. In the absence of a + Vm + character, POSITIVE focus is shown using the alternate + form of the CN + character, while tone is shown by the first four mutational grades of the CN + character. Also, the CN + character may take an underposed bar diacritic ( + ) in the absence of Vm + in order to disambiguate it as being the suffix of a preceding formative. In + the absence of both a Vm + and CN + character, marked tone and focus can be shown using a placeholder Vm + character, the symbol for the ae + diphthong which otherwise does not occur with such adjuncts.

    +

    Table 47: + Valence + Version Characters
    +

    +

    Format (Sec. + 5.4.2) is shown via diacritics to the above valence/version character, as + follows:

    +

    Table 48: + Format Diacritics
    +
    +

    +

    11.4.3 Word Boundaries, Punctuation and Foreign Transliteration

    +

    Because all formatives begin with a vowel symbol, and all written + adjuncts contain a specialized character, it is always possible to determine + where new words begin in a line of Ithkuil writing, obviating the need for a + blank space or other boundary between words. In turn, a blank space functions + to indicate a sentence boundary. And because Ithkuil morphology already indicates + within words themselves various attitudes, moods, and other information which + are normally indicated supra-segmentally in Western languages (e.g., by tone + or inflection of the voice, hyper-enunciation, etc.), symbols such as exclamation + points and question marks are likewise unnecessary. The only “punctuation” + symbols used are to show quotations of direct speech and phonetic transliteration + (as when spelling non-Ithkuil words and names). These two sets of symbols are + shown below. Note that the quotation marks are used only to indicate direct + speech; they are not used as in English to offset a word for emphasis or special + usage. The phonetic rendering marks indicate the word or phrase between the + marks is to be pronounced phonetically (i.e., alphabetically). When writing + alphabetically, consonantal characters carry their C1 + phonetic value; C2 phonetic values are shown by an underposed + dot. The secondary form of vowels are used to indicate the stressed syllable. + If desired, tone may be indicated on vowels using the same diacritic markings + as shown in Sec. 11.4.1.6 above.

    +
    +

    + [insert quote here]

    +

    + [word to be pronounced alphabetically]

    +
    + +

     

    + + + + +

    11.5 CHARACTER LISTS

    +

    The following tables detail the characters of the Ithkuil script + along with the various phonemic values assigned to the symbol depending on the + character’s function within the word. The specific usages of the various + sets of vowels, their secondary forms, their hook-reversed forms, and the primary + versus secondary forms of consonant characters have been previously explained + above in Section 11.4.1 and its various sub-sections.
    +
    + Table 49: SET 1 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
    +

    +

    Table 50: SET 1 SECONDARY + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 51: SET 1 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 52: SET 1 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 53: SET 2 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
    +

    +

    Table 54: SET 2 SECONDARY + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 55: SET 2 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 56: SET 2 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 57: SET 3 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
    +

    +

    Table 58: SET 3 SECONDARY + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 59: SET 3 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 60: SET 3 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 61: SET 4 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
    +

    +

    Table 62: SET 4 SECONDARY + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 63: SET 4 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 64: SET 4 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
    +

    +

     

    +

    Table 65: PRIMARY CONSONANT + SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +


    + Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +
    +

    +

    Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

     

    +

    Table 66: ALTERNATE CONSONANT + SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

     

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 12: The Number System >>
    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch11-script.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch11-script.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..34dc65d --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch11-script.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,1265 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 11: The Script + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 11: The Ithkuil Script

    + +


    + The Ithkuil writing system, like the language itself, although + extremely complex in its structure and usage, is strictly logical and highly + efficient in its ability to convey information. In previous chapters we have + seen the high degree of detail and multi-level functionality and dynamism inherent + in the language’s morpho-phonology, morpho-syntax, and lexico-semantics. + The workings of the Ithkuil writing system are no different. For example, just + as the consonants and vowels of nominal and verbal stems can mutate into new + forms, so, too, do the characters of the Ithkuil script mutate into other forms + based on morpho-phonological rules.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    11.1 A “MORPHO-PHONEMIC” SCRIPT

    +
    +

    Such dynamism in a language’s writing system can be achieved + because the Ithkuil script has the unique distinction of being “morpho-phonemic,” + i.e., the individual characters of the script do not merely convey phonemic + content like an alphabet or syllabary, but also convey morphological (grammatical) + information. Additionally, the phonemic and grammatical information conveyed + by a specific character changes depending on the position of that character + within a word. This dynamism allows individual Ithkuil words to be written with + a fewer number of characters than in alphabetic or syllabic writing systems, + particularly those words which are highly inflected and/or have multiple affixes. + As a consequence of such a system, however, it is impossible to learn how to + write in the script unless and until one is first familiar with the grammar + of the language. As an example, the following diagram presents an analysis of + the phonological and grammatical information contained in each written character + of the following Ithkuil sentence:

    + + + + + + + + + +
     
     
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    +     		+
    		+
    		+
    		+
    		+
    		+
    		+
    		+
    +
    1
    2
    3
    4
    5
    6
    7
    8
    9
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    1
    		Consonantal + character, Grade 1, alternate form. Word-initial position implies C1 + phonemic Value = /l/. Alternate form shows word carries + ultimate stress. Phonemic value in conjunction with position preceding a + personal reference adjunct infix indicates word is a single-referent personal + reference adjunct.
    +
    2
    		Personal Reference + Adjunct infix character. Values: AFFECTIVE Case; Affix + Degree 1.
    +
    3
    		Consonantal character, + Grade 1, primary form. Position immediately following a personal reference + adjunct infix implies C2 phonemic Value = /’/. + Consonantal character being in this position in a single-referent adjunct + indicates character represents an affix rather than a case-marker.
    +
    +
    4
    		Character is a composite + aspectual adjunct infix character with following values: INTUITIVE + validation; ALLEGATIVE sanction. Position relative + to previous characters indicates that it is part of a different word.
    +
    5
    		Vocalic character /â/, + Series A, primary but hook-reversed form. Position immediately following + an aspectual adjunct infix character indicates start of new word. Position + preceding two consonantal characters indicates word is a formative. Primary + form indicates NORMAL essence. Hook-reversed form + indicates a Form II stem, i.e., FORMAL designation. + Absence of dot diacritic indicates word carries falling tone.
    +
    6
    		Consonantal character, + Grade 1, primary form. Phonemic value: /q/. Position following + vocalic character and preceding another consonantal character indicates + it is a C1 radical. Adjacent “wedge” diacritic, + in absence of similar diacritic on either the preceding vocalic character + or the following consonantal character indicates STATIVE + conflation.
    +
    7
    		Consonantal character, + Grade 1, primary form. Phonemic value //. + Position indicates it is a C2 radical. Underposed + dot in absence of diacritic dot on preceding character indicates stem is + Pattern 1, Stem 3. Primary form in conjunction with primary form of preceding + character indicates word carries penultimate stress.
    +
    8
    		Consonantal character, + Grade 5, primary form. Position following a C2 radical + indicates a consonantal affix. Phonemic value /q’/. + Grade 5 = affix-degree 5. Absence of diacritic indicates affix-type 1, non-geminated.
    +
    9
    		Consonantal character, + Grade 5, primary form. Position following a C2 radical + indicates a consonantal affix. Phonemic value /d/. Grade + 5 = affix-degree 5. Absence of diacritic indicates affix-type 1, non-geminated.
    +
    +


    +
    + ‘I feel that nowadays everyone everywhere is happy.’ +
    + _Listen! + +

    +
    +

    Notice how the above analysis shows that the only purely phonemic + information given by the Ithkuil written characters in this sentence is for + /l/, /’/, + /â/, /q/, //, + /q’/ and + /d/. All remaining information represented by the characters + is wholly morphological, by which the reader “constructs” the pronunciation + of the sentence as a whole. Such is a morpho-phonemic script.

    +

    It is important to recognize that while the phonological component + of the Ithkuil script gives information as to the phonemes associated with the + stem and affixes of a noun or verb, it does not operate alphabetically to tell + the reader the specific pronunciation of a word. The reader must be familiar + with the grammar of the language in order to know how to interpret the phonological + component of the script (including the possibility of allowable alternative + pronunciations or transliterations). This morpho-phonemic principle can be illustrated + by showing how affixes to a noun or verb are represented in the script. The + Ithkuil translation of the English sentence I am a sufficiently large man + can be said in all of the following equivalent ways, due to the flexibility + of Ithkuil affixation rules (see Sec. + 6.5):

    +
    + + + + + +

    Ta + yâqomüxduï.
    + Ta yâqomüxiäd.
    + Ta yâqomduïxü.
    + Ta yâqomiädüx    .
    + Ta xü’a + yâqomiäd.
    + Ta duï’a + yâqomxü.
    +     Ta + duï’’üx + yâqom.
    + Ta xü’’iäd + yâqom.
    +

    +
    +

    +
    +
    +

    Even though there are eight possible ways to say this sentence + in Ithkuil, they are all written the same, as shown above. This is because the + script does not indicate specific choices of alternatives in the position of + morphemes (phonological units having a particular semantic or grammatical function). + The first symbol of the phrase above indicates the initial consonant element + t- of the personal-reference adjunct tawa + (or ta), while the second symbol conveys OBLIQUE + case for the adjunct, interpretable as -a or –awa. + The third symbol represents the vocalic prefix â-, as + well as the form, tone, mode, and vocalic mutation series of the stem. The fourth + and fifth characters represents the C1 + and C2 consonants of the root respectively, + along with the mutational grade, stem number, vowel pattern, syllabic stress + and conflation information which transforms the initial â- + prefix to yâ-. The last two characters represent the + two affixes including their degree and affix-type.

    +

    It should be noted what the written form of this word does + not convey. It does not tell us what vowel is to be infixed between the C1 + and C2 consonant consonants (as this + is predictable based on the form, set, mutation series and vocalic pattern), + it does not tell us whether or how to pronounce the affixes as suffixes or prefixes + to the stem or in adjunct form, nor in which order to pronounce them. Consequently, + the script functions more like a template or code for the basic phonemes of + roots plus the grammatical information necessary for a speaker of the language + to interpolate these into actual spoken words. Note also that there is no space + between the two written words, as the third character, being a vowel character + following a specialized adjunct character, automatically indicates the beginning + of a new word.

    +

    While such a multi-functional system of writing is extremely + complex and impossible to use without a thorough understanding of Ithkuil morpho-phonology + and morpho-syntax, it makes for a very abbreviated written representation of + words, in that all parts of a spoken word whose phonological component is predictable + from the grammar, need not be written, while those parts of a word which are + not predictable can be represented by symbols which convey much more than a + sound, but rather also convey the grammatical information necessary to construct + the unwritten parts of the word. As a result, the script acts to “compress” + the written form of the language as opposed to the spoken form, much like computerized + “compression” software stores computer files in a space-saving manner + in which all components of a file whose construction is predictable based on + other components, can be eliminated in the stored version, and restored when + accessed. Similarly, the “compressed” form of words in the Ithkuil + written language are restored to full pronunciation when spoken or read.

    +

     

    + +
    + + + + +

    11.2 NUMBER OF CHARACTERS

    +
    +

    The script is based on 252 core characters used to write both + formatives and adjuncts, plus 54 specialized combinatory elements used only + with adjuncts. Of the core characters, 48 of these represent vowel elements, + 60 represent consonantal elements, and 84 represent characters associated with + valence/version adjuncts. Each of the 48 core vowel characters has three modified + variants for a total of four variations, each of which then mutates into eight + other characters for a total of 864 vowel symbols. Each of the 60 core consonant + characters has one alternate version, this alternate and the original both mutating + into eight other forms for a total of 1080 consonant characters. The 54 combinatory + elements are divided into two sets of 27, each set comprised of three subsets + of nine components. A single component of each subset combines with a component + from the other two to render a tripartite composite, rendering a total of 789 + possible composite characters for each of the two sets. Combined with the 2028 + variations and mutations of the core characters, this renders a grand total + of 3606 characters. Additionally there are a few symbols which correspond roughly + to punctuation marks. A further set of numerical symbols will be discussed in + Chapter 12.

    +

     

    + +
    + + + + +

    11.3 PHYSICAL DESIGN OF THE CHARACTERS

    +
    +

    The physical form of the characters in the script is based + on two different types of written strokes: straight “bar”-like elements, + and pointed sickle-like “hooks.” These bars and hooks are joined + to one another in a variety of angular “offset” connections. While + there can be a number of different bar-like elements comprising a given character, + only one arc or hook can occur in a character. These bars and hooks can be easily + discerned in the sample of Ithkuil writing shown here.

    +
    +
    +
    +


    +

    +
    +

    11.3.1 Character Archetypes and Derivation

    +

    The four primary character archetypes of the Ithkuil script + are as follows: ___ +

    +

    These can then be turned upside down, combine with each other, + and have their lines bent at angles to generate additional secondary archetypes:

    + +
    +

    +
    +

    From these archetypes, the thousands of remaining characters + are derived. Examples of some of the various patterns of derivation are shown + in the chart below:

    +
    +


    +

    +
    +

    11.3.2 Direction Of Writing

    +

    Up to this point example phrases and sentences in this work + have shown the script written in what appears as a familiar left-to-right horizontal + style. However, such a format is used only for brief autonomous phrases or sentences + which take up a single line. Similarly, the individual Ithkuil characters themselves + are normally written in this horizontal fashion when listed by themselves as + in the various tables throughout this chapter.

    + + + + + +
    For passages taking up more + than one line, as in general narrative passages or “paragraphs,” + the script is normally written in a vertical boustrophedon fashion + (Greek for “as the ox plows”); specifically, it is written + in vertical columns starting at the upper left of a page, with the first + column being written top-to-bottom and each character oriented sideways + and opening downward, then reversing direction in the second column and + being written bottom-to-top with each character facing or opening upward. + Each line continues this “zig-zag” approach from the left + side of the page to the right, every other line running one direction + as opposed to the preceding and following lines. This is illustrated by + analogy with Roman letters to the left and can be seen in the sample of + an Ithkuil passage below.
    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    +
    		 

    TRANSLITERATION:
    +
    +
    + _Listen! + +
    +

    +

    TRANSLATION:
    + As our vehicle leaves the ground and plunges over the edge of the cliff + toward the valley floor, I ponder whether it is possible that one might + allege I am guilty of an act of moral failure, having failed to maintain + a proper course along the roadway.

    + +

     

    + + + + +

    11.4 HOW THE SCRIPT OPERATES

    +

    As previously stated, writing Ithkuil requires a knowledge + of both the morpho-phonological and morpho-syntactical rules of the language. + Recall that Ithkuil has two parts of speech: formatives and adjuncts. The rules + for writing formatives are separate from the rules for writing adjuncts. We + will first examine the rules for writing formatives.
    +

    +

    11.4.1 Writing Formatives

    +

    As described in Chapter + 2, formatives derive morphologically from a stem of the form C1ViC2, + where C1 is one of 60 consonantal radicals, + C2 is one of 60 consonantal radicals, + and Vi is a vocalic infix determined + by the Form, Pattern and Stem. Specifically each abstract semantic root generates + three Stems within two Modes, and each Stem in turn has two Forms and three + Patterns. For convenience, the following table, originally shown in Sec. + 2.2.3 is repeated here to illustrate these relationships.

    +

    Table 35: + Vocalic Infixes for Stems by Mode, Pattern & Form

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Primary + Mode
    Secondary + Mode
    Pattern + 1
    Pattern + 2
    Pattern + 3
    Pattern + 1
    Pattern + 2
    Pattern + 3
    Form + I
    stem + 1
    a
    e
    ä
    aî
    eì
    aì
    stem + 2
    u
    o
    ö
    uî
    oi
    uì
    stem + 3
    i
    ë
    ü
    eî
    oì
    ëì
    Form + II
    stem + 1
    â
    ê
    ae
    aû
    aè
    aù
    stem + 2
    û
    ô
    ø
    oû
    où
    ëù
    stem + 3
    î
    ÿ
    iu
    eû
    eù
    iù
    +

    As shown in the above table and described in detail in Chapter + 2, it is the vocalic infix of a formative, not the consonantal radicals + that convey and differentiate the morphological components of Mode, Pattern, + Form and Stem. However, the Ithkuil script does not overtly represent symbols + for this vocalic infix. An Ithkuil formative (not including suffixes) is represented + by three characters: an initial vowel character whose phonological component + represents the initial Affiliation/Extension prefix (see Sec. + 3.4), plus characters representing the C1 and C2 + characters. Therefore it is these three characters which, in addition to their + phonological component, must convey the above-named morphological components, + additional morphological components of Focus and Conflation, as well as additional + phonological information such as tone and stress. The following paragraphs describe + how the Ithkuil script accomplishes these tasks.

    +


    + 11.4.1.1 Representing C1 + Consonantal Radicals. Distinct written symbols exist for each of the + 60 C1 consonantal radicals. Just as each C1 + radical can mutate into one of eight other forms for a total of nine mutational + grades (see Sec 2.4), so these + 60 written characters can be mutated into eight other characters, each corresponding + to the nine mutational grades. This is illustrated below for the C1 + radical .

    +

    Standard Forms
    +

    +

    Additionally, each C1 symbol pattern + has an alternate pattern, used under certain morphological circumstances described + later. The alternate pattern for the C1 radical + + is illustrated below.

    +

    Alternate Forms
    +

    +

    Note the similarity of these alternate forms to the standard + forms. In the case of the C1 radical , + the alternate pattern is shown by a mere point-like extension at the base of + each character while the rest of the pattern remains identical. For all consonantal + characters, the nine grades of mutation are differentiated by variations in + the top “half” of the character, while alternate versions of characters + are shown in the bottom half of the character. For example, compare the standard + and alternate forms of + above with those of the C1 radical k + below.

    +

    Standard Forms
    +

    +

    Alternate Forms
    +

    +

    For formatives, one of these 120 symbols (the 60 C1 + radicals and their alternates) or their eight grades of variants will always + constitute either the first or second symbol of a word. For those formatives + where it is the second symbol, the first symbol will always be a vowel character. + Vowel characters are distinguished from consonantal characters because the former + always contain a sickle-like “hook” element while consonant characters + do not. Consequently, it is always possible to tell which is the C1 + symbol of a formative.

    +

    11.4.1.2 Representing C2 Consonantal + Radicals. As for symbols denoting the C2 consonantal + radical, they are the same 60 symbols (plus alternates and eight grades of variants) + used to represent C1 forms, however they do not necessarily + represent the same phonemic values as when used for C1 + forms. If we compare Tables 6 and 7 in Section + 2.4 we see that of the 60 C2 radicals in Grade 1, + only 24 of them can also be C1 radicals, and even these + 24 mutate in a completely different manner than their C1 + counterparts. In other words, the same written symbol often represents completely + different consonantal forms, depending on whether it is being used to represent + a C1 radical or a C2 radical. Thus, + for example, the written symbol for k + in Grade 4 will be interpreted as + if representing a C1 radical, but must be interpreted + as sk if representing + a C2 radical.

    +

    So how is the reader supposed to know if it is a C1 + versus C2 radical being represented? By the position of + the symbol in the word, i.e., whether it is the first consonantal symbol in + the word (indicating it is C1) or whether it is the second + consonantal symbol in the word (indicating it is C2). + The second consonantal symbol in a formative will always represent one of the + nine grades of a C2 consonantal radical. Let us illustrate + this principle by examples.

    + +
    +

    +
    +

    Note how it is mere position within the word that distinguishes + the interpretation to be given to what are otherwise identical written symbols, + allowing six phonologically different radicals to be represented by only three + different symbols. In this manner, Ithkuil can make do with symbols for C1 + radicals without requiring separate symbols for C2 radicals.

    +

    As for those C2 radicals in Grade 1 that + do not correspond to any C1 radicals in Grade 1 (i.e., + b, d, , + g, , + j, v, ), + Ithkuil represents these using C1 symbols as well. They + simply have completely different phonological values than for their usage as + C1 symbols. As an example, the C1 + symbol for šp + becomes the symbol for r + when representing a C2 radical. Again, it is mere position + in the word that clues the reader into interpreting the symbol as a C2 + radical, rather than C1.

    +

    11.4.1.3 Representing Pattern and Stem. The + three Stems and three Patterns associated with each root are shown by a specific + pattern of diacritic dots on the two radical consonants of the stem. This diacritic + pattern is distinguished both by the selection of which consonantal radical + is marked, as well as whether the diacritic is placed below the character or + alongside. This is illustrated in the table below.

    +

    Table 36: Diacritic Markings + for Displaying Pattern and Stem
    +

    +

     

    +

    11.4.1.4 Representing Stress. The four stress + patterns (see Sec. 1.3.3) are shown + by the four-way alternation between standard versus alternate forms of the two + consonant radicals, as previously described and illustrated in Sec. + 11.4.1.1. Therefore, if we represent the standard forms of the C1 + and C2 radicals as S and alternate forms + as A, and the initial vowel character as V, + the representation of the four stress patterns using the C1/C2 + sequence of characters is as follows:

    +


    + Table 37: Pattern of Character Alternations Indicating Stress
    +
    +

    +

    11.4.1.5 Representing Vowels, Mode, and Form. + As we have seen elsewhere, the value of any vowel in an Ithkuil formative is + completely predictable based on the morphology of the formative itself, with + the exception of the vocalic prefixes used to show Affiliation, Extension and + Conflation (see Secs. + 3.2, 3.4 and + 5.4.1 respectively). Therefore, + it is unnecessary to represent vowels in a Ithkuil written word except for a + character representing the vocalic prefix which also conveys the additional + morphological information necessary to determine the vowels to be infixed elsewhere + within the stem. Consequently, a written Ithkuil formative will contain only + one symbol representing a vowel, and this symbol will indicate the vocalic prefix + (if any), as well as the Mode, the Form, the vocalic mutation series, and tone + of the word. The details of how this vowel symbol conveys this information is + described in the paragraphs below.

    +

    There are 24 possible vocalic prefixes to Ithkuil formatives + which indicate Affiliation and Extension for nouns or for the first of the seven + conflations for verbs. Consequently there are 24 basic vowel characters whose + phonetic value corresponds to these prefixes. These 24 characters in turn have + an alternate form called the secondary used to indicate the secondary mode of + the stem (i.e., corresponding to REPRESENTATIVE essence + as per Secs. 2.2.3 and 3.8.1). + Both primary and secondary forms in turn have “hook-reversed” forms, + i.e., forms identical to the primary and secondary forms, but with the sickle-like + hook portion of the character curved in the opposite direction; these hook-reversed + forms are used to indicate Form II of the formative, corresponding to the FORMAL + designation as explained in Secs. + 2.2.3 and 3.7. + The alternate and hook-reversed forms added to the 24 primary vowel characters, + renders 96 characters. These 96 in turn have eight modifications to indicate + the nine mutational series of a stem’s vocalic infix (see Sec. + 2.5), resulting in 864 vowel characters. One of these 864 vowel symbols + will always be the first character of an Ithkuil written formative. The following + table illustrates an example of the basic vowel character ä + with its mutations, along with its alternate and hook-reversed forms. Note that, + like consonantal characters, the top half of the character carries the distinctions + between the nine degrees of mutation.

    +

    Primary Form
    +

    +

    Primary Form with + Reversed Hook
    +

    +

    Secondary Form
    +

    +

    Secondary Form with Reversed + Hook
    +

    +


    +
    +     11.4.1.6 Representing Tone. + The four functional tones are indicated by patterns of diacritic dots written + in conjunction with the word-initial vocalic symbol as shown below.

    +

    Table 38: + Tone Diacritics
    +

    +


    + 11.4.1.7 Representing Conflation. Conflation is one of the + three morphological categories shown by the initial vocalic prefix to a verbal + formative, the other two being Affiliation and Extension. We have already seen + that the 24 Affiliation/Extension prefixes associated with nouns and the first + Conflation of verbs (the OPERATIVE) is shown by 24 autonomous + characters. The remaining six conflations are shown by a pattern of diacritic + marks placed alongside the vocalic prefix and the two consonantal radical characters. + The diacritic itself is a wedge-shaped mark ( + ) which changes to a short bar ( + or ) if replacing + a diacritic dot (indicating Pattern, Stem or Tone) already present. The pattern + is as follows:

    +

    Table 39: Diacritic Markings + for Displaying Conflation
    +

    +

     

    +

    11.4.1.8 Representing Affixes. Although every + affix to a formative generally has both a prefix and a suffix form, only the + suffix form is represented in the Ithkuil writing system, i.e., any consonantal + prefix to a formative in the spoken language appears as a suffix in the written + language. As detailed in Chapter 7, + the suffix consists of a consonant preceded by a vowel determined by one of + three affix-types and one of nine degrees. In writing, the 60 C1/C2 + characters are used to represent these affixes, each with its own independent + consonantal value when used as an affix. In other words, the phonemic value + associated with these 60 symbols when written as a suffix is independent of + their value when written as a C1 or C2 + radical. As with C1 and C2 representations, + the reader’s clue to interpreting the symbol as an affix is by position + within the word; the suffix will always be the third (or more) consonantal symbol + in a word. Note that affixes which contain geminated (i.e., doubled) consonants + (e.g., mm, + ss, + tt, + etc.) are shown by the character corresponding to their ungeminated form plus + an additional underposed dot, e.g., n nn + + .

    +

    Affix Degree. The nine affixual degrees associated + with a given consonantal affix category are represented by the same character + mutations used to show the nine grades of C1/C2 + mutation.

    +

    Affix-Type. Affixes containing Type-1 vocalic + infixes are unmarked. Affixes having Type-2 vocalic infixes are marked with + a diacritic dot alongside the letter. Affixes having Type-3 vocalic infixes + are marked with the wedge-shaped diacritic mark alongside the character (the + same mark used with C1/C2 radical + characters to show conflation). If a Type-3 affix character is geminated, this + gemination may be shown by modifying the wedge-diacritic to a short bar (as + explained above for Conflation) and deleting the underposed dot usually used + for gemination.

    +

    11.4.1.9 Representing Focus. POSITIVE + focus is shown by placing a special diacritic, an underposed vertical bar + under any available character in the word.

    +

    11.4.1.10 Representing Illocution. In Sec. + 5.1 we saw that Ithkuil indicates the morphological category of Illocution + primarily by a consonantal infix between the word-initial vocalic prefix and + the C1 consonantal radical. However, in Sec. 7.7.13 we + saw an alternative method of conveying Illocution using the ILL + suffix -V2, + used when the infixed form is not phonologically permissible. Generally, the + Ithkuil script conveys only the suffixed form. An exception is made however, + for the DIRECTIVE illocution, for which an optional “shortcut” + notation exists, consisting of placing a special diacritic, a horizontal bar + + under the C1 character.

    +


    + 11.4.2 Writing Adjuncts

    +

    The rules for writing aspectual adjuncts and personal reference + adjuncts in Ithkuil script are distinct from writing formatives, employing a + different type of written symbol, specifically “composite” characters + made up of three separate character elements. Note that other adjuncts such + as combination adjuncts and affixual adjuncts are not represented autonomously + in the Ithkuil writing system, as these adjuncts exist purely for euphonic and + phonotactical considerations which are either optional, or where not optional, + predictable. Since combination and affixual adjuncts are alternative formats + for more standard morpho-phonological representations of these categories, they + are always represented in their standard formatting when written, regardless + of how they are interpreted in the spoken language.

    +

    11.4.2.1 Aspectual Adjuncts. These take the + written form of VP(Cb)CX, + where the first VP + represents the word-initial vocalic prefix indicating aspect, Cb + represents a Bias suffix from Sec. + 6.6.1 represented by a C1/C2 + character carrying its C1 phonological value (with the + glottal stop portion of the bias suffix is not represented), and the final CX + represents a specialized composite character explained below. Stress and tone + (indicating Mood) are shown by a specialized diacritic explained later below. + VP + utilizes primary vowel forms in both standard and hook-reversed forms, depending + on the specific phonological value of the vowel or diphthong. Any second aspect + shown in the adjunct is indicated by the VP + character as well, by means of its various mutations and secondary forms, as + follows: Series 2 through 9 of the primary character represent additional aspects + 1 through 8 as shown in Table + 19 of Sec. 6.4.1; Series 2 through 9 of the secondary form of the character + indicate additional aspects 9 through 16; Series 2 through 9 of the primary + character plus an underposed dot indicate additional aspect 17 through 24; Series + 2 through 9 of the secondary form of the character plus underposed dot indicate + additional aspects 25-32.

    +

    As detailed in Chapter 6, the CX + consonantal infix of an aspectual adjunct synthetically represents the three + morphological categories of Validation, Phase, and Sanction. Each of these categories + contain nine possible values for a total of 93 combinations, i.e., 789 possible + infixes. Rather than create 789 autonomous symbols to represent CX, + Ithkuil utilizes 27 character components (nine representing Validation, nine + representing Phase, nine representing Sanction) which are then combined into + one tripartite composite character. The general physical structure of this composite + character is as follows:

    +

    +

    +

    These twenty-seven component elements are shown below along + with three example composite characters, .
    +
    +
    + Tables 40, 41 and 42: Components + for Written Validation-Phase-Sanction Symbols
    +
    +

    +


    + Stress and tone on an aspectual adjunct, indicating Mood, are shown by varied + patterns of diacritic dots on the tripartite composite character, as per the + following examples using the composite character .

    +

    Table 43: + Mood Diacritics
    +
    +

    +

    11.4.2.2 Personal Reference Adjuncts. As described + in Sec. 8.1, these + are of two types: single-referent and dual-referent. Single-referent adjuncts + have both a short form and a long form. The form of dual-referent adjuncts is + identical to the long form of the single-referent adjunct, with the addition + of suffixed elements. When representing these adjuncts in writing, it is always + the long form of the adjunct that is represented, regardless of whether the + speaker chooses to pronounce it as the short form. The morphological elements + of this long form are represented by the following combined formula, whose elements + are described in the list below:

    + +
    +

    (+)++(VB+Cw(+Ve + (+Cb)))

    +
    +

    + = optional vocalic prefix indicating the Configuration, Affiliation, Designation, + Focus and Essence of Referent 1, the values of which are given in Table + 25 from Sec. 8.1.2 and Table + 28 in Sec. 8.1.3.
    + + = the single or dual personal-referent consonantal infix from Sec. + 8.1.3, Table 30.
    + + = the vocalic case infix for Referent 1, as described in Section + 8.1.2 and whose values are summarized in Table 24 in that Section.
    + VB + = a vocalic infix indicating either the Designation and Context of Referent + 2 (labeled + in Sec. 8.1.3) + in a dual-referent adjunct, OR a vocalic + suffix indicating the Context of Referent 1 in a single-referent adjunct (labeled + + in Sec. 8.1.2), + OR the degree and affix-type of a formative + suffix in a single-referent adjunct (labeled + in Sec. 8.1.2). +
    + Cw + = a consonantal form representing either the consonantal case infix and Affiliation + for Referent 2 (described as + in Section 8.1.3 with values given in Table + 31) in a dual-referent adjunct, OR + the consonantal formative suffix of a Form 3 single-referent adjunct as described + in Sec. 8.1.2 and + labeled .
    + Ve + = a vocalic affix either showing the Context for Referent 1 in a single-referent + adjunct (labelled + in Sec. 8.1.2) + or showing Affiliation for Referent 2 in a dual-referent adjunct (labelled + in Sec. 8.1.3).
    + Cb + = one of the 48 consonantal Bias affixes from Table 20 in Sec. + 6.6.1.

    +

    The above combined formula, when represented in Ithkuil script, + is written as ()(Cw(Cb)), + where each character is written as follows:

    +

    + utilizes the characters for a, e, u + and i used with formatives depending on which of the four affiliations + is required, the nine mutations of each being used to show Configuration and; + for FORMAL designation, the hook-reversed forms of the + four vowel characters are used; for INFORMAL designation + plus POSITIVE focus, the characters for â, + ê, û and î + are used, their hook-reversed forms indicating FORMAL + designation. For REPRESENTATIVE essence, the above patterns + are used but with the vowel character in its secondary form.

    +

    + utilizes the 60 C1/C2 consonantal + characters (in all nine degrees) interpreted as having their C1 + phonological value for each degree (e.g., the + value -xt-, + equivalent to x+ç, + would be written using the 5th degree mutation of the C1 + character for kt, + whose value is xt).

    +

    Before discussing the + + VB + character, we will discuss the representation of Cw, + Ve + and Cb.

    +

    The Cw + character utilizes the 60 C1/C2 + consonantal characters but interpreted as having their C2 + phonological value, unless the alternate form of the character is used, in which + case it has its C1 phonological value. The nine mutations + of which are used to represent either the Configuration of Referent 2, or the + affix-type of the formative suffix + (using mutations 1, 2, and 3). Note that if + is a glottal stop it is represented by an underposed dot to the + character rather than by a Cw + character.

    +

    Ve + is shown via the Cw + character, as follows: C = + a, C + = u, C + = â, C + = û.

    +

    Cb + is shown via the 60 C1/C2 characters, + interpreted as having their C1 phonological value

    +

    Stress is shown via the + character as follows: penultimate stress is unmarked; ultimate stress is shown + by employing the alternate form of the + character; antepenultimate stress is indicated by an underposed dot; preantepenultimate + stress by a combination of alternate form of the character and an underposed + dot.

    +

    Tone is indicated in the written personal reference adjunct + by means of the diacritic pattern from Sec. 11.4.1.6 + above, applied to the initial + character; in the absence of a + character, tone is indicated on the + character using the following diacritics: C + = falling, + C + = high, + C + = rising, + C + = broken.

    +

    + + VB + is represented by a specialized vocalic character used only in personal reference + adjuncts. It consists of an upper and lower set of symbols which are essentially + a counting system indicating one of the 81 cases (see Chapter + 4). The two sets of symbols are bifurcated by one of nine horizontal bar-like + elements which represent VB + (NOTE: when VB + represents Vz + from Sec. 8.1.2, + only the first four of the nine bar elements are used). These symbols are shown + below along with a diagram showing the composition of three example + + VB + characters, respectively Case 1 with VB + =1, Case 23 with VB + = 5, and Case 50 with VB + = 8.

    +

    Tables 44, + 45 and 46: Components of Specialized Personal Reference Adjunct Symbols
    +

    +

    +

    11.4.2.3 Valence/Version/Conflation Adjuncts. + These are written per the formula (Vm)(CN)CV + where Vm + is the vocalic modality suffix from Sec. + 5.5, CN + is the consonantal derivation prefix from Sec. + 5.4.3, and CV + is a specialized character indicating both valence and version as per the table + below. Vm + is written using standard primary vowel characters; the use of secondary forms + indicates positive focus; the four tones indicated by series A through D mutational + forms. CN + is written using the 60 C1/C2 characters + with their C1 phonological value. In the absence of a + Vm + character, POSITIVE focus is shown using the alternate + form of the CN + character, while tone is shown by the first four mutational grades of the CN + character. Also, the CN + character may take an underposed bar diacritic ( + ) in the absence of Vm + in order to disambiguate it as being the suffix of a preceding formative. In + the absence of both a Vm + and CN + character, marked tone and focus can be shown using a placeholder Vm + character, the symbol for the ae + diphthong which otherwise does not occur with such adjuncts.

    +

    Table 47: + Valence + Version Characters
    +

    +

    Format (Sec. + 5.4.2) is shown via diacritics to the above valence/version character, as + follows:

    +

    Table 48: + Format Diacritics
    +
    +

    +

    11.4.3 Word Boundaries, Punctuation and Foreign Transliteration

    +

    Because all formatives begin with a vowel symbol, and all written + adjuncts contain a specialized character, it is always possible to determine + where new words begin in a line of Ithkuil writing, obviating the need for a + blank space or other boundary between words. In turn, a blank space functions + to indicate a sentence boundary. And because Ithkuil morphology already indicates + within words themselves various attitudes, moods, and other information which + are normally indicated supra-segmentally in Western languages (e.g., by tone + or inflection of the voice, hyper-enunciation, etc.), symbols such as exclamation + points and question marks are likewise unnecessary. The only “punctuation” + symbols used are to show quotations of direct speech and phonetic transliteration + (as when spelling non-Ithkuil words and names). These two sets of symbols are + shown below. Note that the quotation marks are used only to indicate direct + speech; they are not used as in English to offset a word for emphasis or special + usage. The phonetic rendering marks indicate the word or phrase between the + marks is to be pronounced phonetically (i.e., alphabetically). When writing + alphabetically, consonantal characters carry their C1 + phonetic value; C2 phonetic values are shown by an underposed + dot. The secondary form of vowels are used to indicate the stressed syllable. + If desired, tone may be indicated on vowels using the same diacritic markings + as shown in Sec. 11.4.1.6 above.

    +
    +

    + [insert quote here]

    +

    + [word to be pronounced alphabetically]

    +
    + +

     

    + + + + +

    11.5 CHARACTER LISTS

    +

    The following tables detail the characters of the Ithkuil script + along with the various phonemic values assigned to the symbol depending on the + character’s function within the word. The specific usages of the various + sets of vowels, their secondary forms, their hook-reversed forms, and the primary + versus secondary forms of consonant characters have been previously explained + above in Section 11.4.1 and its various sub-sections.
    +
    + Table 49: SET 1 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
    +

    +

    Table 50: SET 1 SECONDARY + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 51: SET 1 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 52: SET 1 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 53: SET 2 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
    +

    +

    Table 54: SET 2 SECONDARY + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 55: SET 2 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 56: SET 2 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 57: SET 3 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
    +

    +

    Table 58: SET 3 SECONDARY + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 59: SET 3 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 60: SET 3 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 61: SET 4 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
    +

    +

    Table 62: SET 4 SECONDARY + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 63: SET 4 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
    +

    +

    Table 64: SET 4 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
    +

    +

     

    +

    Table 65: PRIMARY CONSONANT + SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +


    + Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +
    +

    +

    Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

     

    +

    Table 66: ALTERNATE CONSONANT + SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

    Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
    +

    +

     

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 12: The Number System >>
    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a83d599 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm @@ -0,0 +1,558 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 12: The Number System + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 12: The Number System

    + +

    The Ithkuil system of numbers and counting is distinct from + Western languages in two fundamental ways: it is centesimal (base one hundred) + as opposed to decimal (base ten), and the numbers themselves are full formatives + (i.e., nouns and verbs), not adjectives. This has already been discussed briefly + in Section 4.5.7 regarding + the PARTITIVE case. This section will examine the numerical + system in greater detail.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    12.1 FEATURES OF A CENTESIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

    +
    +

    Being a centesimal system of enumeration, the numbers from + zero to 100 are considered autonomous units represented by single stems and + written using single autonomous symbols. Beginning with the number 101, numbers + are referred to by the number of hundreds plus the number of units, just as + a decimal system, beginning with the number 11, refers to the number of tens + plus the number of units. However, where a decimal system then shifts to a unit + referring to 100 once “10 tens” is reached, a centesimal system + proceeds to the number 10,000 before establishing a new unit reference (i.e., + “100 hundreds”). Thus the number 3254, which in a decimal system + is 3 thousands — 2 hundreds — 5 tens — 4 ones, in a centesimal + system becomes 32 hundreds—54 ones, and would be only two digits when + written (the single character representing 32, and the single character representing + 54). The details of writing Ithkuil numerals are given below in Section 12.5.

    +

    After 100, separate unit numbers and symbols are assigned to + the square of 100 (i.e. ten thousand, that being “100 hundreds”), + then the square of that number, + (100 million, i.e., 10,000 ten-thousands). The final unit is , + that is, 10 quadrillion or 100 million hundred-millions, the last number for + which Ithkuil assigns a separate root and symbol. After ten quadrillion, numbers + are referred to as multiples of lower sets, similar to saying in English “one + trillion quadrillion” instead of the equivalent “one octillion.”

    +

    While the above may seem unwieldy or even arbitrary, it actually + parallels Western base-ten numerals in terms of its systematization. For example, + in a Western number like 456,321,777,123, each set of three numbers between + the commas tells how many hundreds there are of a certain power of 1000 (i.e., + there are 123 of_, + 777 of_, + 321 of_, + and 456 of_, + or in more common terms 123 ones, 777 thousands, 321 millions, 456 billions).

    +

    The same exact system holds for Ithkuil, except that the sets + of numbers “between the commas” so to speak, is the number of ten-thousands, + not thousands. Thus, if we were to rewrite the Western number 456,321,777,123 + in such a system, it would be 4563,2177,7123 (i.e., 7123 of_, + 2177 of_, + and 4563 of_, + that being 7123 ones, 2177 ten-thousands, and 4563 hundred-millions).

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    12.2 SEMANTIC DESIGNATIONS FOR NUMERICAL STEMS

    +
    +

    The semantic roots for numbers in Ithkuil from 1 to 99 are + based on roots for 1 through 10, to which the nine degrees of the affix -V1t’ + are added. Each of the nine degrees of this suffix, when applied to one of the + ten number-roots, corresponds to an additional multiple of ten. This is illustrated + in Table 67 below.
    +

    +

    Table 67: + The + Affix with Numerals

    +

    +

    The addition of a particular degree of this affix to one of + the ten indicates that the root number is added to that multiple of ten. For + example, the stem kas + ‘two,’ plus the seventh degree affix -V1t’/7, + gives kast’ï + ‘seventy-two.’ Because there is no root corresponding to ‘zero’ + (see Sec. 12.3 below), each multiple of ten is constructed using stem mas + ‘ten’ plus one of the above suffixes. Thus, the numbers 20, 30 and + 40 are respectively mast’, + mast’u + and mast’ai, + but the numbers 22, 32 and 42 are kast’u, + kast’ai + and kast’ei. + This pattern only operates up to the nineties, as there is a separate autonomous + root for 100, r-s.

    +

    Since numbers are formatives in Ithkuil, not adjectives as + in most Western languages, holistic stem No. 1, shown by the vocalic infix -a-, + is a formative signifying a set containing a number of members corresponding + to that particular root. Thus, the formative kas + above, translatable as ‘two,’ actually means ‘a set of two; + a duo / to be a duo.’ In turn, the two complementary derivatives of each + stem denote its multiple and its fraction respectively. This is illustrated + below for both Form I and II using the roots k-s, + TWO, and n-s, + meaning SEVEN:

    +

    For k-s, + TWO:

    +

    1. kas/kâs + ‘a set of two, a duo; to be two in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + kes/kês: + ‘twice the number of something; to double, to multiply by two’
    + käs/kaes: + ‘a half; to halve, to be or make half, to divide by or in two’

    +
    +

    2. kus/kûs + ‘to be or make dual; having two uses or aspects; bi-; twofold’ +

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + kos/kôs: + ‘two times (i.e., iterations), twice; to be/do/make twice’
    + kös/køs: + ‘to be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)’

    +
    +

    3. kis/kîs + ‘the second one in a sequence; to be or make second (in a sequence)’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + kës/kÿs: + ‘to the second power, squared; to square, raise to the 2nd power’
    + küs/kius: + ‘to the negative second power, the inverse square; to divide by + the square of’

    +
    +

    For n-s, + SEVEN:

    +

    1. nas/nâs + ‘a set/group of seven, a septet; to be seven in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + nes/nês: + ‘7 times the number of something; to multiply by 7; septuple’
    + näs/naes: + ‘a seventh; to be or make a 7th part of something, to divide by + 7 or into 7 parts’

    +
    +

    2. nus/nûs + ‘to be or make seven-faceted; having 7 uses or aspects; septi-; sevenfold’ +

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + nos/nôs: + ‘7 times (i.e., iterations); to be/do/make 7 times’
    + nös/nøs: + ‘to be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts’

    +
    +

    3. nis/nîs + ‘the seventh one in a sequence; to be or make 7th (in a sequence)’ +

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + nës/nÿs: + ‘to the 7th power; to raise to the 7th power’
    + nüs/nius: + ‘to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of’ +

    +
    +

    In addition to the above-described roots, there is the root + l-s, ONE/UNITY. + As this root has no multiples, its semantic designations follow a unique pattern. + NOTE: The INFORMAL versus FORMAL + distinction in this root (i.e., Form I versus Form II of each stem) distinguishes + between a focus on non-duplication/singularity for the INFORMAL, + and indivisibility/unity for the FORMAL:

    +

    1. las/lâs + ‘a single entity; to be one in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + les/lês: + ‘to be indivisible, whole, a single unit; unitary; to unify’
    + läs/laes: + ‘to be (an) individual, a distinct entity in itself; to individualize’

    +
    +

    2. lus/lûs + ‘a lone entity, something alone; an entity in solitude, something/someone + isolated; be alone; to isolate; be in solitude’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + los/lôs: + ‘something/someone lonely; be or make lonely’
    + lös/løs: + ‘something/someone independent, self-sufficient, singular (i.e., + without need of, connection to, or dependency on others); be or make independent, + self-sufficient, singular’

    +
    +

    3. lis/lîs + ‘something/someone unique, the only one; to be or make unique’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + lës/lÿs: + ‘a sole entity, the only one available or able (in terms of sufficiency + or applicability to the context)’
    + lüs/lius: + ‘something/someone one-of-a-kind, unparalleled, without equal or + peer (in terms of uniqueness of characteristics)’

    +
    +


    + The Ithkuil numerical roots as described in the section above are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    l-s
    k-s
    š-s
    p-s
    -s
    t-s
    n-s
    x-s
    + f-s
    m-s
    one
    two
    three
    four
    five
    six
    seven
    eight
    nine
    ten
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    r-s
    q-s
    ç-s
    c-s
    one hundred
    ten thousand
    one hundred million
    ten quadrillion
    + +

     

    + + + + +

    12.3 EXPRESSING “ZERO”

    +

    Ithkuil has no word for “zero” nor is it conceptualized + as a numerical category. Instead any appropriate formative may take the affixes + -V1ss/1 or -V2ss/1 ‘no amount of’ or -V3b/1 ‘no…at + all’ in terms of degree or extent to create negative expressions + that convey the idea of an absence of a numerical entity or quantity. In many + cases, simply the negative of whatever formative is under discussion may be + used.

    +

    As for handling the concept of zero as a null placeholder when + writing Ithkuil numbers, this is addressed in Section 12.4 below.

    + +

     

    + + + + +

    12.4 WRITING NUMERALS

    +

    Writing Ithkuil numerals is somewhat similar to writing numbers + in Western languages (i.e., “Arabic” numerals), in that the interpretation + of a number as a different power of 100 (analogous to interpreting single Arabic + numerals as either ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.) is based on its sequence + within the entire number. However, there are two aspects of writing Ithkuil + numbers that are quite different from Arabic numbers.:

    +
      +
    1. +
      Ithkuil does not employ a symbol for zero. Instead, Ithkuil + employs separate autonomous symbols for each power of 100 (100, 10,000, + 100 million, etc.) each of which operates as the appropriate placeholder + instead of zero. To illustrate what this means by analogy, pretend that + “@” is an autonomous symbol for 27 (since Ithkuil numbers from + 1 to 99 each have a separate symbol), “&” is a symbol for + 100, “#” is a symbol for 10,000 and there is no symbol 0 (zero). + The numbers 2700, 2705, 327, 22700 and 4,270,027 would then be written @&, + @5, 3@, 2@&, and 4@#@ respectively. (NOTE: In actual practice, numbers + which contain the “hundred” symbol, here represented as “&,” + normally place a dot above or below the adjacent numeral and dispense with + the &, indicating that the number so marked is to be multiplied by 100. + Thus, 2@& would actually be written as , + while ‘one million’ can be written as + instead of writing &#.
      +
      +
      2. +
    2. +
      Since Ithkuil is a base-100 system, numbers do not become + two digits in length until the hundreds, do not become three digits in length + until the ten thousands, do not become four digits in length until the millions, + etc.
      +
      3. +
    +

     

    +

    One must also remember that in terms of left-to-right or up-and-down + orientation, numbers follow the boustrophedon mode the same as the + Ithkuil script (see Sec. 11.3.2). + Similarly to Western languages, small non-compound numbers can be written using + either their numerical symbols or written out in script (as in English “12” + versus “twelve”).

    +

    The following table gives the Ithkuil numerical symbols along + with their morphological stems:
    +
    + Table 68: ITHKUIL NUMERICAL + STEMS AND WRITTEN SYMBOLS
    +
    +
    +
    +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    12.5 USING NUMBERS IN SPEECH

    +

    Spoken numbers are formed from the above stems using both the + PARTITIVE and COMITATIVE cases, + as well as using the coordinative affix -V1w/1 + (= -iw or + -wai). The + number of largest base units is shown by placing the base-unit term in the PARTITIVE. + If this is then followed by another collection of smaller base units, that number + of smaller base units is connected using the COMITATIVE + case while the smaller base-unit term is again in the PARTITIVE. + Single units (from 1 to 99) are connected by the coordinative affix when they + are part of the number of hundreds or higher base-units.

    +

    It should be noted that when pronouncing numbers greater than + 199, it is normal in Ithkuil to omit the word ra’wirs + (= the PARTITIVE of ras + ‘one hundred’) referring to the number of hundreds. This is equivalent + to the custom in colloquial English of saying ‘three twelve’ for + ‘three hundred (and) twelve.’ The difference is that in Ithkuil, + this omission of the word for ‘hundred’ is the preferred option, + the word ra’wirs being used only in larger numbers for clarity’s + sake.

    +

    These principles are illustrated by the following examples:

    +


    + literally: “42 (of hundreds) 29”
    + 4229
    +

    +


    + literally: “26 of ten-thousands with 97 (of hundreds) 66” = 26,9766
    + 269,766
    +     Listen! +

    +

    +


    + literally: “21 of hundred of ten-thousands”
    + 21,000,000
    + [NOTE: ra’wirs is required in this example]

    +


    +
    + literally:
    + “72 of hundreds and 79 of hundred-millions with 3 of hundreds and 53 of + ten-thousands with 34 of hundreds 60”
    + 727,903,533,460

    +


    + We have already seen that when numbers are used to indicate how many of a certain + noun there are, the noun must appear in the PARTITIVE + case, since the number itself is functioning as the “head” of the + numerical expression (e.g., English “12 boxes” being constructed + in Ithkuil as a “12-set of a box” or perhaps more appropriately + a “box-dozen”). Another syntactical consequences of numbers being + full formatives is when a number functions as a label or overt identifier, as + in the English sentence You’ll find him in Room 216. Such usage + of numbers is not primarily sequential (which would involve the equivalent of + “ordinal” numbers such as ‘fourth,’ ‘twenty-sixth’, + etc. equivalent to stem No. 3 of each number root) but rather organizational + (e.g., as in the three-dimensional array of room numbers in a hotel). Ithkuil + handles such organizational labeling using either the CONTRASTIVE + case (see Sec. 4.5.6) or + the ESSIVE case (see Sec. + 4.6.1) depending respectively on whether the enumeration of the noun in + question is to distinguish it from other enumerated nouns versus merely identifying + the noun by a numerical name. Examples:

    +


    +
    + ‘the room marked “12”’ OR + ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room + No. 12’ [i.e., as distinguished from the other numbered rooms]

    +


    +
    + ‘the room marked “12”’ OR + ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room + No. 12’ [identifying reference only]

    +


    + Lastly, when numbers comprising multiple number-stems are declined for case, + configuration, extension, etc., rather than writing out the entire number “long-hand,” + the number symbol is used, preceded by the carrier stem kir + (see Sec. 9.4) which carries the appropriate + declensions. This use of the carrier stem applies even to single-stemmed numbers + when writing, in order to allow use of the number symbol instead of writing + it out. In such cases involving single-stemmed numbers, the carrier stem is + not pronounced (rather, the numerical stem bears the pronounced declensions); + it is there only as a written indicator of the declensions to be applied to + the number stem. Thus, the above two examples could also be written as:

    +

    +

    _________________

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..460ca80 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,558 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 12: The Number System + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 12: The Number System

    + +

    The Ithkuil system of numbers and counting is distinct from + Western languages in two fundamental ways: it is centesimal (base one hundred) + as opposed to decimal (base ten), and the numbers themselves are full formatives + (i.e., nouns and verbs), not adjectives. This has already been discussed briefly + in Section 4.5.7 regarding + the PARTITIVE case. This section will examine the numerical + system in greater detail.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    12.1 FEATURES OF A CENTESIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

    +
    +

    Being a centesimal system of enumeration, the numbers from + zero to 100 are considered autonomous units represented by single stems and + written using single autonomous symbols. Beginning with the number 101, numbers + are referred to by the number of hundreds plus the number of units, just as + a decimal system, beginning with the number 11, refers to the number of tens + plus the number of units. However, where a decimal system then shifts to a unit + referring to 100 once “10 tens” is reached, a centesimal system + proceeds to the number 10,000 before establishing a new unit reference (i.e., + “100 hundreds”). Thus the number 3254, which in a decimal system + is 3 thousands — 2 hundreds — 5 tens — 4 ones, in a centesimal + system becomes 32 hundreds—54 ones, and would be only two digits when + written (the single character representing 32, and the single character representing + 54). The details of writing Ithkuil numerals are given below in Section 12.5.

    +

    After 100, separate unit numbers and symbols are assigned to + the square of 100 (i.e. ten thousand, that being “100 hundreds”), + then the square of that number, + (100 million, i.e., 10,000 ten-thousands). The final unit is , + that is, 10 quadrillion or 100 million hundred-millions, the last number for + which Ithkuil assigns a separate root and symbol. After ten quadrillion, numbers + are referred to as multiples of lower sets, similar to saying in English “one + trillion quadrillion” instead of the equivalent “one octillion.”

    +

    While the above may seem unwieldy or even arbitrary, it actually + parallels Western base-ten numerals in terms of its systematization. For example, + in a Western number like 456,321,777,123, each set of three numbers between + the commas tells how many hundreds there are of a certain power of 1000 (i.e., + there are 123 of_, + 777 of_, + 321 of_, + and 456 of_, + or in more common terms 123 ones, 777 thousands, 321 millions, 456 billions).

    +

    The same exact system holds for Ithkuil, except that the sets + of numbers “between the commas” so to speak, is the number of ten-thousands, + not thousands. Thus, if we were to rewrite the Western number 456,321,777,123 + in such a system, it would be 4563,2177,7123 (i.e., 7123 of_, + 2177 of_, + and 4563 of_, + that being 7123 ones, 2177 ten-thousands, and 4563 hundred-millions).

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    12.2 SEMANTIC DESIGNATIONS FOR NUMERICAL STEMS

    +
    +

    The semantic roots for numbers in Ithkuil from 1 to 99 are + based on roots for 1 through 10, to which the nine degrees of the affix -V1t’ + are added. Each of the nine degrees of this suffix, when applied to one of the + ten number-roots, corresponds to an additional multiple of ten. This is illustrated + in Table 67 below.
    +

    +

    Table 67: + The + Affix with Numerals

    +

    +

    The addition of a particular degree of this affix to one of + the ten indicates that the root number is added to that multiple of ten. For + example, the stem kas + ‘two,’ plus the seventh degree affix -V1t’/7, + gives kast’ï + ‘seventy-two.’ Because there is no root corresponding to ‘zero’ + (see Sec. 12.3 below), each multiple of ten is constructed using stem mas + ‘ten’ plus one of the above suffixes. Thus, the numbers 20, 30 and + 40 are respectively mast’, + mast’u + and mast’ai, + but the numbers 22, 32 and 42 are kast’u, + kast’ai + and kast’ei. + This pattern only operates up to the nineties, as there is a separate autonomous + root for 100, r-s.

    +

    Since numbers are formatives in Ithkuil, not adjectives as + in most Western languages, holistic stem No. 1, shown by the vocalic infix -a-, + is a formative signifying a set containing a number of members corresponding + to that particular root. Thus, the formative kas + above, translatable as ‘two,’ actually means ‘a set of two; + a duo / to be a duo.’ In turn, the two complementary derivatives of each + stem denote its multiple and its fraction respectively. This is illustrated + below for both Form I and II using the roots k-s, + TWO, and n-s, + meaning SEVEN:

    +

    For k-s, + TWO:

    +

    1. kas/kâs + ‘a set of two, a duo; to be two in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + kes/kês: + ‘twice the number of something; to double, to multiply by two’
    + käs/kaes: + ‘a half; to halve, to be or make half, to divide by or in two’

    +
    +

    2. kus/kûs + ‘to be or make dual; having two uses or aspects; bi-; twofold’ +

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + kos/kôs: + ‘two times (i.e., iterations), twice; to be/do/make twice’
    + kös/køs: + ‘to be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)’

    +
    +

    3. kis/kîs + ‘the second one in a sequence; to be or make second (in a sequence)’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + kës/kÿs: + ‘to the second power, squared; to square, raise to the 2nd power’
    + küs/kius: + ‘to the negative second power, the inverse square; to divide by + the square of’

    +
    +

    For n-s, + SEVEN:

    +

    1. nas/nâs + ‘a set/group of seven, a septet; to be seven in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + nes/nês: + ‘7 times the number of something; to multiply by 7; septuple’
    + näs/naes: + ‘a seventh; to be or make a 7th part of something, to divide by + 7 or into 7 parts’

    +
    +

    2. nus/nûs + ‘to be or make seven-faceted; having 7 uses or aspects; septi-; sevenfold’ +

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + nos/nôs: + ‘7 times (i.e., iterations); to be/do/make 7 times’
    + nös/nøs: + ‘to be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts’

    +
    +

    3. nis/nîs + ‘the seventh one in a sequence; to be or make 7th (in a sequence)’ +

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + nës/nÿs: + ‘to the 7th power; to raise to the 7th power’
    + nüs/nius: + ‘to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of’ +

    +
    +

    In addition to the above-described roots, there is the root + l-s, ONE/UNITY. + As this root has no multiples, its semantic designations follow a unique pattern. + NOTE: The INFORMAL versus FORMAL + distinction in this root (i.e., Form I versus Form II of each stem) distinguishes + between a focus on non-duplication/singularity for the INFORMAL, + and indivisibility/unity for the FORMAL:

    +

    1. las/lâs + ‘a single entity; to be one in number’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + les/lês: + ‘to be indivisible, whole, a single unit; unitary; to unify’
    + läs/laes: + ‘to be (an) individual, a distinct entity in itself; to individualize’

    +
    +

    2. lus/lûs + ‘a lone entity, something alone; an entity in solitude, something/someone + isolated; be alone; to isolate; be in solitude’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + los/lôs: + ‘something/someone lonely; be or make lonely’
    + lös/løs: + ‘something/someone independent, self-sufficient, singular (i.e., + without need of, connection to, or dependency on others); be or make independent, + self-sufficient, singular’

    +
    +

    3. lis/lîs + ‘something/someone unique, the only one; to be or make unique’

    +
    +

    COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
    + lës/lÿs: + ‘a sole entity, the only one available or able (in terms of sufficiency + or applicability to the context)’
    + lüs/lius: + ‘something/someone one-of-a-kind, unparalleled, without equal or + peer (in terms of uniqueness of characteristics)’

    +
    +


    + The Ithkuil numerical roots as described in the section above are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    l-s
    k-s
    š-s
    p-s
    -s
    t-s
    n-s
    x-s
    + f-s
    m-s
    one
    two
    three
    four
    five
    six
    seven
    eight
    nine
    ten
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    r-s
    q-s
    ç-s
    c-s
    one hundred
    ten thousand
    one hundred million
    ten quadrillion
    + +

     

    + + + + +

    12.3 EXPRESSING “ZERO”

    +

    Ithkuil has no word for “zero” nor is it conceptualized + as a numerical category. Instead any appropriate formative may take the affixes + -V1ss/1 or -V2ss/1 ‘no amount of’ or -V3b/1 ‘no…at + all’ in terms of degree or extent to create negative expressions + that convey the idea of an absence of a numerical entity or quantity. In many + cases, simply the negative of whatever formative is under discussion may be + used.

    +

    As for handling the concept of zero as a null placeholder when + writing Ithkuil numbers, this is addressed in Section 12.4 below.

    + +

     

    + + + + +

    12.4 WRITING NUMERALS

    +

    Writing Ithkuil numerals is somewhat similar to writing numbers + in Western languages (i.e., “Arabic” numerals), in that the interpretation + of a number as a different power of 100 (analogous to interpreting single Arabic + numerals as either ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.) is based on its sequence + within the entire number. However, there are two aspects of writing Ithkuil + numbers that are quite different from Arabic numbers.:

    +
      +
    1. +
      Ithkuil does not employ a symbol for zero. Instead, Ithkuil + employs separate autonomous symbols for each power of 100 (100, 10,000, + 100 million, etc.) each of which operates as the appropriate placeholder + instead of zero. To illustrate what this means by analogy, pretend that + “@” is an autonomous symbol for 27 (since Ithkuil numbers from + 1 to 99 each have a separate symbol), “&” is a symbol for + 100, “#” is a symbol for 10,000 and there is no symbol 0 (zero). + The numbers 2700, 2705, 327, 22700 and 4,270,027 would then be written @&, + @5, 3@, 2@&, and 4@#@ respectively. (NOTE: In actual practice, numbers + which contain the “hundred” symbol, here represented as “&,” + normally place a dot above or below the adjacent numeral and dispense with + the &, indicating that the number so marked is to be multiplied by 100. + Thus, 2@& would actually be written as , + while ‘one million’ can be written as + instead of writing &#.
      +
      +
      2. +
    2. +
      Since Ithkuil is a base-100 system, numbers do not become + two digits in length until the hundreds, do not become three digits in length + until the ten thousands, do not become four digits in length until the millions, + etc.
      +
      3. +
    +

     

    +

    One must also remember that in terms of left-to-right or up-and-down + orientation, numbers follow the boustrophedon mode the same as the + Ithkuil script (see Sec. 11.3.2). + Similarly to Western languages, small non-compound numbers can be written using + either their numerical symbols or written out in script (as in English “12” + versus “twelve”).

    +

    The following table gives the Ithkuil numerical symbols along + with their morphological stems:
    +
    + Table 68: ITHKUIL NUMERICAL + STEMS AND WRITTEN SYMBOLS
    +
    +
    +
    +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    12.5 USING NUMBERS IN SPEECH

    +

    Spoken numbers are formed from the above stems using both the + PARTITIVE and COMITATIVE cases, + as well as using the coordinative affix -V1w/1 + (= -iw or + -wai). The + number of largest base units is shown by placing the base-unit term in the PARTITIVE. + If this is then followed by another collection of smaller base units, that number + of smaller base units is connected using the COMITATIVE + case while the smaller base-unit term is again in the PARTITIVE. + Single units (from 1 to 99) are connected by the coordinative affix when they + are part of the number of hundreds or higher base-units.

    +

    It should be noted that when pronouncing numbers greater than + 199, it is normal in Ithkuil to omit the word ra’wirs + (= the PARTITIVE of ras + ‘one hundred’) referring to the number of hundreds. This is equivalent + to the custom in colloquial English of saying ‘three twelve’ for + ‘three hundred (and) twelve.’ The difference is that in Ithkuil, + this omission of the word for ‘hundred’ is the preferred option, + the word ra’wirs being used only in larger numbers for clarity’s + sake.

    +

    These principles are illustrated by the following examples:

    +


    + literally: “42 (of hundreds) 29”
    + 4229
    +

    +


    + literally: “26 of ten-thousands with 97 (of hundreds) 66” = 26,9766
    + 269,766
    +     Listen! +

    +

    +


    + literally: “21 of hundred of ten-thousands”
    + 21,000,000
    + [NOTE: ra’wirs is required in this example]

    +


    +
    + literally:
    + “72 of hundreds and 79 of hundred-millions with 3 of hundreds and 53 of + ten-thousands with 34 of hundreds 60”
    + 727,903,533,460

    +


    + We have already seen that when numbers are used to indicate how many of a certain + noun there are, the noun must appear in the PARTITIVE + case, since the number itself is functioning as the “head” of the + numerical expression (e.g., English “12 boxes” being constructed + in Ithkuil as a “12-set of a box” or perhaps more appropriately + a “box-dozen”). Another syntactical consequences of numbers being + full formatives is when a number functions as a label or overt identifier, as + in the English sentence You’ll find him in Room 216. Such usage + of numbers is not primarily sequential (which would involve the equivalent of + “ordinal” numbers such as ‘fourth,’ ‘twenty-sixth’, + etc. equivalent to stem No. 3 of each number root) but rather organizational + (e.g., as in the three-dimensional array of room numbers in a hotel). Ithkuil + handles such organizational labeling using either the CONTRASTIVE + case (see Sec. 4.5.6) or + the ESSIVE case (see Sec. + 4.6.1) depending respectively on whether the enumeration of the noun in + question is to distinguish it from other enumerated nouns versus merely identifying + the noun by a numerical name. Examples:

    +


    +
    + ‘the room marked “12”’ OR + ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room + No. 12’ [i.e., as distinguished from the other numbered rooms]

    +


    +
    + ‘the room marked “12”’ OR + ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room + No. 12’ [identifying reference only]

    +


    + Lastly, when numbers comprising multiple number-stems are declined for case, + configuration, extension, etc., rather than writing out the entire number “long-hand,” + the number symbol is used, preceded by the carrier stem kir + (see Sec. 9.4) which carries the appropriate + declensions. This use of the carrier stem applies even to single-stemmed numbers + when writing, in order to allow use of the number symbol instead of writing + it out. In such cases involving single-stemmed numbers, the carrier stem is + not pronounced (rather, the numerical stem bears the pronounced declensions); + it is there only as a written indicator of the declensions to be applied to + the number stem. Thus, the above two examples could also be written as:

    +

    +

    _________________

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..80601fd --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2138 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    2.1 Grammatical Typology2.5 Vocalic Mutation
    2.2 Root and Stem Formation2.6 Parts of Speech
    2.3 Semantic Instantiation of Stems2.7 Affixes
    2.4 Consonantal Mutation2.8 Note On Terminology
    +

    Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., + singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.

    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY

    +
    +

    The general method in which a language structures its morpho-phonology + determines what is known as its grammatical type. There are generally four distinct + grammatical types: analytic, agglutinative, synthetic, and polysynthetic.

    +

    Analytic languages (also called isolating languages) + rely on separate individual function words such as prepositions, determiners + and auxiliaries to morphologically manipulate root nouns and verbs. Example + languages are Chinese and Vietnamese.

    +

    Agglutinative languages rely upon affixes (e.g., prefixes, + suffixes) added one-by-one onto roots to morphologically manipulate words. Example + languages are Turkish, Japanese, Swahili, and Esperanto.

    +

    Synthetic languages (also called fusional, flexional, + or inflecting languages) manipulate word roots via internal phonetic manipulation + and/or via affixes which function in multiple functional roles (known as “portmanteau” + affixes). Examples are Latin, Russian, and Sanskrit.

    +

    Polysynthetic (sometimes called incorporating) languages + generally do not have pre-designated words, but rather join together semantic-formative + elements in sequential fashion, each resulting “string” constituting + a single word conveying an entire sentence of information. Examples are Inuit + (Eskimo), Shawnee, and many other American Indian languages, as well as several + Paleo-Siberian languages.

    +

    Many languages rely upon a mixture of the above in their morpho-phonology. + For example, the Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian, etc.) are primarily + analytic, secondarily synthetic, and occasionally agglutinative. On the other + hand, English is primarily analytic, secondarily agglutinative, and occasionally + synthetic.

    +

    Ithkuil morpho-phonology is primarily synthetic and secondarily + agglutinative. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily via phonetic modification of the word stem itself and secondarily + via affixation. Specifically, Ithkuil morpho-phonology utilizes both consonantal + and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different + kinds of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.

    +

    For example, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the + Ithkuil word (Listen: + ). + The stem of this word, ciùk, + meaning ‘derived product of a ewe,’ has been completely transformed + into the nearly unrecognizable form , + all due to the systematic mutation of its consonants and vowels. To this stem, + are then added the prefix eu-, + an infix -w-, + and the affix -[V1]t’, + where [V1] represents a vowel increment to be determined + by other morphological factors. As a result the simple root is transformed into + a word containing no less than eleven morphemes (i.e., eleven semantically distinct + word-components). These eleven morphemes and the mutation and affixation process + by which they combine to create this word can be analyzed as follows:

    +

    + =

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Morphological + Category
    +
    +
    Specific + morpheme
    Shown + by:
    STEM:ciùk + < + root: c + + k + “sheep”
    + = “derived product of ewe”     		 
    Perspective:ABSTRACT(preantepenultimate + stress)
    Affiliation:COALESCENT(prefix eu- + in conjunction with TERMINATIVE extension)
    Extension: + TERMINATIVE(prefix eu- + in conjunction with COALESCENT affiliation)
    Configuration:COHERENT(Grade 7 mutation of + C1 radical)
    Focus:POSITIVE FOCUS(-w- + infix immediately following C1 radical)
    Designation:FORMAL(Form II of root-vowel + mutation)
    Essence:REPRESENTATIVE(Secondary Mode of + root-vowel mutation)
    Case:REFERENTIAL(Series E root-vowel + mutation + Grade 4 mutation of C2 radical)
    Context:AMALGAMATE(high tone)
    Affix:V1t’- + (8th degree) = specific derivation of stem (in this case: "ewe's wool") 
    +
    APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION: “concerning a hypothetical diminishing in everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing”
+
    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION

    +

    All words in Ithkuil which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic or disyllabic stem, which + in turn derives from an semantically abstract root. This process + is explained in the sections below.

    +


    + 2.2.1 The Root

    +

    The root in Ithkuil forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a combination + of two consonantal forms, C1 and C2, + each of which we will call a radical. Together they create an interfix, + that is, an affix consisting of two parts, between which some other morpho-phonological + element is infixed (i.e., inserted). We will see that it is vowels + that will be infixed between the two radicals, . These radicals can consist + of a single consonant or a biconsonantal conjunct (i.e., made up of two consonants). + There are 60 possible forms for C1 and + 60 possible forms for C2, giving a total + of 3600 possible roots. Examples of these C1 + + C2 radical interfixes are shown below.

    + + + + + + + +
    +
    p + + x
    tr + + c’
    ks + +
    xl + +
    +

    The root is the basic semantic unit in Ithkuil. For example, + the radical interfix t+r + is a root whose semantic referent is NAME/DESIGNATION. + To generate functional word-stems (or simply stems) from the + roots, vowels are infixed into the C1+C2 + radical interfix. For example, a vowel such as a + would be infixed into the radical interfix t+r + to give the stem tar, + an Ithkuil word for ‘name.’ The manner in which such vowels are + infixed into radical interfixes to form stems is entirely systematic but quite + complex. It is described in the next several sections.

    +


    + 2.2.2 The Stem

    +

    The Ithkuil semantic root described in the previous section, + in turn diversifies into stems which are the actual bases of words in Ithkuil. + Furthermore, the stems of each root in turn divide into different Forms, Modes + and Patterns, all of which change the actual vowels infixed into the root. These + different vowel patternings for each stem are used to help differentiate the + complex array of morphological categories available to any stem. The specifics + of how Form, Mode, and Pattern operate for each stem are discussed below.

    +


    + 2.2.3 Pattern, Form, and Mode

    +

    There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ithkuil roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate Patterns, + which in turn come in two Forms. Furthermore, this array of + Pattern and Form is duplicated within a two-fold framework called Mode. + Thus, each stem has twelve different vowel patternings associated with it, as + shown in Table 5 below.

    +


    + Table 5: Vocalic Infixes for Stems + by Mode, Pattern and Form

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Primary + Mode
    Secondary + Mode
    Pattern + 1
    Pattern + 2
    Pattern + 3
    Pattern + 1
    Pattern + 2
    Pattern + 3
    Form + I
    stem + 1
    a
    e
    ä
    aî
    eì
    aì
    stem + 2
    u
    o
    ö
    uî
    oi
    uì
    stem + 3
    i
    ë
    ü
    eî
    oì
    ëì
    Form + II
    stem + 1
    â
    ê
    ae
    aû
    aè
    aù
    stem + 2
    û
    ô
    ø
    oû
    où
    ëù
    stem + 3
    î
    ÿ
    iu
    eû
    eù
    iù
    +

    The three patterns are labelled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a holistic stem and two complementary sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem spouse, with its two complementary + sub-stems husband and wife. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ithkuil systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ithkuil + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while + having such a small number of semantic word roots.

    +

    The two forms are labelled Form I and Form II. In Section + 3.7 we will see how Form is used to indicate a morphological category called + Designation. Designation is an important concept, in that, + like Pattern above, it operates to make morphological distinctions within a + stem that, in languages like English, often entail lexical differences, e.g., + the difference between English tool versus utensil.

    +

    Lastly, there are two modes, labelled Primary and Secondary. + Mode is used to signify a rather complex morphological category called Essence, + detailed in Section + 3.8. It differentiates “alternate” versions of entities within + hypothetical, imagined, or representational contexts, which would otherwise + be contradictory or nonsensical. An example would be the word ‘boy’ + in the sentence The brown-eyed boy had blue eyes (e.g., in the newspaper + account). A stem’s Essence category does not change its underlying meaning.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    2.3 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS

    +

    We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. First of all, because Mode distinguishes a morphological + category (Essence) that does not change a stem’s underlying meaning, it + will be ignored in the analysis below. We will start with the six stems (three + for each Form) associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.

    +


    + 2.3.1 Holistic Stems

    +

    The three stems for Form I, Pattern 1, have the designated + vowels a, u, and i. Thus, + the previously mentioned root t+r + generates the following stems:

    +
    +

    1. tar + ‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’
    + 2. tur ‘designation + or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’
    + 3. tir ‘a + (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary + or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’

    +
    +

    The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying + root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem + 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation + of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible + manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem + 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of + Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship + between the individual stems for the root t+r + above with that of the Form I root x+n + (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below.

    +
    +

    1. xan + ‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’
    + 2. xun ‘an + eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’
    + 3. xin ‘an + image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’

    +
    +

    Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology. It should also be noted that the meanings given for the verb forms + above are approximate and incomplete, as we will see later that the exact meaning + of a verb form in Ithkuil is determined by the important morphological categories + of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see Section + 5.4).

    +

    Looking at the Form II counterparts of the above two roots + below shows a difference in meaning from the Form I stems as determined by the + morphological shift in Designation earlier described. While Form I implies a + temporary, contextual interpretation, Form II implies a permanent, authoritative + interpretation beyond the mere context of a specific utterance. Note that the + vowel infixes associated with the three stems of Form II are â, + û, and î, as shown above in Table + 5.

    +
    +

    1. târ + ‘title; to (be) title(d)’
    + 2. tûr + ‘formal designation, label; to label’
    + 3. tîr + ‘formal role; to function in a formal role’

    +

    1. xân + ‘visual observation; to visually observe’
    + 2. xûn + ‘optical device; to use an optical device’
    + 3. xîn + ‘a rendered image; to render an image’

    +
    +


    + 2.3.2 Complementary Stems

    +

    Any Ithkuil stem is capable of being further broken down into + two complementary stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems.

    +

    By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil, + for example, words such as male, night, speech, sit, + and happen are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole.

    +

    Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male + has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) + from the underlying concept translatable as day (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of speak(ing) divides into complementary concepts + of talking (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus + saying/telling (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound). +

    +

    Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word happen + or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as + event or situation.

    +

    2.3.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by mutation of the holistic stem vowel from Pattern 1 into Pattern 2, e.g., + tal + tel, while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation + from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., tal + + täl. Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:

    +

    Form I examples:

    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemqum: + human being, person
    1st + Comp. Stemqom: + male person
    2nd + Comp. Stem qöm: + female person
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemklad: + flow of water
    1st + Comp. Stem kled: + the water component of a flow of water
    2nd + Comp. Stem kläd: + the channel or course of a flow of water
    +
    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemtil: + an act of written composition; to compose something in writing
    1st + Comp. Stemtël: + the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition
    2nd + Comp. Stem tül: + the written content or message of a composition; to create written + content
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemxan: + sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing + seen)
    1st + Comp. Stem xen: + an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see + with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting
    2nd + Comp. Stem xän: + a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image
    +


    + Form II examples:

    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemqûm: + an official
    1st + Comp. Stemqôm: + male official
    2nd + Comp. Stem qøm: + female official
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemklâd: + a river
    1st + Comp. Stem klêd: + the water in a river
    2nd + Comp. Stem klaed: + a riverbed
    +
    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemtîl: + an act of creating a formal writing; to compose a formal written work
    1st + Comp. Stemtÿl: + physical act of composing a formal written work; to physically write + a work
    2nd + Comp. Stem tiul: + the content(s) of a formal written work; to create the content of + a writing
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemkâl: + an act of speech; to speak (i.e., the physical vocal production + + the communicative element)
    1st + Comp. Stem kêl: + an act of talking (i.e., vocal production of words); to talk (i.e., + vocally emit words)
    2nd + Comp. Stem kael: + spoken message; to say/tell (i.e., communicate via spoken words)
    +


    + 2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is + counterintuitive to Western semantic notions.

    +

    For example, let us analyze the root h+n + ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages + would consider the concept parent as fundamentally opposite from the + concept child and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem han. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of han + is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for h+n + in Form I.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Holistic + Stem
    1st + Complementary Stem
    2nd + Complementary Stem
    Stem 1han: + nuclear family member hen: + parenthän: + child
    Stem 2hun: + male nuclear family member hon: + father hön: + son
    Stem 3hin: + female nuclear family member hën: + mother hün: + daughter
    +

    Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ithkuil lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Concept
    Complementary + Concepts
    eatingfoodingestion
    think, act of thinkinga thought (thing considered)process of consideration
    liquidfluid (= ontological nature)wet[ness] (=defining attribute)
    measuring a measurementprocess of measuring
    transference of possessiongivingtaking
    traversal between pointscoming, arrival going, departure
    commercial transaction buyingselling
    +


    +
    + 2.3.3 The Total Number of Stems

    +

    As each of the 3600 roots has six holistic stems (three in + each Form) and twelve complementary stems (six in each Form), there are a total + of 64,800 possible stems. We have begun to see how the dynamics of Ithkuil morphology + and morpho-semantics allow this limited number to permutate into a myriad of + imaginative and dynamic forms for application to any semantic context.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    2.4 CONSONANTAL MUTATION

    +

    Both of the consonantal radicals from Section + 2.3.1 above, C1 and C2, + are capable of undergoing mutation, that is, shifting to a different consonantal + form. The specific rules governing such mutation, however, are quite distinct + for C1 radicals as compared to C2 + radicals.

    +


    + 2.4.1 C1 Mutation

    +

    As stated earlier, there are 60 forms for radical C1. + Each can mutate into eight other forms, giving a total of nine possible manifestations + of each C1 radical. These are labelled + Grade 1, Grade 2, etc., up to Grade 9. The nine grades of all 60 C1 + radicals are shown in Table No. 6 below. As examples, we can examine the nine + grades of the C1 radicals + k and pl:

    +
    +

    k + g k’ + + kf km + kn + çk/k + çk’/k’

    +

    pl + bl pr + br + p + b + p + b + bw/by

    +
    +


    + Table No. 6: C1 + Mutation Patterns by Grade

    + + + + + + + + + +
    +

     

    +

    2.4.2 C2 Mutation

    +

    As with C1, there are + 60 forms of the second radical, C2. These + in turn can mutate into eight other forms, for a total of nine possible forms + for each C2 radical. These are shown + in Table No. 7 below. As an example, note the mutations of the C2 + radical t: +

    +
    +

    t + tt rt + st + lt t + št + nt + sst

    +
    +

    By combining the above mutational patterns for C1 + and C2, along with the various vocalic + mutational patterns we will explore in the next section, we can see that any + given stem can easily mutate into myriad forms which, on the surface, bear scant + visual (or phonetic) resemblance to the original stem.
    +

    +

    Table No. 7: C2 + Mutation Patterns by Grade

    + + + + + + + + + +
    +

     

    + + + + + +
    +

    2.5 VOCALIC MUTATION

    + +

    In Section 2.2.3 above we saw how the + morpho-phonological distinctions of Mode, Form and Pattern are accomplished + by stem-specific vocalic infixes as illustrated in Table + 5. Like the consonantal C1 and C2 + radicals, each of these specific stem-infixes can in turn mutate into eight + variations for a total of nine mutations, termed Series A, Series B, Series + C, etc. (Note that the ninth series is termed Series J rather than Series I, + in order not to confuse the use of ‘I’ as a letter versus a Roman + numeral). Consequently each root has a total of 324 different vocalic infixes + depending on the Stem, Mode, Form, Pattern, and Series. These series of vowel + mutations are shown in Tables 8(a) through 8(f) below, with each table indicating + a different combination of Mode and Pattern.

    +

    Tables 8(a)-(f): Vocalic + Mutation by Stem, Mode, Pattern, Form and Series
    +
    + Table 8(a): Primary Mode, Pattern + 1

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    a
    + u
    + i
    ai
    + ui
    + ei
    a’(ï)
    + u’(ï)
    + i’(ï)
    a’wï
    + u’wï
    + i’wï
    a’wa
    + u’wa
    + i’wa
    a’we
    + u’we
    + i’we
    a’wi
    + u’wi
    + i’wi
    a’wë
    + u’wë
    + i’wë
    a’wo
    + u’wo
    + i’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    â
    + û
    + î
    au
    + ou
    + eu
    â’(ï)
    + û’(ï)
    + î ’(ï)
    a’yï
    + u’yï
    + i’yï
    a’ya
    + u’ya
    + i’ya
    a’ye
    + u’ye
    + i’ye
    a’yu
    + u’yu
    + i’yu
    a’yë
    + u’yë
    + i’yë
    a’yo
    + u’yo
    + i’yo
    +


    + Table 8(b): Primary Mode, Pattern + 2

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    e
    + o
    + ë
    ia
    + io
    + ie
    e’(ï)
    + o’(ï)
    + ë’(ï)
    e’wï
    + o’wï
    + ë’wï
    e’wa
    + o’wa
    + ë’wa
    e’we
    + o’we
    + ë’we
    e’wi
    + o’wi
    + ë’wi
    e’wë
    + o’wë
    + ë’wë
    e’wo
    + o’wo
    + ë’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    ê
    + ô
    + ÿ
    ua
    + uo
    + ue
    ê’(ï)
    + ô’(ï)
    + ÿ’(ï)
    e’yï
    + o’yï
    + ë’yï
    e’ya
    + o’ya
    + ë’ya
    e’ye
    + o’ye
    + ë’ye
    e’yu
    + o’yu
    + ë’yu
    e’yë
    + o’yë
    + ë’yë
    e’yo
    + o’yo
    + ë’yo
    +


    + Table 8(c): Primary Mode, Pattern + 3

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    ä
    + ö
    + ü
    ea
    + ië
    + ëi
    ä’(ï)
    + ö’(ï)
    + ü’(ï)
    ä’wï
    + ö’wï
    + ü’wï
    ä’wa
    + ö’wa
    + ü’wa
    ä’we
    + ö’we
    + ü’we
    ä’wi
    + ö’wi
    + ü’wi
    ä’wë
    + ö’wë
    + ü’wë
    ä’wo
    + ö’wo
    + ü’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    ae
    + ø
    + iu
    oa
    + ëu
    + uë
    ae’(ï)
    + ø’(ï)
    + iu’(ï)
    ä’yï
    + ö’yï
    + ü’yï
    ä’ya
    + ö’ya
    + ü’ya
    ä’ye
    + ö’ye
    + ü’ye
    ä’yu
    + ö’yu
    + ü’yu
    ä’yë
    + ö’yë
    + ü’yë
    ä’yo
    + ö’yo
    + ü’yo
    +


    +
    + Table 8(d): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 1

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    aî
    + uî
    + eî
    a’i
    + u’i
    + e’i
    âì
    + ûì
    + êì
    ai’wï
    + ui’wï
    + ei’wï
    ai’wa
    + ui’wa
    + ei’wa
    ai’we
    + ui’we
    + ei’we
    ai’wi
    + ui’wi
    + ei’wi
    ai’wë
    + ui’wë
    + ei’wë
    ai’wo
    + ui’wo
    + ei’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    aû
    + oû
    + eû
    a’u
    + o’u
    + e’u
    âù
    + oî
    + êù
    au’yï
    + ou’yï
    + eu’yï
    au’ya
    + ou’ya
    + eu’ya
    au’ye
    + ou’ye
    + eu’ye
    au’yu
    + ou’yu
    + eu’yu
    au’yë
    + ou’yë
    + eu’yë
    au’yo
    + ou’yo
    + eu’yo
    +


    +
    + Table 8(e): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 2

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    eì
    + oi
    + oì
    i’a
    + i’e
    + i’o
    îa
    + îo
    + îe
    â’wï
    + ê’wï
    + ô’wï
    â’wa
    + ê’wa
    + ô’wa
    â’we
    + ê’we
    + ô’we
    â’wi
    + ê’wi
    + ô’wi
    â’wë
    + ê’wë
    + ô’wë
    â’wo
    + ê’wo
    + ô’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    aè
    + où
    + eù
    u’a
    + u’e
    + u’o
    ûa
    + ûo
    + ûe
    â’yï
    + ê’yï
    + ô’yï
    â’ya
    + ê’ya
    + ô’ya
    â’ye
    + ê’ye
    + ô’ye
    â’yu
    + ê’yu
    + ô’yu
    â’yë
    + ê’yë
    + ô’yë
    â’yo
    + ê’yo
    + ô’yo
    +


    +
    + Table 8(f): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 3

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    aì
    + uì
    + ëì
    e’a
    + i’ë
    + ë’i
    iê
    + îù
    + üa
    û’wï
    + ø’wï
    + î’wï
    û’wa
    + ø’wa
    + î’wa
    û’we
    + ø’we
    + î’we
    û’wi
    + ø’wi
    + î’wi
    û’wë
    + ø’wë
    + î’wë
    û’wo
    + ø’wo
    + î’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    aù
    + ëù
    + iù
    o’a
    + ë’u
    + u’ë
    aê
    + üe
    + iû
    û’yï
    + ø’yï
    + î’yï
    û’ya
    + ø’ya
    + î’ya
    û’ye
    + ø’ye
    + î’ye
    û’yu
    + ø’yu
    + î’yu
    û’yë
    + ø’yë
    + î’yë
    û’yo
    + ø’yo
    + î’yo
    +

     

    + + + + +

    2.6 + PARTS OF SPEECH

    +

    Ithkuil has only two parts of speech: formatives and + adjuncts. While Ithkuil does employ words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term formative. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.6.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ithkuil, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.

    +

    Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will, of course, + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).

    +


    + 2.6.1 Formatives

    +

    The stem formed as per the discussion in Section + 2.3 above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the formative. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative + klâd illustrated above in Section 2.3.2.1 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ithkuil formative exclusively into a noun or verb form + is arbitrary. For example, the following Ithkuil phrases can be translated using + either verbal predicates or purely nominal phrases:
    +

    +

    + ______Listen! +
    + ‘by the time of his death’ OR + ‘by the time he dies’

    +


    +
    + ‘the awful-smelling woman’ OR + ‘the woman smells awful’

    +


    + + ______Listen! +
    + ‘what the eagle sees’ OR + ‘the eagle’s seeing something’

    +


    + The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either spatially “reify” this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:

    +
    +


    +

    +
    +

     

    +

    2.6.2 Adjuncts

    +

    Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”). +

    +

    Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, + most of which are described in detail in Chapter + 8: Adjuncts. These include:

    +
      +
    • +
      Personal Reference Adjuncts: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Valence Adjuncts and Conflation Adjuncts: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Version, Derivation, Format, + Level, and Modality. Each of these categories is discussed in Chapter + 5: Verb Morphology.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Aspectual Adjuncts: These are used in + conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information on the morphological + categories of Aspect, Mood, Validation, Phase, Sanction, and Bias. Each + of these categories is discussed in Chapter + 6: Additional Verb Morphology.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Affixual Adjuncts: These function as + whole-word substitutes for the consonantal affixes usually added to formatives. + Their use is governed primarily by phonaesthetic principles (see + Section 1.4.5).
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Combination Adjuncts: A blanket category + covering several types of complex adjuncts which combine several distinct + morphological categories into a single adjunct. Used primarily for euphonic + and phonaesthetic purposes.
      +
      • +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    2.7 AFFIXES

    +

    + Ithkuil, like English, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. The rules governing the formation of these affixes + are rather complex. The fundamentals are discussed below, while the actual affixes + themselves are explored later in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes.
    +


    + 2.7.1 Consonant-based Affixes

    +

    Ithkuil makes a fundamental distinction between purely vocalic + affixes (i.e., containing no consonants) and affixes which are based on a consonant + (which may or may not contain vowels). In this section we will explore consonant-based + affixes.

    +

    Every consonant-based affix used with a formative is composed + of an invariable (i.e., non-mutating) consonant, but has a variable vocalic + form associated with it. The suffix form of a consonant-based affix is of the + form V+C (i.e., vowel + consonant), with an optional alternate + form of C+V when in word-final position and in certain other + circumstances. This word-final alternate form is explained in more detail in + Chapter 7. As for + the optional prefix form of consonantal affixes, this will also be discussed + in Chapter 7; the discussion below applies only to the suffix form of affixes.

    +

    While the consonantal portion of the affix is always invariable, + the vocalic portion mutates depending on two morphological factors known as + degree and affix-type. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for affix-type, + every consonantal-based V+C (or C+V) affix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before (or after) the invariable consonant + C. The three affix-types are labelled V1, + V2, and V3, + in reference to the vowel portion of the affix.

    +


    + 2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting

    +

    In addition to the three affix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three affix-types. + Table 9 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each affix-type.

    +

    Under certain circumstances where the final stem consonant + and the consonant portion of the consonantal suffix can be conjoined without + causing confusion (i.e., where the conjoined consonants will not be mistaken + for a mutation of the final consonantal radical C2), + Ithkuil permits the option to reverse the order of the vowel and consonant of + the suffix. This alternate form is shown in the second column of the table for + each degree. In this alternate form, the vocalic portion follows, rather than + precedes the consonant portion of the suffix.

    +

    +

    Table 9: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Affix Type

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Affix + Type 1: -V1C
    Affix + Type 2: -V2C
    Affix + Type 3: -V3C
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    Degree + 1
    -iC
    -Cai
    -îC
    -Cëi
    -ieC
    -Caï
    Degree + 2
    -eC
    -Cei
    -êC / -eiC
    -Ceu
    -iëC
    -Ceï
    Degree + 3
    -äC / -aeC
    -Cia
    -âC /-aiC
    -Câ
    -iuC
    -Ciï
    Degree + 4
    -öC
    -Cua
    -øC / -euC
    -Ciu
    -ioC
    -Coï
    Degree + 5
    -(a)C
    -Ca
    -uiC
    -Cui
    -iäC
    -Cuï
    Degree + 6
    -üC / -ëuC
    -Cü
    -ÿC / -auC
    -Cau
    -uäC
    -Cäi
    Degree + 7
    -ïC / -ëiC
    -Cï
    -ëC
    -Cëu
    -uoC
    -Cöi
    Degree + 8
    -oC
    -Coi
    -ôC / -oiC / -ouC
    -Cou
    -uëC
    -Cäu
    Degree + 9
    -uC
    -Cu
    -ûC
    -Cû
    -ueC
    -Cöu
    +

    Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 10 below how these suffixes (and their alternate word-final forms) + would actually appear in conjunction with the stem rit:

    +


    + TABLE 10: EXAMPLE OF ALTERNATION + OF VOWEL POSITION IN SUFFIXES

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Suffix: + -V1k
    Affix + Type 2: -V2k
    Affix + Type 3: -V3k
    Degree + 1
    ritik / ritkai
    ritîk / ritkëi
    ritiek / ritkaï
    Degree + 2
    ritek / ritkei
    ritêk / riteik / ritkeu
    ritiëk / ritkeï
    Degree + 3
    ritäk / ritaek / ritkia
    ritâk / ritaik / ritkâ
    ritiuk /ritkiï
    Degree + 4
    ritök / ritkua
    ritøk / riteuk / ritkiu
    ritiok / ritkoï
    Degree + 5
    ritk / ritak / ritka
    rituik / ritkui
    ritiäk / ritkuï
    Degree + 6
    ritük / ritëuk / ritkü
    ritÿk / ritauk / ritkau
    rituäk / ritkäi
    Degree + 7
    ritïk / ritëik / ritkï
    ritëk / ritkëu
    rituok / ritköi
    Degree + 8
    ritok /ritkoi
    ritôk / ritoik / ritouk / ritkou
    rituëk / ritkäu
    Degree + 9
    rituk / ritku
    ritûk / ritkû
    rituek / ritköu
    +

    Because the “reversed” -CV form of the suffix + reinforces a CVC syllabic structure for the stem syllable of the word, such + reversed word-final suffixes are common in Ithkuil (see + Sec. 1.4.5).

    +

    As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ithkuil to create a gradient system for all consonantal affixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + affix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated + with the nine degrees for the affix -V1d.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Degree
    Suffix
    Meaning
     
    + 1
    		-id / -daiwholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all
     
    2
    		-ed / -deiway too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough
     
    + 3
    		-äd / -aed / -dianot enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]
     
    + 4
    		-öd / -duanot quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]
     
    + 5
    		-d / -ad / -daenough (of) / sufficient(ly)
     
    + 6
    		-üd / -ëud / -düa little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]
     
    + 7
    		-ïd / -ëid / -dïtoo / too much / over-[+verb]
     
    + 8
    		-od /-doiway too much / totally over-[+verb]
     
    + 9
    		-ud / -dunothing but / to the exclusion of all else
    +


    + 2.7.3 Vocalic Affixes

    +

    Other than the stem-infixes previously discussed in Section + 2.3 et seq., the use of vocalic affixes (i.e., affixes based on vowels rather + than consonants) in Ithkuil occurs in several contexts — vocalic prefixes + to formatives, vocalic prefixes and suffixes to adjuncts, and the anaptyctic + affixes -ï-, and -a. Each of these contexts + is discussed below:

    +

    2.7.3.1 Vocalic Prefixes. Vocalic prefixes + are used with both formatives and adjuncts, and consist of either single vowels + or two-vowel conjuncts or diphthongs (e.g., a-, ui-, + ae-, ia-, ö-, eu-, + etc.). Additionally, these prefixes can take an initial w- + or y- increment. While these prefixes are often highly synthetic + morphologically (i.e., a single prefix can carry information for multiple grammatical + categories), they do not mutate. A word can take only one such prefix. The usage + and function of these vocalic prefixes will be discussed as they are encountered + in the chapters on morphology which follow.

    +

    2.7.3.2 Vocalic Suffixes. Purely vocalic suffixes + (other than the anaptyctic vowels discussed below) occur only in adjuncts, not + formatives. Like vocalic prefixes described immediately above, they can be highly + synthetic morphologically but do not mutate. Unlike vocalic prefixes, there + can be multiple vocalic suffixes on an adjunct, joined agglutinatively (i.e., + added on one after the other) with intervening consonantal affixes.

    +

    2.7.3.3 Anaptyctic Vowels + -ï- and -a. Sometimes the grammatical rules of a language require + a meaningless phonemic increment to be affixed to a word, whether as a prefix, + suffix, or infix. This is known as anaptyxis. As will be discussed in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes, an anaptyctic infix, -ï-, is used + in Ithkuil to separate consonantal prefixes from the C1 + stem consonantal radical wherever necessary for phonotactical euphony or to + prevent confusion in misinterpreting the prefix consonant(s) as part of the + C1 radical. For example, while the prefix + s- is phonotactically + permissible before the stem kaf, + the resulting word must be sïkaf, + not skaf, + as the latter is a completely different stem employing a C1 + radical sk-.

    +

    An anaptyctic vowel is also sometimes required in Ithkuil when + grammatical rules call for antepenultimate stress on a word (i.e., the third-from-last + syllable is stressed), but the word in question has only one or two syllables. + In such cases, the number of syllables must be increased to three. Sometimes + this can be done by restructuring any consonantal affixes the word may have, + but more often than not, anaptyctic vowels must be affixed. In this case the + anaptyctic vowel ï- can be prefixed to a word beginning + with a consonant (usually nominal formatives), and/or an anaptyctic vowel -a + can be suffixed to the end of a word, e.g., kfuil + ïkfùila. + This anaptyctic suffix -a is also required for phonotactical + euphony when grammatical rules require the mutation of the second radical C2 + to a form which is not permissible in word-final position, e.g., t + tt + as in reit + reitta.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    2.8 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY

    +

    While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ithkuil, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Ibero-Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity + of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +


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    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..737cc9b --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2138 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    2.1 Grammatical Typology2.5 Vocalic Mutation
    2.2 Root and Stem Formation2.6 Parts of Speech
    2.3 Semantic Instantiation of Stems2.7 Affixes
    2.4 Consonantal Mutation2.8 Note On Terminology
    +

    Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., + singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.

    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY

    +
    +

    The general method in which a language structures its morpho-phonology + determines what is known as its grammatical type. There are generally four distinct + grammatical types: analytic, agglutinative, synthetic, and polysynthetic.

    +

    Analytic languages (also called isolating languages) + rely on separate individual function words such as prepositions, determiners + and auxiliaries to morphologically manipulate root nouns and verbs. Example + languages are Chinese and Vietnamese.

    +

    Agglutinative languages rely upon affixes (e.g., prefixes, + suffixes) added one-by-one onto roots to morphologically manipulate words. Example + languages are Turkish, Japanese, Swahili, and Esperanto.

    +

    Synthetic languages (also called fusional, flexional, + or inflecting languages) manipulate word roots via internal phonetic manipulation + and/or via affixes which function in multiple functional roles (known as “portmanteau” + affixes). Examples are Latin, Russian, and Sanskrit.

    +

    Polysynthetic (sometimes called incorporating) languages + generally do not have pre-designated words, but rather join together semantic-formative + elements in sequential fashion, each resulting “string” constituting + a single word conveying an entire sentence of information. Examples are Inuit + (Eskimo), Shawnee, and many other American Indian languages, as well as several + Paleo-Siberian languages.

    +

    Many languages rely upon a mixture of the above in their morpho-phonology. + For example, the Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian, etc.) are primarily + analytic, secondarily synthetic, and occasionally agglutinative. On the other + hand, English is primarily analytic, secondarily agglutinative, and occasionally + synthetic.

    +

    Ithkuil morpho-phonology is primarily synthetic and secondarily + agglutinative. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily via phonetic modification of the word stem itself and secondarily + via affixation. Specifically, Ithkuil morpho-phonology utilizes both consonantal + and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different + kinds of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.

    +

    For example, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the + Ithkuil word (Listen: + ). + The stem of this word, ciùk, + meaning ‘derived product of a ewe,’ has been completely transformed + into the nearly unrecognizable form , + all due to the systematic mutation of its consonants and vowels. To this stem, + are then added the prefix eu-, + an infix -w-, + and the affix -[V1]t’, + where [V1] represents a vowel increment to be determined + by other morphological factors. As a result the simple root is transformed into + a word containing no less than eleven morphemes (i.e., eleven semantically distinct + word-components). These eleven morphemes and the mutation and affixation process + by which they combine to create this word can be analyzed as follows:

    +

    + =

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Morphological + Category
    +
    +
    Specific + morpheme
    Shown + by:
    STEM:ciùk + < + root: c + + k + “sheep”
    + = “derived product of ewe”     		 
    Perspective:ABSTRACT(preantepenultimate + stress)
    Affiliation:COALESCENT(prefix eu- + in conjunction with TERMINATIVE extension)
    Extension: + TERMINATIVE(prefix eu- + in conjunction with COALESCENT affiliation)
    Configuration:COHERENT(Grade 7 mutation of + C1 radical)
    Focus:POSITIVE FOCUS(-w- + infix immediately following C1 radical)
    Designation:FORMAL(Form II of root-vowel + mutation)
    Essence:REPRESENTATIVE(Secondary Mode of + root-vowel mutation)
    Case:REFERENTIAL(Series E root-vowel + mutation + Grade 4 mutation of C2 radical)
    Context:AMALGAMATE(high tone)
    Affix:V1t’- + (8th degree) = specific derivation of stem (in this case: "ewe's wool") 
    +
    APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION: “concerning a hypothetical diminishing in everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing”
+
    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION

    +

    All words in Ithkuil which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic or disyllabic stem, which + in turn derives from an semantically abstract root. This process + is explained in the sections below.

    +


    + 2.2.1 The Root

    +

    The root in Ithkuil forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a combination + of two consonantal forms, C1 and C2, + each of which we will call a radical. Together they create an interfix, + that is, an affix consisting of two parts, between which some other morpho-phonological + element is infixed (i.e., inserted). We will see that it is vowels + that will be infixed between the two radicals, . These radicals can consist + of a single consonant or a biconsonantal conjunct (i.e., made up of two consonants). + There are 60 possible forms for C1 and + 60 possible forms for C2, giving a total + of 3600 possible roots. Examples of these C1 + + C2 radical interfixes are shown below.

    + + + + + + + +
    +
    p + + x
    tr + + c’
    ks + +
    xl + +
    +

    The root is the basic semantic unit in Ithkuil. For example, + the radical interfix t+r + is a root whose semantic referent is NAME/DESIGNATION. + To generate functional word-stems (or simply stems) from the + roots, vowels are infixed into the C1+C2 + radical interfix. For example, a vowel such as a + would be infixed into the radical interfix t+r + to give the stem tar, + an Ithkuil word for ‘name.’ The manner in which such vowels are + infixed into radical interfixes to form stems is entirely systematic but quite + complex. It is described in the next several sections.

    +


    + 2.2.2 The Stem

    +

    The Ithkuil semantic root described in the previous section, + in turn diversifies into stems which are the actual bases of words in Ithkuil. + Furthermore, the stems of each root in turn divide into different Forms, Modes + and Patterns, all of which change the actual vowels infixed into the root. These + different vowel patternings for each stem are used to help differentiate the + complex array of morphological categories available to any stem. The specifics + of how Form, Mode, and Pattern operate for each stem are discussed below.

    +


    + 2.2.3 Pattern, Form, and Mode

    +

    There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ithkuil roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate Patterns, + which in turn come in two Forms. Furthermore, this array of + Pattern and Form is duplicated within a two-fold framework called Mode. + Thus, each stem has twelve different vowel patternings associated with it, as + shown in Table 5 below.

    +


    + Table 5: Vocalic Infixes for Stems + by Mode, Pattern and Form

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Primary + Mode
    Secondary + Mode
    Pattern + 1
    Pattern + 2
    Pattern + 3
    Pattern + 1
    Pattern + 2
    Pattern + 3
    Form + I
    stem + 1
    a
    e
    ä
    aî
    eì
    aì
    stem + 2
    u
    o
    ö
    uî
    oi
    uì
    stem + 3
    i
    ë
    ü
    eî
    oì
    ëì
    Form + II
    stem + 1
    â
    ê
    ae
    aû
    aè
    aù
    stem + 2
    û
    ô
    ø
    oû
    où
    ëù
    stem + 3
    î
    ÿ
    iu
    eû
    eù
    iù
    +

    The three patterns are labelled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a holistic stem and two complementary sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem spouse, with its two complementary + sub-stems husband and wife. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ithkuil systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ithkuil + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while + having such a small number of semantic word roots.

    +

    The two forms are labelled Form I and Form II. In Section + 3.7 we will see how Form is used to indicate a morphological category called + Designation. Designation is an important concept, in that, + like Pattern above, it operates to make morphological distinctions within a + stem that, in languages like English, often entail lexical differences, e.g., + the difference between English tool versus utensil.

    +

    Lastly, there are two modes, labelled Primary and Secondary. + Mode is used to signify a rather complex morphological category called Essence, + detailed in Section + 3.8. It differentiates “alternate” versions of entities within + hypothetical, imagined, or representational contexts, which would otherwise + be contradictory or nonsensical. An example would be the word ‘boy’ + in the sentence The brown-eyed boy had blue eyes (e.g., in the newspaper + account). A stem’s Essence category does not change its underlying meaning.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    2.3 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS

    +

    We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. First of all, because Mode distinguishes a morphological + category (Essence) that does not change a stem’s underlying meaning, it + will be ignored in the analysis below. We will start with the six stems (three + for each Form) associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.

    +


    + 2.3.1 Holistic Stems

    +

    The three stems for Form I, Pattern 1, have the designated + vowels a, u, and i. Thus, + the previously mentioned root t+r + generates the following stems:

    +
    +

    1. tar + ‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’
    + 2. tur ‘designation + or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’
    + 3. tir ‘a + (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary + or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’

    +
    +

    The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying + root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem + 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation + of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible + manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem + 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of + Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship + between the individual stems for the root t+r + above with that of the Form I root x+n + (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below.

    +
    +

    1. xan + ‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’
    + 2. xun ‘an + eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’
    + 3. xin ‘an + image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’

    +
    +

    Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology. It should also be noted that the meanings given for the verb forms + above are approximate and incomplete, as we will see later that the exact meaning + of a verb form in Ithkuil is determined by the important morphological categories + of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see Section + 5.4).

    +

    Looking at the Form II counterparts of the above two roots + below shows a difference in meaning from the Form I stems as determined by the + morphological shift in Designation earlier described. While Form I implies a + temporary, contextual interpretation, Form II implies a permanent, authoritative + interpretation beyond the mere context of a specific utterance. Note that the + vowel infixes associated with the three stems of Form II are â, + û, and î, as shown above in Table + 5.

    +
    +

    1. târ + ‘title; to (be) title(d)’
    + 2. tûr + ‘formal designation, label; to label’
    + 3. tîr + ‘formal role; to function in a formal role’

    +

    1. xân + ‘visual observation; to visually observe’
    + 2. xûn + ‘optical device; to use an optical device’
    + 3. xîn + ‘a rendered image; to render an image’

    +
    +


    + 2.3.2 Complementary Stems

    +

    Any Ithkuil stem is capable of being further broken down into + two complementary stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems.

    +

    By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil, + for example, words such as male, night, speech, sit, + and happen are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole.

    +

    Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male + has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) + from the underlying concept translatable as day (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of speak(ing) divides into complementary concepts + of talking (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus + saying/telling (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound). +

    +

    Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word happen + or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as + event or situation.

    +

    2.3.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by mutation of the holistic stem vowel from Pattern 1 into Pattern 2, e.g., + tal + tel, while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation + from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., tal + + täl. Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:

    +

    Form I examples:

    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemqum: + human being, person
    1st + Comp. Stemqom: + male person
    2nd + Comp. Stem qöm: + female person
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemklad: + flow of water
    1st + Comp. Stem kled: + the water component of a flow of water
    2nd + Comp. Stem kläd: + the channel or course of a flow of water
    +
    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemtil: + an act of written composition; to compose something in writing
    1st + Comp. Stemtël: + the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition
    2nd + Comp. Stem tül: + the written content or message of a composition; to create written + content
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemxan: + sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing + seen)
    1st + Comp. Stem xen: + an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see + with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting
    2nd + Comp. Stem xän: + a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image
    +


    + Form II examples:

    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemqûm: + an official
    1st + Comp. Stemqôm: + male official
    2nd + Comp. Stem qøm: + female official
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemklâd: + a river
    1st + Comp. Stem klêd: + the water in a river
    2nd + Comp. Stem klaed: + a riverbed
    +
    + + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemtîl: + an act of creating a formal writing; to compose a formal written work
    1st + Comp. Stemtÿl: + physical act of composing a formal written work; to physically write + a work
    2nd + Comp. Stem tiul: + the content(s) of a formal written work; to create the content of + a writing
    		  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Stemkâl: + an act of speech; to speak (i.e., the physical vocal production + + the communicative element)
    1st + Comp. Stem kêl: + an act of talking (i.e., vocal production of words); to talk (i.e., + vocally emit words)
    2nd + Comp. Stem kael: + spoken message; to say/tell (i.e., communicate via spoken words)
    +


    + 2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is + counterintuitive to Western semantic notions.

    +

    For example, let us analyze the root h+n + ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages + would consider the concept parent as fundamentally opposite from the + concept child and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem han. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of han + is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for h+n + in Form I.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Holistic + Stem
    1st + Complementary Stem
    2nd + Complementary Stem
    Stem 1han: + nuclear family member hen: + parenthän: + child
    Stem 2hun: + male nuclear family member hon: + father hön: + son
    Stem 3hin: + female nuclear family member hën: + mother hün: + daughter
    +

    Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ithkuil lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Holistic + Concept
    Complementary + Concepts
    eatingfoodingestion
    think, act of thinkinga thought (thing considered)process of consideration
    liquidfluid (= ontological nature)wet[ness] (=defining attribute)
    measuring a measurementprocess of measuring
    transference of possessiongivingtaking
    traversal between pointscoming, arrival going, departure
    commercial transaction buyingselling
    +


    +
    + 2.3.3 The Total Number of Stems

    +

    As each of the 3600 roots has six holistic stems (three in + each Form) and twelve complementary stems (six in each Form), there are a total + of 64,800 possible stems. We have begun to see how the dynamics of Ithkuil morphology + and morpho-semantics allow this limited number to permutate into a myriad of + imaginative and dynamic forms for application to any semantic context.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    2.4 CONSONANTAL MUTATION

    +

    Both of the consonantal radicals from Section + 2.3.1 above, C1 and C2, + are capable of undergoing mutation, that is, shifting to a different consonantal + form. The specific rules governing such mutation, however, are quite distinct + for C1 radicals as compared to C2 + radicals.

    +


    + 2.4.1 C1 Mutation

    +

    As stated earlier, there are 60 forms for radical C1. + Each can mutate into eight other forms, giving a total of nine possible manifestations + of each C1 radical. These are labelled + Grade 1, Grade 2, etc., up to Grade 9. The nine grades of all 60 C1 + radicals are shown in Table No. 6 below. As examples, we can examine the nine + grades of the C1 radicals + k and pl:

    +
    +

    k + g k’ + + kf km + kn + çk/k + çk’/k’

    +

    pl + bl pr + br + p + b + p + b + bw/by

    +
    +


    + Table No. 6: C1 + Mutation Patterns by Grade

    + + + + + + + + + +
    +

     

    +

    2.4.2 C2 Mutation

    +

    As with C1, there are + 60 forms of the second radical, C2. These + in turn can mutate into eight other forms, for a total of nine possible forms + for each C2 radical. These are shown + in Table No. 7 below. As an example, note the mutations of the C2 + radical t: +

    +
    +

    t + tt rt + st + lt t + št + nt + sst

    +
    +

    By combining the above mutational patterns for C1 + and C2, along with the various vocalic + mutational patterns we will explore in the next section, we can see that any + given stem can easily mutate into myriad forms which, on the surface, bear scant + visual (or phonetic) resemblance to the original stem.
    +

    +

    Table No. 7: C2 + Mutation Patterns by Grade

    + + + + + + + + + +
    +

     

    + + + + + +
    +

    2.5 VOCALIC MUTATION

    + +

    In Section 2.2.3 above we saw how the + morpho-phonological distinctions of Mode, Form and Pattern are accomplished + by stem-specific vocalic infixes as illustrated in Table + 5. Like the consonantal C1 and C2 + radicals, each of these specific stem-infixes can in turn mutate into eight + variations for a total of nine mutations, termed Series A, Series B, Series + C, etc. (Note that the ninth series is termed Series J rather than Series I, + in order not to confuse the use of ‘I’ as a letter versus a Roman + numeral). Consequently each root has a total of 324 different vocalic infixes + depending on the Stem, Mode, Form, Pattern, and Series. These series of vowel + mutations are shown in Tables 8(a) through 8(f) below, with each table indicating + a different combination of Mode and Pattern.

    +

    Tables 8(a)-(f): Vocalic + Mutation by Stem, Mode, Pattern, Form and Series
    +
    + Table 8(a): Primary Mode, Pattern + 1

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    a
    + u
    + i
    ai
    + ui
    + ei
    a’(ï)
    + u’(ï)
    + i’(ï)
    a’wï
    + u’wï
    + i’wï
    a’wa
    + u’wa
    + i’wa
    a’we
    + u’we
    + i’we
    a’wi
    + u’wi
    + i’wi
    a’wë
    + u’wë
    + i’wë
    a’wo
    + u’wo
    + i’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    â
    + û
    + î
    au
    + ou
    + eu
    â’(ï)
    + û’(ï)
    + î ’(ï)
    a’yï
    + u’yï
    + i’yï
    a’ya
    + u’ya
    + i’ya
    a’ye
    + u’ye
    + i’ye
    a’yu
    + u’yu
    + i’yu
    a’yë
    + u’yë
    + i’yë
    a’yo
    + u’yo
    + i’yo
    +


    + Table 8(b): Primary Mode, Pattern + 2

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    e
    + o
    + ë
    ia
    + io
    + ie
    e’(ï)
    + o’(ï)
    + ë’(ï)
    e’wï
    + o’wï
    + ë’wï
    e’wa
    + o’wa
    + ë’wa
    e’we
    + o’we
    + ë’we
    e’wi
    + o’wi
    + ë’wi
    e’wë
    + o’wë
    + ë’wë
    e’wo
    + o’wo
    + ë’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    ê
    + ô
    + ÿ
    ua
    + uo
    + ue
    ê’(ï)
    + ô’(ï)
    + ÿ’(ï)
    e’yï
    + o’yï
    + ë’yï
    e’ya
    + o’ya
    + ë’ya
    e’ye
    + o’ye
    + ë’ye
    e’yu
    + o’yu
    + ë’yu
    e’yë
    + o’yë
    + ë’yë
    e’yo
    + o’yo
    + ë’yo
    +


    + Table 8(c): Primary Mode, Pattern + 3

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    ä
    + ö
    + ü
    ea
    + ië
    + ëi
    ä’(ï)
    + ö’(ï)
    + ü’(ï)
    ä’wï
    + ö’wï
    + ü’wï
    ä’wa
    + ö’wa
    + ü’wa
    ä’we
    + ö’we
    + ü’we
    ä’wi
    + ö’wi
    + ü’wi
    ä’wë
    + ö’wë
    + ü’wë
    ä’wo
    + ö’wo
    + ü’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    ae
    + ø
    + iu
    oa
    + ëu
    + uë
    ae’(ï)
    + ø’(ï)
    + iu’(ï)
    ä’yï
    + ö’yï
    + ü’yï
    ä’ya
    + ö’ya
    + ü’ya
    ä’ye
    + ö’ye
    + ü’ye
    ä’yu
    + ö’yu
    + ü’yu
    ä’yë
    + ö’yë
    + ü’yë
    ä’yo
    + ö’yo
    + ü’yo
    +


    +
    + Table 8(d): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 1

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    aî
    + uî
    + eî
    a’i
    + u’i
    + e’i
    âì
    + ûì
    + êì
    ai’wï
    + ui’wï
    + ei’wï
    ai’wa
    + ui’wa
    + ei’wa
    ai’we
    + ui’we
    + ei’we
    ai’wi
    + ui’wi
    + ei’wi
    ai’wë
    + ui’wë
    + ei’wë
    ai’wo
    + ui’wo
    + ei’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    aû
    + oû
    + eû
    a’u
    + o’u
    + e’u
    âù
    + oî
    + êù
    au’yï
    + ou’yï
    + eu’yï
    au’ya
    + ou’ya
    + eu’ya
    au’ye
    + ou’ye
    + eu’ye
    au’yu
    + ou’yu
    + eu’yu
    au’yë
    + ou’yë
    + eu’yë
    au’yo
    + ou’yo
    + eu’yo
    +


    +
    + Table 8(e): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 2

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    eì
    + oi
    + oì
    i’a
    + i’e
    + i’o
    îa
    + îo
    + îe
    â’wï
    + ê’wï
    + ô’wï
    â’wa
    + ê’wa
    + ô’wa
    â’we
    + ê’we
    + ô’we
    â’wi
    + ê’wi
    + ô’wi
    â’wë
    + ê’wë
    + ô’wë
    â’wo
    + ê’wo
    + ô’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    aè
    + où
    + eù
    u’a
    + u’e
    + u’o
    ûa
    + ûo
    + ûe
    â’yï
    + ê’yï
    + ô’yï
    â’ya
    + ê’ya
    + ô’ya
    â’ye
    + ê’ye
    + ô’ye
    â’yu
    + ê’yu
    + ô’yu
    â’yë
    + ê’yë
    + ô’yë
    â’yo
    + ê’yo
    + ô’yo
    +


    +
    + Table 8(f): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 3

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Series
    + A
    + B
    + C
    + D
    + E
    + F
    + G
    + H
    + J
    Form
    + I
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    aì
    + uì
    + ëì
    e’a
    + i’ë
    + ë’i
    iê
    + îù
    + üa
    û’wï
    + ø’wï
    + î’wï
    û’wa
    + ø’wa
    + î’wa
    û’we
    + ø’we
    + î’we
    û’wi
    + ø’wi
    + î’wi
    û’wë
    + ø’wë
    + î’wë
    û’wo
    + ø’wo
    + î’wo
    Form
    + II
    stem 1
    + stem 2
    + stem 3
    aù
    + ëù
    + iù
    o’a
    + ë’u
    + u’ë
    aê
    + üe
    + iû
    û’yï
    + ø’yï
    + î’yï
    û’ya
    + ø’ya
    + î’ya
    û’ye
    + ø’ye
    + î’ye
    û’yu
    + ø’yu
    + î’yu
    û’yë
    + ø’yë
    + î’yë
    û’yo
    + ø’yo
    + î’yo
    +

     

    + + + + +

    2.6 + PARTS OF SPEECH

    +

    Ithkuil has only two parts of speech: formatives and + adjuncts. While Ithkuil does employ words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term formative. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.6.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ithkuil, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.

    +

    Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will, of course, + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).

    +


    + 2.6.1 Formatives

    +

    The stem formed as per the discussion in Section + 2.3 above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the formative. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative + klâd illustrated above in Section 2.3.2.1 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ithkuil formative exclusively into a noun or verb form + is arbitrary. For example, the following Ithkuil phrases can be translated using + either verbal predicates or purely nominal phrases:
    +

    +

    + ______Listen! +
    + ‘by the time of his death’ OR + ‘by the time he dies’

    +


    +
    + ‘the awful-smelling woman’ OR + ‘the woman smells awful’

    +


    + + ______Listen! +
    + ‘what the eagle sees’ OR + ‘the eagle’s seeing something’

    +


    + The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either spatially “reify” this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:

    +
    +


    +

    +
    +

     

    +

    2.6.2 Adjuncts

    +

    Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”). +

    +

    Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, + most of which are described in detail in Chapter + 8: Adjuncts. These include:

    +
      +
    • +
      Personal Reference Adjuncts: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Valence Adjuncts and Conflation Adjuncts: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Version, Derivation, Format, + Level, and Modality. Each of these categories is discussed in Chapter + 5: Verb Morphology.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Aspectual Adjuncts: These are used in + conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information on the morphological + categories of Aspect, Mood, Validation, Phase, Sanction, and Bias. Each + of these categories is discussed in Chapter + 6: Additional Verb Morphology.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Affixual Adjuncts: These function as + whole-word substitutes for the consonantal affixes usually added to formatives. + Their use is governed primarily by phonaesthetic principles (see + Section 1.4.5).
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Combination Adjuncts: A blanket category + covering several types of complex adjuncts which combine several distinct + morphological categories into a single adjunct. Used primarily for euphonic + and phonaesthetic purposes.
      +
      • +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    2.7 AFFIXES

    +

    + Ithkuil, like English, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. The rules governing the formation of these affixes + are rather complex. The fundamentals are discussed below, while the actual affixes + themselves are explored later in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes.
    +


    + 2.7.1 Consonant-based Affixes

    +

    Ithkuil makes a fundamental distinction between purely vocalic + affixes (i.e., containing no consonants) and affixes which are based on a consonant + (which may or may not contain vowels). In this section we will explore consonant-based + affixes.

    +

    Every consonant-based affix used with a formative is composed + of an invariable (i.e., non-mutating) consonant, but has a variable vocalic + form associated with it. The suffix form of a consonant-based affix is of the + form V+C (i.e., vowel + consonant), with an optional alternate + form of C+V when in word-final position and in certain other + circumstances. This word-final alternate form is explained in more detail in + Chapter 7. As for + the optional prefix form of consonantal affixes, this will also be discussed + in Chapter 7; the discussion below applies only to the suffix form of affixes.

    +

    While the consonantal portion of the affix is always invariable, + the vocalic portion mutates depending on two morphological factors known as + degree and affix-type. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for affix-type, + every consonantal-based V+C (or C+V) affix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before (or after) the invariable consonant + C. The three affix-types are labelled V1, + V2, and V3, + in reference to the vowel portion of the affix.

    +


    + 2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting

    +

    In addition to the three affix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three affix-types. + Table 9 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each affix-type.

    +

    Under certain circumstances where the final stem consonant + and the consonant portion of the consonantal suffix can be conjoined without + causing confusion (i.e., where the conjoined consonants will not be mistaken + for a mutation of the final consonantal radical C2), + Ithkuil permits the option to reverse the order of the vowel and consonant of + the suffix. This alternate form is shown in the second column of the table for + each degree. In this alternate form, the vocalic portion follows, rather than + precedes the consonant portion of the suffix.

    +

    +

    Table 9: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Affix Type

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Affix + Type 1: -V1C
    Affix + Type 2: -V2C
    Affix + Type 3: -V3C
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    Degree + 1
    -iC
    -Cai
    -îC
    -Cëi
    -ieC
    -Caï
    Degree + 2
    -eC
    -Cei
    -êC / -eiC
    -Ceu
    -iëC
    -Ceï
    Degree + 3
    -äC / -aeC
    -Cia
    -âC /-aiC
    -Câ
    -iuC
    -Ciï
    Degree + 4
    -öC
    -Cua
    -øC / -euC
    -Ciu
    -ioC
    -Coï
    Degree + 5
    -(a)C
    -Ca
    -uiC
    -Cui
    -iäC
    -Cuï
    Degree + 6
    -üC / -ëuC
    -Cü
    -ÿC / -auC
    -Cau
    -uäC
    -Cäi
    Degree + 7
    -ïC / -ëiC
    -Cï
    -ëC
    -Cëu
    -uoC
    -Cöi
    Degree + 8
    -oC
    -Coi
    -ôC / -oiC / -ouC
    -Cou
    -uëC
    -Cäu
    Degree + 9
    -uC
    -Cu
    -ûC
    -Cû
    -ueC
    -Cöu
    +

    Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 10 below how these suffixes (and their alternate word-final forms) + would actually appear in conjunction with the stem rit:

    +


    + TABLE 10: EXAMPLE OF ALTERNATION + OF VOWEL POSITION IN SUFFIXES

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Suffix: + -V1k
    Affix + Type 2: -V2k
    Affix + Type 3: -V3k
    Degree + 1
    ritik / ritkai
    ritîk / ritkëi
    ritiek / ritkaï
    Degree + 2
    ritek / ritkei
    ritêk / riteik / ritkeu
    ritiëk / ritkeï
    Degree + 3
    ritäk / ritaek / ritkia
    ritâk / ritaik / ritkâ
    ritiuk /ritkiï
    Degree + 4
    ritök / ritkua
    ritøk / riteuk / ritkiu
    ritiok / ritkoï
    Degree + 5
    ritk / ritak / ritka
    rituik / ritkui
    ritiäk / ritkuï
    Degree + 6
    ritük / ritëuk / ritkü
    ritÿk / ritauk / ritkau
    rituäk / ritkäi
    Degree + 7
    ritïk / ritëik / ritkï
    ritëk / ritkëu
    rituok / ritköi
    Degree + 8
    ritok /ritkoi
    ritôk / ritoik / ritouk / ritkou
    rituëk / ritkäu
    Degree + 9
    rituk / ritku
    ritûk / ritkû
    rituek / ritköu
    +

    Because the “reversed” -CV form of the suffix + reinforces a CVC syllabic structure for the stem syllable of the word, such + reversed word-final suffixes are common in Ithkuil (see + Sec. 1.4.5).

    +

    As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ithkuil to create a gradient system for all consonantal affixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + affix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated + with the nine degrees for the affix -V1d.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Degree
    Suffix
    Meaning
     
    + 1
    		-id / -daiwholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all
     
    2
    		-ed / -deiway too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough
     
    + 3
    		-äd / -aed / -dianot enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]
     
    + 4
    		-öd / -duanot quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]
     
    + 5
    		-d / -ad / -daenough (of) / sufficient(ly)
     
    + 6
    		-üd / -ëud / -düa little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]
     
    + 7
    		-ïd / -ëid / -dïtoo / too much / over-[+verb]
     
    + 8
    		-od /-doiway too much / totally over-[+verb]
     
    + 9
    		-ud / -dunothing but / to the exclusion of all else
    +


    + 2.7.3 Vocalic Affixes

    +

    Other than the stem-infixes previously discussed in Section + 2.3 et seq., the use of vocalic affixes (i.e., affixes based on vowels rather + than consonants) in Ithkuil occurs in several contexts — vocalic prefixes + to formatives, vocalic prefixes and suffixes to adjuncts, and the anaptyctic + affixes -ï-, and -a. Each of these contexts + is discussed below:

    +

    2.7.3.1 Vocalic Prefixes. Vocalic prefixes + are used with both formatives and adjuncts, and consist of either single vowels + or two-vowel conjuncts or diphthongs (e.g., a-, ui-, + ae-, ia-, ö-, eu-, + etc.). Additionally, these prefixes can take an initial w- + or y- increment. While these prefixes are often highly synthetic + morphologically (i.e., a single prefix can carry information for multiple grammatical + categories), they do not mutate. A word can take only one such prefix. The usage + and function of these vocalic prefixes will be discussed as they are encountered + in the chapters on morphology which follow.

    +

    2.7.3.2 Vocalic Suffixes. Purely vocalic suffixes + (other than the anaptyctic vowels discussed below) occur only in adjuncts, not + formatives. Like vocalic prefixes described immediately above, they can be highly + synthetic morphologically but do not mutate. Unlike vocalic prefixes, there + can be multiple vocalic suffixes on an adjunct, joined agglutinatively (i.e., + added on one after the other) with intervening consonantal affixes.

    +

    2.7.3.3 Anaptyctic Vowels + -ï- and -a. Sometimes the grammatical rules of a language require + a meaningless phonemic increment to be affixed to a word, whether as a prefix, + suffix, or infix. This is known as anaptyxis. As will be discussed in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes, an anaptyctic infix, -ï-, is used + in Ithkuil to separate consonantal prefixes from the C1 + stem consonantal radical wherever necessary for phonotactical euphony or to + prevent confusion in misinterpreting the prefix consonant(s) as part of the + C1 radical. For example, while the prefix + s- is phonotactically + permissible before the stem kaf, + the resulting word must be sïkaf, + not skaf, + as the latter is a completely different stem employing a C1 + radical sk-.

    +

    An anaptyctic vowel is also sometimes required in Ithkuil when + grammatical rules call for antepenultimate stress on a word (i.e., the third-from-last + syllable is stressed), but the word in question has only one or two syllables. + In such cases, the number of syllables must be increased to three. Sometimes + this can be done by restructuring any consonantal affixes the word may have, + but more often than not, anaptyctic vowels must be affixed. In this case the + anaptyctic vowel ï- can be prefixed to a word beginning + with a consonant (usually nominal formatives), and/or an anaptyctic vowel -a + can be suffixed to the end of a word, e.g., kfuil + ïkfùila. + This anaptyctic suffix -a is also required for phonotactical + euphony when grammatical rules require the mutation of the second radical C2 + to a form which is not permissible in word-final position, e.g., t + tt + as in reit + reitta.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    2.8 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY

    +

    While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ithkuil, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Ibero-Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity + of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

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    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c251ef9 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1799 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 3: Basic Morphology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 3: Basic Morphology

    + +


    + As previously discussed in + Section 2.6.1, the distinction between nouns and verbs common to most languages + is rather blurred in Ithkuil. All lexical stems in Ithkuil function equally + as nouns or verbs and share many of the same morpho-semantic features and categories. + This is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns and verbs as being + cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations + of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components + are space and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are + merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or + verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s + sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal formatives as + verbs when discussing their morphology.

    +

    All Ithkuil formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs, + inflect for nine Configurations, four Affiliations, + four Perspectives, six Extensions, two Focus + distinctions, four Contexts, two Designations, + and two Essences, and can take any of more than 1300 optional + affixes. These morphological categories are explained in the sections which + follow.

    +

     

    + +
    + + + + +
    +

    3.1 CONFIGURATION

    +
    +

    To understand the Ithkuil concept of enumeration and quantification + of nouns (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one must analyze + three separate but related grammatical categories termed Configuration, + Affiliation, and Perspective. These concepts + are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which + are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually made at the lexical + level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological as + in Ithkuil. In this section we will deal first with Configuration, followed + by Affiliation in Section 3.2 and Perspective in Section + 3.3.

    +

    Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity + or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, collections, + sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal + composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential + structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain + English sets of words.

    +

    Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a + single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of + trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a + plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees. + However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings + than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as + in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different + kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray + such as a ‘jungle.’

    +

    As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ + While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) + person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons + (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as + ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

    +

    Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further + configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships + between car versus convoy, hanger versus rack, + chess piece versus chess set, sentry versus blockade, + piece of paper versus sheaf, girder versus (structural) + framework, and coin versus roll of coins all exemplify + these principles.

    +

    Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary + sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two + identical referents as in a pair of eyes, however they are more often + opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in limbs, + ears, hands, wings, etc.

    +

    In Ithkuil, the semantic distinctions implied by the above + examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be + accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ + into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis + of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made + by means of Affiliation (see Section 3.2 below) and by + the use of specific affixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ + or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ + via Configuration, the Ithkuil words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ + ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation + and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using affixes are explored in + detail in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes.)

    +

    The nine configurations are the UNIPLEX, + DUPLEX, DISCRETE, + AGGREGATIVE, SEGMENTATIVE, + COMPONENTIAL, COHERENT, + COMPOSITE, and MULTIFORM. + The function and morphology of these categories are explained below.

    +
    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.1
    UNI
    		The Uniplex
    +
    +

    The UNIPLEX configuration is marked by + Grade 1 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a single, contextual embodiment of the stem concept, i.e., one whole contextual + unit of the basic nominal stem, e.g., a tree, a person, a screwdriver, a + grape, a hammer blow, a hole. With verbs the UNIPLEX + signifies a single, holistic act, state, or event, e.g., to be a tree, to + become a person, to use a screwdriver, to eat a grape, to strike (once) with + a hammer, to dig a hole.


    + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.2
    DPX
    		The Duplex
    +
    +

    The DUPLEX configuration is marked by + Grade 2 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s + eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., it can also be used to describe any set of two + identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., a matched pair of + vases, a two-volume set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents. Thus, the + Ithkuil word for spouse inflected for the DUPLEX + configuration would translate as a man and wife or a married couple.

    +

    One context in which the DUPLEX appears + for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” + exemplified by English words such as bounce, flash, arc, + wag, swing, switch, breathe/respiration, + indeed, any concept which involves a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth, + in/out, empty/full, or on/off. Use of the DUPLEX in these + contexts implies a full cycling through the two complementary states involved. + For example the word for hammer blow inflected for the UNIPLEX + would signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected + for the DUPLEX signifies a single down-then-up cycle of + the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action + being divided by the impact.

    +
    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.3
    DCT
    		The Discrete
    +
    +

    The DISCRETE configuration is marked + by Grade 3 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units that are more or less identiform (each + having the same design or physical appearance). This grouping or set-nature + can be either spatial, as in a flock of gulls (flying together), or + temporal (i.e., sequentially repetitive or iterative) as in (a flock of) + gulls flying one after another. Further examples of English nouns or noun + phrases which would be translated using the DISCRETE are + a grove, a set of screwdrivers, a group of soldiers, a pile of leaves, a + bowl of grapes, a series of hammer blows, an area of holes. Thus, the Ithkuil + word for (identical) set would simply be the word for thing + or object inflected for the DISCRETE configuration. + Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a temporally + (i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of an additional affix, + -V1šk, + specifying which spacetime axis is implied. This affix is analyzed in Sec. + 7.7.13.

    +

    For verbs, the DISCRETE signifies a single + set of repetitions, whether spatially or temporally, viewed as a single holistic + event. The individual member components acts, states, or events within this + set can be either UNIPLEX, e.g., to take steps, to + flip through pages, to have spots, to dig holes in an area, or DUPLEX + in nature, e.g., to hammer, to spin, to breathe.

    +

    It should be noted that the Containment CNM + affix, -Vomt, + can be used with the DISCRETE, as well as most of the + following configurations, to designate specifically the type of container, holder, + or means of conveyance for a configurative set (e.g., a sack, package, jar, + bottle, pile, load, etc.)
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.4
    AGG
    		The Aggregative
    +
    +

    The AGGREGATE configuration is marked + by Grade 4 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and functions + like the DISCRETE above in referring to an associated + group or set of entities, except that the members of the configurational set + are not identical to one another. Examples of English words/entities which would + be translated using the AGGREGATIVE are a forest + (of different kinds of trees), a toolset, a citizens group, a mixed pile + of leaves, an assortment of animals, an area of different-sized holes, a series + of musical notes. With verbs, the AGGREGATIVE implies + a spatially or temporally repeated set of non-identical acts, events, or states + considered as a whole contextual unit. It would be used, for example, in translating + the sentence This morning I dug holes in my garden (i.e., of different + sizes).


    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.5SEG The Segmentative
    +
    +

    The SEGMENTATIVE configuration is marked + by Grade 5 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units, the individual members of which are + physically similar or identical and are either in physical contact with one + another, physically connected via some linking medium, or in sufficiently close + contact with one another so that the group moves or operates together. Examples + would be a web, a train of flatcars, a convoy of schoolbuses, a string of + pearls, a fall of leaves, a line of dancers, a parade of Barbie dolls (e.g., + coming off an assembly line). To illustrate the difference between this configuration + and the DISCRETE above, we saw that the word grape + in the DISCRETE would be translated as a serving of + grapes, while in the SEGMENTATIVE it would mean a + bunch of grapes (i.e., still connected to each other on a portion of vine). +

    +

    With verbs, the use of the SEGMENTATIVE + versus the DISCRETE implies that the repetitive/iterative + nature of the act, state, or event occurs naturally due to the contextual nature + of the precipitating event or agent. It would thus be used to distinguish the + fuselage of bullets from a machine-gun from the simple hail of bullets from + single-fire weapons. Likewise, it would distinguish The light is blinking + from The light is flashing, where blink implies the way + in which the source naturally emits light, while flash implies that + the light is being made to emit repetitive bursts of light.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.6CPN The Componential
    +
    +

    The COMPONENTIAL configuration is marked + by Grade 6 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and operates + identically to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the + individual members of the configurational set are not physically similar or + identical to each other. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated + using the COMPONENTIAL are a freight train, a cascade + of (mixed) fruit (i.e., a continuous stream of fruit falling), a line of ticketholders, + a parade of floats, a pattern of musical notes. With verbs, the COMPONENTIAL + signifies a connected series of repetitions where the individual acts, events, + or states comprising the repetitive set are non-identical. It would distinguish + The light twinkled from The light was blinking.

    +
    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.7COH The Coherent
    +
    +

    The COHERENT configuration is marked + by Grade 7 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and functions + similarly to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the individual + members of the configuration are connected, fused or mixed with one another + to form a coherent emergent entity, i.e., the total configuration of objects + constitutes an entirely new gestalt-like entity. Examples of English words which + would be translated using the COHERENT are a bookcase, + a phalanx, a xylophone.

    +

    In the realm of verbs, finding English translations illustrating + the COHERENT is difficult. If one can imagine the verb + to glow to mean a series of flashes blurred one into another to create + a continuous emanation, then glow versus flash might suffice. + Perhaps a better illustration would be the difference between to buzz + from to make a set of repeating noises.

    +
    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.8CST The Composite
    +
    +

    The COMPOSITE configuration is marked + by Grade 8 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and operates + the same as the COHERENT above except that the individual + members of the configurational set are not identical or physically similar to + one another. Examples of words/concepts that would be translated using the COMPOSITE + are a building (= a constructional set of walls, floors, doors, windows, + etc.), a communications array, a conspiracy, a jungle thicket. Thus + the Ithkuil words for recipe, skeleton, and melody would simply + be the words for ingredient, bone, and musical note + inflected for the COMPOSITE configuration. For verbs, + the COMPOSITE versus COHERENT distinction + would distinguish to rumble from to buzz, or to glitter + from to glow.

    +
    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.9MLT The Multiform
    +
    +

    The MULTIFORM configuration is marked + by Grade 9 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and is + the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent. + The MULTIFORM serves to identify the noun as an individual + member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates + in non-traditional logic, describing a set whose individual members do not all + share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there + may be one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining + attributes of the set exclusively and exactly, other members of the set may + vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical + resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. Indeed, some members of the set may + display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype + of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient + overlap” between members of differing sets.

    +

    It is difficult to accurately translate into English without + resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ithkuil easily expresses + using the MULTIFORM. For example, the Ithkuil word for + ‘tree’ inflected for the MULTIFORM configuration + would mean something like a group of what appear to be trees, or better + yet, a group of tree-like objects (i.e., some being trees, and others + seeming less like trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity + of membership varies by different degrees in comparison to an archetypical member + of the set can be expressed using the MULTIFORM. For examples, + the Ithkuil word for library would simply be a word meaning something + like work (i.e. thing authored/composed) inflected for the MULTIFORM, + signifying a hodge-podge assortment of writings and compositions (e.g., including + books, pamphlets, notebooks, ledgers, formulas, letters, journals, recordings, + magazines, etc.). Other example concepts translatable using the MULTIFORM + would be a rag-tag group of people, an incoherent pattern, lives in flux.

    +

    With verbs, the MULTIFORM implies that + the individual repetitions comprising an act, state, or event have varying degrees + of spatio-temporal similarity to each other. A few English verbs such as fluctuate, + sputter or flicker capture this sense.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    +

    3.2 AFFILIATION

    +
    +

    While the category of Configuration from the preceding section + distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set in terms + of physical characteristics, physical attributes or physical connections, the + category of Affiliation operates similarly to distinguish the member relationships + in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically + in conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship + between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the meanings of nouns or verbs + in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into + English.

    +

    Returning to our earlier example of the word tree, + we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes a grove in + the DISCRETE configuration. The word grove implies + that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in + regard to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may + be planted by design, in which case they become an orchard. We saw + how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed a + forest. However, such assortments can become wholly chaotic, displaying + patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming + a jungle.

    +

    As another example, we saw how the word person becomes + group, or gathering, both of which are neutral as to subjective + purpose or function. However, applying a sense of purposeful design generates + words such as team, while the absence of purpose results in crowd.

    +

    There are four affiliations: CONSOLIDATIVE, + ASSOCIATIVE, VARIATIVE, and COALESCENT. + Affiliation is marked by a word-initial vocalic prefix which varies depending + on the extension of the formative, as well as being dependent on the format + for verbs (see Sections 3.4 and 5.3 for an explanation of these respective categories). + For nouns, these prefixes are shown in Table 11 in Section + 3.4 on Extension. For verbs, these prefixes are shown in Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1. The details of each affiliation are explained below.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.2.1 CSL The Consolidative
    +

    The CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring + set where the function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable, + irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the ASSOCIATIVE + affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively + defined by human design. Examples are tree branches, a grove, a mound of + rocks, some people, the clouds.

    +

    The CONSOLIDATIVE is also the affiliation + normally applied to nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration + when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the UNIPLEX + specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept + of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, + a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf. With verbs, the CONSOLIDATIVE + would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral + as to purpose or design.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.2.2
    ASO
    		The Associative
    +

    The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective + function, state, purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the + Ithkuil word for soldier in the DISCRETE configuration + and comparing its English translations when inflected for the CONSOLIDATIVE + affiliation (= a group of soldiers) versus the ASSOCIATIVE + (= a troop, a platoon). It is this CONSOLIDATIVE + versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction, then, that would distinguish + otherwise equivalent DISCRETE inflections of the Ithkuil + word for tree by translating them respectively as a grove versus an + orchard.

    +

    The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation can also + be used with nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration to signify + a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. + For example, the word person inflected for the UNIPLEX + and ASSOCIATIVE would translate as a single-minded + person. Even nouns such as rock, tree or work of + art could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as a well-formed + rock, a tree with integrity, a “balanced” work of art.

    +

    With verbs, the ASSOCIATIVE signifies + that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The CONSOLIDATIVE + versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction could be used, for example, + with the verb turn in I turned toward the window to indicate + whether it was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.2.3
    VAR
    		The Variative
    +

    The VARIATIVE affiliation indicates that + the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function, + state, purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees + (i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, purpose, etc.) or at + complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the VARIATIVE + would not be used to signify opposed but complementary differences among set + members (see the COALESCENT affiliation below). It would + thus be used to signify a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering, + a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of + books, a collection in disarray. It operates with nouns in the UNIPLEX + to render meanings such as a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock, + a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation.

    +

    With verbs, the VARIATIVE indicates an + act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that + those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably + be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in She bought the house + for various reasons or My being at the party served several purposes. + With non-UNIPLEX configurations, the use of the VARIATIVE + affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using + the SEGMENTATIVE configuration such as The light is + blinking in conjunction with the VARIATIVE would + mean that each blink of the light signals something different than the preceding + or following blinks.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.2.4
    COA
    		The Coalescent
    +

    The COALESCENT affiliation indicates + that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship + with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. + This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of + other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For + example, the Ithkuil word translating English toolset would be the + word for tool in the AGGREGATIVE configuration + (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the COALESCENT + affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function + in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example + would be the Ithkuil word for finger inflected for the SEGMENTATIVE + configuration and the COALESCENT affiliation, translatable + as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the SEGMENTATIVE + to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further + example would be using the COALESCENT with the word for + (piece of) food to signify a well-balanced meal.

    +

    The COALESCENT naturally appears most + often in conjunction with the DUPLEX configuration since + binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical + binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image + distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. + Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g., + one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the COALESCENT + affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., one’s left and + right eye functioning together).

    +

    With verbs, the COALESCENT signifies + that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which + make up a greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structure + onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work together in + complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for + example, to distinguish the sentences He traveled in the Yukon from + He ventured in the Yukon, or I came up with a plan versus + I fashioned a plan.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    3.3. PERSPECTIVE

    +

    + Perspective is the closest Ithkuil morphological category to the Number and + Tense categories of other languages (e.g., singular/plural and past/present/future). + However, the correspondence is only approximate because Perspective does not + specifically address the quantity to which a formative is instantiated within + a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the + manner in which it is spatio-temporally instantiated. Specifically, + Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded” + contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation), + 2) an unbounded entity (i.e., manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible), + 3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as + a spatio-temporally neutral abstraction. How this works requires separate explanations + for nouns and verbs.
    +

    Perspective with Nouns. What Perspective means + for nouns is that, in addition to merely indicating whether a given spatial + context contains one or more than one, it also specifies single versus multiple + manifestations in time, as well as along an axis of concreteness versus abstraction. + Complicating the picture is the fact that the categories of Configuration and + Affiliation (see Secs. 3.1 + and 3.2 above) already + contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe + multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular” + and “plural” have been avoided.

    +

    Perspective with Verbs. For verbs, the aspect + of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative + context but rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” + i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole + within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” + categories of Western languages. In Ithkuil, the notion of linearly progressive + time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified, + if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see Sec. + 6.4).

    +

    There are four perspectives in Ithkuil: MONADIC, + UNBOUNDED, NOMIC, and ABSTRACT. + They are shown morpho-phonologically by shifts in a formative’s syllabic + stress patterns. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is detailed + below.


    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.3.1
    M
    		The Monadic
    +

    The MONADIC signifies a bounded embodiment + of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant + a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted + in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless being contextually + viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived + to exist within a literal or figurative psychologically uninterrupted boundary. + This is important, since configurations other than the UNIPLEX + technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking + place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container, + corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or + psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, specifically + the “present” (which in Ithkuil might be better thought of as the + “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). + This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for + nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ithkuil considers nouns as spatially + reified concepts while considering verbs to be their temporally “activized” + counterparts (see Section 2.6.1).

    +

    Thus, using the word tree for example, while there + might be many trees present in terms of number, the MONADIC + implies they form only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category + is manifested. Using the AGGREGATIVE configuration as + an example, the MONADIC would mean there is only one AGGREGATIVE + set of trees, i.e., one forest.

    +

    At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective + that Ithkuil makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” + (or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between + those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., one apple, four boys, several + nations), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., water, + sand, plastic, air, laughter). All nouns are countable in Ithkuil in that + all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations + of certain Ithkuil nouns must often be “contextual” rather than + literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable + context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a + puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”

    +

    With verbs, the MONADIC superficially + corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories + except in a habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed + by the MONADIC means that the act, state, or event is + temporally contiguous and accessible from the point of view of the present context. + It would be used to describes an act, state, or event which:

    +
      +
    • +
      takes + place entirely in the present context
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in the accessible past and has continued on into the present context
      +
      • +
    • +
      starts + within the present context and continues on into an accessible future
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past, but only the portion taking place in the present + context is being addressed or is under consideration or relevant within + the context of the utterance
      +
      • +
    • +
      starts + within the present context and may continue into an inaccessible future, + but only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, but + only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance +
      +
      • +
    +

    By “accessible past” or “accessible future” + is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present + at the time and the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically + contiguous, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now as + one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected + predictions, or historical reports. Conversely, “inaccessible” would + mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which + he/she knows only from memory, reports, or predictions.

    +

    The MONADIC is marked by penultimate + stress on the noun or verb (i.e. stress on the second-to-last syllable).


    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.3.2
    U
    		The Unbounded
    +

    The UNBOUNDED signifies “unbounded + embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun + or verb manifests itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary, + i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, + the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member + nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a non-monadic + (i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient + translation into English would be to use the plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps + of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would + be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and + another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’ +

    +

    For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the + psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible + from the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which:

    +
      +
    • +
      occurs + entirely in the inaccessible past
      +
      • +
    • +
      will + occur entirely in the inaccessible future
      +
      • +
    • +
      may + be occurring in the present context but started in an inaccessible past, + and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account that past portion
      +
      • +
    • +
      may + be occurring in the present context but will continue into an inaccessible + future, and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood + without taking into account the future portion
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, and + the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account these inaccessible portions
      +
      • +
    +

    If necessary to specify whether the UNBOUNDED + is referencing the past versus the future, additional aspectual markers can + be employed (see Sec. 6.4 + on Aspect). Note that, even more so than with the MONADIC, + translation of the UNBOUNDED into Western languages is + subjective, as the translation must necessarily convey linear tense information + which is not conveyed by the Ithkuil original.

    +

    The UNBOUNDED is shown by ultimate syllabic + stress (i.e., on the final syllable).


    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.3.3
    N
    		The Nomic
    +

    The NOMIC refers to a generic collective + entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative + set throughout space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context). + Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in particular, + this category is mutually exclusive from the MONADIC or + UNBOUNDED. For nouns, the NOMIC + corresponds approximately to the several constructions used for referring to + collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences The dog + is a noble beast, Clowns are what children love most, There + is nothing like a tree.

    +

    With verbs, the NOMIC designates an action, + event, or situation which describes a general law of nature or a persistently + true condition or situation spoken of in general, without reference to a specific + instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible instances + or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of + expressing such generic statements, generally using the simple present tense. + Examples of usage would be The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele + is sickly, In winter it snows a lot, That girl sings well.

    +

    The NOMIC is shown by antepenultimate + stress (i.e., on the third-from-last syllable).

    +


    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.3.4
    A
    		The Abstract
    +

    Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes + such as -hood or -ness, the ABSTRACT transforms a configurative + category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless + context. While only certain nouns in English can be made into abstracts via + suffixes, all Ithkuil nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into + abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., + grove + the idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book + everything + about books, having to do with books, involvement with books.

    +

    With verbs, the ABSTRACT is used in verbal + constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship + of the action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable, + similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund form (used as substitutes + for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences: + Singing is not his strong suit; It makes no sense to + worry about it; I can't stand her pouting. As + a result, the ABSTRACT acts as a "timeless" + verb form which, much like these English infinitives and gerunds, operates in + conjunction with a separate main verb in one of the other three perspectives. + The ABSTRACT is often used in conjunction with certain + modalities and moods of the verb (see Sec. + 5.5 on Modality and Sec. + 6.5 on Mood) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which + the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or unknowable.

    +

    The ABSTRACT is marked in either of two + ways: (1) by preantepenultimate stress, i.e., on the fourth-to-last syllable, + or (2) by a combination of ultimate stress plus the addition of an anaptyctic + vowel -ï- or -a- in any morpho-phonologically + permissible position of the word (as previously described in Sec. + 2.7.3.3). This extra vowel can be placed at any position within the word + except within the stem, as long as the vowel does not lead to confusion or ambiguity + in interpreting the phonological boundaries of any other suffixes to the stem. + (Note that in word-final position, only anatyctic -a, not -ï, + is permitted.)

    +

     

    + + + + + +
    +

    3.4 EXTENSION

    +

    Extension is another Ithkuil morphological category for which + there is no exact equivalent in other languages. It applies to all formatives + and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms + of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. There are six extensions: DELIMITIVE, + PROXIMAL, INCEPTIVE, TERMINATIVE, + DEPLETIVE, and GRADUATIVE, shown + by a vocalic prefix to the formative in conjunction with Affiliation for nouns + (see Sec. 3.2 above) and Affiliation plus Format for verbs + (see Section 5.4 on Format). + The table below shows these prefixes for nouns. The prefixes for verbs are shown + in Table 14 in Section 5.4. + How Extension operates is explained in detail following the table.

    +


    + Table 11: Word-Initial Affiliation/Extension + Prefixes for Nominal Formatives

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    AFFILIATION
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    EXTENSION
    DEL
    PRX
    ICP
    TRM
    DPL
    GRD
    DELIMITIVE
    PROXIMAL
    INCEPTIVE
    TERMINATIVE
    DEPLETIVE
    GRADUATIVE
    CSL
    CONSOLIDATIVE
    (a-)*
    â-
    ai-
    au-
    ä-
    ö-
    ASO
    ASSOCIATIVE
    u-
    û-
    ui-
    iu-
    ü-
    ë-
    VAR
    VARIATIVE
    e-
    ê-
    ei-
    eu-
    ëi-
    ëu-
    COA
    COALESCENT
    i-
    î-
    o-
    ô-
    ae-
    ea-
    + +* This a- prefix is optional +if the nominal versus verbal status of the formative can be determined from other +morphological elements or if the meaning of the phrase or sentence is clear regardless +of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
    +

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + + +
    3.4.1
    DEL
    		The Delimitive
    +

    The DELIMITIVE extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with + clear spatio-temporal boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion, + edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It can be + considered the neutral or default view, e.g., a tree, a grove, a set of + books, an army. To illustrate a contextual example, the English sentence + He climbed the ladder would be translated with the word ladder + in the DELIMITIVE to show it is being considered as a + whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is + being considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, e.g., She diets + every winter (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet).

    + + + + + +
    The DELIMITIVE can be thought + of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite beginning and ending points, + beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. The graphic to + the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in + the DELIMITIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the + spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.2
    PRX
    		The Proximal
    +

    The PROXIMAL extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the + portion, duration, subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand. + It would be used to translate the words tree, journey, and + ladder in the sentences That tree is hard there (e.g., in + the spot where I hit against it), She lost weight during her journey, + or He climbed on the ladder (i.e., it is not relevant to the context + to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences, + the PROXIMAL does not refer to a specific or delineated + piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder, but rather to the fact that + delineated boundaries such as the ends of the ladder or the entirety of the + tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this + extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which + is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the + act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a diet + every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not + the total time spent dieting from start to finish).

    +

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates + the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the PROXIMAL + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.3
    ICP
    		The Inceptive
    +

    The INCEPTIVE extension focuses on the + closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion + of a noun or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. It would + be used in translating the nouns tunnel, song, desert, + daybreak and plan in the following sentences: We looked + into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song (i.e., from the + first few notes), They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait + for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). + In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ + or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s + starting to molt, or She goes on a diet every winter.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the INCEPTIVE + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.4
    TRM
    		The Terminative
    +

    The TERMINATIVE extension focuses on + the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without + focusing on the preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would + be used in translating the words water, story, and arrival + in the sentences There’s no water (i.e., we ran out), I like + the end of that story, and We await your arrival. With verbs, + it is illustrated by the sentences It finished molting or She’s + come off her diet.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the TERMINATIVE + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.5
    DPL
    		The Depletive
    +

    The DEPLETIVE extension focuses on the + terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus + is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the + at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). + Essentially, it applies to any context involving actual or figurative fading. + It would be used in translating the words water, strength, + and twilight in the sentences He drank the last of the water, I + have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight. With verbs, + it is exemplified by the phrases to wind down, to fade out, to disappear + gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’s eating less and less + these days.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the DEPLETIVE + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.6
    GRD
    		The Graduative
    +

    The GRADUATIVE extension is the inverse + of the DEPLETIVE, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” + or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words darkness, + wonder, and music in the following sentences: Darkness + came upon us, I felt a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first. + With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as to fade in, to + start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., She’s + been eating more and more lately.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun in the GRADUATIVE to the + context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

    +

    +

    3.4.7 Examples of Configuration, Affiliation, and Extension

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    ‘piece of clothing’ ‘set/suit of clothes’ ‘hand’ ‘pair of hands’
    +
    +
    +     + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    ‘oak tree’ ‘trailing edge of an oak forest’ ‘upland’ ‘foothills’
    +
    +
    +     + + + + + + + + + +
    ‘something yellow’ ‘a mess of varying yellow things as far as the eye can see’
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + +
    + +
    ‘clown’‘running
    + stride’     		‘Something makes the group of running clowns begin stumbling’ + or
    + ‘The group of clowns are made to begin stumbling as they run.’
    + _______________________________Listen! +
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + +
    +

    3.5 FOCUS

    +

    Focus, is a two-way, positive versus negative distinction labeled + +FC FOCUSED and -FC + UNFOCUSED which is applicable to all formatives, whether + functioning as nouns or verbs. The concept of semantic focus refers to what + information in an utterance is to be considered new information as opposed to + background context. The specifics are explained below and are best understood + through various English illustrations.

    +

    In any given discourse (i.e., a contextual series of utterances + such as a conversation, a story, an account of an event, etc.), any single sentence + of that discourse will likely make reference to previously mentioned material + as background, as well as present new material to further the purpose of the + discourse. Semantic focus refers to those elements of a sentence which constitute + new material within an actual or implied discourse. For example, the sentence + My dog jumps through hoops could function as an answer to several different + questions such as 1) What tricks can your dog do?, or 2) Does your + dog do anything with hoops? or 3) Do you know of anyone’s pet + that jumps through hoops? or even 4) What’s up with you? + In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’ + would have semantic focus while the dog is background material. In answering + the second question, the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have + focus while both the dog and the hoops would be background material. In answering + the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus + while jumping through hoops would be backgrounded. Lastly, in answering the + fourth sentence, no element in the sentence has focus over any other, as all + elements present previously unknown material within the context of the discourse. + In general, English conveys focus by a shift in vocal inflection (tone and pitch + contours) to provide emphasis.

    +

    Focus does not necessarily require a full discourse to have + semantic relevance; it can occur within a single autonomous sentence, in which + case the background discourse is implied. For example, a person might spontaneously + begin a conversation with the same sentence: My dog jumps through hoops. In + English, the speaker might use vocal inflection to emphasize what elements convey + semantic focus versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.” + Or, the speaker might say the sentence in a neutral tone of voice, essentially + inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in + responding, e.g., Oh, you have a dog? or Oh, does he do any other + tricks? or Oh, do you use metal or plastic hoops? or an equally + neutral response such as Oh, you don’t say?

    +

    Ithkuil uses the Focus category to accomplish the same options + that such vocal inflections accomplish in English. Any formative or formatives + within an Ithkuil sentence can be marked as FOCUSED to + convey semantic focus. The UNFOCUSED option operates as + the opposing neutral default condition. Focus can be used to subtly distinguish + what in Ithkuil would otherwise be identical sentence. For example, compare + the following two English sentences:

    +
    +

    After I shopped, I went home.
    + I shopped before I went home    .

    +
    +

    Both sentences indicate two sequential events: shopping, then + going home. The difference between them is one of focus. In the first sentence, + I went home has semantic focus, as that is the new information being + conveyed, while in the second sentence it is I shopped that has focus. + In Ithkuil, both sentences would be translated as (First) I shopped then + went home, the only distinction being the +FC FOCUSED + distinction applied to the verb phrase went home in the first sentence, + and to the verb shopped in the second sentence.

    +

    As a further examination of Focus, compare these two very similar + English sentences:

    +
    +

    Mother entered the room and turned on the lights.
    + Mother entered the room and she turned on the lights.

    +
    +

    In the first sentence, the absence of the reduplicative pronoun + ‘she’ before ‘turned’ implies that the entire sentence + is to considered as one reported event with no particular element having the + focus. In the second sentence, however, the reduplicative ‘she’ + implies the sentence is to viewed as two separate events, the first reported + as background, the second having the focus. (For example, one might utter the + second sentence as a complaint about the lights being turned on.) The Ithkuil + equivalents to these sentences would contain no such pronoun distinction. Instead, + the nuances of the second sentence would be conveyed by marking the equivalent + of the verb form as FOCUSED.

    +

    Finally, Focus functions to disambiguate sentences such as + Chicago defeated Oakland, too, which means either (1) ‘Chicago + was one of the teams that defeated Oakland,’ or (2) ‘Oakland was + one of the teams that Chicago defeated.’ Ithkuil would mark one team name + or the other as FOCUSED to show which of these two meanings + is implied.

    +

    The UNFOCUSED attribute is morpho-phonologically + unmarked in Ithkuil, i.e., it is indicated by the absence of any overt change + in the phonological structure of a formative, or by any affix or adjunct. The + FOCUSED attribute is shown in one of three ways for formatives:

    +
      +
    • by insertion of a -w- infix within a formative immediately + following the C1 radical consonant(s), + or
      • +
    • by addition of the suffix -V1’ + in several of its degrees (see Sec. + 7.7.13)
      • +
    • Sec. 5.2 and Sec. + 6.4.5 will show additional ways to manifest positive focus within certain + types of adjuncts.
      +
      • +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    3.6 CONTEXT

    +

    Context is yet another morphological category with no equivalent + in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or aspects + of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There + is no way to show this in translation other than by paraphrase. There are four + contexts: the EXISTENTIAL, the FUNCTIONAL, + the REPRESENTATIONAL, and the AMALGAMATE, + marked by each of the four tones on the formative. They are explained and illustrated + below.

    +
    + + + + + + + + +
    3.6.1 EXS  The Existential
    +

    + The EXISTENTIAL context is marked by falling tone on the + formative. It focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically + objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, + beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the EXISTENTIAL + is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The EXISTENTIAL + serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective + entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun + or verb.
    +

    For example, consider the sentence A cat ran past the doorway. + If the Ithkuil words corresponding to cat, run, and doorway + are in the EXISTENTIAL, then the sentence merely describes + an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature + of the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that + two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial relationship to each other; + those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely + conveys the nature of the spatial relationship.

    +
    + + + + + + + + +
    3.6.2FNC  The Functional
    +

    + The FUNCTIONAL context is marked by high tone on the formative. + It focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas, + attitudes, beliefs, opinions, convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit, + etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that + the noun has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose. +
    +

    For example, in our previous sentence A cat ran past the + doorway, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into + the FUNCTIONAL, the ‘cat’ no longer simply + identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) + significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could + get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with + mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ + now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. + Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the FUNCTIONAL + now implies the furtive nature of the cat.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.6.3RPS  The Representational
    +

    + The REPRESENTATIONAL context is marked by rising tone. + It focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym*, in that it indicates + that the formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other + concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical + connotations of the English sentence That pinstripe-suited dog is checking + out a kitty, can be equally conveyed in Ithkuil by inflecting the words + for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the REPRESENTATIONAL + context. The REPRESENTATIONAL is one of several ways that + Ithkuil overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from + a grammatical standpoint).
    +

    * Metonymy + is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or + phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The + orders came from the White House,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell + the cook the ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person + as in ‘You-know-who just showed up.’
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    3.6.4AMG  The Amalgamate
    +

    The AMALGAMATE context is marked by + broken tone. It is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western + linguistic perspective. It focuses on the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like, + componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective + totality is derived synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the + interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static momentary + appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun + and any interactions and relationships it has (whether past, present or potential) + within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting + the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, + psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with + the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, + intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels. + Thus the AMALGAMATE version of our sentence The cat + ran past the doorway would take on quite melodramatic implications, with + the cat being representative of everything about cats and all they stand for, + the doorway as being representative of the nature of doorways as portals of + change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while + the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of + movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + +
    +

    3.7 DESIGNATION

    +

    Designation is a somewhat subjective category, + with no equivalent in Western languages. Previously mentioned briefly in Sec. + 2.3, it refers to a two-fold distinction in a formative regarding its contextual + status, authority, permanence, or extra-contextual relevance. The two designations + are the INFORMAL and the FORMAL, + explained below.
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    3.7.1
    -FR
    		  The Informal
    +

    The INFORMAL designation is marked by + Form I of vocalic mutation (see Section + 2.2.3). It indicates that the noun or verb in question does not exist in + a necessarily permanent state, or is to be considered only for the duration + of the context in which it is spoken, with any lasting effect, influence or + permanency beyond the context being either absent, unknown or irrelevant.
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    3.7.2
    +FR
    		  The Formal
    +

    The FORMAL designation is marked by Form + II of vocalic mutation (see Section + 2.2.3). The FORMAL imparts a sense of permanency + and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or institutional + manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if + the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’ + ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the INFORMAL + would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and + ‘archetype’ in the FORMAL.

    +

    The FORMAL achieves several subtle purposes + from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ithkuil words would translate + the same in English no matter which designation (e.g., to hurt, to float, + breath, to fall, shade, sleep, cough), many stems would have different + translations in English depending on their designation. For example, the stem + qum with the + affiliated meanings person + group gathering + crowd + throng, etc. in the INFORMAL designation would change + to the following series of approximate translations when placed in the FORMAL + designation: official + team association/congregation + assembly + masses, etc.

    +

    Further examples of lexical shifts in translation due to INFORMAL + FORMAL designation are listed below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     to grow something + to cultivatewander + travel
     obtain/get + procure/requisitionlake + reservoir
     (natural) holder + containersee + observe
     to create + construct/buildheap + pile
     animal + domesticated animala thought + an idea
     natural environment “man-made” + environmentawareness + consciousness
     [natural] exchange + trade/commercehouse + home
     assortment of animals + zoo collection grouping + set
     to group/gather + collectwall + barrier
     get some exercise + to work outplacidity + peace
     problem situation + crisisto populate + to settle
    +

    As can be seen from the above list, the exact interpretation + of Designation for each word-root is specific to each word-root, depending on + its associated semantic context.

    +

     


    + + + + + +
    +

    3.8 ESSENCE

    +

    Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which + has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference to + various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English + sentences:

    +
    +

    1a) The boy ran off to sea.
    + 1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.

    +

    2a) The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow.
    + 2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist.

    +
    +

    Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences + in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences + (1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized + contexts for these sentences that they make any sense. For example, (1b) would + make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the + plot for a story, while (2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store + owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is now no longer there.

    +

    Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world + meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog, + but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being + used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative + mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where + events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative + versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is + essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western + languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated + by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called + “modal” verbs of English, e.g., must, can, should, etc. + as seen in the following:

    +
    +

    3) You must come home at once.
    + 4) That girl can sing better than anybody.
    + 5) We should attack at dawn.

    +
    +

    Each of the above three sentences describe potential events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For example, + in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home + is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl may never sing a single note ever + again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether + any attack will actually occur.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    3.8.1
    NRM
    		  The Normal
     
    RPV
    		 The Representative
    +

    The Ithkuil category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world + actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. The + two essences are termed NORMAL and REPRESENTATIVE, + the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns and verbs, the + latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly, + Ithkuil allows a speaker to express any noun or verb as referring to a real-world + versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from + an explanatory context.

    +

    Essence is morpho-phonologically marked by primary versus secondary + mode of vocalic mutation, as previously described in Sec. + 2.2.3 and fully illustrated in Sec. + 2.5. The NORMAL is marked by the primary mode while + the REPRESENTATIVE is marked by secondary mode.

    +


    + 3.8.2 Examples of Essence in Use

    +

    _Listen! +

    +


    +

    +

     

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 4: Case Morphology >>

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b990e6c --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,1799 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 3: Basic Morphology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 3: Basic Morphology

    + +


    + As previously discussed in + Section 2.6.1, the distinction between nouns and verbs common to most languages + is rather blurred in Ithkuil. All lexical stems in Ithkuil function equally + as nouns or verbs and share many of the same morpho-semantic features and categories. + This is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns and verbs as being + cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations + of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components + are space and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are + merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or + verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s + sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal formatives as + verbs when discussing their morphology.

    +

    All Ithkuil formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs, + inflect for nine Configurations, four Affiliations, + four Perspectives, six Extensions, two Focus + distinctions, four Contexts, two Designations, + and two Essences, and can take any of more than 1300 optional + affixes. These morphological categories are explained in the sections which + follow.

    +

     

    + +
    + + + + +
    +

    3.1 CONFIGURATION

    +
    +

    To understand the Ithkuil concept of enumeration and quantification + of nouns (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one must analyze + three separate but related grammatical categories termed Configuration, + Affiliation, and Perspective. These concepts + are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which + are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually made at the lexical + level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological as + in Ithkuil. In this section we will deal first with Configuration, followed + by Affiliation in Section 3.2 and Perspective in Section + 3.3.

    +

    Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity + or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, collections, + sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal + composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential + structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain + English sets of words.

    +

    Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a + single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of + trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a + plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees. + However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings + than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as + in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different + kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray + such as a ‘jungle.’

    +

    As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ + While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) + person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons + (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as + ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

    +

    Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further + configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships + between car versus convoy, hanger versus rack, + chess piece versus chess set, sentry versus blockade, + piece of paper versus sheaf, girder versus (structural) + framework, and coin versus roll of coins all exemplify + these principles.

    +

    Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary + sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two + identical referents as in a pair of eyes, however they are more often + opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in limbs, + ears, hands, wings, etc.

    +

    In Ithkuil, the semantic distinctions implied by the above + examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be + accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ + into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis + of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made + by means of Affiliation (see Section 3.2 below) and by + the use of specific affixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ + or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ + via Configuration, the Ithkuil words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ + ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation + and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using affixes are explored in + detail in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes.)

    +

    The nine configurations are the UNIPLEX, + DUPLEX, DISCRETE, + AGGREGATIVE, SEGMENTATIVE, + COMPONENTIAL, COHERENT, + COMPOSITE, and MULTIFORM. + The function and morphology of these categories are explained below.

    +
    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.1
    UNI
    		The Uniplex
    +
    +

    The UNIPLEX configuration is marked by + Grade 1 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a single, contextual embodiment of the stem concept, i.e., one whole contextual + unit of the basic nominal stem, e.g., a tree, a person, a screwdriver, a + grape, a hammer blow, a hole. With verbs the UNIPLEX + signifies a single, holistic act, state, or event, e.g., to be a tree, to + become a person, to use a screwdriver, to eat a grape, to strike (once) with + a hammer, to dig a hole.


    + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.2
    DPX
    		The Duplex
    +
    +

    The DUPLEX configuration is marked by + Grade 2 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s + eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., it can also be used to describe any set of two + identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., a matched pair of + vases, a two-volume set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents. Thus, the + Ithkuil word for spouse inflected for the DUPLEX + configuration would translate as a man and wife or a married couple.

    +

    One context in which the DUPLEX appears + for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” + exemplified by English words such as bounce, flash, arc, + wag, swing, switch, breathe/respiration, + indeed, any concept which involves a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth, + in/out, empty/full, or on/off. Use of the DUPLEX in these + contexts implies a full cycling through the two complementary states involved. + For example the word for hammer blow inflected for the UNIPLEX + would signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected + for the DUPLEX signifies a single down-then-up cycle of + the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action + being divided by the impact.

    +
    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.3
    DCT
    		The Discrete
    +
    +

    The DISCRETE configuration is marked + by Grade 3 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units that are more or less identiform (each + having the same design or physical appearance). This grouping or set-nature + can be either spatial, as in a flock of gulls (flying together), or + temporal (i.e., sequentially repetitive or iterative) as in (a flock of) + gulls flying one after another. Further examples of English nouns or noun + phrases which would be translated using the DISCRETE are + a grove, a set of screwdrivers, a group of soldiers, a pile of leaves, a + bowl of grapes, a series of hammer blows, an area of holes. Thus, the Ithkuil + word for (identical) set would simply be the word for thing + or object inflected for the DISCRETE configuration. + Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a temporally + (i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of an additional affix, + -V1šk, + specifying which spacetime axis is implied. This affix is analyzed in Sec. + 7.7.13.

    +

    For verbs, the DISCRETE signifies a single + set of repetitions, whether spatially or temporally, viewed as a single holistic + event. The individual member components acts, states, or events within this + set can be either UNIPLEX, e.g., to take steps, to + flip through pages, to have spots, to dig holes in an area, or DUPLEX + in nature, e.g., to hammer, to spin, to breathe.

    +

    It should be noted that the Containment CNM + affix, -Vomt, + can be used with the DISCRETE, as well as most of the + following configurations, to designate specifically the type of container, holder, + or means of conveyance for a configurative set (e.g., a sack, package, jar, + bottle, pile, load, etc.)
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.4
    AGG
    		The Aggregative
    +
    +

    The AGGREGATE configuration is marked + by Grade 4 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and functions + like the DISCRETE above in referring to an associated + group or set of entities, except that the members of the configurational set + are not identical to one another. Examples of English words/entities which would + be translated using the AGGREGATIVE are a forest + (of different kinds of trees), a toolset, a citizens group, a mixed pile + of leaves, an assortment of animals, an area of different-sized holes, a series + of musical notes. With verbs, the AGGREGATIVE implies + a spatially or temporally repeated set of non-identical acts, events, or states + considered as a whole contextual unit. It would be used, for example, in translating + the sentence This morning I dug holes in my garden (i.e., of different + sizes).


    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.5SEG The Segmentative
    +
    +

    The SEGMENTATIVE configuration is marked + by Grade 5 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units, the individual members of which are + physically similar or identical and are either in physical contact with one + another, physically connected via some linking medium, or in sufficiently close + contact with one another so that the group moves or operates together. Examples + would be a web, a train of flatcars, a convoy of schoolbuses, a string of + pearls, a fall of leaves, a line of dancers, a parade of Barbie dolls (e.g., + coming off an assembly line). To illustrate the difference between this configuration + and the DISCRETE above, we saw that the word grape + in the DISCRETE would be translated as a serving of + grapes, while in the SEGMENTATIVE it would mean a + bunch of grapes (i.e., still connected to each other on a portion of vine). +

    +

    With verbs, the use of the SEGMENTATIVE + versus the DISCRETE implies that the repetitive/iterative + nature of the act, state, or event occurs naturally due to the contextual nature + of the precipitating event or agent. It would thus be used to distinguish the + fuselage of bullets from a machine-gun from the simple hail of bullets from + single-fire weapons. Likewise, it would distinguish The light is blinking + from The light is flashing, where blink implies the way + in which the source naturally emits light, while flash implies that + the light is being made to emit repetitive bursts of light.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.6CPN The Componential
    +
    +

    The COMPONENTIAL configuration is marked + by Grade 6 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and operates + identically to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the + individual members of the configurational set are not physically similar or + identical to each other. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated + using the COMPONENTIAL are a freight train, a cascade + of (mixed) fruit (i.e., a continuous stream of fruit falling), a line of ticketholders, + a parade of floats, a pattern of musical notes. With verbs, the COMPONENTIAL + signifies a connected series of repetitions where the individual acts, events, + or states comprising the repetitive set are non-identical. It would distinguish + The light twinkled from The light was blinking.

    +
    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.7COH The Coherent
    +
    +

    The COHERENT configuration is marked + by Grade 7 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and functions + similarly to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the individual + members of the configuration are connected, fused or mixed with one another + to form a coherent emergent entity, i.e., the total configuration of objects + constitutes an entirely new gestalt-like entity. Examples of English words which + would be translated using the COHERENT are a bookcase, + a phalanx, a xylophone.

    +

    In the realm of verbs, finding English translations illustrating + the COHERENT is difficult. If one can imagine the verb + to glow to mean a series of flashes blurred one into another to create + a continuous emanation, then glow versus flash might suffice. + Perhaps a better illustration would be the difference between to buzz + from to make a set of repeating noises.

    +
    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.8CST The Composite
    +
    +

    The COMPOSITE configuration is marked + by Grade 8 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and operates + the same as the COHERENT above except that the individual + members of the configurational set are not identical or physically similar to + one another. Examples of words/concepts that would be translated using the COMPOSITE + are a building (= a constructional set of walls, floors, doors, windows, + etc.), a communications array, a conspiracy, a jungle thicket. Thus + the Ithkuil words for recipe, skeleton, and melody would simply + be the words for ingredient, bone, and musical note + inflected for the COMPOSITE configuration. For verbs, + the COMPOSITE versus COHERENT distinction + would distinguish to rumble from to buzz, or to glitter + from to glow.

    +
    + + +
    + + + + + + + +
    3.1.9MLT The Multiform
    +
    +

    The MULTIFORM configuration is marked + by Grade 9 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and is + the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent. + The MULTIFORM serves to identify the noun as an individual + member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates + in non-traditional logic, describing a set whose individual members do not all + share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there + may be one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining + attributes of the set exclusively and exactly, other members of the set may + vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical + resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. Indeed, some members of the set may + display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype + of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient + overlap” between members of differing sets.

    +

    It is difficult to accurately translate into English without + resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ithkuil easily expresses + using the MULTIFORM. For example, the Ithkuil word for + ‘tree’ inflected for the MULTIFORM configuration + would mean something like a group of what appear to be trees, or better + yet, a group of tree-like objects (i.e., some being trees, and others + seeming less like trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity + of membership varies by different degrees in comparison to an archetypical member + of the set can be expressed using the MULTIFORM. For examples, + the Ithkuil word for library would simply be a word meaning something + like work (i.e. thing authored/composed) inflected for the MULTIFORM, + signifying a hodge-podge assortment of writings and compositions (e.g., including + books, pamphlets, notebooks, ledgers, formulas, letters, journals, recordings, + magazines, etc.). Other example concepts translatable using the MULTIFORM + would be a rag-tag group of people, an incoherent pattern, lives in flux.

    +

    With verbs, the MULTIFORM implies that + the individual repetitions comprising an act, state, or event have varying degrees + of spatio-temporal similarity to each other. A few English verbs such as fluctuate, + sputter or flicker capture this sense.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    +

    3.2 AFFILIATION

    +
    +

    While the category of Configuration from the preceding section + distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set in terms + of physical characteristics, physical attributes or physical connections, the + category of Affiliation operates similarly to distinguish the member relationships + in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically + in conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship + between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the meanings of nouns or verbs + in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into + English.

    +

    Returning to our earlier example of the word tree, + we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes a grove in + the DISCRETE configuration. The word grove implies + that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in + regard to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may + be planted by design, in which case they become an orchard. We saw + how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed a + forest. However, such assortments can become wholly chaotic, displaying + patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming + a jungle.

    +

    As another example, we saw how the word person becomes + group, or gathering, both of which are neutral as to subjective + purpose or function. However, applying a sense of purposeful design generates + words such as team, while the absence of purpose results in crowd.

    +

    There are four affiliations: CONSOLIDATIVE, + ASSOCIATIVE, VARIATIVE, and COALESCENT. + Affiliation is marked by a word-initial vocalic prefix which varies depending + on the extension of the formative, as well as being dependent on the format + for verbs (see Sections 3.4 and 5.3 for an explanation of these respective categories). + For nouns, these prefixes are shown in Table 11 in Section + 3.4 on Extension. For verbs, these prefixes are shown in Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1. The details of each affiliation are explained below.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.2.1 CSL The Consolidative
    +

    The CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring + set where the function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable, + irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the ASSOCIATIVE + affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively + defined by human design. Examples are tree branches, a grove, a mound of + rocks, some people, the clouds.

    +

    The CONSOLIDATIVE is also the affiliation + normally applied to nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration + when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the UNIPLEX + specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept + of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, + a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf. With verbs, the CONSOLIDATIVE + would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral + as to purpose or design.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.2.2
    ASO
    		The Associative
    +

    The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective + function, state, purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the + Ithkuil word for soldier in the DISCRETE configuration + and comparing its English translations when inflected for the CONSOLIDATIVE + affiliation (= a group of soldiers) versus the ASSOCIATIVE + (= a troop, a platoon). It is this CONSOLIDATIVE + versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction, then, that would distinguish + otherwise equivalent DISCRETE inflections of the Ithkuil + word for tree by translating them respectively as a grove versus an + orchard.

    +

    The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation can also + be used with nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration to signify + a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. + For example, the word person inflected for the UNIPLEX + and ASSOCIATIVE would translate as a single-minded + person. Even nouns such as rock, tree or work of + art could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as a well-formed + rock, a tree with integrity, a “balanced” work of art.

    +

    With verbs, the ASSOCIATIVE signifies + that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The CONSOLIDATIVE + versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction could be used, for example, + with the verb turn in I turned toward the window to indicate + whether it was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.2.3
    VAR
    		The Variative
    +

    The VARIATIVE affiliation indicates that + the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function, + state, purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees + (i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, purpose, etc.) or at + complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the VARIATIVE + would not be used to signify opposed but complementary differences among set + members (see the COALESCENT affiliation below). It would + thus be used to signify a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering, + a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of + books, a collection in disarray. It operates with nouns in the UNIPLEX + to render meanings such as a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock, + a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation.

    +

    With verbs, the VARIATIVE indicates an + act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that + those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably + be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in She bought the house + for various reasons or My being at the party served several purposes. + With non-UNIPLEX configurations, the use of the VARIATIVE + affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using + the SEGMENTATIVE configuration such as The light is + blinking in conjunction with the VARIATIVE would + mean that each blink of the light signals something different than the preceding + or following blinks.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.2.4
    COA
    		The Coalescent
    +

    The COALESCENT affiliation indicates + that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship + with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. + This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of + other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For + example, the Ithkuil word translating English toolset would be the + word for tool in the AGGREGATIVE configuration + (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the COALESCENT + affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function + in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example + would be the Ithkuil word for finger inflected for the SEGMENTATIVE + configuration and the COALESCENT affiliation, translatable + as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the SEGMENTATIVE + to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further + example would be using the COALESCENT with the word for + (piece of) food to signify a well-balanced meal.

    +

    The COALESCENT naturally appears most + often in conjunction with the DUPLEX configuration since + binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical + binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image + distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. + Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g., + one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the COALESCENT + affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., one’s left and + right eye functioning together).

    +

    With verbs, the COALESCENT signifies + that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which + make up a greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structure + onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work together in + complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for + example, to distinguish the sentences He traveled in the Yukon from + He ventured in the Yukon, or I came up with a plan versus + I fashioned a plan.

    +

    For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    3.3. PERSPECTIVE

    +

    + Perspective is the closest Ithkuil morphological category to the Number and + Tense categories of other languages (e.g., singular/plural and past/present/future). + However, the correspondence is only approximate because Perspective does not + specifically address the quantity to which a formative is instantiated within + a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the + manner in which it is spatio-temporally instantiated. Specifically, + Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded” + contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation), + 2) an unbounded entity (i.e., manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible), + 3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as + a spatio-temporally neutral abstraction. How this works requires separate explanations + for nouns and verbs.
    +

    Perspective with Nouns. What Perspective means + for nouns is that, in addition to merely indicating whether a given spatial + context contains one or more than one, it also specifies single versus multiple + manifestations in time, as well as along an axis of concreteness versus abstraction. + Complicating the picture is the fact that the categories of Configuration and + Affiliation (see Secs. 3.1 + and 3.2 above) already + contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe + multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular” + and “plural” have been avoided.

    +

    Perspective with Verbs. For verbs, the aspect + of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative + context but rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” + i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole + within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” + categories of Western languages. In Ithkuil, the notion of linearly progressive + time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified, + if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see Sec. + 6.4).

    +

    There are four perspectives in Ithkuil: MONADIC, + UNBOUNDED, NOMIC, and ABSTRACT. + They are shown morpho-phonologically by shifts in a formative’s syllabic + stress patterns. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is detailed + below.


    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.3.1
    M
    		The Monadic
    +

    The MONADIC signifies a bounded embodiment + of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant + a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted + in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless being contextually + viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived + to exist within a literal or figurative psychologically uninterrupted boundary. + This is important, since configurations other than the UNIPLEX + technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking + place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container, + corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or + psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, specifically + the “present” (which in Ithkuil might be better thought of as the + “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). + This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for + nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ithkuil considers nouns as spatially + reified concepts while considering verbs to be their temporally “activized” + counterparts (see Section 2.6.1).

    +

    Thus, using the word tree for example, while there + might be many trees present in terms of number, the MONADIC + implies they form only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category + is manifested. Using the AGGREGATIVE configuration as + an example, the MONADIC would mean there is only one AGGREGATIVE + set of trees, i.e., one forest.

    +

    At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective + that Ithkuil makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” + (or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between + those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., one apple, four boys, several + nations), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., water, + sand, plastic, air, laughter). All nouns are countable in Ithkuil in that + all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations + of certain Ithkuil nouns must often be “contextual” rather than + literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable + context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a + puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”

    +

    With verbs, the MONADIC superficially + corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories + except in a habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed + by the MONADIC means that the act, state, or event is + temporally contiguous and accessible from the point of view of the present context. + It would be used to describes an act, state, or event which:

    +
      +
    • +
      takes + place entirely in the present context
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in the accessible past and has continued on into the present context
      +
      • +
    • +
      starts + within the present context and continues on into an accessible future
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past, but only the portion taking place in the present + context is being addressed or is under consideration or relevant within + the context of the utterance
      +
      • +
    • +
      starts + within the present context and may continue into an inaccessible future, + but only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, but + only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance +
      +
      • +
    +

    By “accessible past” or “accessible future” + is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present + at the time and the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically + contiguous, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now as + one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected + predictions, or historical reports. Conversely, “inaccessible” would + mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which + he/she knows only from memory, reports, or predictions.

    +

    The MONADIC is marked by penultimate + stress on the noun or verb (i.e. stress on the second-to-last syllable).


    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.3.2
    U
    		The Unbounded
    +

    The UNBOUNDED signifies “unbounded + embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun + or verb manifests itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary, + i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, + the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member + nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a non-monadic + (i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient + translation into English would be to use the plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps + of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would + be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and + another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’ +

    +

    For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the + psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible + from the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which:

    +
      +
    • +
      occurs + entirely in the inaccessible past
      +
      • +
    • +
      will + occur entirely in the inaccessible future
      +
      • +
    • +
      may + be occurring in the present context but started in an inaccessible past, + and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account that past portion
      +
      • +
    • +
      may + be occurring in the present context but will continue into an inaccessible + future, and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood + without taking into account the future portion
      +
      • +
    • +
      started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, and + the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account these inaccessible portions
      +
      • +
    +

    If necessary to specify whether the UNBOUNDED + is referencing the past versus the future, additional aspectual markers can + be employed (see Sec. 6.4 + on Aspect). Note that, even more so than with the MONADIC, + translation of the UNBOUNDED into Western languages is + subjective, as the translation must necessarily convey linear tense information + which is not conveyed by the Ithkuil original.

    +

    The UNBOUNDED is shown by ultimate syllabic + stress (i.e., on the final syllable).


    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.3.3
    N
    		The Nomic
    +

    The NOMIC refers to a generic collective + entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative + set throughout space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context). + Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in particular, + this category is mutually exclusive from the MONADIC or + UNBOUNDED. For nouns, the NOMIC + corresponds approximately to the several constructions used for referring to + collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences The dog + is a noble beast, Clowns are what children love most, There + is nothing like a tree.

    +

    With verbs, the NOMIC designates an action, + event, or situation which describes a general law of nature or a persistently + true condition or situation spoken of in general, without reference to a specific + instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible instances + or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of + expressing such generic statements, generally using the simple present tense. + Examples of usage would be The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele + is sickly, In winter it snows a lot, That girl sings well.

    +

    The NOMIC is shown by antepenultimate + stress (i.e., on the third-from-last syllable).

    +


    + + + + + + + + + +
    3.3.4
    A
    		The Abstract
    +

    Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes + such as -hood or -ness, the ABSTRACT transforms a configurative + category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless + context. While only certain nouns in English can be made into abstracts via + suffixes, all Ithkuil nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into + abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., + grove + the idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book + everything + about books, having to do with books, involvement with books.

    +

    With verbs, the ABSTRACT is used in verbal + constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship + of the action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable, + similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund form (used as substitutes + for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences: + Singing is not his strong suit; It makes no sense to + worry about it; I can't stand her pouting. As + a result, the ABSTRACT acts as a "timeless" + verb form which, much like these English infinitives and gerunds, operates in + conjunction with a separate main verb in one of the other three perspectives. + The ABSTRACT is often used in conjunction with certain + modalities and moods of the verb (see Sec. + 5.5 on Modality and Sec. + 6.5 on Mood) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which + the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or unknowable.

    +

    The ABSTRACT is marked in either of two + ways: (1) by preantepenultimate stress, i.e., on the fourth-to-last syllable, + or (2) by a combination of ultimate stress plus the addition of an anaptyctic + vowel -ï- or -a- in any morpho-phonologically + permissible position of the word (as previously described in Sec. + 2.7.3.3). This extra vowel can be placed at any position within the word + except within the stem, as long as the vowel does not lead to confusion or ambiguity + in interpreting the phonological boundaries of any other suffixes to the stem. + (Note that in word-final position, only anatyctic -a, not -ï, + is permitted.)

    +

     

    + + + + + +
    +

    3.4 EXTENSION

    +

    Extension is another Ithkuil morphological category for which + there is no exact equivalent in other languages. It applies to all formatives + and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms + of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. There are six extensions: DELIMITIVE, + PROXIMAL, INCEPTIVE, TERMINATIVE, + DEPLETIVE, and GRADUATIVE, shown + by a vocalic prefix to the formative in conjunction with Affiliation for nouns + (see Sec. 3.2 above) and Affiliation plus Format for verbs + (see Section 5.4 on Format). + The table below shows these prefixes for nouns. The prefixes for verbs are shown + in Table 14 in Section 5.4. + How Extension operates is explained in detail following the table.

    +


    + Table 11: Word-Initial Affiliation/Extension + Prefixes for Nominal Formatives

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    AFFILIATION
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    EXTENSION
    DEL
    PRX
    ICP
    TRM
    DPL
    GRD
    DELIMITIVE
    PROXIMAL
    INCEPTIVE
    TERMINATIVE
    DEPLETIVE
    GRADUATIVE
    CSL
    CONSOLIDATIVE
    (a-)*
    â-
    ai-
    au-
    ä-
    ö-
    ASO
    ASSOCIATIVE
    u-
    û-
    ui-
    iu-
    ü-
    ë-
    VAR
    VARIATIVE
    e-
    ê-
    ei-
    eu-
    ëi-
    ëu-
    COA
    COALESCENT
    i-
    î-
    o-
    ô-
    ae-
    ea-
    + +* This a- prefix is optional +if the nominal versus verbal status of the formative can be determined from other +morphological elements or if the meaning of the phrase or sentence is clear regardless +of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
    +

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + + +
    3.4.1
    DEL
    		The Delimitive
    +

    The DELIMITIVE extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with + clear spatio-temporal boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion, + edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It can be + considered the neutral or default view, e.g., a tree, a grove, a set of + books, an army. To illustrate a contextual example, the English sentence + He climbed the ladder would be translated with the word ladder + in the DELIMITIVE to show it is being considered as a + whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is + being considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, e.g., She diets + every winter (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet).

    + + + + + +
    The DELIMITIVE can be thought + of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite beginning and ending points, + beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. The graphic to + the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in + the DELIMITIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the + spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.2
    PRX
    		The Proximal
    +

    The PROXIMAL extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the + portion, duration, subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand. + It would be used to translate the words tree, journey, and + ladder in the sentences That tree is hard there (e.g., in + the spot where I hit against it), She lost weight during her journey, + or He climbed on the ladder (i.e., it is not relevant to the context + to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences, + the PROXIMAL does not refer to a specific or delineated + piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder, but rather to the fact that + delineated boundaries such as the ends of the ladder or the entirety of the + tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this + extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which + is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the + act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a diet + every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not + the total time spent dieting from start to finish).

    +

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates + the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the PROXIMAL + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.3
    ICP
    		The Inceptive
    +

    The INCEPTIVE extension focuses on the + closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion + of a noun or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. It would + be used in translating the nouns tunnel, song, desert, + daybreak and plan in the following sentences: We looked + into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song (i.e., from the + first few notes), They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait + for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). + In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ + or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s + starting to molt, or She goes on a diet every winter.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the INCEPTIVE + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.4
    TRM
    		The Terminative
    +

    The TERMINATIVE extension focuses on + the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without + focusing on the preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would + be used in translating the words water, story, and arrival + in the sentences There’s no water (i.e., we ran out), I like + the end of that story, and We await your arrival. With verbs, + it is illustrated by the sentences It finished molting or She’s + come off her diet.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the TERMINATIVE + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.5
    DPL
    		The Depletive
    +

    The DEPLETIVE extension focuses on the + terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus + is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the + at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). + Essentially, it applies to any context involving actual or figurative fading. + It would be used in translating the words water, strength, + and twilight in the sentences He drank the last of the water, I + have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight. With verbs, + it is exemplified by the phrases to wind down, to fade out, to disappear + gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’s eating less and less + these days.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the DEPLETIVE + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.4.6
    GRD
    		The Graduative
    +

    The GRADUATIVE extension is the inverse + of the DEPLETIVE, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” + or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words darkness, + wonder, and music in the following sentences: Darkness + came upon us, I felt a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first. + With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as to fade in, to + start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., She’s + been eating more and more lately.

    + + + + + +
    The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun in the GRADUATIVE to the + context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
    +

    +

    +

    3.4.7 Examples of Configuration, Affiliation, and Extension

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    ‘piece of clothing’ ‘set/suit of clothes’ ‘hand’ ‘pair of hands’
    +
    +
    +     + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    ‘oak tree’ ‘trailing edge of an oak forest’ ‘upland’ ‘foothills’
    +
    +
    +     + + + + + + + + + +
    ‘something yellow’ ‘a mess of varying yellow things as far as the eye can see’
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + +
    + +
    ‘clown’‘running
    + stride’     		‘Something makes the group of running clowns begin stumbling’ + or
    + ‘The group of clowns are made to begin stumbling as they run.’
    + _______________________________Listen! +
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + +
    +

    3.5 FOCUS

    +

    Focus, is a two-way, positive versus negative distinction labeled + +FC FOCUSED and -FC + UNFOCUSED which is applicable to all formatives, whether + functioning as nouns or verbs. The concept of semantic focus refers to what + information in an utterance is to be considered new information as opposed to + background context. The specifics are explained below and are best understood + through various English illustrations.

    +

    In any given discourse (i.e., a contextual series of utterances + such as a conversation, a story, an account of an event, etc.), any single sentence + of that discourse will likely make reference to previously mentioned material + as background, as well as present new material to further the purpose of the + discourse. Semantic focus refers to those elements of a sentence which constitute + new material within an actual or implied discourse. For example, the sentence + My dog jumps through hoops could function as an answer to several different + questions such as 1) What tricks can your dog do?, or 2) Does your + dog do anything with hoops? or 3) Do you know of anyone’s pet + that jumps through hoops? or even 4) What’s up with you? + In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’ + would have semantic focus while the dog is background material. In answering + the second question, the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have + focus while both the dog and the hoops would be background material. In answering + the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus + while jumping through hoops would be backgrounded. Lastly, in answering the + fourth sentence, no element in the sentence has focus over any other, as all + elements present previously unknown material within the context of the discourse. + In general, English conveys focus by a shift in vocal inflection (tone and pitch + contours) to provide emphasis.

    +

    Focus does not necessarily require a full discourse to have + semantic relevance; it can occur within a single autonomous sentence, in which + case the background discourse is implied. For example, a person might spontaneously + begin a conversation with the same sentence: My dog jumps through hoops. In + English, the speaker might use vocal inflection to emphasize what elements convey + semantic focus versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.” + Or, the speaker might say the sentence in a neutral tone of voice, essentially + inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in + responding, e.g., Oh, you have a dog? or Oh, does he do any other + tricks? or Oh, do you use metal or plastic hoops? or an equally + neutral response such as Oh, you don’t say?

    +

    Ithkuil uses the Focus category to accomplish the same options + that such vocal inflections accomplish in English. Any formative or formatives + within an Ithkuil sentence can be marked as FOCUSED to + convey semantic focus. The UNFOCUSED option operates as + the opposing neutral default condition. Focus can be used to subtly distinguish + what in Ithkuil would otherwise be identical sentence. For example, compare + the following two English sentences:

    +
    +

    After I shopped, I went home.
    + I shopped before I went home    .

    +
    +

    Both sentences indicate two sequential events: shopping, then + going home. The difference between them is one of focus. In the first sentence, + I went home has semantic focus, as that is the new information being + conveyed, while in the second sentence it is I shopped that has focus. + In Ithkuil, both sentences would be translated as (First) I shopped then + went home, the only distinction being the +FC FOCUSED + distinction applied to the verb phrase went home in the first sentence, + and to the verb shopped in the second sentence.

    +

    As a further examination of Focus, compare these two very similar + English sentences:

    +
    +

    Mother entered the room and turned on the lights.
    + Mother entered the room and she turned on the lights.

    +
    +

    In the first sentence, the absence of the reduplicative pronoun + ‘she’ before ‘turned’ implies that the entire sentence + is to considered as one reported event with no particular element having the + focus. In the second sentence, however, the reduplicative ‘she’ + implies the sentence is to viewed as two separate events, the first reported + as background, the second having the focus. (For example, one might utter the + second sentence as a complaint about the lights being turned on.) The Ithkuil + equivalents to these sentences would contain no such pronoun distinction. Instead, + the nuances of the second sentence would be conveyed by marking the equivalent + of the verb form as FOCUSED.

    +

    Finally, Focus functions to disambiguate sentences such as + Chicago defeated Oakland, too, which means either (1) ‘Chicago + was one of the teams that defeated Oakland,’ or (2) ‘Oakland was + one of the teams that Chicago defeated.’ Ithkuil would mark one team name + or the other as FOCUSED to show which of these two meanings + is implied.

    +

    The UNFOCUSED attribute is morpho-phonologically + unmarked in Ithkuil, i.e., it is indicated by the absence of any overt change + in the phonological structure of a formative, or by any affix or adjunct. The + FOCUSED attribute is shown in one of three ways for formatives:

    +
      +
    • by insertion of a -w- infix within a formative immediately + following the C1 radical consonant(s), + or
      • +
    • by addition of the suffix -V1’ + in several of its degrees (see Sec. + 7.7.13)
      • +
    • Sec. 5.2 and Sec. + 6.4.5 will show additional ways to manifest positive focus within certain + types of adjuncts.
      +
      • +
    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    3.6 CONTEXT

    +

    Context is yet another morphological category with no equivalent + in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or aspects + of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There + is no way to show this in translation other than by paraphrase. There are four + contexts: the EXISTENTIAL, the FUNCTIONAL, + the REPRESENTATIONAL, and the AMALGAMATE, + marked by each of the four tones on the formative. They are explained and illustrated + below.

    +
    + + + + + + + + +
    3.6.1 EXS  The Existential
    +

    + The EXISTENTIAL context is marked by falling tone on the + formative. It focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically + objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, + beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the EXISTENTIAL + is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The EXISTENTIAL + serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective + entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun + or verb.
    +

    For example, consider the sentence A cat ran past the doorway. + If the Ithkuil words corresponding to cat, run, and doorway + are in the EXISTENTIAL, then the sentence merely describes + an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature + of the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that + two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial relationship to each other; + those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely + conveys the nature of the spatial relationship.

    +
    + + + + + + + + +
    3.6.2FNC  The Functional
    +

    + The FUNCTIONAL context is marked by high tone on the formative. + It focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas, + attitudes, beliefs, opinions, convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit, + etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that + the noun has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose. +
    +

    For example, in our previous sentence A cat ran past the + doorway, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into + the FUNCTIONAL, the ‘cat’ no longer simply + identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) + significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could + get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with + mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ + now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. + Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the FUNCTIONAL + now implies the furtive nature of the cat.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    3.6.3RPS  The Representational
    +

    + The REPRESENTATIONAL context is marked by rising tone. + It focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym*, in that it indicates + that the formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other + concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical + connotations of the English sentence That pinstripe-suited dog is checking + out a kitty, can be equally conveyed in Ithkuil by inflecting the words + for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the REPRESENTATIONAL + context. The REPRESENTATIONAL is one of several ways that + Ithkuil overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from + a grammatical standpoint).
    +

    * Metonymy + is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or + phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The + orders came from the White House,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell + the cook the ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person + as in ‘You-know-who just showed up.’
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    3.6.4AMG  The Amalgamate
    +

    The AMALGAMATE context is marked by + broken tone. It is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western + linguistic perspective. It focuses on the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like, + componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective + totality is derived synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the + interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static momentary + appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun + and any interactions and relationships it has (whether past, present or potential) + within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting + the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, + psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with + the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, + intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels. + Thus the AMALGAMATE version of our sentence The cat + ran past the doorway would take on quite melodramatic implications, with + the cat being representative of everything about cats and all they stand for, + the doorway as being representative of the nature of doorways as portals of + change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while + the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of + movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + +
    +

    3.7 DESIGNATION

    +

    Designation is a somewhat subjective category, + with no equivalent in Western languages. Previously mentioned briefly in Sec. + 2.3, it refers to a two-fold distinction in a formative regarding its contextual + status, authority, permanence, or extra-contextual relevance. The two designations + are the INFORMAL and the FORMAL, + explained below.
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    3.7.1
    -FR
    		  The Informal
    +

    The INFORMAL designation is marked by + Form I of vocalic mutation (see Section + 2.2.3). It indicates that the noun or verb in question does not exist in + a necessarily permanent state, or is to be considered only for the duration + of the context in which it is spoken, with any lasting effect, influence or + permanency beyond the context being either absent, unknown or irrelevant.
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    3.7.2
    +FR
    		  The Formal
    +

    The FORMAL designation is marked by Form + II of vocalic mutation (see Section + 2.2.3). The FORMAL imparts a sense of permanency + and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or institutional + manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if + the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’ + ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the INFORMAL + would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and + ‘archetype’ in the FORMAL.

    +

    The FORMAL achieves several subtle purposes + from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ithkuil words would translate + the same in English no matter which designation (e.g., to hurt, to float, + breath, to fall, shade, sleep, cough), many stems would have different + translations in English depending on their designation. For example, the stem + qum with the + affiliated meanings person + group gathering + crowd + throng, etc. in the INFORMAL designation would change + to the following series of approximate translations when placed in the FORMAL + designation: official + team association/congregation + assembly + masses, etc.

    +

    Further examples of lexical shifts in translation due to INFORMAL + FORMAL designation are listed below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     to grow something + to cultivatewander + travel
     obtain/get + procure/requisitionlake + reservoir
     (natural) holder + containersee + observe
     to create + construct/buildheap + pile
     animal + domesticated animala thought + an idea
     natural environment “man-made” + environmentawareness + consciousness
     [natural] exchange + trade/commercehouse + home
     assortment of animals + zoo collection grouping + set
     to group/gather + collectwall + barrier
     get some exercise + to work outplacidity + peace
     problem situation + crisisto populate + to settle
    +

    As can be seen from the above list, the exact interpretation + of Designation for each word-root is specific to each word-root, depending on + its associated semantic context.

    +

     


    + + + + + +
    +

    3.8 ESSENCE

    +

    Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which + has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference to + various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English + sentences:

    +
    +

    1a) The boy ran off to sea.
    + 1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.

    +

    2a) The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow.
    + 2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist.

    +
    +

    Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences + in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences + (1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized + contexts for these sentences that they make any sense. For example, (1b) would + make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the + plot for a story, while (2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store + owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is now no longer there.

    +

    Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world + meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog, + but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being + used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative + mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where + events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative + versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is + essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western + languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated + by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called + “modal” verbs of English, e.g., must, can, should, etc. + as seen in the following:

    +
    +

    3) You must come home at once.
    + 4) That girl can sing better than anybody.
    + 5) We should attack at dawn.

    +
    +

    Each of the above three sentences describe potential events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For example, + in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home + is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl may never sing a single note ever + again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether + any attack will actually occur.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    3.8.1
    NRM
    		  The Normal
     
    RPV
    		 The Representative
    +

    The Ithkuil category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world + actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. The + two essences are termed NORMAL and REPRESENTATIVE, + the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns and verbs, the + latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly, + Ithkuil allows a speaker to express any noun or verb as referring to a real-world + versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from + an explanatory context.

    +

    Essence is morpho-phonologically marked by primary versus secondary + mode of vocalic mutation, as previously described in Sec. + 2.2.3 and fully illustrated in Sec. + 2.5. The NORMAL is marked by the primary mode while + the REPRESENTATIVE is marked by secondary mode.

    +


    + 3.8.2 Examples of Essence in Use

    +

    _Listen! +

    +


    +

    +

     

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 4: Case Morphology >>

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch4-case.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch4-case.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4b4d848 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch4-case.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2518 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 4: Case Morphology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 4: Case Morphology

    + +

    In this chapter, we analyze one additional morphological category: + Case. Like the eight categories analyzed in the previous chapter, and unlike + other languages, the category of Case applies to all formatives in Ithkuil, + i.e., to both nouns and verbs alike. However, the syntactical context in which + Case operates is sufficiently dissimilar for nouns and verbs to warrant separate + analysis. In this chapter, we will analyze the case morphology of nouns alone. + The use of Case with verbs will be analyzed in Section + 5.7.

    +

    Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek + or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to + a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its + phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays + in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence + It was me she saw, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed + to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ + distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object + of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence Der + Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the + man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ + distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) + from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ + (accusative case).

    +

    The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the + notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, + there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether + a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. + In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute + for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases. + The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in + order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and + the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known as its declensions. +

    +

    There are 81 cases in Ithkuil, falling into seven categories: + Transrelative, Associative, Appositive, Adverbial, Subrelative, Spatial, and + Temporal. Case operates differently in Ithkuil than in most human languages, + being based in lexico-semantics as opposed to morpho-syntax. This is explained + below in Section 4.1.

    +

    Note that in regard to gender categories from other languages, + Ithkuil has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, etc.), + although word-roots do fall into one of 17 morpho-semantic classes (see Sec. + 10.2). However, there is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological + concord of any kind between a noun and other words or morphological elements + in a sentence, i.e., there is none of the required matching of masculine or + feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and adjectives + as seen in most Western languages.

    +

    +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    4.1 + SEMANTIC ROLE VERSUS POSITIONAL SLOT

    +
    +

    In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level + of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct + object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is + ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role + can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:

    +
    +

    (1a) John opened the door with the key.
    + (1b) The key opened the door.
    + (1c) The wind opened the door.
    + (1d) The door opened.

    +
    +

    In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, + i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their + semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, + John, the key, the wind, and the door. Yet + it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated + in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence + (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that + the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while + in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role + in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. + As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first + three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role + in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a + change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ + in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ + in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), + yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role + of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in + (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act + of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a + subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of + the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while + being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed + choice to initiate such action.

    +


    + 4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role

    +

    The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot + (i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate semantic + role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between + sets of sentences like those above. In Ithkuil, however, the case of a noun + is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the + sentence relative to the verb. These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental + or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns + in other languages. Thus Ithkuil noun declension more accurately reflects the + underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western + grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little + meaning or applicability in Ithkuil grammar.

    +

    The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ithkuil. + They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” + of Western languages:

    +

    AGENT: The animate, (and usually conscious + and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing + a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence + (1a) above.

    +

    FORCE: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an + act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.

    +

    INSTRUMENT: The noun which functions as the + physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ + in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.

    +

    PATIENT: The noun which undergoes a change + in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or + by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.

    +


    + 4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles

    +

    Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects + in Western languages exist in Ithkuil as overt noun cases. These include the + roles of ENABLER, EXPERIENCER, STIMULUS, RECIPIENT, and CONTENT, and are explained + below using the following set of sentences as illustrations.

    +
    +

    (2a) Mary hits the children.
    + (2b) Mary entertains the children.
    + (2c) Mary sees the children.
    + (2d) Mary tells the children a story.
    + (2e) Mary wants children.

    +
    +

    Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary + is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object + (except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns + are entirely different in each of these five sentences. Beginning with Sentence + (2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the + children who obviously function in the role of PATIENT. Thus (2a) is identical + to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct object. +

    +

    In Sentence (2b) however, Mary entertains the + children, there is a subtle distinction. At first we might consider Mary + an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become + entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result + (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. + In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, + but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a + sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like + a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or + behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen + to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting + change in the children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the + children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is termed an + ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained + or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or + consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves + unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, + a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS. + Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory + perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and + pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and + autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations + (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).

    +

    This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence + (2c) Mary sees the children, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes + an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other + words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever + a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ + does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” + (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the + “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action + at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. + In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” + as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction + to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled + states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such + as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are + categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role + in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo + any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not + in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being + seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of + sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, + the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting + originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun + participant.

    +

    In Sentence (2d) Mary tells the children a story, + Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the + telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, + or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing + RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western + languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract + referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.

    +

    The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence + (2e) Mary wants children, where they function as the “object” + of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children + undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s + desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory + referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, + being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation + similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, + Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    4.2 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL + MARKERS FOR CASE

    +
    +

    Case is shown in many different ways in Ithkuil depending on + whether the case is being shown in conjunction with a formative or a personal + reference adjunct (explained in Sec. + 8.1). For nouns, case is shown via a combination of vocalic mutation of + the stem-vowel and mutation of the second consonantal radical, C2. + The permutations of the nine series of vocalic mutation, along with the nine + grades of C2 consonantal mutation, combine to correspond + to the 81 cases. The particular mutational patterns are given in the sections + below as each case is described. Case markers for personal reference adjuncts + will be shown later in Section + 8.1.

    +

    We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases + in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects” + and “objects” in Western languages.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    4.3 THE TRANSRELATIVE CASES

    +
    +

    The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify + nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms + would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and + most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these + cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in Sec. + 4.1 above. The eleven transrelative cases are the OBLIQUE, + ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, + ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, and SITUATIVE. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of these cases in use are provided in Section 4.3.12.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.1
    OBL
    		The Oblique Case
    +
    +

    The OBLIQUE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. As described above in Section 4.1.2, the OBLIQUE + identifies the semantic role of CONTENT, whether it is something given to a + RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g., + a memory recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used + in translating sentences such as Sam gave me a book, The + child likes cereal. It is also the case associated with + existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb + ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description + of a noun as in the English sentences That boy is blind + or The house was built of wood. The OBLIQUE, + being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun + (i.e., the form in which the noun would be listed in a dictionary).

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.2
    ABS
    		The Absolutive Case
    +
    +

    The ABSOLUTIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the ABSOLUTIVE + identifies the semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator + is a different party than the patient who undergoes the resulting action. Note + that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need + not be overtly expressed. Examples of English sentences translatable using the + ABSOLUTIVE would be The boy hit the girl, + She forced him to do it, The bird fell from + the sky, The prisoner died during the gun battle.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.3
    DAT
    		The Dative Case
    +
    +

    The DATIVE case is marked by Series C + vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DATIVE has two functions in Ithkuil. + Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving + and telling, i.e., the semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via + an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or + the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ithkuil + uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference + to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences + such as We're giving you a present, Jason lent a dollar + to his sister, Please grant me a wish, The + student has three books, Those mountains have a mysterious + quality.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.4
    ERG
    		The Ergative Case
    +
    +

    The ERGATIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ERGATIVE identifies the semantic + role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which initiates a tangible action undergone by another + party (the PATIENT), as described in Section 4.1.1. + Note that sentences involving an ERGATIVE agent need not + overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable + using the ERGATIVE would be The boy + hit the girl, She forced him to do it, That murderer + kills for fun.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.5
    EFF
    		The Effectuative Case
    +
    +

    The EFFECTUATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The EFFECTUATIVE identifies the noun + acting in the semantic role of ENABLER, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events, + ultimately resulting in a final event. An example would be pulling out the plug + of a filled bathtub thereby causing it to empty. This case should therefore + be carefully distinguished from the ERGATIVE case. Ergatively + marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action + directly initiated by the agent, whereas EFFECTUATIVE + nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in the + Ithkuil translation of the sentence The clown emptied the blood from the + tub, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by means of the ERGATIVE + case, or as an ENABLER using the EFFECTUATIVE case. The + former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would + mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate + the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to + pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating + the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’

    +

    Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the affix + -V1.k + to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this affix, sentences + can be produced which specify whether the enablement is via giving of consent + or permission, by persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a + hindrance, or even by inaction. This affix is explored fully in Sec. + 7.7.12.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.6
    IND
    		The Inducive Case
    +
    +

    The INDUCIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INDUCIVE identifies a noun which + undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the noun is a PATIENT of an agential + action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does + not necessarily imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It + would be used in sentences such as The boy jumped, He + sang, The dog barked all night, or She + danced to the music, in which the party initiating and performing the action + are one and the same.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.7
    AFF
    		The Affective Case
    +
    +

    The AFFECTIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The AFFECTIVE denotes a noun whose + semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described previously in Section + 4.1.2, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled) + experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result + of an external stimulus. Examples of such states would be automatic sensory + experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, + blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; + automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising + one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state + such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, + anxiety, etc.

    +

    Example sentences requiring the use of the AFFECTIVE + case would be The baby is coughing, The lightning startled + her, Mortimer loves his vittles, Uncle + Davey slept till noon, My back itches me.

    +

    Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about + by the noun undergoing it, the INDUCIVE case would be + used, since the noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce + the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence The children + smiled with glee (marked using the AFFECTIVE) + with The children smiled on cue (marked using the + INDUCIVE).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.8
    INS
    		The Instrumental Case
    +
    +

    The INSTRUMENTAL case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. As described previously in Section 4.1.1, + the INSTRUMENTAL denotes a noun which functions as the + INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing + about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples + of usage would be She killed him with a knife, The man + tripped over my foot, The password got him + inside. The INSTRUMENTAL is also used to mark translations + of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the + instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare I pressed the button with + my finger with My finger pressed the button, + both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s + missing agent, I.

    +

    Note that the INSTRUMENTAL does not translate + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied + by’ (see the COMITATIVE case below in Sec. + 4.6.9) as in She arrived with her father. Nor is it used to show + the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the + sentence He cooks with tomatoes (see the COMPOSITIVE + case in Sec. 4.5.8), it is not the tomatoes that cook + the food, therefore the INSTRUMENTAL would not be used, + whereas in He fueled the fire with wood it is the wood that fuels the + fire, thus requiring the INSTRUMENTAL case.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.9
    ACT
    		The Activative Case
    +
    +

    The ACTIVATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ACTIVATIVE identifies a noun engaged + in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, + creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially + be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated + by the sentence Frank must go to Chicago, in which no actual travel + to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence + Mother needs to rest, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both + sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains + an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar + hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences The students want + you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay. + Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” + verbs such as want, need, can, must, etc.

    +

    Notice that the subject of these English sentences (Frank, + Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) are functioning neither as AGENTS + nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify + as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects + are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, + needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, + such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” + the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence Sam wants Shirley + to love him, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked + as EXPERIENCERS using the AFFECTIVE case. Consequently, + Ithkuil uses the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the subject whose + mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized + situation. All of the subjects in the example sentences from the previous paragraph + (i.e., Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) would be so marked. + In Sec. 5.5 we will see how the + ACTIVATIVE is used in conjunction with a morphological + category for verbs termed Modality to create such hypothetical states and situations.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.10
    DER
    		The Derivative Case
    +
    +

    The DERIVATIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DERIVATIVE serves two functions + in Ithkuil. Firstly, it identifies an inanimate FORCE of nature (as described + in Sec. 4.1.1) or abstract causative situation which + causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an action, as in The wind + blew down the door, or Fame threatened his freedom. + The use of the DERIVATIVE instead of the ERGATIVE + or the EFFECTUATIVE denotes that such inanimate agential + forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or willingly initiate + actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the + resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force + or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, + a noun in the DERIVATIVE can often be translated using + phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result + of.’ Nouns in the DERIVATIVE can also appear in + appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun + in the DERIVATIVE denotes the abstract cause or reason + for the other noun, e.g., the danger of fame, love’s + heartache, wind song.

    +

    The second function of the DERIVATIVE + case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS + of an affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in + The coffee smells good, I saw her today, + She hates that boy, Victor coughed from the gas, + We laughed at his jokes, That song makes me + cry. Ithkuil grammar views the stimulus of an experiential state as having + a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as + in the above examples); this explains why the DERIVATIVE + case serves to indicate both functions.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.11
    SIT
    		The Situative Case
    +
    +

    The SITUATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The SITUATIVE identifies a noun as + the background context for a clause. It is similar to the DERIVATIVE + case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship + between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. + It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the + following examples:

    +
    +

    Because of war, our planet will never + be able to join the Federation.
    + Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption + of our children.
    + Using my plan, we will defeat the enemy.

    +
    +


    + 4.3.12 Examples of Transrelative Cases in Use

    +

    _Listen! +

    +

    +

    +


    +
    +

    +


    +

    +

    4.3.13 Specialized Affixes Used to Expand the Functionality of the Transrelative + Cases

    +

    It should be noted that Ithkuil provides an array of affixes specifically designed + to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one of the Transrelative cases + to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal + relationships between participants to a verb in an Ithkuil sentence. These affixes + include the Consent + affix, the Reason + affix, the Expectation + affix, the Deliberateness + affix, the Enablement + affix, the Agency/Intent + affix, and the Impact + affix. These affixes are detailed in Section + 7.7.12 and discussed further in Section + 10.1.2.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    4.4 THE ASSOCIATIVE CASES

    +

    Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually + have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show + varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing + relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences: +

    +
    +

    the man’s hat = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]
    + the man’s house = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]
    + the man’s arm = part of his body [inalienable component]
    + the man’s brother = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]
    + the man’s happiness = he feels happy [affective experience]
    + the man’s rescue = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ + purpose]
    + the man’s gift = the gift is for him [benefaction]
    + the man’s gift = the gift is from him [source]
    + the man’s world = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective + association]
    + the man’s team = the team he is associated with [interactive + mutual association]
    + the man’s story = the story about him [topical reference]
    + the man’s painting = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]
    + the man’s command = his being a commander [role or function]

    +
    +

    In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, + e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the + one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do + the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ + one he is giving or receiving? Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature + of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed + by the seven Associative cases. The other sorts of relationships shown above + are handled by other types of cases (see Sections 4.5 + and 4.6 below).

    +

    The Associative cases make a distinction between alienable + versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether + the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. + These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many + American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor + noun, not the possessed. The seven Associative cases are the POSSESSIVE, + PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, ORIGINATIVE, PRODUCTIVE, and INTERPRETATIVE. + Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil + examples of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.4.8.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.1
    POS
    		The Possessive Case
    +
    +

    The POSSESSIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The POSSESSIVE is used to refer to + a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another + noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether + by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in + any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two + can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, + or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent + separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used + to translate English phrases such as his coat (e.g., + the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), the + boy’s book (e.g., the one in his hand), Father’s + chair (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant). +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.2
    PRP
    		The Proprietive Case
    +
    +

    The PROPRIETIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROPRIETIVE identifies a noun having + alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual + control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, + law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The + two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship + cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration, + convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the + POSSESSIVE above, we can analyze the connotative difference: + his coat (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether + he is wearing it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., + the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the + one assigned to him).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.3
    GEN
    		The Genitive Case
    +
    +

    The GENITIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The GENITIVE is used to refer to a + noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or + association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent + or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) + bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s + doors, the child’s father, the essence of that + woman.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.4
    ATT
    		The Attributive Case
    +
    +

    The ATTRIBUTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ATTRIBUTIVE is used to refer to + a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective + (see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another + noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, + whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: + his pain, Mother’s guilt, the + child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s + happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my + needs.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.5
    OGN
    		The Originative Case
    +
    +

    The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative source of another, e.g., the man’s + story (i.e., the one he told), our gift (i.e., + the one we are giving), water from the river, the fruit + of the tree.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.6
    PDC
    		The Productive Case
    +
    +

    The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator, + author or originator of another noun, e.g., the girl’s + poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue + (i.e., the one I sculpted).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.7
    ITP
    		The Interpretative Case
    +
    +

    The INTERPRETATIVE case is marked by + Series G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun + acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the + noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, + as exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, + our world, life as seen by children. +

    +


    + 4.4.8 Examples of Associative Cases in Use
    +
    +

    +

    Listen! +

    +

    +

    +

    _Listen! +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    4.5 THE APPOSITIVE CASES

    +

    The Appositive cases refer to a group of eleven cases which + modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually adjacent + noun. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, + we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in cat + box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man, etc., or joined by the word + ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., box of coins, dreams + of youth, sounds of laughter. The eleven Appositive cases are the APPLICATIVE, + PURPOSIVE, INHERENT, CONDUCTIVE, MEDIATIVE, CONTRASTIVE, PARTITIVE, COMPOSITIVE, + CORRELATIVE, INTERDEPENDENT, and PREDICATIVE. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.5.12.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.1
    APL
    		The Applicative Case
    +
    +

    The APPLICATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which + represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. + As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for + the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be + a cup for coffee (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), + a box for tools (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold + tools), a room for changing. Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE + can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” + cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” + book = ‘a book used as a projectile.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.2
    PUR
    		The Purposive Case
    +
    +

    The PURPOSIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PURPOSIVE identifies a noun which + characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The PURPOSIVE + is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that + the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or + in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another + noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual + instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended + use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or + ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately + an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would + be a coffee cup, a toolbox, a litter + box, a trashcan.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.3
    INH
    		The Inherent Case
    +
    +

    The INHERENT case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INHERENT case identifies a noun + being used to characterize or define the identity or intrinsic nature of another + in a subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic manner. English phrases + which would be translated using this case are years of wonder, + the Clown Planet, life blood, city of + evil, a dangerous situation (i.e., a situation + characterized by danger).

    +

    Note that in the above examples, the noun in the INHERENT + would be inflected either for the NOMIC or the ABSTRACT + perspective (see Sections + 3.3.3 and 3.3.4) + to show that the relationship involves a collective entity (e.g., Clown + Planet = planet of all clowns) or that the relationship is abstract, subjective + or symbolic (years of wonder = years that make one feel a sense of + wonder). However, when a noun in the INHERENT case is + inflected for a concrete perspective, i.e., either the MONADIC + or the UNBOUNDED, then it takes on the rather different + function of stating the actual existential identity (literally or figuratively) + of the other noun and would be equivalent to the English construction ‘that/which/who + is (a/the)…’ as in the man who is president, the woman who is + my wife, the house that is a model, a machine that is a vehicle, the teacher + who is her father, those trees that are larches. Through use of the INHERENT + case and the MONADIC/UNBOUNDED perspectives, + these phrases would be rendered into Ithkuil phrases that would correspond literally + to the sometimes awkward, even semantically anomalous English phrases ‘the + president man,’ ‘the my-wife woman,’ ‘the model house,’ + ‘the vehicle machine,’ ‘the her-father teacher,’ ‘the + larch trees.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.4
    CNV
    		The Conductive Case
    +
    +

    The CONDUCTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONDUCTIVE identifies the meaningful + or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship + signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains + to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English + phrases translatable using this case are a circus clown, + a mountain man, a feeling of loneliness, the + Mafia’s world, a realm of fear, my + life achievement, childhood memories, Let’s + discuss the morality of war.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.5
    MED
    		The Mediative Case
    +
    +

    The MEDIATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The MEDIATIVE indicates the physical, + psychological, or figurative medium through which another noun or event takes + place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as a radio + announcement, arrival by water, a letter bomb, + air mail, achieving ecstasy through sex, I + showed her my love with chocolate. It should be distinguished + from the INSTRUMENTAL case (see Section 4.3.8 above), + which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a + causative action. For example, in the sentence Call him on the phone!, + translating the phrase on the phone into the INSTRUMENTAL + case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call + him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE case + would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.6
    CRS
    		The Contrastive Case
    +
    +

    The CONTRASTIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONTRASTIVE identifies a distinguishing + characteristic of another noun, i.e., that feature which distinguishes it from + other possible candidates within the given context. It would be used in translating + phrases such as the green bottle (e.g., as opposed + to the blue one); the science text (e.g., versus the + religious text); my statue (i.e., a statue of me); + I want your recipe for stew, not soup; + Don’t worry, it’s a pet snake.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.7
    PAR
    		The Partitive Case
    +
    +

    The PARTITIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. When used in conjunction with another noun, the PARTITIVE + indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two + nouns, e.g., a cup of coffee, a box(ful) of books, + a train(load) of refugees. When used alone, it signifies + that the context of the phrase or sentence involves only a portion of the noun, + rather than the whole noun, e.g., I ate some bread, Pour + (some) water down my back.

    +

    The PARTITIVE is also used to mark a + noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., three boxes, + two clowns, twenty words. This usage + is analyzed in detail in Chapter + 12, where we will see that, in Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e., + full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, + a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not + say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps + more eloquently, “a box trio.”

    +

    The PARTITIVE case is also used in constructing + words for Ithkuil numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed + in Chapter + 12 on enumeration.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.8
    CPS
    		The Compositive Case
    +
    +

    The COMPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The COMPOSITIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is + made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be That + statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) + coins, We were caught in a web of lies, I use a wooden + ladder, It was a house of cards, Three suits + comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups.

    +

    The COMPOSITIVE is also used in conjunction + with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing + or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be She likes to + cook with tomatoes, He reads by candle(light), + That child goes through four sets of clothes a day, My uncle + satisfied his sweet tooth with three chocolate bars.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.9
    COR
    		The Correlative Case
    +
    +

    The CORRELATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CORRELATIVE is used to indicate + an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another + noun or verb. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ + ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association + with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as career + goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, + The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, + Our next topic is sex and (or in) art + (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Note that the CORRELATIVE + case would often be used to translate constructions for which English often + uses an adjective, e.g., spatial coordinates, the political + economy.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.10
    IDP
    		The Interdependent Case
    +
    +

    The INTERDEPENDENT case is marked by + Series J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTERDEPENDENT identifies a noun + which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship + with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal + in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within + it’s natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, + an army general, the blood in my veins, the + driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his + team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case + does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the GENITIVE + case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, + or the leaves of a tree.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.11
    PRD
    		The Predicative Case
    +
    +

    The PREDICATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PREDICATIVE identifies a noun which + constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), + or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by + the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying + on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, + a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, + Can success supported by murder be sustained?

    +

    The PREDICATIVE should be distinguished + from Transrelative cases such as the DERIVATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL, + in that the PREDICATIVE does not denote a cause, merely + the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to + translate anxiety based on terror, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ + or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in + the phrase an attitude fueled by greed, the attitude derives from or + results from greed, but is not relying on it.

    +


    + 4.5.12 Examples of Appositive Cases in Use

    +


    + ____________________________________________________Listen! +

    +


    +

    + + + + +

    4.6 THE ADVERBIAL CASES

    +

    The Adverbial cases function similarly to adverbial phrases + in Western languages (usually beginning with an adverbial conjunction), to provide + additional contextual information to a verb. The fourteen Adverbial cases are + the ESSIVE, ASSIMILATIVE, FUNCTIVE, TRANSFORMATIVE, REFERENTIAL, + CONSIDERATIVE, CLASSIFICATIVE, DEFERENTIAL, COMITATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE, UTILITATIVE, + BENEFACTIVE, TRANSPOSITIVE, and COMMUTATIVE. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.6.15.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.1
    ESS
    		The Essive Case
    +
    +

    The ESSIVE case is marked by Series A + vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ESSIVE identifies the role or name + by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ + in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would + be used in translating the English sentences They called him a clown, + The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider + you our only hope.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.2
    ASI
    		The Assimilative Case
    +
    +

    The ASSIMILATIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical + consonant. The ASSIMILATIVE identifies a noun used as + a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a + verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in + the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of + usage are She sings like a bird, As children they + seemed to me.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.3
    FUN
    		The Functive Case
    +
    +

    The FUNCTIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in -ly + or the adverbial use of with, identifying the manner in which an action, + event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to + characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately + by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would + be: She dances gracefully (i.e., in a manner characterized + by grace), The boys ate with gusto, That clown is speaking + nonsense, Father speaks with such fortitude.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.4
    TFM
    		The Transformative Case
    +
    +

    The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by + Series D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome + or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ + or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone + some transformation. Example usages would be The house burned to + ashes, The clown reached a state of tranquility, The + clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank + himself to death.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.5
    REF
    		The Referential Case
    +
    +

    The REFERENTIAL case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The REFERENTIAL identifies a noun functioning + as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ + ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ + ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ + Examples of use would be a song of love; As for + those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; + His attitude toward women.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.6
    CSD
    		The Considerative Case
    +
    +

    The CONSIDERATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONSIDERATIVE identifies a noun + as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs + or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according + to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion + of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s + a coward; He’s leaving town as per orders from the court; + You were arrested pursuant to law; According to our + teacher, humans are descended from apes.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.7
    CLA
    		The Classificative Case
    +
    +

    The CLASSIFICATIVE case is marked by + Series G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CLASSIFICATIVE identifies a noun + as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various + English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are + Place them in groups of three, The workers arranged the + tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can + you count by fives?, I will sort them by color.

    +

    The CLASSIFICATIVE is also used to identify + a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing + the manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time + periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature + of an event. Examples would be Month by month, their departure + crept closer; Year after year, I see more and more clowns; + Day in, day out, he’s always working; + The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, bag upon bag; + Patient by patient, the nurse administered injections.

    +

    Note that the CLASSIFICATIVE would not + be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used + to translate the sentence One bomb after another fell on the city. + Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations + of the noun (see Sec. + 7.7.4).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.8
    DFR
    		The Deferential Case
    +
    +

    The DEFERENTIAL case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DEFERENTIAL translates the English + phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or + ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is + paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would + be He remained silent for her sake, They went on with the + ceremony out of respect for the families, They dressed in robes + because of tradition.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.9
    COM
    		The Comitative Case
    +
    +

    The COMITATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish + or Estonian, the COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’ + in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in The + child went with the clown to the party. Like English ‘with,’ + the COMITATIVE does not imply that the conjoined noun + is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb + as the head noun. For example, in the sentence My father was walking with + a loaf of bread, the loaf of bread is not considered to be itself walking. +

    +

    It should be noted, however, that the COMITATIVE + is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two + nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences They danced + with each other or Mother wants to talk with you. These would + be translated using the RECIPROCAL valence of the verb, + explained in Section 5.2.4. + This distinction is illustrated even more clearly by comparing the following + two sentences; the first would be translated using the COMITATIVE, + the second would not: This man fought with my father (e.g., alongside + him during the war) versus This man fought with my father (e.g., they + had a fight with each other).

    +

    Note also that the COMITATIVE is not + used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by + means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as I + cut the meat with a knife. As previously discussed in Section + 4.3.8, instrumentality is indicated by use of the INSTRUMENTAL + case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed + in undertaking an act, as in He catches his fish with worms for which the COMPOSITIVE + case is used.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.10
    CNJ
    		The Conjunctive Case
    +
    +

    The CONJUNCTIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONJUNCTIVE translates English + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., + to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary + activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the COMITATIVE + above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the walking with + a loaf of bread example from above, it would be incorrect to use the CONJUNCTIVE + case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate + the usage, consider the sentence I’m with the brigade. Translating + ‘brigade’ using the COMITATIVE would mean + that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ + while using the CONJUNCTIVE would mean ‘I’m + a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE + would be used are They skate with the best team, That teacher works well + with children.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.11
    UTL
    		The Utilitative Case
    +
    +

    The UTILITATIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in + the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ + where it refers to actual use in progress as in A man with a gun + ran into the room. It should be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL + (see Sec. 4.3.8) in that the latter indicates the implement + used to accomplish an action, while the UTILITATIVE identifies + a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish + a stated action. For example, compare the sentence The man with + an umbrella was pushing a stroller in the rain (UTILITATIVE) + with The man pushed a stroller in the rain with an umbrella + (INSTRUMENTAL). The first sentence implies the man was + pushing a stroller with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the + rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the stroller. + Another way to translate the UTILITATIVE would be to use + an English gerundial construction as in A gun-wielding + man ran into the room or An umbrella-toting man pushed + a stroller in the rain.

    +

    Besides the INSTRUMENTAL, the UTILITATIVE + should likewise be distinguished from the COMITATIVE case + above, in that the COMITATIVE merely indicates accompaniment, + while the UTILITATIVE indicates use in progress. For example, + the sentence Go sit next to the girl with the book, + if translated using the COMITATIVE would merely identify + a girl who has a book in her visible possession, while with the UTILITATIVE + it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.12
    BEN
    		The Benefactive Case
    +
    +

    The BENEFACTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The BENEFACTIVE identifies a noun for + whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the BENEFACTIVE + is similar to the DATIVE, except that the BENEFACTIVE + implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the + recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or + consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ + Examples of usage are a toy for the children, We threw + him a party, Go to the teachers’ + lounge.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.13
    TSP
    		The Transpositive Case
    +
    +

    The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution + of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense + of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead + of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are + The boss made the speech for me, She went up into the attic + for her brother (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.14
    CMM
    		The Commutative Case
    +
    +

    The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The COMMUTATIVE translates English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in You + paid too much money for that dress, She kills for thrills.

    +


    + 4.6.15 Examples of Adverbial Cases in Use
    +
    +
    + ___________________________Listen! +

    +


    +

    + + + + +

    4.7 THE SUBRELATIVE CASES

    +

    The Subrelative cases comprise eleven cases which place a noun + in a subordinate context to the main sentence, much like subordinate conjunctions + in Western languages. In fact, these cases are used far more frequently with + verbal clauses than with nouns, creating what are known as “case-frames” + (to be discussed in Sec. 5.7), + the Ithkuil functional equivalent to Western subordinate clauses. The eleven + Subrelative cases are the ABESSIVE, CONVERSIVE, CONCESSIVE, EXCEPTIVE, + ADVERSATIVE, PROVISIONAL, POSTULATIVE, SUPPOSITIVE, DEPENDENT, COMPARATIVE, + and AVERSIVE. Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of the cases in use are given + in Sec. 4.7.12.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.1
    ABE
    		The Abessive Case
    +
    +

    The ABESSIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ABESSIVE is essentially the opposite + of the COMITATIVE, translating the English ‘without’ + or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not + having’ as in a day without rain or a treeless + plain. As noted in the next section below on the CONVERSIVE + case, it is not used to translate ‘without’ when + it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome as in I can’t go on without love.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.2
    CVS
    		The Conversive Case
    +
    +

    The CONVERSIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONVERSIVE is used in conjunction + with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered + a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where + it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the + conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition + ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense + does not correspond to its usual ABESSIVE usage in Sec. + 4.7.1 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by + such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if + it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ + Example of usage: Without peace, this society is doomed; + If not for the rain, we would have had a good time.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.3
    CON
    		The Concessive Case
    +
    +

    The CONCESSIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun, + situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result + which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, + conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ + ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ + ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: In spite of + his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, + I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), + they are welcome, Although foreigners, we will let them attend + the meeting.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.4
    EXC
    		The Exceptive Case
    +
    +

    The EXCEPTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The EXCEPTIVE indicates a noun, situation, + or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main + clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ + or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: She loves everybody except + clowns; I like all animals, excluding dogs; He eats + almost anything but (not) spinach.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.5
    AVS
    		The Adversative Case
    +
    +

    The ADVERSATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ADVERSATIVE indicates a noun which + has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. + In verbal frame adjuncts it identifies the situation which had been expected + in contrast to what actually takes place. This is translatable by the English + phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘as opposed to,’ e.g., Instead + of rain, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, as opposed to + a maid.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.6
    PVS
    		The Provisional Case
    +
    +

    The PROVISIONAL case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which + the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required + condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the + main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided + (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ + or ‘but only if,’ e.g., Provided [there’s] food, + I will attend the meeting; We will fight only in case of war.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.7
    PTL
    		The Postulative Case
    +
    +

    The POSTULATIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The operates somewhat similarly to the PROVISIONAL + above, except that the POSTULATIVE implies a causal or + consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s) + and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, + situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, + but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated + by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in + case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where + it means ‘whether’ as in I don’t know if it’s warm + enough, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality + (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). + Examples of usage: If [there’s] snow, I’m not + going out; In case of fire, flee; If friend, + welcome them, if foe, kill ’em.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.8
    SUP
    		The Suppositive Case
    +
    +

    The SUPPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The SUPPOSITIVE identifies a noun as + a hypothetical supposition being offered for comment. It is somewhat similar + to the SITUATIVE case (see Section + 4.3.11 above), except that the noun is functioning purely as a supposition, + not as an actual context. The SUPPOSITIVE can be distinguished + from the PROVISIONAL and the POSTULATIVE + cases above, in that the latter two cases describe pre-conditions for a following + clause where the pre-condition is either preclusive or a known possibility. + The SUPPOSITIVE presents only a hypothetical possibility + whose likelihood of becoming or describing reality is either unknown or unknowable. + There is no equivalent English construction which expresses this distinction. + The following sentences represent approximate English translations of what would + be identical Ithkuil sentences except for the three different case declensions + of the word for ‘weather’:

    +

    PROVISIONAL: We’re packing + umbrellas, but only in case of bad weather (i.e., umbrellas + will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).
    + POSTULATIVE: We’re packing umbrellas in + case of bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation + for the possibility of bad weather).
    + SUPPOSITIVE: We’re packing umbrellas supposing + [there’s] bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed + even though we don’t know how the weather will be).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.9
    DEP
    		The Dependent Case
    +
    +

    The DEPENDENT case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DEPENDENT translates the English + phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which + the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be Depending + on the rain, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, depending + on her attitude.

    +

    The DEPENDENT should be distinguished + from the PREDICATIVE case in Sec. + 4.5.11, in that the former denotes contingency, while the PREDICATIVE + denotes reliance.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.10
    CMP
    		The Comparative Case
    +
    +

    The COMPARATIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being + compared and contrasted to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as + compared to,’ ‘as opposed to.’ With verbal case-frames (see + Sec. 5.7) it would translate as + ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). + Examples are She chose the red one as opposed to the blue one, + Sam drives a van as compared to Joe, who prefers a truck.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.11
    AVR
    		The Aversive Case
    +
    +

    The AVERSIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a + source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions + such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in + avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see Sec. + 5.7) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage + are She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled + by night to avoid the sun.

    +

     

    +

    4.7.12 Examples of Subrelative Cases in Use

    +


    + ____________________________Listen! +
    +
    +
    +

    +


    +

    + + + + +

    4.8 THE SPATIAL CASES +

    +

    As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ithkuil. + While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque + and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional + relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished + in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be + inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, + there are twelve cases corresponding to certain types of common spatial relationships. + These are the LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, + PROLATIVE, PERLATIVE, PERVASIVE , PERIPHERAL, INTEGRAL, POSITIONAL, and + NAVIGATIVE. Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided + in Sec. 4.8.13.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.1
    LOC
    		The Locative Case
    +
    +

    The LOCATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The LOCATIVE signifies general static + position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable + by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ + or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., in that building, by + the wall, on the street, at my house.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.2
    ORI
    		The Orientative Case
    +
    +

    The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ORIENTATIVE identifies the noun + (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” + of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable + into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ + in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., + He jumped in feet-first, The car rolled backward. + The ORIENTATIVE allows for the extension of this concept + to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., He walked “butt-ward” + down the street (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading + the way).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.3
    PSV
    		The Procursive Case
    +
    +

    The PROCURSIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROCURSIVE identifies a noun (often + a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point, + interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction + with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun usually appears + in either the ALLATIVE or POSITIONAL + case (see Sections 4.8.4 and 4.8.11 below). Examples of use would be They + collided sideways, She turned her back on + him, The chair “faced” the doorway (i.e., + The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.4
    ALL
    		The Allative Case
    +
    +

    The ALLATIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. When used in the context of explicit or implied directional + motion, the ALLATIVE signifies the direction of motion, + translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ + in English. Note that the ALLATIVE in no way implies that + the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion + or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be I wandered + eastward, The little girl ran toward me, Throw + the rock at that clown!, We headed for home.

    +

    When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the ALLATIVE signifies a directional orientation of a + noun relative to another, e.g., He turned his back on me, + The upstairs bedroom faces the yard, It’s alongside the + desk (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk)

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.5
    ABL
    		The Ablative Case
    +
    +

    The ABLATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion, + the ABLATIVE signifies the general directional origin + of movement away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin + or departure. Examples would be He came out of the east, + She walked here from (the direction of) the river.

    +

    When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the ABLATIVE signifies a reverse directional orientation + of one noun relative to another, e.g., He faced away from me.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.6
    PLT
    		The Prolative Case
    +
    +

    The PROLATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROLATIVE indicates either a position + or a path of linear movement along, across, or through a one-dimensional linear + medium or a two-dimensional quasi-planar surface, the position or movement being + between one point and another, without implying origination at one point or + destination at another, e.g., He passed through a tunnel, + She’s standing along the highway, I’ll walk across + the patio, He pushed his way through the crowd, The + vessel traversed the (surface of the) ocean.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.7
    PEL
    		The Perlative Case
    +
    +

    The PERLATIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERLATIVE is identical to the PROLATIVE + above, except that the implied position or path of movement between implied + points is through or within a three-dimensional volume or medium, e.g., Baboons + chase each other through the trees, We escaped under + the ocean, The probe explored the nebula (i.e., + while passing through it), The vessel traversed the (depths of the) + ocean.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.8
    PRV
    		The Pervasive Case
    +
    +

    The PERVASIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERVASIVE signifies position or + path of movement among, within, or throughout the contextual medium, e.g., among + the grounds, throughout the stadium, within the crowd.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.9
    PRH
    		The Peripheral Case
    +
    +

    The PERIPHERAL case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERIPHERAL signifies position or + path of movement in a area surrounding, around, or along the periphery of a + noun, e.g., around her head, on all sides of it, surrounding the yard.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.10
    INT
    		The Integral Case
    +
    +

    The INTEGRAL case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTEGRAL identifies the noun which + is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. It + should be distinguished from the ABLATIVE above, in that + the ABLATIVE implies position or path of motion away from, + whereas the INTEGRAL merely presents a locational context + as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise similar + noun. Examples of usage would be Fix the kitchen sink! + (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), Desert rocks are so + beautiful (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert + or rocks still present in the desert), Northern women are + easy-going.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.11
    PSN
    		The Positional Case
    +
    +

    The POSITIONAL case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The POSITIONAL identifies a noun relative + to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial + orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater + sense once one realizes that, in Ithkuil, most one-to-one spatial relationships + are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the + right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, the POSITIONAL + case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples + of how it would be used are I’m standing four feet north of + the desk, The one hanging above the boxes looks fresh, + It lies at a 30° angle relative to the tree.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.12
    NAV
    		The Navigative Case
    +
    +

    The NAVIGATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The NAVIGATIVE identifies the noun + relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event + takes place. This is particularly important, as we will see in Section + 10.4.3 that Ithkuil modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors + of movement or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as + the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be I looked down + the street, We aligned it perpendicular to the path of the + sun, He crossed the room diagonally (i.e., walked + diagonally relative to the long axis of the room.)

    +


    + 4.8.13 Examples of Spatial Cases in Use
    +
    +
    + _________________________Listen! + +

    +


    +

    + + + + +

    4.9 THE TEMPORAL CASES

    +

    The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In + many respects, Ithkuil analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly + in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases + as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ + and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear + using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ + ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the + CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, + POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, SIMULTANEITIVE, + ASSESSIVE, and LIMITATIVE. Following are explanations + of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases + in use are provided in Sec. 4.9.16.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.1
    CNR
    		The Concursive Case
    +
    +

    The CONCURSIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal + locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during + or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered + a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be He prays during + lunch, She studied hard last night, I won’t + visit until then (i.e., during that period in time).

    +
    +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.2
    ACS
    		The Accessive Case
    +

    The ACCESSIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The is similar to the CONCURSIVE, except + that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly delimited + period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something + occurs. Examples of usage would be Dinner will be served at sunset; + When (i.e., at the moment that) you hear his voice, + call in the clowns; Upon impact, both cars were accelerating.

    +
    +

    +
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.3
    DFF
    		The Diffusive Case
    +

    The DIFFUSIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DIFFUSIVE is yet another temporal + locative similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time + period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on + the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase + ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be + Most cars had tail fins in those days; I was abroad during + that era; At the time of his death, the number of + clowns was increasing; Over the past several seasons, your + talent has matured.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.4
    PER
    		The Periodic Case
    +

    The PERIODIC case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERIODIC identifies the span of + time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This + case should be distinguished from the CONCURSIVE above, + in that the periodic specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions, + or durationally extended acts or states take place, whereas the concursive signifies + a contextually single holistic event. Examples would be He wrote the novel + in six months, These clowns can corrupt your child within + a few days, The woman has been ill a lot this year, + For the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.5
    PRO
    		The Prolapsive Case
    +

    The PROLAPSIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROLAPSIVE signifies the duration + of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case + should be distinguished from the PERIODIC above, in that + the PROLAPSIVE specifies the actual duration of the act, + condition, or event, whereas the PERIODIC merely specifies + a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, + or event occurs. Examples would be He prayed through lunch, + While he was dying, the number of clowns increased, It rained + all night, It took three days for the fever + to break, She sang for an hour.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.6
    PCV
    		The Precursive Case
    +

    The PRECURSIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PRECURSIVE identifies a point in + time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred before the war, It rained prior + to his appearance, There will be a presentation preceding the + banquet.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.7
    PCR
    		The Postcursive Case
    +

    The POSTCURSIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The POSTCURSIVE identifies a point + in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred after the war, It rained subsequent + to his appearance, There will be a presentation following the + banquet.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.8
    ELP
    		The Elapsive Case
    +

    The ELAPSIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ELAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, + condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ + Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going + back three generations, women could not even vote.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.9
    ALP
    		The Allapsive Case
    +

    The ALLAPSIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ALLAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of + a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be Four years + from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, + clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little + did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.10
    INP
    		The Interpolative Case
    +

    The INTERPOLATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTERPOLATIVE is used within the + context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the + duration of each repetition. Examples of usage are We heard several five-second + snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals of several + seconds; She gets recurring migraines, each lasting hours.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.11
    EPS
    		The Episodic Case
    +
    +

    The EPISODIC case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The EPISODIC identifies a contextually + recurring time-period. Examples of usage are The man talks with his mother + every three days; Each year, I travel to the + Clown Planet; He works nights; By day, she + is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.12
    PRL
    		The Prolimitive Case
    +
    +

    The PROLIMITIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROLIMITIVE defines a point in + time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e., + the time by which some act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would + be By the time of your graduation, I want you out of the + house; Please be on board by midnight; By the time + of the raid, there was nothing left to steal.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.13
    SML
    		The Simultaneitive Case
    +
    +

    The SIMULTANEITIVE case is marked by + Series D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The SIMULTANEITIVE identifies a noun + signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion. + Examples would be I was in class at the same time as his accident, + I worked a side-job concurrent to the strike, She laughed simultaneously + with my coughing fit.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.14
    ASS
    		The Assessive Case
    +
    +

    The ASSESSIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ASSESSIVE specifies the unit of + time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to + English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be My lawyer + charges by the minute, He publishes several books each + year, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles per hour.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.15
    LIM
    		The Limitative Case
    +
    +

    The LIMITATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The LIMITATIVE signifies a event culminating + an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time + for.’ Examples of usage are He arrived in time for dinner, + Be inside the Big Tent in time for the clowns.

    +


    + 4.9.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use

    +


    + ___________________________Listen! +
    +

    +

    +

    +

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 5: Verb Morphology >>

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +
    +©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author +and this website. +

     

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    +

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch4-case.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch4-case.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d59cf75 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch4-case.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2518 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 4: Case Morphology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 4: Case Morphology

    + +

    In this chapter, we analyze one additional morphological category: + Case. Like the eight categories analyzed in the previous chapter, and unlike + other languages, the category of Case applies to all formatives in Ithkuil, + i.e., to both nouns and verbs alike. However, the syntactical context in which + Case operates is sufficiently dissimilar for nouns and verbs to warrant separate + analysis. In this chapter, we will analyze the case morphology of nouns alone. + The use of Case with verbs will be analyzed in Section + 5.7.

    +

    Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek + or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to + a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its + phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays + in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence + It was me she saw, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed + to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ + distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object + of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence Der + Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the + man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ + distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) + from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ + (accusative case).

    +

    The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the + notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, + there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether + a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. + In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute + for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases. + The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in + order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and + the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known as its declensions. +

    +

    There are 81 cases in Ithkuil, falling into seven categories: + Transrelative, Associative, Appositive, Adverbial, Subrelative, Spatial, and + Temporal. Case operates differently in Ithkuil than in most human languages, + being based in lexico-semantics as opposed to morpho-syntax. This is explained + below in Section 4.1.

    +

    Note that in regard to gender categories from other languages, + Ithkuil has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, etc.), + although word-roots do fall into one of 17 morpho-semantic classes (see Sec. + 10.2). However, there is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological + concord of any kind between a noun and other words or morphological elements + in a sentence, i.e., there is none of the required matching of masculine or + feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and adjectives + as seen in most Western languages.

    +

    +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    4.1 + SEMANTIC ROLE VERSUS POSITIONAL SLOT

    +
    +

    In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level + of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct + object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is + ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role + can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:

    +
    +

    (1a) John opened the door with the key.
    + (1b) The key opened the door.
    + (1c) The wind opened the door.
    + (1d) The door opened.

    +
    +

    In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, + i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their + semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, + John, the key, the wind, and the door. Yet + it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated + in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence + (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that + the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while + in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role + in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. + As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first + three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role + in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a + change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ + in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ + in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), + yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role + of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in + (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act + of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a + subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of + the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while + being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed + choice to initiate such action.

    +


    + 4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role

    +

    The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot + (i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate semantic + role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between + sets of sentences like those above. In Ithkuil, however, the case of a noun + is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the + sentence relative to the verb. These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental + or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns + in other languages. Thus Ithkuil noun declension more accurately reflects the + underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western + grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little + meaning or applicability in Ithkuil grammar.

    +

    The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ithkuil. + They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” + of Western languages:

    +

    AGENT: The animate, (and usually conscious + and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing + a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence + (1a) above.

    +

    FORCE: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an + act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.

    +

    INSTRUMENT: The noun which functions as the + physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ + in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.

    +

    PATIENT: The noun which undergoes a change + in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or + by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.

    +


    + 4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles

    +

    Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects + in Western languages exist in Ithkuil as overt noun cases. These include the + roles of ENABLER, EXPERIENCER, STIMULUS, RECIPIENT, and CONTENT, and are explained + below using the following set of sentences as illustrations.

    +
    +

    (2a) Mary hits the children.
    + (2b) Mary entertains the children.
    + (2c) Mary sees the children.
    + (2d) Mary tells the children a story.
    + (2e) Mary wants children.

    +
    +

    Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary + is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object + (except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns + are entirely different in each of these five sentences. Beginning with Sentence + (2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the + children who obviously function in the role of PATIENT. Thus (2a) is identical + to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct object. +

    +

    In Sentence (2b) however, Mary entertains the + children, there is a subtle distinction. At first we might consider Mary + an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become + entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result + (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. + In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, + but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a + sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like + a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or + behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen + to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting + change in the children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the + children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is termed an + ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained + or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or + consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves + unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, + a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS. + Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory + perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and + pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and + autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations + (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).

    +

    This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence + (2c) Mary sees the children, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes + an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other + words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever + a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ + does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” + (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the + “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action + at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. + In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” + as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction + to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled + states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such + as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are + categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role + in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo + any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not + in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being + seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of + sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, + the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting + originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun + participant.

    +

    In Sentence (2d) Mary tells the children a story, + Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the + telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, + or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing + RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western + languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract + referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.

    +

    The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence + (2e) Mary wants children, where they function as the “object” + of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children + undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s + desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory + referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, + being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation + similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, + Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    4.2 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL + MARKERS FOR CASE

    +
    +

    Case is shown in many different ways in Ithkuil depending on + whether the case is being shown in conjunction with a formative or a personal + reference adjunct (explained in Sec. + 8.1). For nouns, case is shown via a combination of vocalic mutation of + the stem-vowel and mutation of the second consonantal radical, C2. + The permutations of the nine series of vocalic mutation, along with the nine + grades of C2 consonantal mutation, combine to correspond + to the 81 cases. The particular mutational patterns are given in the sections + below as each case is described. Case markers for personal reference adjuncts + will be shown later in Section + 8.1.

    +

    We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases + in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects” + and “objects” in Western languages.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    4.3 THE TRANSRELATIVE CASES

    +
    +

    The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify + nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms + would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and + most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these + cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in Sec. + 4.1 above. The eleven transrelative cases are the OBLIQUE, + ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, + ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, and SITUATIVE. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of these cases in use are provided in Section 4.3.12.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.1
    OBL
    		The Oblique Case
    +
    +

    The OBLIQUE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. As described above in Section 4.1.2, the OBLIQUE + identifies the semantic role of CONTENT, whether it is something given to a + RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g., + a memory recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used + in translating sentences such as Sam gave me a book, The + child likes cereal. It is also the case associated with + existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb + ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description + of a noun as in the English sentences That boy is blind + or The house was built of wood. The OBLIQUE, + being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun + (i.e., the form in which the noun would be listed in a dictionary).

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.2
    ABS
    		The Absolutive Case
    +
    +

    The ABSOLUTIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the ABSOLUTIVE + identifies the semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator + is a different party than the patient who undergoes the resulting action. Note + that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need + not be overtly expressed. Examples of English sentences translatable using the + ABSOLUTIVE would be The boy hit the girl, + She forced him to do it, The bird fell from + the sky, The prisoner died during the gun battle.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.3
    DAT
    		The Dative Case
    +
    +

    The DATIVE case is marked by Series C + vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DATIVE has two functions in Ithkuil. + Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving + and telling, i.e., the semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via + an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or + the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ithkuil + uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference + to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences + such as We're giving you a present, Jason lent a dollar + to his sister, Please grant me a wish, The + student has three books, Those mountains have a mysterious + quality.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.4
    ERG
    		The Ergative Case
    +
    +

    The ERGATIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ERGATIVE identifies the semantic + role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which initiates a tangible action undergone by another + party (the PATIENT), as described in Section 4.1.1. + Note that sentences involving an ERGATIVE agent need not + overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable + using the ERGATIVE would be The boy + hit the girl, She forced him to do it, That murderer + kills for fun.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.5
    EFF
    		The Effectuative Case
    +
    +

    The EFFECTUATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The EFFECTUATIVE identifies the noun + acting in the semantic role of ENABLER, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events, + ultimately resulting in a final event. An example would be pulling out the plug + of a filled bathtub thereby causing it to empty. This case should therefore + be carefully distinguished from the ERGATIVE case. Ergatively + marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action + directly initiated by the agent, whereas EFFECTUATIVE + nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in the + Ithkuil translation of the sentence The clown emptied the blood from the + tub, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by means of the ERGATIVE + case, or as an ENABLER using the EFFECTUATIVE case. The + former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would + mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate + the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to + pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating + the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’

    +

    Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the affix + -V1.k + to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this affix, sentences + can be produced which specify whether the enablement is via giving of consent + or permission, by persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a + hindrance, or even by inaction. This affix is explored fully in Sec. + 7.7.12.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.6
    IND
    		The Inducive Case
    +
    +

    The INDUCIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INDUCIVE identifies a noun which + undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the noun is a PATIENT of an agential + action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does + not necessarily imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It + would be used in sentences such as The boy jumped, He + sang, The dog barked all night, or She + danced to the music, in which the party initiating and performing the action + are one and the same.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.7
    AFF
    		The Affective Case
    +
    +

    The AFFECTIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The AFFECTIVE denotes a noun whose + semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described previously in Section + 4.1.2, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled) + experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result + of an external stimulus. Examples of such states would be automatic sensory + experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, + blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; + automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising + one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state + such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, + anxiety, etc.

    +

    Example sentences requiring the use of the AFFECTIVE + case would be The baby is coughing, The lightning startled + her, Mortimer loves his vittles, Uncle + Davey slept till noon, My back itches me.

    +

    Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about + by the noun undergoing it, the INDUCIVE case would be + used, since the noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce + the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence The children + smiled with glee (marked using the AFFECTIVE) + with The children smiled on cue (marked using the + INDUCIVE).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.8
    INS
    		The Instrumental Case
    +
    +

    The INSTRUMENTAL case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. As described previously in Section 4.1.1, + the INSTRUMENTAL denotes a noun which functions as the + INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing + about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples + of usage would be She killed him with a knife, The man + tripped over my foot, The password got him + inside. The INSTRUMENTAL is also used to mark translations + of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the + instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare I pressed the button with + my finger with My finger pressed the button, + both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s + missing agent, I.

    +

    Note that the INSTRUMENTAL does not translate + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied + by’ (see the COMITATIVE case below in Sec. + 4.6.9) as in She arrived with her father. Nor is it used to show + the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the + sentence He cooks with tomatoes (see the COMPOSITIVE + case in Sec. 4.5.8), it is not the tomatoes that cook + the food, therefore the INSTRUMENTAL would not be used, + whereas in He fueled the fire with wood it is the wood that fuels the + fire, thus requiring the INSTRUMENTAL case.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.9
    ACT
    		The Activative Case
    +
    +

    The ACTIVATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ACTIVATIVE identifies a noun engaged + in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, + creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially + be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated + by the sentence Frank must go to Chicago, in which no actual travel + to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence + Mother needs to rest, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both + sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains + an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar + hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences The students want + you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay. + Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” + verbs such as want, need, can, must, etc.

    +

    Notice that the subject of these English sentences (Frank, + Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) are functioning neither as AGENTS + nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify + as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects + are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, + needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, + such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” + the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence Sam wants Shirley + to love him, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked + as EXPERIENCERS using the AFFECTIVE case. Consequently, + Ithkuil uses the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the subject whose + mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized + situation. All of the subjects in the example sentences from the previous paragraph + (i.e., Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) would be so marked. + In Sec. 5.5 we will see how the + ACTIVATIVE is used in conjunction with a morphological + category for verbs termed Modality to create such hypothetical states and situations.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.10
    DER
    		The Derivative Case
    +
    +

    The DERIVATIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DERIVATIVE serves two functions + in Ithkuil. Firstly, it identifies an inanimate FORCE of nature (as described + in Sec. 4.1.1) or abstract causative situation which + causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an action, as in The wind + blew down the door, or Fame threatened his freedom. + The use of the DERIVATIVE instead of the ERGATIVE + or the EFFECTUATIVE denotes that such inanimate agential + forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or willingly initiate + actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the + resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force + or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, + a noun in the DERIVATIVE can often be translated using + phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result + of.’ Nouns in the DERIVATIVE can also appear in + appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun + in the DERIVATIVE denotes the abstract cause or reason + for the other noun, e.g., the danger of fame, love’s + heartache, wind song.

    +

    The second function of the DERIVATIVE + case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS + of an affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in + The coffee smells good, I saw her today, + She hates that boy, Victor coughed from the gas, + We laughed at his jokes, That song makes me + cry. Ithkuil grammar views the stimulus of an experiential state as having + a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as + in the above examples); this explains why the DERIVATIVE + case serves to indicate both functions.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.3.11
    SIT
    		The Situative Case
    +
    +

    The SITUATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The SITUATIVE identifies a noun as + the background context for a clause. It is similar to the DERIVATIVE + case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship + between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. + It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the + following examples:

    +
    +

    Because of war, our planet will never + be able to join the Federation.
    + Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption + of our children.
    + Using my plan, we will defeat the enemy.

    +
    +


    + 4.3.12 Examples of Transrelative Cases in Use

    +

    _Listen! +

    +

    +

    +


    +
    +

    +


    +

    +

    4.3.13 Specialized Affixes Used to Expand the Functionality of the Transrelative + Cases

    +

    It should be noted that Ithkuil provides an array of affixes specifically designed + to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one of the Transrelative cases + to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal + relationships between participants to a verb in an Ithkuil sentence. These affixes + include the Consent + affix, the Reason + affix, the Expectation + affix, the Deliberateness + affix, the Enablement + affix, the Agency/Intent + affix, and the Impact + affix. These affixes are detailed in Section + 7.7.12 and discussed further in Section + 10.1.2.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    4.4 THE ASSOCIATIVE CASES

    +

    Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually + have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show + varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing + relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences: +

    +
    +

    the man’s hat = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]
    + the man’s house = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]
    + the man’s arm = part of his body [inalienable component]
    + the man’s brother = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]
    + the man’s happiness = he feels happy [affective experience]
    + the man’s rescue = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ + purpose]
    + the man’s gift = the gift is for him [benefaction]
    + the man’s gift = the gift is from him [source]
    + the man’s world = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective + association]
    + the man’s team = the team he is associated with [interactive + mutual association]
    + the man’s story = the story about him [topical reference]
    + the man’s painting = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]
    + the man’s command = his being a commander [role or function]

    +
    +

    In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, + e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the + one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do + the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ + one he is giving or receiving? Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature + of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed + by the seven Associative cases. The other sorts of relationships shown above + are handled by other types of cases (see Sections 4.5 + and 4.6 below).

    +

    The Associative cases make a distinction between alienable + versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether + the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. + These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many + American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor + noun, not the possessed. The seven Associative cases are the POSSESSIVE, + PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, ORIGINATIVE, PRODUCTIVE, and INTERPRETATIVE. + Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil + examples of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.4.8.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.1
    POS
    		The Possessive Case
    +
    +

    The POSSESSIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The POSSESSIVE is used to refer to + a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another + noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether + by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in + any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two + can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, + or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent + separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used + to translate English phrases such as his coat (e.g., + the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), the + boy’s book (e.g., the one in his hand), Father’s + chair (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant). +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.2
    PRP
    		The Proprietive Case
    +
    +

    The PROPRIETIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROPRIETIVE identifies a noun having + alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual + control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, + law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The + two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship + cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration, + convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the + POSSESSIVE above, we can analyze the connotative difference: + his coat (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether + he is wearing it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., + the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the + one assigned to him).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.3
    GEN
    		The Genitive Case
    +
    +

    The GENITIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The GENITIVE is used to refer to a + noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or + association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent + or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) + bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s + doors, the child’s father, the essence of that + woman.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.4
    ATT
    		The Attributive Case
    +
    +

    The ATTRIBUTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ATTRIBUTIVE is used to refer to + a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective + (see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another + noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, + whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: + his pain, Mother’s guilt, the + child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s + happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my + needs.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.5
    OGN
    		The Originative Case
    +
    +

    The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative source of another, e.g., the man’s + story (i.e., the one he told), our gift (i.e., + the one we are giving), water from the river, the fruit + of the tree.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.6
    PDC
    		The Productive Case
    +
    +

    The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator, + author or originator of another noun, e.g., the girl’s + poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue + (i.e., the one I sculpted).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.4.7
    ITP
    		The Interpretative Case
    +
    +

    The INTERPRETATIVE case is marked by + Series G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun + acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the + noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, + as exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, + our world, life as seen by children. +

    +


    + 4.4.8 Examples of Associative Cases in Use
    +
    +

    +

    Listen! +

    +

    +

    +

    _Listen! +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    4.5 THE APPOSITIVE CASES

    +

    The Appositive cases refer to a group of eleven cases which + modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually adjacent + noun. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, + we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in cat + box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man, etc., or joined by the word + ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., box of coins, dreams + of youth, sounds of laughter. The eleven Appositive cases are the APPLICATIVE, + PURPOSIVE, INHERENT, CONDUCTIVE, MEDIATIVE, CONTRASTIVE, PARTITIVE, COMPOSITIVE, + CORRELATIVE, INTERDEPENDENT, and PREDICATIVE. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.5.12.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.1
    APL
    		The Applicative Case
    +
    +

    The APPLICATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which + represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. + As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for + the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be + a cup for coffee (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), + a box for tools (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold + tools), a room for changing. Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE + can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” + cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” + book = ‘a book used as a projectile.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.2
    PUR
    		The Purposive Case
    +
    +

    The PURPOSIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PURPOSIVE identifies a noun which + characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The PURPOSIVE + is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that + the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or + in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another + noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual + instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended + use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or + ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately + an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would + be a coffee cup, a toolbox, a litter + box, a trashcan.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.3
    INH
    		The Inherent Case
    +
    +

    The INHERENT case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INHERENT case identifies a noun + being used to characterize or define the identity or intrinsic nature of another + in a subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic manner. English phrases + which would be translated using this case are years of wonder, + the Clown Planet, life blood, city of + evil, a dangerous situation (i.e., a situation + characterized by danger).

    +

    Note that in the above examples, the noun in the INHERENT + would be inflected either for the NOMIC or the ABSTRACT + perspective (see Sections + 3.3.3 and 3.3.4) + to show that the relationship involves a collective entity (e.g., Clown + Planet = planet of all clowns) or that the relationship is abstract, subjective + or symbolic (years of wonder = years that make one feel a sense of + wonder). However, when a noun in the INHERENT case is + inflected for a concrete perspective, i.e., either the MONADIC + or the UNBOUNDED, then it takes on the rather different + function of stating the actual existential identity (literally or figuratively) + of the other noun and would be equivalent to the English construction ‘that/which/who + is (a/the)…’ as in the man who is president, the woman who is + my wife, the house that is a model, a machine that is a vehicle, the teacher + who is her father, those trees that are larches. Through use of the INHERENT + case and the MONADIC/UNBOUNDED perspectives, + these phrases would be rendered into Ithkuil phrases that would correspond literally + to the sometimes awkward, even semantically anomalous English phrases ‘the + president man,’ ‘the my-wife woman,’ ‘the model house,’ + ‘the vehicle machine,’ ‘the her-father teacher,’ ‘the + larch trees.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.4
    CNV
    		The Conductive Case
    +
    +

    The CONDUCTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONDUCTIVE identifies the meaningful + or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship + signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains + to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English + phrases translatable using this case are a circus clown, + a mountain man, a feeling of loneliness, the + Mafia’s world, a realm of fear, my + life achievement, childhood memories, Let’s + discuss the morality of war.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.5
    MED
    		The Mediative Case
    +
    +

    The MEDIATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The MEDIATIVE indicates the physical, + psychological, or figurative medium through which another noun or event takes + place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as a radio + announcement, arrival by water, a letter bomb, + air mail, achieving ecstasy through sex, I + showed her my love with chocolate. It should be distinguished + from the INSTRUMENTAL case (see Section 4.3.8 above), + which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a + causative action. For example, in the sentence Call him on the phone!, + translating the phrase on the phone into the INSTRUMENTAL + case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call + him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE case + would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.6
    CRS
    		The Contrastive Case
    +
    +

    The CONTRASTIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONTRASTIVE identifies a distinguishing + characteristic of another noun, i.e., that feature which distinguishes it from + other possible candidates within the given context. It would be used in translating + phrases such as the green bottle (e.g., as opposed + to the blue one); the science text (e.g., versus the + religious text); my statue (i.e., a statue of me); + I want your recipe for stew, not soup; + Don’t worry, it’s a pet snake.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.7
    PAR
    		The Partitive Case
    +
    +

    The PARTITIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. When used in conjunction with another noun, the PARTITIVE + indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two + nouns, e.g., a cup of coffee, a box(ful) of books, + a train(load) of refugees. When used alone, it signifies + that the context of the phrase or sentence involves only a portion of the noun, + rather than the whole noun, e.g., I ate some bread, Pour + (some) water down my back.

    +

    The PARTITIVE is also used to mark a + noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., three boxes, + two clowns, twenty words. This usage + is analyzed in detail in Chapter + 12, where we will see that, in Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e., + full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, + a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not + say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps + more eloquently, “a box trio.”

    +

    The PARTITIVE case is also used in constructing + words for Ithkuil numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed + in Chapter + 12 on enumeration.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.8
    CPS
    		The Compositive Case
    +
    +

    The COMPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The COMPOSITIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is + made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be That + statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) + coins, We were caught in a web of lies, I use a wooden + ladder, It was a house of cards, Three suits + comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups.

    +

    The COMPOSITIVE is also used in conjunction + with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing + or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be She likes to + cook with tomatoes, He reads by candle(light), + That child goes through four sets of clothes a day, My uncle + satisfied his sweet tooth with three chocolate bars.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.9
    COR
    		The Correlative Case
    +
    +

    The CORRELATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CORRELATIVE is used to indicate + an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another + noun or verb. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ + ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association + with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as career + goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, + The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, + Our next topic is sex and (or in) art + (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Note that the CORRELATIVE + case would often be used to translate constructions for which English often + uses an adjective, e.g., spatial coordinates, the political + economy.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.10
    IDP
    		The Interdependent Case
    +
    +

    The INTERDEPENDENT case is marked by + Series J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTERDEPENDENT identifies a noun + which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship + with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal + in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within + it’s natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, + an army general, the blood in my veins, the + driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his + team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case + does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the GENITIVE + case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, + or the leaves of a tree.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.5.11
    PRD
    		The Predicative Case
    +
    +

    The PREDICATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PREDICATIVE identifies a noun which + constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), + or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by + the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying + on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, + a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, + Can success supported by murder be sustained?

    +

    The PREDICATIVE should be distinguished + from Transrelative cases such as the DERIVATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL, + in that the PREDICATIVE does not denote a cause, merely + the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to + translate anxiety based on terror, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ + or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in + the phrase an attitude fueled by greed, the attitude derives from or + results from greed, but is not relying on it.

    +


    + 4.5.12 Examples of Appositive Cases in Use

    +


    + ____________________________________________________Listen! +

    +


    +

    + + + + +

    4.6 THE ADVERBIAL CASES

    +

    The Adverbial cases function similarly to adverbial phrases + in Western languages (usually beginning with an adverbial conjunction), to provide + additional contextual information to a verb. The fourteen Adverbial cases are + the ESSIVE, ASSIMILATIVE, FUNCTIVE, TRANSFORMATIVE, REFERENTIAL, + CONSIDERATIVE, CLASSIFICATIVE, DEFERENTIAL, COMITATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE, UTILITATIVE, + BENEFACTIVE, TRANSPOSITIVE, and COMMUTATIVE. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.6.15.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.1
    ESS
    		The Essive Case
    +
    +

    The ESSIVE case is marked by Series A + vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ESSIVE identifies the role or name + by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ + in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would + be used in translating the English sentences They called him a clown, + The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider + you our only hope.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.2
    ASI
    		The Assimilative Case
    +
    +

    The ASSIMILATIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical + consonant. The ASSIMILATIVE identifies a noun used as + a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a + verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in + the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of + usage are She sings like a bird, As children they + seemed to me.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.3
    FUN
    		The Functive Case
    +
    +

    The FUNCTIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in -ly + or the adverbial use of with, identifying the manner in which an action, + event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to + characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately + by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would + be: She dances gracefully (i.e., in a manner characterized + by grace), The boys ate with gusto, That clown is speaking + nonsense, Father speaks with such fortitude.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.4
    TFM
    		The Transformative Case
    +
    +

    The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by + Series D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome + or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ + or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone + some transformation. Example usages would be The house burned to + ashes, The clown reached a state of tranquility, The + clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank + himself to death.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.5
    REF
    		The Referential Case
    +
    +

    The REFERENTIAL case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The REFERENTIAL identifies a noun functioning + as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ + ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ + ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ + Examples of use would be a song of love; As for + those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; + His attitude toward women.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.6
    CSD
    		The Considerative Case
    +
    +

    The CONSIDERATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONSIDERATIVE identifies a noun + as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs + or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according + to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion + of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s + a coward; He’s leaving town as per orders from the court; + You were arrested pursuant to law; According to our + teacher, humans are descended from apes.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.7
    CLA
    		The Classificative Case
    +
    +

    The CLASSIFICATIVE case is marked by + Series G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CLASSIFICATIVE identifies a noun + as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various + English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are + Place them in groups of three, The workers arranged the + tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can + you count by fives?, I will sort them by color.

    +

    The CLASSIFICATIVE is also used to identify + a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing + the manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time + periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature + of an event. Examples would be Month by month, their departure + crept closer; Year after year, I see more and more clowns; + Day in, day out, he’s always working; + The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, bag upon bag; + Patient by patient, the nurse administered injections.

    +

    Note that the CLASSIFICATIVE would not + be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used + to translate the sentence One bomb after another fell on the city. + Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations + of the noun (see Sec. + 7.7.4).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.8
    DFR
    		The Deferential Case
    +
    +

    The DEFERENTIAL case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DEFERENTIAL translates the English + phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or + ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is + paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would + be He remained silent for her sake, They went on with the + ceremony out of respect for the families, They dressed in robes + because of tradition.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.9
    COM
    		The Comitative Case
    +
    +

    The COMITATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish + or Estonian, the COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’ + in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in The + child went with the clown to the party. Like English ‘with,’ + the COMITATIVE does not imply that the conjoined noun + is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb + as the head noun. For example, in the sentence My father was walking with + a loaf of bread, the loaf of bread is not considered to be itself walking. +

    +

    It should be noted, however, that the COMITATIVE + is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two + nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences They danced + with each other or Mother wants to talk with you. These would + be translated using the RECIPROCAL valence of the verb, + explained in Section 5.2.4. + This distinction is illustrated even more clearly by comparing the following + two sentences; the first would be translated using the COMITATIVE, + the second would not: This man fought with my father (e.g., alongside + him during the war) versus This man fought with my father (e.g., they + had a fight with each other).

    +

    Note also that the COMITATIVE is not + used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by + means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as I + cut the meat with a knife. As previously discussed in Section + 4.3.8, instrumentality is indicated by use of the INSTRUMENTAL + case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed + in undertaking an act, as in He catches his fish with worms for which the COMPOSITIVE + case is used.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.10
    CNJ
    		The Conjunctive Case
    +
    +

    The CONJUNCTIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONJUNCTIVE translates English + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., + to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary + activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the COMITATIVE + above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the walking with + a loaf of bread example from above, it would be incorrect to use the CONJUNCTIVE + case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate + the usage, consider the sentence I’m with the brigade. Translating + ‘brigade’ using the COMITATIVE would mean + that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ + while using the CONJUNCTIVE would mean ‘I’m + a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE + would be used are They skate with the best team, That teacher works well + with children.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.11
    UTL
    		The Utilitative Case
    +
    +

    The UTILITATIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in + the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ + where it refers to actual use in progress as in A man with a gun + ran into the room. It should be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL + (see Sec. 4.3.8) in that the latter indicates the implement + used to accomplish an action, while the UTILITATIVE identifies + a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish + a stated action. For example, compare the sentence The man with + an umbrella was pushing a stroller in the rain (UTILITATIVE) + with The man pushed a stroller in the rain with an umbrella + (INSTRUMENTAL). The first sentence implies the man was + pushing a stroller with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the + rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the stroller. + Another way to translate the UTILITATIVE would be to use + an English gerundial construction as in A gun-wielding + man ran into the room or An umbrella-toting man pushed + a stroller in the rain.

    +

    Besides the INSTRUMENTAL, the UTILITATIVE + should likewise be distinguished from the COMITATIVE case + above, in that the COMITATIVE merely indicates accompaniment, + while the UTILITATIVE indicates use in progress. For example, + the sentence Go sit next to the girl with the book, + if translated using the COMITATIVE would merely identify + a girl who has a book in her visible possession, while with the UTILITATIVE + it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.12
    BEN
    		The Benefactive Case
    +
    +

    The BENEFACTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The BENEFACTIVE identifies a noun for + whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the BENEFACTIVE + is similar to the DATIVE, except that the BENEFACTIVE + implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the + recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or + consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ + Examples of usage are a toy for the children, We threw + him a party, Go to the teachers’ + lounge.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.13
    TSP
    		The Transpositive Case
    +
    +

    The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution + of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense + of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead + of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are + The boss made the speech for me, She went up into the attic + for her brother (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.6.14
    CMM
    		The Commutative Case
    +
    +

    The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The COMMUTATIVE translates English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in You + paid too much money for that dress, She kills for thrills.

    +


    + 4.6.15 Examples of Adverbial Cases in Use
    +
    +
    + ___________________________Listen! +

    +


    +

    + + + + +

    4.7 THE SUBRELATIVE CASES

    +

    The Subrelative cases comprise eleven cases which place a noun + in a subordinate context to the main sentence, much like subordinate conjunctions + in Western languages. In fact, these cases are used far more frequently with + verbal clauses than with nouns, creating what are known as “case-frames” + (to be discussed in Sec. 5.7), + the Ithkuil functional equivalent to Western subordinate clauses. The eleven + Subrelative cases are the ABESSIVE, CONVERSIVE, CONCESSIVE, EXCEPTIVE, + ADVERSATIVE, PROVISIONAL, POSTULATIVE, SUPPOSITIVE, DEPENDENT, COMPARATIVE, + and AVERSIVE. Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of the cases in use are given + in Sec. 4.7.12.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.1
    ABE
    		The Abessive Case
    +
    +

    The ABESSIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ABESSIVE is essentially the opposite + of the COMITATIVE, translating the English ‘without’ + or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not + having’ as in a day without rain or a treeless + plain. As noted in the next section below on the CONVERSIVE + case, it is not used to translate ‘without’ when + it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome as in I can’t go on without love.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.2
    CVS
    		The Conversive Case
    +
    +

    The CONVERSIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONVERSIVE is used in conjunction + with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered + a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where + it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the + conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition + ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense + does not correspond to its usual ABESSIVE usage in Sec. + 4.7.1 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by + such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if + it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ + Example of usage: Without peace, this society is doomed; + If not for the rain, we would have had a good time.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.3
    CON
    		The Concessive Case
    +
    +

    The CONCESSIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun, + situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result + which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, + conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ + ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ + ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: In spite of + his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, + I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), + they are welcome, Although foreigners, we will let them attend + the meeting.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.4
    EXC
    		The Exceptive Case
    +
    +

    The EXCEPTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The EXCEPTIVE indicates a noun, situation, + or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main + clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ + or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: She loves everybody except + clowns; I like all animals, excluding dogs; He eats + almost anything but (not) spinach.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.5
    AVS
    		The Adversative Case
    +
    +

    The ADVERSATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ADVERSATIVE indicates a noun which + has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. + In verbal frame adjuncts it identifies the situation which had been expected + in contrast to what actually takes place. This is translatable by the English + phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘as opposed to,’ e.g., Instead + of rain, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, as opposed to + a maid.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.6
    PVS
    		The Provisional Case
    +
    +

    The PROVISIONAL case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which + the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required + condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the + main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided + (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ + or ‘but only if,’ e.g., Provided [there’s] food, + I will attend the meeting; We will fight only in case of war.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.7
    PTL
    		The Postulative Case
    +
    +

    The POSTULATIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The operates somewhat similarly to the PROVISIONAL + above, except that the POSTULATIVE implies a causal or + consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s) + and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, + situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, + but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated + by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in + case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where + it means ‘whether’ as in I don’t know if it’s warm + enough, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality + (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). + Examples of usage: If [there’s] snow, I’m not + going out; In case of fire, flee; If friend, + welcome them, if foe, kill ’em.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.8
    SUP
    		The Suppositive Case
    +
    +

    The SUPPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The SUPPOSITIVE identifies a noun as + a hypothetical supposition being offered for comment. It is somewhat similar + to the SITUATIVE case (see Section + 4.3.11 above), except that the noun is functioning purely as a supposition, + not as an actual context. The SUPPOSITIVE can be distinguished + from the PROVISIONAL and the POSTULATIVE + cases above, in that the latter two cases describe pre-conditions for a following + clause where the pre-condition is either preclusive or a known possibility. + The SUPPOSITIVE presents only a hypothetical possibility + whose likelihood of becoming or describing reality is either unknown or unknowable. + There is no equivalent English construction which expresses this distinction. + The following sentences represent approximate English translations of what would + be identical Ithkuil sentences except for the three different case declensions + of the word for ‘weather’:

    +

    PROVISIONAL: We’re packing + umbrellas, but only in case of bad weather (i.e., umbrellas + will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).
    + POSTULATIVE: We’re packing umbrellas in + case of bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation + for the possibility of bad weather).
    + SUPPOSITIVE: We’re packing umbrellas supposing + [there’s] bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed + even though we don’t know how the weather will be).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.9
    DEP
    		The Dependent Case
    +
    +

    The DEPENDENT case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DEPENDENT translates the English + phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which + the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be Depending + on the rain, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, depending + on her attitude.

    +

    The DEPENDENT should be distinguished + from the PREDICATIVE case in Sec. + 4.5.11, in that the former denotes contingency, while the PREDICATIVE + denotes reliance.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.10
    CMP
    		The Comparative Case
    +
    +

    The COMPARATIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being + compared and contrasted to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as + compared to,’ ‘as opposed to.’ With verbal case-frames (see + Sec. 5.7) it would translate as + ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). + Examples are She chose the red one as opposed to the blue one, + Sam drives a van as compared to Joe, who prefers a truck.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.7.11
    AVR
    		The Aversive Case
    +
    +

    The AVERSIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a + source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions + such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in + avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see Sec. + 5.7) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage + are She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled + by night to avoid the sun.

    +

     

    +

    4.7.12 Examples of Subrelative Cases in Use

    +


    + ____________________________Listen! +
    +
    +
    +

    +


    +

    + + + + +

    4.8 THE SPATIAL CASES +

    +

    As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ithkuil. + While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque + and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional + relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished + in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be + inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, + there are twelve cases corresponding to certain types of common spatial relationships. + These are the LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, + PROLATIVE, PERLATIVE, PERVASIVE , PERIPHERAL, INTEGRAL, POSITIONAL, and + NAVIGATIVE. Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided + in Sec. 4.8.13.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.1
    LOC
    		The Locative Case
    +
    +

    The LOCATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The LOCATIVE signifies general static + position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable + by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ + or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., in that building, by + the wall, on the street, at my house.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.2
    ORI
    		The Orientative Case
    +
    +

    The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ORIENTATIVE identifies the noun + (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” + of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable + into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ + in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., + He jumped in feet-first, The car rolled backward. + The ORIENTATIVE allows for the extension of this concept + to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., He walked “butt-ward” + down the street (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading + the way).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.3
    PSV
    		The Procursive Case
    +
    +

    The PROCURSIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROCURSIVE identifies a noun (often + a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point, + interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction + with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun usually appears + in either the ALLATIVE or POSITIONAL + case (see Sections 4.8.4 and 4.8.11 below). Examples of use would be They + collided sideways, She turned her back on + him, The chair “faced” the doorway (i.e., + The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.4
    ALL
    		The Allative Case
    +
    +

    The ALLATIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. When used in the context of explicit or implied directional + motion, the ALLATIVE signifies the direction of motion, + translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ + in English. Note that the ALLATIVE in no way implies that + the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion + or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be I wandered + eastward, The little girl ran toward me, Throw + the rock at that clown!, We headed for home.

    +

    When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the ALLATIVE signifies a directional orientation of a + noun relative to another, e.g., He turned his back on me, + The upstairs bedroom faces the yard, It’s alongside the + desk (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk)

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.5
    ABL
    		The Ablative Case
    +
    +

    The ABLATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion, + the ABLATIVE signifies the general directional origin + of movement away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin + or departure. Examples would be He came out of the east, + She walked here from (the direction of) the river.

    +

    When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the ABLATIVE signifies a reverse directional orientation + of one noun relative to another, e.g., He faced away from me.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.6
    PLT
    		The Prolative Case
    +
    +

    The PROLATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROLATIVE indicates either a position + or a path of linear movement along, across, or through a one-dimensional linear + medium or a two-dimensional quasi-planar surface, the position or movement being + between one point and another, without implying origination at one point or + destination at another, e.g., He passed through a tunnel, + She’s standing along the highway, I’ll walk across + the patio, He pushed his way through the crowd, The + vessel traversed the (surface of the) ocean.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.7
    PEL
    		The Perlative Case
    +
    +

    The PERLATIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERLATIVE is identical to the PROLATIVE + above, except that the implied position or path of movement between implied + points is through or within a three-dimensional volume or medium, e.g., Baboons + chase each other through the trees, We escaped under + the ocean, The probe explored the nebula (i.e., + while passing through it), The vessel traversed the (depths of the) + ocean.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.8
    PRV
    		The Pervasive Case
    +
    +

    The PERVASIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERVASIVE signifies position or + path of movement among, within, or throughout the contextual medium, e.g., among + the grounds, throughout the stadium, within the crowd.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.9
    PRH
    		The Peripheral Case
    +
    +

    The PERIPHERAL case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERIPHERAL signifies position or + path of movement in a area surrounding, around, or along the periphery of a + noun, e.g., around her head, on all sides of it, surrounding the yard.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.10
    INT
    		The Integral Case
    +
    +

    The INTEGRAL case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTEGRAL identifies the noun which + is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. It + should be distinguished from the ABLATIVE above, in that + the ABLATIVE implies position or path of motion away from, + whereas the INTEGRAL merely presents a locational context + as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise similar + noun. Examples of usage would be Fix the kitchen sink! + (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), Desert rocks are so + beautiful (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert + or rocks still present in the desert), Northern women are + easy-going.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.11
    PSN
    		The Positional Case
    +
    +

    The POSITIONAL case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The POSITIONAL identifies a noun relative + to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial + orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater + sense once one realizes that, in Ithkuil, most one-to-one spatial relationships + are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the + right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, the POSITIONAL + case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples + of how it would be used are I’m standing four feet north of + the desk, The one hanging above the boxes looks fresh, + It lies at a 30° angle relative to the tree.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.8.12
    NAV
    		The Navigative Case
    +
    +

    The NAVIGATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The NAVIGATIVE identifies the noun + relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event + takes place. This is particularly important, as we will see in Section + 10.4.3 that Ithkuil modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors + of movement or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as + the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be I looked down + the street, We aligned it perpendicular to the path of the + sun, He crossed the room diagonally (i.e., walked + diagonally relative to the long axis of the room.)

    +


    + 4.8.13 Examples of Spatial Cases in Use
    +
    +
    + _________________________Listen! + +

    +


    +

    + + + + +

    4.9 THE TEMPORAL CASES

    +

    The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In + many respects, Ithkuil analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly + in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases + as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ + and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear + using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ + ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the + CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, + POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, SIMULTANEITIVE, + ASSESSIVE, and LIMITATIVE. Following are explanations + of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases + in use are provided in Sec. 4.9.16.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.1
    CNR
    		The Concursive Case
    +
    +

    The CONCURSIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal + locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during + or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered + a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be He prays during + lunch, She studied hard last night, I won’t + visit until then (i.e., during that period in time).

    +
    +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.2
    ACS
    		The Accessive Case
    +

    The ACCESSIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The is similar to the CONCURSIVE, except + that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly delimited + period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something + occurs. Examples of usage would be Dinner will be served at sunset; + When (i.e., at the moment that) you hear his voice, + call in the clowns; Upon impact, both cars were accelerating.

    +
    +

    +
    +

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.3
    DFF
    		The Diffusive Case
    +

    The DIFFUSIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DIFFUSIVE is yet another temporal + locative similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time + period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on + the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase + ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be + Most cars had tail fins in those days; I was abroad during + that era; At the time of his death, the number of + clowns was increasing; Over the past several seasons, your + talent has matured.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.4
    PER
    		The Periodic Case
    +

    The PERIODIC case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERIODIC identifies the span of + time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This + case should be distinguished from the CONCURSIVE above, + in that the periodic specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions, + or durationally extended acts or states take place, whereas the concursive signifies + a contextually single holistic event. Examples would be He wrote the novel + in six months, These clowns can corrupt your child within + a few days, The woman has been ill a lot this year, + For the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.5
    PRO
    		The Prolapsive Case
    +

    The PROLAPSIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROLAPSIVE signifies the duration + of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case + should be distinguished from the PERIODIC above, in that + the PROLAPSIVE specifies the actual duration of the act, + condition, or event, whereas the PERIODIC merely specifies + a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, + or event occurs. Examples would be He prayed through lunch, + While he was dying, the number of clowns increased, It rained + all night, It took three days for the fever + to break, She sang for an hour.

    +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.6
    PCV
    		The Precursive Case
    +

    The PRECURSIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PRECURSIVE identifies a point in + time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred before the war, It rained prior + to his appearance, There will be a presentation preceding the + banquet.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.7
    PCR
    		The Postcursive Case
    +

    The POSTCURSIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The POSTCURSIVE identifies a point + in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred after the war, It rained subsequent + to his appearance, There will be a presentation following the + banquet.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.8
    ELP
    		The Elapsive Case
    +

    The ELAPSIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ELAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, + condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ + Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going + back three generations, women could not even vote.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.9
    ALP
    		The Allapsive Case
    +

    The ALLAPSIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ALLAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of + a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be Four years + from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, + clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little + did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.10
    INP
    		The Interpolative Case
    +

    The INTERPOLATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTERPOLATIVE is used within the + context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the + duration of each repetition. Examples of usage are We heard several five-second + snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals of several + seconds; She gets recurring migraines, each lasting hours.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.11
    EPS
    		The Episodic Case
    +
    +

    The EPISODIC case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The EPISODIC identifies a contextually + recurring time-period. Examples of usage are The man talks with his mother + every three days; Each year, I travel to the + Clown Planet; He works nights; By day, she + is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.12
    PRL
    		The Prolimitive Case
    +
    +

    The PROLIMITIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROLIMITIVE defines a point in + time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e., + the time by which some act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would + be By the time of your graduation, I want you out of the + house; Please be on board by midnight; By the time + of the raid, there was nothing left to steal.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.13
    SML
    		The Simultaneitive Case
    +
    +

    The SIMULTANEITIVE case is marked by + Series D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The SIMULTANEITIVE identifies a noun + signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion. + Examples would be I was in class at the same time as his accident, + I worked a side-job concurrent to the strike, She laughed simultaneously + with my coughing fit.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.14
    ASS
    		The Assessive Case
    +
    +

    The ASSESSIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ASSESSIVE specifies the unit of + time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to + English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be My lawyer + charges by the minute, He publishes several books each + year, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles per hour.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    4.9.15
    LIM
    		The Limitative Case
    +
    +

    The LIMITATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The LIMITATIVE signifies a event culminating + an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time + for.’ Examples of usage are He arrived in time for dinner, + Be inside the Big Tent in time for the clowns.

    +


    + 4.9.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use

    +


    + ___________________________Listen! +
    +

    +

    +

    +

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 5: Verb Morphology >>

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +
    +©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author +and this website. +

     

    +


    +

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..60344a3 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2993 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 5: Verb Morphology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 5: Verb Morphology

    + +

    The Ithkuil verbal formative (termed “verb” in + this chapter for simplicity’s sake) is the workhorse of the language, + inflecting for twenty-two different morphological categories. These include + the eight categories shared by all formatives and already discussed in Chapter + 3: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension, Focus, Essence, + Context, and Designation. Additionally the following + fourteen categories apply solely to verbs: Illocution, Valence, Version, + Conflation/Derivation, Format, Modality, Level, Case-Frame, Validation, Phase, + Sanction, Aspect, Mood, and Bias. The verb can also + theoretically take any number of the over 1300 affixes available to formatives. + Such affixes are analyzed in Chapter + 7.

    +

    The full structure of a Ithkuil verbal formative is tripartite, + i.e., having three distinct words, these being an aspectual adjunct, + a conflation (or valence) adjunct, + and the verb itself. In simple sentences, either or both of + the two adjuncts may be missing. The following extreme example of a fully inflected + Ithkuil verb illustrates all 22 morphological components of the tripartite structure:

    + + + + + + + +
     
    ____
    + + + + + + +
    +

    A highly stilted but approximate English translation of the + above, capturing as many of the nuances of the Ithkuil phrase as possible, would + be: ‘…despite apparently being on the verge, contrary to the + allegation, of just so happening to want to succeed in vowing to maybe return + periodically to the honorable practice of superlative architecture for others + to follow by example’

    +

    In this chapter we will examine eight of the 14 morphological + categories particular to verbal formatives. The six categories specific to aspectual + adjuncts will be described in Chapter + 6.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    5.1 + ILLOCUTION

    +

    Illocution refers to what in linguistics is usually termed + types of speech acts, i.e., the general purpose of a statement such as whether + it is an assertion, a command, a declaratory pronouncement, a question, a warning, + etc. This is a category which is not generally marked within Western languages + in any consistent grammatical sense, the nearest equivalent grammatical category + usually being Mood. In Ithkuil, Mood (which will be discussed in Chapter + 6) functions in a much narrower grammatical range than in Western languages. + When the moods of Western language actually relate to types of speech acts, + the equivalent function in Ithkuil is shown by the category of Illocution.

    +

    There are seven illocutions in Ithkuil: ASSERTIVE, + DIRECTIVE, COMMISSIVE, EXPRESSIVE, + DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE and ADMONITIVE. + They distinguish the type of speech act being performed by the speaker, with + a specific focus on the type of commitment being made on the part of either + the speaker or the hearer to the truth or purpose of the utterance. They are + marked by a consonantal affix to the verb which immediately follows the Affiliation/Extension/Conflation + prefix (see Section 5.4.1) and precedes the C1 + radical consonant. The illocutions and their prefixes are described below.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.1
    ASR
    		The Assertive
    +
    +

    The ASSERTIVE illocution is unmarked + by any affix. The ASSERTIVE is used to express propositions + which purport to describe or name some act, event, or state in the real world, + with the purpose of committing the hearer to the truth of the proposition. Thus, + an utterance in the ASSERTIVE illocution is one that can + be believed or disbelieved, and is either true or false. Such utterances would + include general statements, descriptions, and explanations.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.2
    DIR
    		The Directive
    +

    The DIRECTIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -’- (i.e., the glottal stop). For stems whose + C1 radical is a single stop or affricate consonant (i.e., + + plus corresponding ejectives or aspirates) in mutational grades 1 through 8, + this illocution is shown by gemination of the initial consonant of C1 + consonantal form rather than by a glottal stop (e.g., aqqwet, + not a’qwet). + The DIRECTIVE illocution is for the purpose of committing + the hearer to undertake a course of action represented by the proposition, where + the proposition describes a mental wish, desire, or intention on the part of + the speaker. Thus, an utterance in the DIRECTIVE is one + that is neither true nor false because it is not describing something that purports + to exist in the real world; rather, it describes an act or situation which can + potentially be made real, i.e., that can be fulfilled or carried out. Such utterances + include commands, orders, and requests and would generally be marked in Western + languages by either the imperative, optative, or subjunctive moods. The commitment + on the part of the hearer is not belief or disbelief, but rather whether to + obey, comply with, or grant.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.3
    CMV
    		The Commissive
    +
    +

    The COMMISSIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -n- + (with alternative affixes -m- + or -- + where euphonically appropriate). Preceding a C1 form beginning + with -n-, + -r-, or --, + the affix -m- + is used. The COMMISSIVE illocution is similar to the DIRECTIVE + above, except that the listener and the speaker are the same person, i.e., the + statement is a wish or command directed at oneself as in a promise, vow, pledge, + oath, contract, or guarantee.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.4
    EXP
    		The Expressive
    +

    The EXPRESSIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -f-, + with alternate forms -- + or -z- where + euphonically appropriate or where necessary to avoid confusion with a geminated + C1 form (i.e., azvar + and afar + rather than afvar + and affar). + The EXPRESSIVE is used for various types of specialized + utterances where the truth-value of the proposition is taken for granted and + the commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of acceptance or non-acceptance. + Such utterances include welcomes, offers, congratulations, condolences, and + apologies.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.5
    DEC
    		The Declarative
    +
    +

    The DECLARATIVE illocution is marked + by the affix -ç- + with alternate forms -p-, + -t- or -k- + where euphonically appropriate and/or to avoid confusion with a geminated C1 + consonantal form. The DECLARATIVE is used for utterances + whose purpose is to themselves effect a change upon the real world, based upon + convention, cultural rules, law, subjective authority, or personal authority + or control of a situation. The commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of + recognition or non-recognition. Such utterances include declarations, announcements, + proclamations, and various “performative” expressions. Certain languages + mark this function of a verb using a mood known as hortative. Examples would + be: I dub thee “Clown Master”!, The king will hear all grievances + at noon each day, This court is now in session, We hereby declare this treaty + null and void!

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.6
    IRG
    		The Interrogative
    +
    +

    The INTERROGATIVE illocution is marked + by the affix -r- + with alternate form -n- + used where euphonically appropriate and/or to avoid confusion with a geminated + C1 consonantal form. The INTERROGATIVE + is used for utterances corresponding to questions in other languages. Questions, + as such, do not exist in Ithkuil. All inquiries and interrogatives are treated + as a type of directive in which the speaker tells the addressee to validate + the truth of an assertion or provide missing information specified by an interrogative + affix to a formative, i.e., when using the INTERROGATIVE, + one is not asking Would you like to dance with me? Rather, one is expressing + what can only be translated either a specialized command (State whether) + you will dance with me or a specialized assertion (I inquire whether) + you will dance with me. One does not say What’s your name?, + but rather Tell me your name.

    +

    Indeed, Ithkuil has no words corresponding to the English words + ‘question’ or ‘ask,’ the nearest equivalents being derived + from the words for ‘investigation’ and ‘determine.’ + Consequently, there is no question mark used at the end of the sentence, nor + does the pitch of the voice rise as is usual with Western languages when asking + questions. The commitment on the part of the listener in regard to the INTERROGATIVE + is one of compliance or non-compliance in divulging the information sought, + and the truth value of the utterance is neutral pending the reply.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.7
    ADM
    		The Admonitive
    +
    +

    The ADMONITIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -l- + with alternate forms -- + or -- + used where euphonically appropriate and/or to avoid confusion with a geminated + C1 consonantal form. The ADMONITIVE + is used for admonitions and warnings, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘(I) caution you lest…,’ ‘(I) warn you against…,’ + or ‘Be careful not to….’ The utterance is neither true nor + false because it describes only a potential act or situation which may occur + unless avoided. The commitment on the part of the hearer is to assess the degree + of likelihood of the potentiality, followed by a choice whether to heed or ignore/defy + the utterance.

    +


    + 5.1.8 Examples of Illocution in Use

    +
    +


    + ___Listen! +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +

    5.2 VALENCE

    +

    In Ithkuil, the term Valence is used to refer + to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given + verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by + another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, + or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs + of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” + verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ithkuil explicitly + shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate + the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1a) I found an old man.1b) I found an empty can.
    2a) I threw the ball at Sam.2b) I threw the ball at the window.
    3a) I performed in front of her.3b) I performed in front of the wall.
    +

    Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate + object of the verb (an old man, Sam, and her), while the second + member of each pair has an inanimate object (an empty can, the window, and + the wall). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below: +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1c) I met an old man.1d) * I met an empty can.
    2c) I threw Sam the ball.2d) * I threw the window the ball.
    3c) I entertained her.3d) * I entertained the wall.
    +

    The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these + pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why?

    +

    The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except + that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been + replaced by the semantically similar meet, throw, and entertain. + Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears + unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” + i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, + whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that + the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can + find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even + being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without the old man also + meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if + I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected to participate by + catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re + asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating + in the situation by observing me.

    +

    The participatory relationship involving the second party of + a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship + (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb + ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship + as in the sentence I met the old man (i.e., and so he met me) or in + verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We + love each other. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in I + played along with him (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship + as in I threw Sam the ball (i.e., and so he caught it).

    +

    Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is + the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ithkuil into + the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely + explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ + ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform + are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly + specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as find/meet, + throw at/throw, perform/entertain, etc.

    +

    In Ithkuil, co-activity is explicitly shown morphologically, + and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are + systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus + co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monoactively + as well as co-actively.

    +

    There are fourteen valences in Ithkuil: the MONOACTIVE, + PARALLEL, COROLLARY, RECIPROCAL, COMPLEMENTARY, NONRELATIONAL, DUPLICATIVE, + DEMONSTRATIVE, RESISTIVE, IMITATIVE, CONTINGENT, PARTICIPATIVE, INDICATIVE, + and MUTUAL. Valence is shown by the initial vocalic affix + to a type of adjunct known as either a valence adjunct or a conflational adjunct, + depending on whether the verb manifests a derivative conflation (explained later + in Sec. 5.4). For now we will concentrate solely on the + valence adjunct form. Thirteen of these fourteen vocalic prefixes signify co-active + relationships while the first constitutes a neutral valence corresponding to + monoactivity. The initial prefix also indicates the additional morphological + category of Version, a separate morphological category described + later in Section 5.3.

    +

    The form of a valence adjunct is Vv + + , + where Vv is the vocalic prefix signifying + the valence and version of the verb. These prefixes are shown below in Table + 12. Following the table are explanations of each valence. It should be noted + that placement of a glottal stop infix -’- between the + Vv prefix and + assigns positive focus +FC to the main verb.

    +


    + Table + 12: Valence / Version* Prefixes
    +
    +
    + * see Section 5.3 below + for an explanation of Version

    +


    + The fourteen valences are explained as follows:
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.1
    MNO
    		The Monoactive
    +
    +

    The MONOACTIVE valence is the default + valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second + party is implied.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.2
    PRL
    		The Parallel
    +
    +

    The PARALLEL valence indicates that a + second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children all sang + together, We both went jogging on the parkway.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.3
    CRO
    		The Corollary
    +
    +

    The COROLLARY valence is similar to the + PARALLEL, except that the second party engages in related + activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children played in + the yard (i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or The + band played my favorite song (implying that not everyone in the band was + playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed + to playing an instrument).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.4
    RCP
    		The Reciprocal
    +
    +

    The RECIPROCAL valence indicates identical + activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial + phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in They + looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.5
    CPL
    		The Complementary
    +
    +

    The COMPLEMENTARY valence indicates that + the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. + By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the + first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., + the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences + such as The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, + The clown read the children a story, where ‘played catch’ implies + the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the + woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, and ‘read’ + implies a reader and an audience.

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.6
    NNR
    		The Nonrelational
    +
    +

    The NONRELATIONAL valence indicates that + a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., + an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify + this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause + such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in He shaved + while she did something else. The way an Ithkuil sentence would utilize + this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, + ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL + valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one + thing while the other did something else.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.7
    DUP
    		The Duplicative
    +
    +

    The DUPLICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the + sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, + then you draw the same picture), They both read that book (i.e., first + one, then the other), I bought a new car (i.e., and now someone else + is buying a new car, too).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.8
    DEM
    		The Demonstrative
    +
    +

    The DEMONSTRATIVE valence indicates that + the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what + to do. Thus an Ithkuil sentence constructed as We played chess with + the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I + showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They + fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.9
    RES
    		The Resistive
    +
    +

    The RESISTIVE valence indicates that + the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity + of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the + adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases + such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as We took the + children to see the clowns anyway (i.e., they didn’t want to go), + They fed me liver just the same (i.e., I can’t stand liver), + Nevertheless, he told us the story (i.e., despite our not wanting to + hear it).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.10
    IMT
    		The Imitative
    +
    +

    The IMITATIVE valence indicates that + the second party mimics, imitates, or attempts to duplicate the activity of + the first party. The Ithkuil sentence The clown juggled three balls for + the child in the IMITATIVE valence implies that the + child attempted to juggle the balls as well.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.11
    CNG
    		The Contingent
    +
    +

    The CONTINGENT valence indicates that + the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, + the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ithkuil sentence + I started the campfire for my friend in the CONTINGENT + implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked + the food.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.12
    PTI
    		The Participative
    +
    +

    The PARTICIPATIVE valence indicates that + the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable + by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ithkuil sentence + They raced in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They + each took part in the race.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.13
    IDC
    		The Indicative
    +
    +

    The INDICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s + activity. Thus the sentence I looked at her in the INDICATIVE + would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ + while the sentence I spoke to them would mean ‘They gleaned what + I really meant from my words.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.14
    MUT
    		The Mutual
    +
    +

    The MUTUAL valence indicates that both + parties alternate performing an activity, as in She and I take turns cleaning + or They both alternate teaching the beginning and advanced classes.

    +


    + 5.2.15 Examples of Valence in Use

    +


    + + Listen! +
    +

    +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    5.3 VERSION

    +

    Version refers to a six-way aspectual distinction indicating + whether the verb refers to an act, event or state which is goal- or result-oriented, + and/or whether it has been successfully actualized subsequent to one’s + initial intention. Like many Ithkuil morphological categories, version addresses + semantic distinctions which are usually rendered by lexical differentiation + (i.e., word choice) in other languages.

    +

    Version is shown by one of six forms of the vocalic valence + prefix to a conflational adjunct as previously discussed and shown in Sec. + 5.2, Table 12). The six versions are PROCESSUAL, COMPLETIVE, + INEFFECTUAL, INCOMPLETIVE, POSITIVE + and EFFECTIVE. They are explained below.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.1
    PRC
    		The Processual
    +
    +

    The PROCESSUAL describes all acts, conditions, + or events which are ends in themselves and not goal-oriented, i.e., are not + focused on an anticipated outcome or final purpose toward which a progressive + effort is being made. It is the default or neutral version and is shown by the + first form of the valence prefix (as shown in Table 12) + or, where there is no conflational or valence adjunct, is unmarked.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.2
    CPT
    		The Completive
    +
    +

    The COMPLETIVE describes acts, conditions, + or events which achieve, or are intended to achieve, an anticipated outcome, + i.e., which are oriented toward the achievement of some purpose, outcome, or + final state. Such a distinction is usually handled by word choice in Western + languages. The dynamism of version can be seen in the following comparisons:

    +
    +

    PROCESSUAL + COMPLETIVE

    +

    hunt + to hunt down
    + to be losing + to lose
    + to study + to learn
    + to be winning + to win
    + to strive for + to accomplish, achieve
    + to risk + to defeat the odds; win
    + to work + to build, construct, make
    + to displace; infiltrate + infest, to take over; vanquish
    + to pour out + to drain
    + to remove (incrementally) + to eliminate
    + to increase + to maximize
    + to read + to read to the end; finish reading
    + to decrease + minimize
    + to flank + to surround
    + to enlarge + to make gigantic
    + to spread upon or over + to cover, engulf, envelop
    + to shrink + miniaturize
    + to chase + to catch up to
    + to eat eat + all up
    + to pursue + to capture
    + to compete + to win
    + to be pregnant + to give birth
    + to throw at + to hit (with a throw)
    + to run low on + to run out of, deplete
    + to grow + to grow up
    + to use use + up
    + to possess, hold to keep
    + to tear/ rip + to tear/rip up or to pieces
    + to join together + to unify
    + to accelerate, speed up + to achieve maximum speed
    + to pour into + to fill (up)
    + to bleed + to bleed to death
    + to run to + run all the way
    + to descend, go down + to get to the bottom
    + to brighten + to illuminate
    + to decelerate, slow down + to stop
    + to search for, seek + to find
    + to polish + to burnish
    + to practice + to perfect
    + to darken + to make dark
    + to ascend, rise + to reach the top
    + to explore + to discover

    + +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.3
    INE
    		The Ineffectual
    +

    This version, the INEFFECTUAL, and the + next, the INCOMPLETIVE, operate in parallel fashion to + the PROCESSUAL and the COMPLETIVE + versions respectively but are specific to acts, events, or states initially + expressed (whether explicitly or implicitly) as unrealized intentions, attempts, + desires, needs, etc., often in conjunction with a modality affix to the verb + (see Sec. 5.5). Such “unrealized” + verbs are exemplified in the following sentences: I want to dance, She needs + to work, I tried to finish, She must find him, I choose to celebrate. Each + of these sentences in itself does not specify whether the action was “realized” + or not, i.e., just because I want to dance doesn’t necessarily mean that + I actually do dance; her need to work doesn’t tell us by itself whether + she in fact will work, etc.

    +

    The INEFFECTUAL version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” PROCESSUAL + verb is unsuccessful. Thus the sentence I want to dance in the INEFFECTUAL + would be translated as I want to dance but I’m not going to, + while the sentence I tried to eat in the INEFFECTUAL + means I tried to eat but couldn’t.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.4
    INC
    		The Incompletive
    +
    +

    The INCOMPLETIVE version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” COMPLETIVE + verb is unsuccessful. It functions identically to the INEFFECTUAL, + except that it refers to a verb that is result/goal-oriented, as illustrated + in the comparative chart shown above for the COMPLETIVE + version. Thus, the sentence I tried to eat in the INCOMPLETIVE + means I tried to eat all of it but couldn’t.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.5
    PST
    		The Positive
    +
    +

    Complementing the INEFFECTUAL, the POSITIVE + version indicates an intention brought to reality. Thus the sentence I want + to dance in the POSITIVE would be translated as I + want to dance and so I’m going to, while the sentence I tried + to eat in the POSITIVE means I succeeded in eating + something.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.6
    EFC
    		The Effective
    +
    +

    Likewise, the EFFECTIVE version complements + the INCOMPLETIVE, indicating the same successful effort + implied by the POSITIVE version, only applied to goal-/result-oriented + verbs. Thus I wanted to finish in the EFFECTIVE + implies that the desire was successfully carried out; I tried to eat + in the EFFECTIVE means I succeeded in eating it all + up.

    +


    + 5.3.7 Examples of Version in Use

    +
    +

    +
    + Listen! + +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

    5.4 CONFLATION, DERIVATION + AND FORMAT

    +

    Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings + into a single verb, a process termed conflation. This is illustrated + in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    1. He bicycled south. = He traveled south by bicycle.
    + 2. She dolled herself up. = She made herself look as pretty as a + doll.
    + 3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the + books on the shelf/shelves.
    + 4. Slide me a beer. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the + bar).

    +
    +

    The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry + inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and + giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random + and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English to bicycle + in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to + make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the + verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but + rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means + ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ + or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first + three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does slide + in sentence (4).

    +

    As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” + way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, + placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary + sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our + four sentences above as follows:

    +
    +

    He [1: + (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle]
    + = He bicycled south.

    +

    She [1: + (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll]
    + = She dolled herself up.

    +

    They [1: + (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves]
    + = They’re shelving the books.

    +

    [1: (GIVE+imperative)] + a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me
    + = Slide me a beer.

    +
    +

    Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown + by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb + and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English + must learn that to hand means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, + but to shoulder does not mean to GIVE by MEANS of + one’s shoulder.

    +

    Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity + for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack + of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use + when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form. For example, imagine + an English speaker using a new verb form such as ‘to apple,’ as + in Let’s ‘apple’ today. Would this mean to pick + apples?, to eat apples?, to plant apples?, to bake apples?, to buy apples?, + to turn something into an apple?, to wear apple-related clothing? Without + a standardized system of conflation, the meaning of such a form could only be + learned from hearing others using it in context.

    +

    Ithkuil systemizes verb conflation into a complex, productive + scheme, in which a verb can convey any of eight covert senses, called formats, + which can then conflate with seven primary overt senses and 245 derivative overt + senses to theoretically yield 2016 possible semantic combinations. In this manner + the Ithkuil verb corresponding to English to shelve, can by systematic + conflation be made to indicate meanings as diverse as:

    + + + + + + +

    +     		to build shelves
    + to be a shelf
    + to make straight as a shelf
    + to remain a shelf
    + to seem like a shelf
    + to support on a shelf
    + to compare shelves
    + to reserve a shelf     		to convey with a shelf
    + to make as long as a shelf
    + to cover with shelves
    + to arrange on shelves
    + to place on a shelf
    + to hurt someone with a shelf
    + to push using a shelf
    + to exchange for a shelf
    +

    Note, however, that being completely systematic for all verbs, + the Ithkuil conflation system generates forms which, for any particular verb, + will often be semantically questionable, even anomalous, e.g., to travel + by shelf, to taste of shelves, to make as warm as a shelf, to spend time as + a shelf, etc. (The fact that such semantically anomalous forms are morphologically + permissible presents no problem from a logical perspective and is inherent in + human language, as exemplified in English by morphologically permissible but + semantically anomalous forms such as ‘re-laugh’ or ‘co-beer.’)

    +

    The specifics of primary conflation, format, and derivative + conflation are detailed in the following sections.

    +

     

    +

    5.4.1 (Primary) Conflation

    +

    Primary Conflation, which we will hereafter simply termed Conflation, + refers to seven overt senses with which the main verb conflates. These conflations + are shown in conjunction with Affiliation and Extension by a vocalic prefix + to the main verb. We previously encountered these prefixes for nouns in Table + 11 of Sec 3.4. + Here, these prefixes are expanded to include the seven primary conflations. + The senses of the seven conflations are explained in Table 13 below, while the + prefixes themselves are shown in Table 14.

    +


    + Table 13: Conflations

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    LABEL
    CONFLATION
    MEANING
    OPR
    		OPERATIVETo perform the action + of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function
    STA
    		STATIVEStative manifestation, + i.e. to be in a (temporary) state; does NOT mean “be” in the + sense of copula identification as in “I am John”
    MNF
    		MANIFESTIVETo manifest or be identified + as a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the “be” + copula of identification in Western languages
    DSP
    		DESCRIPTIVEDescriptive manifestation, + i.e., to appear or manifest in the manner of; this sense is the nearest + Ithkuil equivalent to English adjectives
    ATV
    		ACTIVEEither action or motion + in situ, i.e., action performed or movement in place (as in shaking, + spinning, wagging, jumping, etc.)
    PSN
    		POSITIONALPosition or location, + i.e. to be situated in a location/position in space
    ICH
    		INCHOATIVETransformation from + one state to another or formation of an identity
    +


    +
    + Table 14: Conflation Prefixes + by Extension & Affiliation
    +
    +
    + * This a- prefix is optional if the + nominal versus verbal status of the formative can be determined from other morphological + elements or if the meaning of the phrase or sentence is clear regardless of + knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
    +

    +

    5.4.2 Format

    +

    As described above, any conflated verb carries both an overt + sense and a covert sense. The covert sense constitutes the format + of the verb. Format is shown by variation in the - + suffix to a valence adjunct, as previously described in Sec. + 5.2. The eight formats are explained in Table 15 below along with + their respective suffixes to a valence adjunct.

    +

    The astute reader may have noted in Table 14 above that the + prefixes for the OPERATIVE conflation are the same as + the default (i.e., “conflation-less”) Extension/Affiliation prefixes + for nouns previously shown in Table 11 of Sec. + 3.4. One may ask, then, how one knows whether or not these particular prefixes + are meant to show OPERATIVE conflation on a formative. + The answer is that, in the absence of one of the formats below, the prefixes + do not indicate such conflation.

    +


    + Table 15: Format Suffixes to Valence/Version Adjuncts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    LABEL
    FORMAT
    SUFFIX
    EXPLANATION (COVERT + SENSE OF VERB)
    SCH
    SCHEMATIC
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies the manner of the conflated primary sense, e.g., I’m + speeding through the book = reading speedily; Clouds blanketed + the city = cover like a blanket
    ISR
    INSTRUMENT-ATIVE
    -
    		Indicates the means, + cause, or instrument of causation of the conflated primary sense, e.g., + I clubbed him = I hit him with a club; She drove him there + = She transported him there by driving
    ATH
    AUTHORITIVE
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies the indirect/enabling cause or circumstance which gives rise + to the conflated primary sense, e.g., He sang her cares away = + his singing allowed her to forget her cares
    PRC
    PRECURRENT
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies an initial event immediately preceding or continuing on into + the conflated sense, where the overt sense is not the cause of the conflated + sense, i.e., the conflated sense would have occurred anyway, e.g., I + bought some lunch (conflated sense: EAT)
    RSL
    RESULTATIVE
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies the concurrent result of the conflated sense, i.e., an event + which occurs in conjunction with the conflated sense but is also caused + by it, e.g., The plane crashed into the water (conflated sense: + FLY)
    SBQ
    SUBSEQUENT
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect result or purpose (not the + concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., I’ll look in + on the stew (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen])
    CCM
    CONCOMITTANT
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies an incidental simultaneous event having no causal relationship, + e.g., She wore jeans to church (conflated sense: GO); He sweated + through her recital (Conflated sense: LISTEN)
    OBJ
    OBJECTIVE
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies the Patient (see Sec. + 4.1.1) of the underlying conflated sense, e.g., She dusted + the table (conflated sense: REMOVE); They fish that river each + spring (conflated sense: GATHER/COLLECT)
    +


    +
    + 5.4.3 Derivation and Conflation Adjuncts

    +

    In addition to the seven primary conflations signified by vocalic + prefix to the verb, there are 245 additional overt conflation senses which utilize + the same seven verbal prefix patterns in conjunction with an additional conflation + adjunct preceding the verb. Because these 245 conflations are derived by adding + a special adjunct to the verb along with the same verb prefixes of the seven + primary conflations, they are called derivations, to distinguish them from the + seven conflations. Note that when a derivation is present (evidenced by a conflation + adjunct), it is the derivation that determines the conflative meaning of the + verb, not the conflation shown by the main verb.

    +

    The conflation adjunct used with these derivations is the same + adjunct as the valence adjunct already analyzed in Section + 5.2. By adding an additional consonantal prefix and the consonantal format + suffix from Sec. 5.4.2 above, we generate the following + formula:

    +

    CN + + VV + CK, where:

    +

    VV = A vocalic prefix + signifying the valence and version of the verb, as previously described in Sections + 5.2 and 5.3 above and shown in Table + 12. In its basic form, VV always + begins either with a vowel, w + vowel, or y + vowel.

    +

    CN = A single consonant + form signifying a pattern of derivative conflation, whose exact meaning is dependent + on which of the seven primary conflation patterns is shown by the vocalic prefix + of the verb itself. For example, where CN + is p, + the actual conflationary meaning differs depending on whether the main verb + shows the OPERATIVE, STATIVE, MANIFESTIVE, DESCRIPTIVE, ACTIVE, + POSITIONAL or INCHOATIVE pattern. + Additionally, each CN has three variations + depending on whether VV above begins + with a vowel, begins with w- or with y-. Where + Vv begins with a vowel, the first form of CN + (labelled CN1) is used; where Vv + has an initial w-, the second form of CN + (labelled CN2) is used and the initial + w- to Vv is dropped; where Vv + begins with y-, the third form of CN + (labelled CN3) is used and the initial + y- to Vv is dropped.

    +

    For example, the forms of CN + = p + are as follows: CN1 = p, + CN2 = b, + and CN3 = p’. + Thus, combining CN = p + with the valence adjunct forms ei, + wei, + and yei + we get the following results:

    + + + + + + +
    p + + ei + = pei
    p + + wei + = bei +
    p + + yei + = p’ei
    +


    + CK = One of the eight format suffixes + shown in Sec. 5.4.2 above, indicating the covert sense + of the conflated verb.

    +

    Examples of basic conflation adjuncts are bram, + téu, + wiu, + llëu, + and cÿua. +

    +

    The following tables show the CN + prefixes and the overt senses associated with these derivations.

    +


    + Tables 16-1 through 16-40: + Derivations

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    CN1
    		 +
    CN2
    		 +
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    +
    p
    +
    		+
    b
    		 +
    p’
    		OPERATIVEdo, undertake, take on
    STATIVEmentally envision
    MANIFESTIVEbe in a certain position, put, place
    DESCRIPTIVEfeel, emote
    ACTIVEattend to, deal with
    POSITIONALtranslative motion; move from one place to another
    INCHOATIVEhappen, occur, take place
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    t
    d
    t’
    		OPERATIVEuse, utilize
    STATIVEstay, remain
    MANIFESTIVEcomprise, make up, include
    DESCRIPTIVEresemble (physically)
    ACTIVEact, function
    POSITIONALarrange, set up
    INCHOATIVEmake, create
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    ’
    		OPERATIVEget, induce to
    STATIVEdepend upon
    MANIFESTIVEmodel, emulate
    DESCRIPTIVEresemble (behaviorally)
    ACTIVEtouch, feel
    POSITIONALdistribute
    INCHOATIVEbuild, construct
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    k
    g
    k’
    		OPERATIVElet, permit, allow
    STATIVEthink, speculate
    MANIFESTIVEorganize, coordinate
    DESCRIPTIVEresemble (physically and behaviorally)
    ACTIVEhandle, manipulate
    POSITIONALdisseminate, distribute
    INCHOATIVEdevelop into
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    q
    q’
    		OPERATIVEhave (someone do something)
    STATIVEanalyze, reason
    MANIFESTIVEhave order, delineate
    DESCRIPTIVEhave three-dimensional form or shape of
    ACTIVEstrike, impact, hit
    POSITIONALcontain
    INCHOATIVEgrow, raise
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    f
    v
    p
    		OPERATIVEpersuade, cajole
    STATIVElearn, study
    MANIFESTIVEsubstitute (identity)
    DESCRIPTIVEhave or take shape, form or outline of, e.g., the posse ringed them in
    ACTIVEshake, spasm
    POSITIONALenclose
    INCHOATIVEstrive, pursue
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    t
    		OPERATIVEinfluence
    STATIVEremember
    MANIFESTIVEplay role of, act as
    DESCRIPTIVEtexture
    ACTIVEtouch
    POSITIONALinhabit, store
    INCHOATIVEameliorate, repair, fix
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    		OPERATIVEurge, motivate
    STATIVEsee
    MANIFESTIVEdeclare, pronounce
    DESCRIPTIVEcompare
    ACTIVEderive
    POSITIONALinundate with, overwhelm
    INCHOATIVEstrengthen
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    x
    k
    		OPERATIVEhint at, suggest
    STATIVEhear
    MANIFESTIVEpresent
    DESCRIPTIVEimpute, ascribe
    ACTIVEgather, collect
    POSITIONALshelter
    INCHOATIVEenhance, improve
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    q
    		OPERATIVEattract
    STATIVEsmell, have odor of
    MANIFESTIVEexemplify, provide model for
    DESCRIPTIVEimitate, mimic, act like
    ACTIVEkill
    POSITIONALrelease, let out
    INCHOATIVEopen, reveal (physically make visible/available)
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    m
    mm
    hm
    		OPERATIVEobey, comply
    STATIVEtaste
    MANIFESTIVEintroduce
    DESCRIPTIVEbe similar, have similarity
    ACTIVEregulate, establish rule
    POSITIONALtraverse, follow path, go
    INCHOATIVEto (be) open, to (be/set) ajar
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    n
    nn
    hn
    		OPERATIVEsubstitute (use)
    STATIVEsense, intuit
    MANIFESTIVEembody, example of
    DESCRIPTIVEmean, signify
    ACTIVEembellish, decorate
    POSITIONALjourney
    INCHOATIVEclose, seal, hold fast
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    ll
    hl
    		OPERATIVEplay, recreate
    STATIVEalive, living
    MANIFESTIVEmark, reference
    DESCRIPTIVEpoint out, indicate
    ACTIVEactivate, turn on
    POSITIONALconvey, transfer, transport
    INCHOATIVEfind, discover
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    l
    h
    		OPERATIVEwork, toil
    STATIVEhave aura or air of
    MANIFESTIVEexplain, show how
    DESCRIPTIVEwave
    ACTIVEprove, demonstrate
    POSITIONALlift, ascend, raise
    INCHOATIVEreveal (figuratively), let know
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    h
    hh
    		OPERATIVEcommand
    STATIVEbe ill, be sick
    MANIFESTIVEsupport (figurative)
    DESCRIPTIVEimbue with
    ACTIVEcreate art, compose
    POSITIONALlower, descend
    INCHOATIVEjoin, connect
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    r
    rr
    hr
    		OPERATIVEpractice, rehearse
    STATIVEinjury, be injured
    MANIFESTIVEprocure, obtain
    DESCRIPTIVE(de)limit, constrain
    ACTIVEconsume, use (up)
    POSITIONALpush, contact
    INCHOATIVEestablish, ordain, to found
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    h
    		OPERATIVEchoose, select
    STATIVEengage in
    MANIFESTIVEacknowledge
    DESCRIPTIVEdifferent(iate)
    ACTIVEfollow/disciple
    POSITIONALpull, draw
    INCHOATIVEfuse, blend, mix
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    		OPERATIVEtry out, ‘taste’
    STATIVEplease, enjoy
    MANIFESTIVEvisit
    DESCRIPTIVEhave height, be tall
    ACTIVEmanage, oversee
    POSITIONALdestination
    INCHOATIVEilluminate
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    s
    z
    ss
    		OPERATIVEprobe
    STATIVEpass time
    MANIFESTIVEhost
    DESCRIPTIVEhave width, be wide
    ACTIVErelieve of, strip of
    POSITIONALoriginate (from)
    INCHOATIVEdetermine, ascertain
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    		OPERATIVEfacilitate
    STATIVEoccupy space, ‘cover’
    MANIFESTIVEproject, emanate
    DESCRIPTIVEhave depth, be deep
    ACTIVEsurrender, succumb
    POSITIONALarrive
    INCHOATIVEbe new
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    		OPERATIVEsupport (physically)
    STATIVEvalue, have value
    MANIFESTIVEhonor, respect
    DESCRIPTIVEhave length, be long
    ACTIVEexperiment, test
    POSITIONALspread, overtake
    INCHOATIVEreact
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    c
    c’
    		OPERATIVEally (with)
    STATIVErelish, adore
    MANIFESTIVEsanction
    DESCRIPTIVEhave volume, have size
    ACTIVEcover, apply
    POSITIONALconceal, hide
    INCHOATIVEenlarge, increase
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    ’
    		OPERATIVEdo right, best thing
    STATIVEexperience, undergo
    MANIFESTIVEemphasize
    DESCRIPTIVEhave weight or mass
    ACTIVEuphold, preserve
    POSITIONALseek, search, look for
    INCHOATIVEshrink, decrease
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    j
    ’
    		OPERATIVErespond, reply
    STATIVEbehave
    MANIFESTIVEencounter
    DESCRIPTIVEbe rectilinear, be squarely aligned
    ACTIVEmaintain
    POSITIONALcircle, revolve, orbit
    INCHOATIVEclean
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    pl
    pr
    bl
    		OPERATIVEspeak, talk
    STATIVEimply
    MANIFESTIVEreserve
    DESCRIPTIVEcritique, criticize
    ACTIVEexplore
    POSITIONALexchange for
    INCHOATIVEheal, treat
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    tl
    tr
    dl
    		OPERATIVEhail, acknowledge
    STATIVEdistinguish
    MANIFESTIVEwrite
    DESCRIPTIVEteach, train
    ACTIVEentertain
    POSITIONALread
    INCHOATIVEhelp, aid
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    kl
    kr
    gl
    		OPERATIVEhunt
    STATIVEprotect, keep safe
    MANIFESTIVEprovide
    DESCRIPTIVEbe fair, be just
    ACTIVEdominate
    POSITIONALremove, rid
    INCHOATIVEensure, certain
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    fl
    fr
    br
    		OPERATIVEharm, damage
    STATIVEnurture, succor
    MANIFESTIVEundermine
    DESCRIPTIVEbe unfair or unjust
    ACTIVEcounteract
    POSITIONALtrap, catch
    INCHOATIVEruin, break, render useless
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    r
    dr
    		OPERATIVEconduct, hold (e.g., a meeting)
    STATIVEhang, suspend
    MANIFESTIVEcarry
    DESCRIPTIVElearned in
    ACTIVErender harmless, subdue
    POSITIONALset aright, position optimally
    INCHOATIVEcook, prepare food
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    xl
    xr
    gr
    		OPERATIVEgive
    STATIVEflap
    MANIFESTIVEobsession
    DESCRIPTIVEcharacterize
    ACTIVEtake
    POSITIONALbe upright, vertical
    INCHOATIVEgenerate, give rise to
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    sl
    sr
    zl
    		OPERATIVEwear
    STATIVEsecure, lock
    MANIFESTIVEstudy
    DESCRIPTIVEsuffer
    ACTIVEbring
    POSITIONALbe horizontal, be flat
    INCHOATIVEdraw forth, bring out
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    r
    l
    		OPERATIVEhold
    STATIVEopine
    MANIFESTIVEtolerate
    DESCRIPTIVEargue
    ACTIVEsend
    POSITIONALbe perpendicular, be at right angle to
    INCHOATIVEapproach
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    r
    l
    		OPERATIVEharass, bother
    STATIVElay, lie
    MANIFESTIVEhide
    DESCRIPTIVEendanger
    ACTIVEassault, attack
    POSITIONALavoid
    INCHOATIVEtreachery
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    ks
    +
    gz
    kst
    		OPERATIVEcommit immoral act
    STATIVEcommit error
    MANIFESTIVEdote upon
    DESCRIPTIVEtrick, pull a ruse
    ACTIVEillegal act
    POSITIONALrun
    INCHOATIVEbandy, play with
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    ps
    +
    bz
    pst
    		OPERATIVEreward
    STATIVEprepare, make ready
    MANIFESTIVEextract, take out of
    DESCRIPTIVEceremony/ritual
    ACTIVEcurtail, stop
    POSITIONALlinger, hang around
    INCHOATIVEsubsidize
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    st
    +
    sn
    st’
    		OPERATIVEwaste
    STATIVEmake difficult, trouble
    MANIFESTIVEcircumvent, hinder
    DESCRIPTIVEbe or act belligerently, be hostile
    ACTIVEimpede, block
    POSITIONALset foot in or upon, enter into or onto, be in presence of
    INCHOATIVEeat/ingest
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    sp
    +
    sm
    sp’
    		OPERATIVEpractice, perform practice of
    STATIVEdisregard
    MANIFESTIVEjoke, play around, have fun with
    DESCRIPTIVEridicule, make fun of
    ACTIVEviolate
    POSITIONALtrespass
    INCHOATIVEalign, be in alignment
    +


    +
    + 5.4.4 Examples of Conflation, Derivation and Format in Use

    +


    + __Listen! + +

    +

    Chapter + 5 continued >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt + any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

    +


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    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b2a5ec5 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2993 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 5: Verb Morphology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 5: Verb Morphology

    + +

    The Ithkuil verbal formative (termed “verb” in + this chapter for simplicity’s sake) is the workhorse of the language, + inflecting for twenty-two different morphological categories. These include + the eight categories shared by all formatives and already discussed in Chapter + 3: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension, Focus, Essence, + Context, and Designation. Additionally the following + fourteen categories apply solely to verbs: Illocution, Valence, Version, + Conflation/Derivation, Format, Modality, Level, Case-Frame, Validation, Phase, + Sanction, Aspect, Mood, and Bias. The verb can also + theoretically take any number of the over 1300 affixes available to formatives. + Such affixes are analyzed in Chapter + 7.

    +

    The full structure of a Ithkuil verbal formative is tripartite, + i.e., having three distinct words, these being an aspectual adjunct, + a conflation (or valence) adjunct, + and the verb itself. In simple sentences, either or both of + the two adjuncts may be missing. The following extreme example of a fully inflected + Ithkuil verb illustrates all 22 morphological components of the tripartite structure:

    + + + + + + + +
     
    ____
    + + + + + + +
    +

    A highly stilted but approximate English translation of the + above, capturing as many of the nuances of the Ithkuil phrase as possible, would + be: ‘…despite apparently being on the verge, contrary to the + allegation, of just so happening to want to succeed in vowing to maybe return + periodically to the honorable practice of superlative architecture for others + to follow by example’

    +

    In this chapter we will examine eight of the 14 morphological + categories particular to verbal formatives. The six categories specific to aspectual + adjuncts will be described in Chapter + 6.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    5.1 + ILLOCUTION

    +

    Illocution refers to what in linguistics is usually termed + types of speech acts, i.e., the general purpose of a statement such as whether + it is an assertion, a command, a declaratory pronouncement, a question, a warning, + etc. This is a category which is not generally marked within Western languages + in any consistent grammatical sense, the nearest equivalent grammatical category + usually being Mood. In Ithkuil, Mood (which will be discussed in Chapter + 6) functions in a much narrower grammatical range than in Western languages. + When the moods of Western language actually relate to types of speech acts, + the equivalent function in Ithkuil is shown by the category of Illocution.

    +

    There are seven illocutions in Ithkuil: ASSERTIVE, + DIRECTIVE, COMMISSIVE, EXPRESSIVE, + DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE and ADMONITIVE. + They distinguish the type of speech act being performed by the speaker, with + a specific focus on the type of commitment being made on the part of either + the speaker or the hearer to the truth or purpose of the utterance. They are + marked by a consonantal affix to the verb which immediately follows the Affiliation/Extension/Conflation + prefix (see Section 5.4.1) and precedes the C1 + radical consonant. The illocutions and their prefixes are described below.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.1
    ASR
    		The Assertive
    +
    +

    The ASSERTIVE illocution is unmarked + by any affix. The ASSERTIVE is used to express propositions + which purport to describe or name some act, event, or state in the real world, + with the purpose of committing the hearer to the truth of the proposition. Thus, + an utterance in the ASSERTIVE illocution is one that can + be believed or disbelieved, and is either true or false. Such utterances would + include general statements, descriptions, and explanations.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.2
    DIR
    		The Directive
    +

    The DIRECTIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -’- (i.e., the glottal stop). For stems whose + C1 radical is a single stop or affricate consonant (i.e., + + plus corresponding ejectives or aspirates) in mutational grades 1 through 8, + this illocution is shown by gemination of the initial consonant of C1 + consonantal form rather than by a glottal stop (e.g., aqqwet, + not a’qwet). + The DIRECTIVE illocution is for the purpose of committing + the hearer to undertake a course of action represented by the proposition, where + the proposition describes a mental wish, desire, or intention on the part of + the speaker. Thus, an utterance in the DIRECTIVE is one + that is neither true nor false because it is not describing something that purports + to exist in the real world; rather, it describes an act or situation which can + potentially be made real, i.e., that can be fulfilled or carried out. Such utterances + include commands, orders, and requests and would generally be marked in Western + languages by either the imperative, optative, or subjunctive moods. The commitment + on the part of the hearer is not belief or disbelief, but rather whether to + obey, comply with, or grant.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.3
    CMV
    		The Commissive
    +
    +

    The COMMISSIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -n- + (with alternative affixes -m- + or -- + where euphonically appropriate). Preceding a C1 form beginning + with -n-, + -r-, or --, + the affix -m- + is used. The COMMISSIVE illocution is similar to the DIRECTIVE + above, except that the listener and the speaker are the same person, i.e., the + statement is a wish or command directed at oneself as in a promise, vow, pledge, + oath, contract, or guarantee.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.4
    EXP
    		The Expressive
    +

    The EXPRESSIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -f-, + with alternate forms -- + or -z- where + euphonically appropriate or where necessary to avoid confusion with a geminated + C1 form (i.e., azvar + and afar + rather than afvar + and affar). + The EXPRESSIVE is used for various types of specialized + utterances where the truth-value of the proposition is taken for granted and + the commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of acceptance or non-acceptance. + Such utterances include welcomes, offers, congratulations, condolences, and + apologies.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.5
    DEC
    		The Declarative
    +
    +

    The DECLARATIVE illocution is marked + by the affix -ç- + with alternate forms -p-, + -t- or -k- + where euphonically appropriate and/or to avoid confusion with a geminated C1 + consonantal form. The DECLARATIVE is used for utterances + whose purpose is to themselves effect a change upon the real world, based upon + convention, cultural rules, law, subjective authority, or personal authority + or control of a situation. The commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of + recognition or non-recognition. Such utterances include declarations, announcements, + proclamations, and various “performative” expressions. Certain languages + mark this function of a verb using a mood known as hortative. Examples would + be: I dub thee “Clown Master”!, The king will hear all grievances + at noon each day, This court is now in session, We hereby declare this treaty + null and void!

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.6
    IRG
    		The Interrogative
    +
    +

    The INTERROGATIVE illocution is marked + by the affix -r- + with alternate form -n- + used where euphonically appropriate and/or to avoid confusion with a geminated + C1 consonantal form. The INTERROGATIVE + is used for utterances corresponding to questions in other languages. Questions, + as such, do not exist in Ithkuil. All inquiries and interrogatives are treated + as a type of directive in which the speaker tells the addressee to validate + the truth of an assertion or provide missing information specified by an interrogative + affix to a formative, i.e., when using the INTERROGATIVE, + one is not asking Would you like to dance with me? Rather, one is expressing + what can only be translated either a specialized command (State whether) + you will dance with me or a specialized assertion (I inquire whether) + you will dance with me. One does not say What’s your name?, + but rather Tell me your name.

    +

    Indeed, Ithkuil has no words corresponding to the English words + ‘question’ or ‘ask,’ the nearest equivalents being derived + from the words for ‘investigation’ and ‘determine.’ + Consequently, there is no question mark used at the end of the sentence, nor + does the pitch of the voice rise as is usual with Western languages when asking + questions. The commitment on the part of the listener in regard to the INTERROGATIVE + is one of compliance or non-compliance in divulging the information sought, + and the truth value of the utterance is neutral pending the reply.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.1.7
    ADM
    		The Admonitive
    +
    +

    The ADMONITIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -l- + with alternate forms -- + or -- + used where euphonically appropriate and/or to avoid confusion with a geminated + C1 consonantal form. The ADMONITIVE + is used for admonitions and warnings, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘(I) caution you lest…,’ ‘(I) warn you against…,’ + or ‘Be careful not to….’ The utterance is neither true nor + false because it describes only a potential act or situation which may occur + unless avoided. The commitment on the part of the hearer is to assess the degree + of likelihood of the potentiality, followed by a choice whether to heed or ignore/defy + the utterance.

    +


    + 5.1.8 Examples of Illocution in Use

    +
    +


    + ___Listen! +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + +

    5.2 VALENCE

    +

    In Ithkuil, the term Valence is used to refer + to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given + verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by + another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, + or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs + of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” + verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ithkuil explicitly + shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate + the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1a) I found an old man.1b) I found an empty can.
    2a) I threw the ball at Sam.2b) I threw the ball at the window.
    3a) I performed in front of her.3b) I performed in front of the wall.
    +

    Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate + object of the verb (an old man, Sam, and her), while the second + member of each pair has an inanimate object (an empty can, the window, and + the wall). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below: +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    1c) I met an old man.1d) * I met an empty can.
    2c) I threw Sam the ball.2d) * I threw the window the ball.
    3c) I entertained her.3d) * I entertained the wall.
    +

    The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these + pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why?

    +

    The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except + that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been + replaced by the semantically similar meet, throw, and entertain. + Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears + unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” + i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, + whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that + the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can + find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even + being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without the old man also + meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if + I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected to participate by + catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re + asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating + in the situation by observing me.

    +

    The participatory relationship involving the second party of + a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship + (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb + ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship + as in the sentence I met the old man (i.e., and so he met me) or in + verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We + love each other. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in I + played along with him (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship + as in I threw Sam the ball (i.e., and so he caught it).

    +

    Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is + the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ithkuil into + the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely + explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ + ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform + are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly + specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as find/meet, + throw at/throw, perform/entertain, etc.

    +

    In Ithkuil, co-activity is explicitly shown morphologically, + and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are + systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus + co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monoactively + as well as co-actively.

    +

    There are fourteen valences in Ithkuil: the MONOACTIVE, + PARALLEL, COROLLARY, RECIPROCAL, COMPLEMENTARY, NONRELATIONAL, DUPLICATIVE, + DEMONSTRATIVE, RESISTIVE, IMITATIVE, CONTINGENT, PARTICIPATIVE, INDICATIVE, + and MUTUAL. Valence is shown by the initial vocalic affix + to a type of adjunct known as either a valence adjunct or a conflational adjunct, + depending on whether the verb manifests a derivative conflation (explained later + in Sec. 5.4). For now we will concentrate solely on the + valence adjunct form. Thirteen of these fourteen vocalic prefixes signify co-active + relationships while the first constitutes a neutral valence corresponding to + monoactivity. The initial prefix also indicates the additional morphological + category of Version, a separate morphological category described + later in Section 5.3.

    +

    The form of a valence adjunct is Vv + + , + where Vv is the vocalic prefix signifying + the valence and version of the verb. These prefixes are shown below in Table + 12. Following the table are explanations of each valence. It should be noted + that placement of a glottal stop infix -’- between the + Vv prefix and + assigns positive focus +FC to the main verb.

    +


    + Table + 12: Valence / Version* Prefixes
    +
    +
    + * see Section 5.3 below + for an explanation of Version

    +


    + The fourteen valences are explained as follows:
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.1
    MNO
    		The Monoactive
    +
    +

    The MONOACTIVE valence is the default + valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second + party is implied.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.2
    PRL
    		The Parallel
    +
    +

    The PARALLEL valence indicates that a + second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children all sang + together, We both went jogging on the parkway.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.3
    CRO
    		The Corollary
    +
    +

    The COROLLARY valence is similar to the + PARALLEL, except that the second party engages in related + activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children played in + the yard (i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or The + band played my favorite song (implying that not everyone in the band was + playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed + to playing an instrument).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.4
    RCP
    		The Reciprocal
    +
    +

    The RECIPROCAL valence indicates identical + activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial + phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in They + looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.5
    CPL
    		The Complementary
    +
    +

    The COMPLEMENTARY valence indicates that + the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. + By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the + first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., + the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences + such as The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, + The clown read the children a story, where ‘played catch’ implies + the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the + woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, and ‘read’ + implies a reader and an audience.

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.6
    NNR
    		The Nonrelational
    +
    +

    The NONRELATIONAL valence indicates that + a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., + an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify + this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause + such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in He shaved + while she did something else. The way an Ithkuil sentence would utilize + this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, + ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL + valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one + thing while the other did something else.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.7
    DUP
    		The Duplicative
    +
    +

    The DUPLICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the + sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, + then you draw the same picture), They both read that book (i.e., first + one, then the other), I bought a new car (i.e., and now someone else + is buying a new car, too).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.8
    DEM
    		The Demonstrative
    +
    +

    The DEMONSTRATIVE valence indicates that + the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what + to do. Thus an Ithkuil sentence constructed as We played chess with + the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I + showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They + fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.9
    RES
    		The Resistive
    +
    +

    The RESISTIVE valence indicates that + the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity + of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the + adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases + such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as We took the + children to see the clowns anyway (i.e., they didn’t want to go), + They fed me liver just the same (i.e., I can’t stand liver), + Nevertheless, he told us the story (i.e., despite our not wanting to + hear it).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.10
    IMT
    		The Imitative
    +
    +

    The IMITATIVE valence indicates that + the second party mimics, imitates, or attempts to duplicate the activity of + the first party. The Ithkuil sentence The clown juggled three balls for + the child in the IMITATIVE valence implies that the + child attempted to juggle the balls as well.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.11
    CNG
    		The Contingent
    +
    +

    The CONTINGENT valence indicates that + the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, + the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ithkuil sentence + I started the campfire for my friend in the CONTINGENT + implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked + the food.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.12
    PTI
    		The Participative
    +
    +

    The PARTICIPATIVE valence indicates that + the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable + by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ithkuil sentence + They raced in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They + each took part in the race.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.13
    IDC
    		The Indicative
    +
    +

    The INDICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s + activity. Thus the sentence I looked at her in the INDICATIVE + would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ + while the sentence I spoke to them would mean ‘They gleaned what + I really meant from my words.’

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.2.14
    MUT
    		The Mutual
    +
    +

    The MUTUAL valence indicates that both + parties alternate performing an activity, as in She and I take turns cleaning + or They both alternate teaching the beginning and advanced classes.

    +


    + 5.2.15 Examples of Valence in Use

    +


    + + Listen! +
    +

    +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    5.3 VERSION

    +

    Version refers to a six-way aspectual distinction indicating + whether the verb refers to an act, event or state which is goal- or result-oriented, + and/or whether it has been successfully actualized subsequent to one’s + initial intention. Like many Ithkuil morphological categories, version addresses + semantic distinctions which are usually rendered by lexical differentiation + (i.e., word choice) in other languages.

    +

    Version is shown by one of six forms of the vocalic valence + prefix to a conflational adjunct as previously discussed and shown in Sec. + 5.2, Table 12). The six versions are PROCESSUAL, COMPLETIVE, + INEFFECTUAL, INCOMPLETIVE, POSITIVE + and EFFECTIVE. They are explained below.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.1
    PRC
    		The Processual
    +
    +

    The PROCESSUAL describes all acts, conditions, + or events which are ends in themselves and not goal-oriented, i.e., are not + focused on an anticipated outcome or final purpose toward which a progressive + effort is being made. It is the default or neutral version and is shown by the + first form of the valence prefix (as shown in Table 12) + or, where there is no conflational or valence adjunct, is unmarked.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.2
    CPT
    		The Completive
    +
    +

    The COMPLETIVE describes acts, conditions, + or events which achieve, or are intended to achieve, an anticipated outcome, + i.e., which are oriented toward the achievement of some purpose, outcome, or + final state. Such a distinction is usually handled by word choice in Western + languages. The dynamism of version can be seen in the following comparisons:

    +
    +

    PROCESSUAL + COMPLETIVE

    +

    hunt + to hunt down
    + to be losing + to lose
    + to study + to learn
    + to be winning + to win
    + to strive for + to accomplish, achieve
    + to risk + to defeat the odds; win
    + to work + to build, construct, make
    + to displace; infiltrate + infest, to take over; vanquish
    + to pour out + to drain
    + to remove (incrementally) + to eliminate
    + to increase + to maximize
    + to read + to read to the end; finish reading
    + to decrease + minimize
    + to flank + to surround
    + to enlarge + to make gigantic
    + to spread upon or over + to cover, engulf, envelop
    + to shrink + miniaturize
    + to chase + to catch up to
    + to eat eat + all up
    + to pursue + to capture
    + to compete + to win
    + to be pregnant + to give birth
    + to throw at + to hit (with a throw)
    + to run low on + to run out of, deplete
    + to grow + to grow up
    + to use use + up
    + to possess, hold to keep
    + to tear/ rip + to tear/rip up or to pieces
    + to join together + to unify
    + to accelerate, speed up + to achieve maximum speed
    + to pour into + to fill (up)
    + to bleed + to bleed to death
    + to run to + run all the way
    + to descend, go down + to get to the bottom
    + to brighten + to illuminate
    + to decelerate, slow down + to stop
    + to search for, seek + to find
    + to polish + to burnish
    + to practice + to perfect
    + to darken + to make dark
    + to ascend, rise + to reach the top
    + to explore + to discover

    + +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.3
    INE
    		The Ineffectual
    +

    This version, the INEFFECTUAL, and the + next, the INCOMPLETIVE, operate in parallel fashion to + the PROCESSUAL and the COMPLETIVE + versions respectively but are specific to acts, events, or states initially + expressed (whether explicitly or implicitly) as unrealized intentions, attempts, + desires, needs, etc., often in conjunction with a modality affix to the verb + (see Sec. 5.5). Such “unrealized” + verbs are exemplified in the following sentences: I want to dance, She needs + to work, I tried to finish, She must find him, I choose to celebrate. Each + of these sentences in itself does not specify whether the action was “realized” + or not, i.e., just because I want to dance doesn’t necessarily mean that + I actually do dance; her need to work doesn’t tell us by itself whether + she in fact will work, etc.

    +

    The INEFFECTUAL version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” PROCESSUAL + verb is unsuccessful. Thus the sentence I want to dance in the INEFFECTUAL + would be translated as I want to dance but I’m not going to, + while the sentence I tried to eat in the INEFFECTUAL + means I tried to eat but couldn’t.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.4
    INC
    		The Incompletive
    +
    +

    The INCOMPLETIVE version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” COMPLETIVE + verb is unsuccessful. It functions identically to the INEFFECTUAL, + except that it refers to a verb that is result/goal-oriented, as illustrated + in the comparative chart shown above for the COMPLETIVE + version. Thus, the sentence I tried to eat in the INCOMPLETIVE + means I tried to eat all of it but couldn’t.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.5
    PST
    		The Positive
    +
    +

    Complementing the INEFFECTUAL, the POSITIVE + version indicates an intention brought to reality. Thus the sentence I want + to dance in the POSITIVE would be translated as I + want to dance and so I’m going to, while the sentence I tried + to eat in the POSITIVE means I succeeded in eating + something.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.3.6
    EFC
    		The Effective
    +
    +

    Likewise, the EFFECTIVE version complements + the INCOMPLETIVE, indicating the same successful effort + implied by the POSITIVE version, only applied to goal-/result-oriented + verbs. Thus I wanted to finish in the EFFECTIVE + implies that the desire was successfully carried out; I tried to eat + in the EFFECTIVE means I succeeded in eating it all + up.

    +


    + 5.3.7 Examples of Version in Use

    +
    +

    +
    + Listen! + +
    +

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

    5.4 CONFLATION, DERIVATION + AND FORMAT

    +

    Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings + into a single verb, a process termed conflation. This is illustrated + in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    1. He bicycled south. = He traveled south by bicycle.
    + 2. She dolled herself up. = She made herself look as pretty as a + doll.
    + 3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the + books on the shelf/shelves.
    + 4. Slide me a beer. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the + bar).

    +
    +

    The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry + inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and + giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random + and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English to bicycle + in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to + make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the + verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but + rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means + ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ + or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first + three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does slide + in sentence (4).

    +

    As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” + way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, + placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary + sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our + four sentences above as follows:

    +
    +

    He [1: + (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle]
    + = He bicycled south.

    +

    She [1: + (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll]
    + = She dolled herself up.

    +

    They [1: + (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves]
    + = They’re shelving the books.

    +

    [1: (GIVE+imperative)] + a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me
    + = Slide me a beer.

    +
    +

    Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown + by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb + and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English + must learn that to hand means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, + but to shoulder does not mean to GIVE by MEANS of + one’s shoulder.

    +

    Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity + for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack + of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use + when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form. For example, imagine + an English speaker using a new verb form such as ‘to apple,’ as + in Let’s ‘apple’ today. Would this mean to pick + apples?, to eat apples?, to plant apples?, to bake apples?, to buy apples?, + to turn something into an apple?, to wear apple-related clothing? Without + a standardized system of conflation, the meaning of such a form could only be + learned from hearing others using it in context.

    +

    Ithkuil systemizes verb conflation into a complex, productive + scheme, in which a verb can convey any of eight covert senses, called formats, + which can then conflate with seven primary overt senses and 245 derivative overt + senses to theoretically yield 2016 possible semantic combinations. In this manner + the Ithkuil verb corresponding to English to shelve, can by systematic + conflation be made to indicate meanings as diverse as:

    + + + + + + +

    +     		to build shelves
    + to be a shelf
    + to make straight as a shelf
    + to remain a shelf
    + to seem like a shelf
    + to support on a shelf
    + to compare shelves
    + to reserve a shelf     		to convey with a shelf
    + to make as long as a shelf
    + to cover with shelves
    + to arrange on shelves
    + to place on a shelf
    + to hurt someone with a shelf
    + to push using a shelf
    + to exchange for a shelf
    +

    Note, however, that being completely systematic for all verbs, + the Ithkuil conflation system generates forms which, for any particular verb, + will often be semantically questionable, even anomalous, e.g., to travel + by shelf, to taste of shelves, to make as warm as a shelf, to spend time as + a shelf, etc. (The fact that such semantically anomalous forms are morphologically + permissible presents no problem from a logical perspective and is inherent in + human language, as exemplified in English by morphologically permissible but + semantically anomalous forms such as ‘re-laugh’ or ‘co-beer.’)

    +

    The specifics of primary conflation, format, and derivative + conflation are detailed in the following sections.

    +

     

    +

    5.4.1 (Primary) Conflation

    +

    Primary Conflation, which we will hereafter simply termed Conflation, + refers to seven overt senses with which the main verb conflates. These conflations + are shown in conjunction with Affiliation and Extension by a vocalic prefix + to the main verb. We previously encountered these prefixes for nouns in Table + 11 of Sec 3.4. + Here, these prefixes are expanded to include the seven primary conflations. + The senses of the seven conflations are explained in Table 13 below, while the + prefixes themselves are shown in Table 14.

    +


    + Table 13: Conflations

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    LABEL
    CONFLATION
    MEANING
    OPR
    		OPERATIVETo perform the action + of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function
    STA
    		STATIVEStative manifestation, + i.e. to be in a (temporary) state; does NOT mean “be” in the + sense of copula identification as in “I am John”
    MNF
    		MANIFESTIVETo manifest or be identified + as a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the “be” + copula of identification in Western languages
    DSP
    		DESCRIPTIVEDescriptive manifestation, + i.e., to appear or manifest in the manner of; this sense is the nearest + Ithkuil equivalent to English adjectives
    ATV
    		ACTIVEEither action or motion + in situ, i.e., action performed or movement in place (as in shaking, + spinning, wagging, jumping, etc.)
    PSN
    		POSITIONALPosition or location, + i.e. to be situated in a location/position in space
    ICH
    		INCHOATIVETransformation from + one state to another or formation of an identity
    +


    +
    + Table 14: Conflation Prefixes + by Extension & Affiliation
    +
    +
    + * This a- prefix is optional if the + nominal versus verbal status of the formative can be determined from other morphological + elements or if the meaning of the phrase or sentence is clear regardless of + knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
    +

    +

    5.4.2 Format

    +

    As described above, any conflated verb carries both an overt + sense and a covert sense. The covert sense constitutes the format + of the verb. Format is shown by variation in the - + suffix to a valence adjunct, as previously described in Sec. + 5.2. The eight formats are explained in Table 15 below along with + their respective suffixes to a valence adjunct.

    +

    The astute reader may have noted in Table 14 above that the + prefixes for the OPERATIVE conflation are the same as + the default (i.e., “conflation-less”) Extension/Affiliation prefixes + for nouns previously shown in Table 11 of Sec. + 3.4. One may ask, then, how one knows whether or not these particular prefixes + are meant to show OPERATIVE conflation on a formative. + The answer is that, in the absence of one of the formats below, the prefixes + do not indicate such conflation.

    +


    + Table 15: Format Suffixes to Valence/Version Adjuncts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    LABEL
    FORMAT
    SUFFIX
    EXPLANATION (COVERT + SENSE OF VERB)
    SCH
    SCHEMATIC
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies the manner of the conflated primary sense, e.g., I’m + speeding through the book = reading speedily; Clouds blanketed + the city = cover like a blanket
    ISR
    INSTRUMENT-ATIVE
    -
    		Indicates the means, + cause, or instrument of causation of the conflated primary sense, e.g., + I clubbed him = I hit him with a club; She drove him there + = She transported him there by driving
    ATH
    AUTHORITIVE
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies the indirect/enabling cause or circumstance which gives rise + to the conflated primary sense, e.g., He sang her cares away = + his singing allowed her to forget her cares
    PRC
    PRECURRENT
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies an initial event immediately preceding or continuing on into + the conflated sense, where the overt sense is not the cause of the conflated + sense, i.e., the conflated sense would have occurred anyway, e.g., I + bought some lunch (conflated sense: EAT)
    RSL
    RESULTATIVE
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies the concurrent result of the conflated sense, i.e., an event + which occurs in conjunction with the conflated sense but is also caused + by it, e.g., The plane crashed into the water (conflated sense: + FLY)
    SBQ
    SUBSEQUENT
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect result or purpose (not the + concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., I’ll look in + on the stew (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen])
    CCM
    CONCOMITTANT
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies an incidental simultaneous event having no causal relationship, + e.g., She wore jeans to church (conflated sense: GO); He sweated + through her recital (Conflated sense: LISTEN)
    OBJ
    OBJECTIVE
    -
    		Indicates that the + verb specifies the Patient (see Sec. + 4.1.1) of the underlying conflated sense, e.g., She dusted + the table (conflated sense: REMOVE); They fish that river each + spring (conflated sense: GATHER/COLLECT)
    +


    +
    + 5.4.3 Derivation and Conflation Adjuncts

    +

    In addition to the seven primary conflations signified by vocalic + prefix to the verb, there are 245 additional overt conflation senses which utilize + the same seven verbal prefix patterns in conjunction with an additional conflation + adjunct preceding the verb. Because these 245 conflations are derived by adding + a special adjunct to the verb along with the same verb prefixes of the seven + primary conflations, they are called derivations, to distinguish them from the + seven conflations. Note that when a derivation is present (evidenced by a conflation + adjunct), it is the derivation that determines the conflative meaning of the + verb, not the conflation shown by the main verb.

    +

    The conflation adjunct used with these derivations is the same + adjunct as the valence adjunct already analyzed in Section + 5.2. By adding an additional consonantal prefix and the consonantal format + suffix from Sec. 5.4.2 above, we generate the following + formula:

    +

    CN + + VV + CK, where:

    +

    VV = A vocalic prefix + signifying the valence and version of the verb, as previously described in Sections + 5.2 and 5.3 above and shown in Table + 12. In its basic form, VV always + begins either with a vowel, w + vowel, or y + vowel.

    +

    CN = A single consonant + form signifying a pattern of derivative conflation, whose exact meaning is dependent + on which of the seven primary conflation patterns is shown by the vocalic prefix + of the verb itself. For example, where CN + is p, + the actual conflationary meaning differs depending on whether the main verb + shows the OPERATIVE, STATIVE, MANIFESTIVE, DESCRIPTIVE, ACTIVE, + POSITIONAL or INCHOATIVE pattern. + Additionally, each CN has three variations + depending on whether VV above begins + with a vowel, begins with w- or with y-. Where + Vv begins with a vowel, the first form of CN + (labelled CN1) is used; where Vv + has an initial w-, the second form of CN + (labelled CN2) is used and the initial + w- to Vv is dropped; where Vv + begins with y-, the third form of CN + (labelled CN3) is used and the initial + y- to Vv is dropped.

    +

    For example, the forms of CN + = p + are as follows: CN1 = p, + CN2 = b, + and CN3 = p’. + Thus, combining CN = p + with the valence adjunct forms ei, + wei, + and yei + we get the following results:

    + + + + + + +
    p + + ei + = pei
    p + + wei + = bei +
    p + + yei + = p’ei
    +


    + CK = One of the eight format suffixes + shown in Sec. 5.4.2 above, indicating the covert sense + of the conflated verb.

    +

    Examples of basic conflation adjuncts are bram, + téu, + wiu, + llëu, + and cÿua. +

    +

    The following tables show the CN + prefixes and the overt senses associated with these derivations.

    +


    + Tables 16-1 through 16-40: + Derivations

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    CN1
    		 +
    CN2
    		 +
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    +
    p
    +
    		+
    b
    		 +
    p’
    		OPERATIVEdo, undertake, take on
    STATIVEmentally envision
    MANIFESTIVEbe in a certain position, put, place
    DESCRIPTIVEfeel, emote
    ACTIVEattend to, deal with
    POSITIONALtranslative motion; move from one place to another
    INCHOATIVEhappen, occur, take place
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    t
    d
    t’
    		OPERATIVEuse, utilize
    STATIVEstay, remain
    MANIFESTIVEcomprise, make up, include
    DESCRIPTIVEresemble (physically)
    ACTIVEact, function
    POSITIONALarrange, set up
    INCHOATIVEmake, create
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    ’
    		OPERATIVEget, induce to
    STATIVEdepend upon
    MANIFESTIVEmodel, emulate
    DESCRIPTIVEresemble (behaviorally)
    ACTIVEtouch, feel
    POSITIONALdistribute
    INCHOATIVEbuild, construct
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    k
    g
    k’
    		OPERATIVElet, permit, allow
    STATIVEthink, speculate
    MANIFESTIVEorganize, coordinate
    DESCRIPTIVEresemble (physically and behaviorally)
    ACTIVEhandle, manipulate
    POSITIONALdisseminate, distribute
    INCHOATIVEdevelop into
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    q
    q’
    		OPERATIVEhave (someone do something)
    STATIVEanalyze, reason
    MANIFESTIVEhave order, delineate
    DESCRIPTIVEhave three-dimensional form or shape of
    ACTIVEstrike, impact, hit
    POSITIONALcontain
    INCHOATIVEgrow, raise
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    f
    v
    p
    		OPERATIVEpersuade, cajole
    STATIVElearn, study
    MANIFESTIVEsubstitute (identity)
    DESCRIPTIVEhave or take shape, form or outline of, e.g., the posse ringed them in
    ACTIVEshake, spasm
    POSITIONALenclose
    INCHOATIVEstrive, pursue
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    t
    		OPERATIVEinfluence
    STATIVEremember
    MANIFESTIVEplay role of, act as
    DESCRIPTIVEtexture
    ACTIVEtouch
    POSITIONALinhabit, store
    INCHOATIVEameliorate, repair, fix
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    		OPERATIVEurge, motivate
    STATIVEsee
    MANIFESTIVEdeclare, pronounce
    DESCRIPTIVEcompare
    ACTIVEderive
    POSITIONALinundate with, overwhelm
    INCHOATIVEstrengthen
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    x
    k
    		OPERATIVEhint at, suggest
    STATIVEhear
    MANIFESTIVEpresent
    DESCRIPTIVEimpute, ascribe
    ACTIVEgather, collect
    POSITIONALshelter
    INCHOATIVEenhance, improve
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    q
    		OPERATIVEattract
    STATIVEsmell, have odor of
    MANIFESTIVEexemplify, provide model for
    DESCRIPTIVEimitate, mimic, act like
    ACTIVEkill
    POSITIONALrelease, let out
    INCHOATIVEopen, reveal (physically make visible/available)
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    m
    mm
    hm
    		OPERATIVEobey, comply
    STATIVEtaste
    MANIFESTIVEintroduce
    DESCRIPTIVEbe similar, have similarity
    ACTIVEregulate, establish rule
    POSITIONALtraverse, follow path, go
    INCHOATIVEto (be) open, to (be/set) ajar
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    n
    nn
    hn
    		OPERATIVEsubstitute (use)
    STATIVEsense, intuit
    MANIFESTIVEembody, example of
    DESCRIPTIVEmean, signify
    ACTIVEembellish, decorate
    POSITIONALjourney
    INCHOATIVEclose, seal, hold fast
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    ll
    hl
    		OPERATIVEplay, recreate
    STATIVEalive, living
    MANIFESTIVEmark, reference
    DESCRIPTIVEpoint out, indicate
    ACTIVEactivate, turn on
    POSITIONALconvey, transfer, transport
    INCHOATIVEfind, discover
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    l
    h
    		OPERATIVEwork, toil
    STATIVEhave aura or air of
    MANIFESTIVEexplain, show how
    DESCRIPTIVEwave
    ACTIVEprove, demonstrate
    POSITIONALlift, ascend, raise
    INCHOATIVEreveal (figuratively), let know
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    h
    hh
    		OPERATIVEcommand
    STATIVEbe ill, be sick
    MANIFESTIVEsupport (figurative)
    DESCRIPTIVEimbue with
    ACTIVEcreate art, compose
    POSITIONALlower, descend
    INCHOATIVEjoin, connect
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    r
    rr
    hr
    		OPERATIVEpractice, rehearse
    STATIVEinjury, be injured
    MANIFESTIVEprocure, obtain
    DESCRIPTIVE(de)limit, constrain
    ACTIVEconsume, use (up)
    POSITIONALpush, contact
    INCHOATIVEestablish, ordain, to found
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    h
    		OPERATIVEchoose, select
    STATIVEengage in
    MANIFESTIVEacknowledge
    DESCRIPTIVEdifferent(iate)
    ACTIVEfollow/disciple
    POSITIONALpull, draw
    INCHOATIVEfuse, blend, mix
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    		OPERATIVEtry out, ‘taste’
    STATIVEplease, enjoy
    MANIFESTIVEvisit
    DESCRIPTIVEhave height, be tall
    ACTIVEmanage, oversee
    POSITIONALdestination
    INCHOATIVEilluminate
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    s
    z
    ss
    		OPERATIVEprobe
    STATIVEpass time
    MANIFESTIVEhost
    DESCRIPTIVEhave width, be wide
    ACTIVErelieve of, strip of
    POSITIONALoriginate (from)
    INCHOATIVEdetermine, ascertain
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    		OPERATIVEfacilitate
    STATIVEoccupy space, ‘cover’
    MANIFESTIVEproject, emanate
    DESCRIPTIVEhave depth, be deep
    ACTIVEsurrender, succumb
    POSITIONALarrive
    INCHOATIVEbe new
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    		OPERATIVEsupport (physically)
    STATIVEvalue, have value
    MANIFESTIVEhonor, respect
    DESCRIPTIVEhave length, be long
    ACTIVEexperiment, test
    POSITIONALspread, overtake
    INCHOATIVEreact
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    c
    c’
    		OPERATIVEally (with)
    STATIVErelish, adore
    MANIFESTIVEsanction
    DESCRIPTIVEhave volume, have size
    ACTIVEcover, apply
    POSITIONALconceal, hide
    INCHOATIVEenlarge, increase
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    ’
    		OPERATIVEdo right, best thing
    STATIVEexperience, undergo
    MANIFESTIVEemphasize
    DESCRIPTIVEhave weight or mass
    ACTIVEuphold, preserve
    POSITIONALseek, search, look for
    INCHOATIVEshrink, decrease
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    j
    ’
    		OPERATIVErespond, reply
    STATIVEbehave
    MANIFESTIVEencounter
    DESCRIPTIVEbe rectilinear, be squarely aligned
    ACTIVEmaintain
    POSITIONALcircle, revolve, orbit
    INCHOATIVEclean
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    pl
    pr
    bl
    		OPERATIVEspeak, talk
    STATIVEimply
    MANIFESTIVEreserve
    DESCRIPTIVEcritique, criticize
    ACTIVEexplore
    POSITIONALexchange for
    INCHOATIVEheal, treat
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    tl
    tr
    dl
    		OPERATIVEhail, acknowledge
    STATIVEdistinguish
    MANIFESTIVEwrite
    DESCRIPTIVEteach, train
    ACTIVEentertain
    POSITIONALread
    INCHOATIVEhelp, aid
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    kl
    kr
    gl
    		OPERATIVEhunt
    STATIVEprotect, keep safe
    MANIFESTIVEprovide
    DESCRIPTIVEbe fair, be just
    ACTIVEdominate
    POSITIONALremove, rid
    INCHOATIVEensure, certain
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    fl
    fr
    br
    		OPERATIVEharm, damage
    STATIVEnurture, succor
    MANIFESTIVEundermine
    DESCRIPTIVEbe unfair or unjust
    ACTIVEcounteract
    POSITIONALtrap, catch
    INCHOATIVEruin, break, render useless
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    r
    dr
    		OPERATIVEconduct, hold (e.g., a meeting)
    STATIVEhang, suspend
    MANIFESTIVEcarry
    DESCRIPTIVElearned in
    ACTIVErender harmless, subdue
    POSITIONALset aright, position optimally
    INCHOATIVEcook, prepare food
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    xl
    xr
    gr
    		OPERATIVEgive
    STATIVEflap
    MANIFESTIVEobsession
    DESCRIPTIVEcharacterize
    ACTIVEtake
    POSITIONALbe upright, vertical
    INCHOATIVEgenerate, give rise to
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    sl
    sr
    zl
    		OPERATIVEwear
    STATIVEsecure, lock
    MANIFESTIVEstudy
    DESCRIPTIVEsuffer
    ACTIVEbring
    POSITIONALbe horizontal, be flat
    INCHOATIVEdraw forth, bring out
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    r
    l
    		OPERATIVEhold
    STATIVEopine
    MANIFESTIVEtolerate
    DESCRIPTIVEargue
    ACTIVEsend
    POSITIONALbe perpendicular, be at right angle to
    INCHOATIVEapproach
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    l
    r
    l
    		OPERATIVEharass, bother
    STATIVElay, lie
    MANIFESTIVEhide
    DESCRIPTIVEendanger
    ACTIVEassault, attack
    POSITIONALavoid
    INCHOATIVEtreachery
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    ks
    +
    gz
    kst
    		OPERATIVEcommit immoral act
    STATIVEcommit error
    MANIFESTIVEdote upon
    DESCRIPTIVEtrick, pull a ruse
    ACTIVEillegal act
    POSITIONALrun
    INCHOATIVEbandy, play with
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    ps
    +
    bz
    pst
    		OPERATIVEreward
    STATIVEprepare, make ready
    MANIFESTIVEextract, take out of
    DESCRIPTIVEceremony/ritual
    ACTIVEcurtail, stop
    POSITIONALlinger, hang around
    INCHOATIVEsubsidize
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    st
    +
    sn
    st’
    		OPERATIVEwaste
    STATIVEmake difficult, trouble
    MANIFESTIVEcircumvent, hinder
    DESCRIPTIVEbe or act belligerently, be hostile
    ACTIVEimpede, block
    POSITIONALset foot in or upon, enter into or onto, be in presence of
    INCHOATIVEeat/ingest
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    CN1
    CN2
    CN3
    CONFLATION PREFIX
    + OF MAIN VERB
    CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
    sp
    +
    sm
    sp’
    		OPERATIVEpractice, perform practice of
    STATIVEdisregard
    MANIFESTIVEjoke, play around, have fun with
    DESCRIPTIVEridicule, make fun of
    ACTIVEviolate
    POSITIONALtrespass
    INCHOATIVEalign, be in alignment
    +


    +
    + 5.4.4 Examples of Conflation, Derivation and Format in Use

    +


    + __Listen! + +

    +

    Chapter + 5 continued >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt + any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

    +


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    +
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    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

     

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    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f45078 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1598 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 5 (Continued): Verb Morphology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 5 (continued): Verb Morphology

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + +
    5.5 Modality
    5.6 Level
    5.7 Case-Frame
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + +

    5.5 MODALITY

    +
    +

    Modality corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., can, may, must, should, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as to want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that, etc. However, + in Ithkuil, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see Sec. + 3.8) and the Perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the ACTIVATIVE + case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. + 4.3.9). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows:

    +

    As we saw in Sections + 3.8 and 4.3.9, + it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the + psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in + the following sentences.

    +
    +

    1) You must come home at once.
    + 2) That girl can sing better than anybody.
    + 3) Our troops should attack at dawn.
    + 4) Mother needs you to come with her.
    + 5) The teacher requests that I dance for you.
    + 6) The man believes clowns are dangerous.

    +
    +

    Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.

    +

    Because the clauses following the verbs must, can, should, + need, request, believe, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see Sec. + 3.4) and the REPRESENTATIVE essence (see Sec. + 3.8). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns + you, girl, troops, mother, teacher, and man in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see Sec. + 4.3.9). It should be noted that not all Ithkuil modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence She + chose to move to Australia, the verb chose signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the move to Australia + clause would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective but + would not be marked in the REPRESENTATIVE essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ithkuil modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.

    +

    There are 30 modalities in Ithkuil. Modality is marked by a + word-final vocalic suffix to a conflational or valence adjunct (see Secs. + 5.2 and 5.4). + In the absence of a conflational or valence adjunct, this vocalic suffix can + stand alone as an autonomous word, functioning as a modality adjunct. + The thirty modalities and their respective suffixes are described below.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.1
    DES
    		The Desiderative
    +
    +

    The DESIDERATIVE more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in The teacher wants the students to study hard. It is marked + by adding the suffix -a to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.2
    ASP
    		The Aspirative
    +
    +

    The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc. It is marked by adding the suffix -ü to a conflational + or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.3
    EPC
    		The Expectative
    +
    +

    The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in He expected her to be beautiful, + or I imagine he’s reached his destination. It is marked by adding + the suffix -ï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.4
    CRD
    		The Credential
    +
    +

    The CREDENTIAL corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in I think she has two sons, or + We believe the earth to be round. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as I think she’s pretty. It is marked by adding + the suffix -u to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.5
    REQ
    		The Requisitive
    +
    +

    The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in I request his presence at the banquet, + or I’d like you to visit your father. It is marked by adding + the suffix -â to a conflational or valence adjunct.
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.6
    EXH
    		The Exhortative
    +
    +

    The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in I demand you return my book + or Let the gates be opened! It is marked by adding the suffix -û + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.7
    OPR
    		The Opportunitive
    +
    +

    The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in Can we pass by our old house when we visit town? or + Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all. It + is marked by adding the suffix -ai to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.8
    CPC
    		The Capacitative
    +
    +

    The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in Can she sing opera? or He could run + like the wind. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in He speaks French like + a native [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so]. It is marked by adding the + suffix -ei to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.9
    PRM
    		The Permissive
    +
    +

    The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs can/could/be able or may/might where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert; or Could I talk to you? It is marked by adding the suffix + -oi to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.10
    PTN
    		The Potential
    +
    +

    The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area, or That man could fly into rages for no reason. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in It rains unpredictably in the Northwest. It is marked by adding + the suffix -ëi to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.11
    CLS
    		The Compulsory
    +
    +

    The COMPULSORY corresponds to the English + modal verbs must or have to/had to in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in You must get up now, or I had to attend the ceremony. + It is marked by adding the suffix -ui to a conflational or + valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.12
    OBG
    		The Obligative
    +
    +

    The OBLIGATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs should, ought to, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel, or It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns. It is marked by adding the suffix -iu + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.13
    IMS
    		The Impositive
    +
    +

    The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as be supposed to, be expected to, or be to + which impose an expectation upon a party, as in You’re supposed to + smile when introduced, or He is to give a speech at the banquet. + It is marked by adding the suffix -au to a conflational or + valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.14
    ADV
    		The Advocative
    +
    +

    The ADVOCATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as suggest that or propose that which advocate + a position, as in I suggest you study harder or They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere. It is marked by adding the + suffix -ia to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.15
    ITV
    		The Intentive
    +
    +

    The INTENTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as intend to, plan on or shall which + convey an intention, as in The girls plan on travelling to Europe, + or I shall see to it. It is marked by adding the suffix -ou + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.16
    ANT
    		The Anticipative
    +
    +

    The ANTICIPATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to look forward to or to eagerly await + which convey positive anticipation, as in We look forward to the clowns coming + to town. It is marked by addition of the suffix -eu to a conflational + or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.17
    DSP
    		The Dispositive
    +
    +

    The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English + expression to be willing to, conveying willingness as in He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns. It is marked by addition + of the suffix -äi to a conflational or valence adjunct. +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.18
    PRE
    		The Preparative
    +
    +

    The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English + expressions be ready to or be prepared to, indicating readiness, + as in She’s ready to host the party, or They are prepared + to endure harsh weather. It is marked by addition of the suffix -öi + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.19
    NEC
    		The Necessitative
    +
    +

    The NECESSITATIVE corresponds to the + English expressions need to or be necessary to, indicating + necessity, as in You need to do something about those clowns in the yard, + or It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities. It is marked + by addition of the suffix -ëu to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.20
    DEC
    		The Decisive
    +
    +

    The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in Peter decided to cook + breakfast or Colleen chose to visit the clowns. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -aï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.21
    PTV
    		The Proclivitive
    +
    +

    The PROCLIVITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as tend to, be apt to, or be prone to, indicating + tendency, as in The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs, or Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women. It is marked by addition + of the suffix -eï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.22
    VOL
    		The Voluntative
    +
    +

    The VOLUNTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as offer to or volunteer to, indicating an act of offering + as in The foreman offered to put poison in my beer, or Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -iï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.23
    ACC
    		The Accordative
    +
    +

    The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English + expression agree to, as in Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show. It is marked by addition of the suffix -oï + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.24
    INC
    		The Inclinative
    +
    +

    The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to feel like or be up for, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in He’s up for going to the shindig, + or Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake. It is marked by + addition of the suffix -öu to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.25
    CML
    		The Compulsive
    +
    +

    The COMPULSIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as feel driven to or feel a need to, indicating + compulsion, as in Jack feels driven to hunt wolverines, or My hairdresser + feels a need to date bikers. It is marked by addition of the suffix -uï + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.26
    DVR
    		The Divertive
    +
    +

    The DIVERTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as like to, or enjoy, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in Boys like to dream about cars, or My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump. It is marked by addition of the suffix + -äu to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.27
    DVT
    		The Devotive
    +
    +

    The DEVOTIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as be devoted to or be committed to, indicating devotion + as in Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town, + or They were devoted to rooting for the losing team. It is marked by + addition of the suffix -ëï to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.28
    PFT
    		The Preferential
    +
    +

    The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English + expressions such as prefer, or would rather that, indicating + preference as in He’d rather work by himself, or Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food. It is marked by addition of the suffix + -ua to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.29
    IPS
    		The Impressional
    +
    +

    The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English + expressions such as have an impression that, have a hunch that, or + feel that, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic, or Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -üa to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.30
    PMS
    		The Promissory
    +
    +

    The PROMISSORY corresponds to English + expressions such as promise, or swear that, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in She promised that her son would visit my daughter, + or Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient. It + is marked by addition of the suffix -iù to a conflational + or valence adjunct.

    +


    + 5.5.31 Examples of Modality in Use

    +
    +

    + _Listen! + +
    +
    +
    +

     

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +
    +

    5.6 LEVEL

    +

    Level corresponds roughly to what is known + as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate + degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -er and + -est seen in great-greater-greatest. Ithkuil incorporates + degrees of comparison morphologically into its valence scheme by means of tone + of the conflational adjunct (or valence or modality adjunct). Specifically, + the four tones are used to show four different comparisons, each of which is + termed a level of the verb. These levels are the INDETERMINATE, + EQUATIVE, SURPASSIVE and DEFICIENT, + and are explained below.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.6.1
    IDT
    		The Indeterminate
    +
    +

    Shown by low or falling tone of the conflational, valence or + modality adjunct. The INDETERMINATE is the default level + and indicates either 1) that no comparison is being made between the first party + and the second party, 2) that the degree of comparison between the first party + and the second party is unknown or irrelevant, or 3) that comparison is inapplicable + because the verb is monoactive (i.e., there is only one party participating).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.6.2
    EQU
    		The Equative
    +
    +

    Shown by high tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The EQUATIVE level indicates that the first party + performs its “half” of the action equally well in comparison to + the second party. It corresponds to the English construction ‘as [well] + as’ as in She sings as well as I do or He reads as fast as + you do.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.6.3
    SUR
    		The Surpassive
    +
    +

    Shown by rising tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The SURPASSIVE level indicates that the first + party manifests a state or performs an action to a greater degree or extent + than the second party. It functions equivalently to English -er as + in I ran farther than he. It also corresponds to the English verbal + prefix out- as in I out-sang him (i.e., I sang longer or better + than he), although the SURPASSIVE is more flexible than + the English construction, as it can be used with any of the thirteen valences + of the verb. For example, when used with the NONRELATIONAL + valence for a verb such as ‘laugh,’ it would translate something + like I laughed more/harder than anyone did anything else. It can even + be used with the MONOACTIVE valence, indicating that the + party performed the action superlatively and no one else did. For example, the + sentence I laughed in the MONOACTIVE valence + and SURPASSIVE level would translate as something like + I was the only one laughing and my laughter was superlative.

    +

    The SURPASSIVE can also be used to translate + the English -est superlative construction, as in She is the nicest + (of all) by simply naming a contextually universal second participant to + the verb, i.e., She “out-nices” everyone else.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.6.4
    DFT
    		The Deficient
    +
    +

    Shown by broken tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The DEFICIENT level corresponds roughly to the + negative comparative less in English as in This test is less difficult, + as well as the verbal prefix under- as in He under-performed tonight. + Like the other levels, it can be used with any valence of the Ithkuil verb to + indicate that the performance or state of the first participant to a co-active + verb is worse or less than that of the second participant. It would thus render + sentences corresponding to She “under-danced” tonight (i.e., + she didn’t dance as well as she might have) or The boy “under-weighs” + the girl (i.e., he weighs less than her).

    +


    + 5.6.5 Examples of Level in Use

    +
    +

    + __Listen! + +
    +
    +
     
    +

    +
    + + + + +
    +

    5.7 CASE-FRAME

    +
    +

    Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically + embedded within other sentences, a process termed subordination. + In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause + or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ + ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ + or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by + whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or + gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated + in the following sentences:

    +
    +

    The dog that ate my hat belongs to + them.
    + I want him to stop shouting.
    + The committee voted to fire the superintendant.
    + We demand (that) you give us equal pay.
    + Although he’s a college graduate, he acts like a child.
    + This is the slot through which the letter is passed.
    + In case you’re unaware, I’ll be leaving next + month.
    + The boy walking toward us is my nephew.

    +
    +

    The Ithkuil equivalent to relative or subordinate clauses is + known as a case-frame, or simply, frame. Conceptually, + the sentence to be embedded is simply treated as a noun participant to the main + verb of a sentence and is therefore marked for case like any other noun. For + example, take the following two sentences:

    + +
    +

    She and I were working together.
    + The two nations were at war.

    +
    +

    Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal + context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating + the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ + as in She and I were working together while the two nations were at war. + Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional + phrase, as in She and I were working together during the time (that) the + two nations were at war.

    +

    In Ithkuil, temporal context for a sentence may be provided + by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the CONCURSIVE + (see Sec. 4.9.1). A word + such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the + CONCURSIVE case to create a sentence corresponding to:

    +
    +

    She and I were working together during the summer.
    + She and I were working together at the time of the famine.

    +
    +

    Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ + are placed in the CONCURSIVE case, so an entire sentence + such as The two nations were at war can be placed in the CONCURSIVE + case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words, + Ithkuil treats the entire subordinate sentence as a noun phrase to be declined + into any required case. That is the purpose of a frame, to place sentences into + noun cases. By doing so, Ithkuil accomplishes the same task for which Western + languages use relative and subordinate conjunctions. In theory, any sentence + can be placed into any of the 81 cases and inserted into another sentence wherever + a simple noun might be placed in the sentence using that same case.

    +


    + 5.7.1 Placement of Frames

    +

    To construct a case-frame, the second-order sentence (i.e., + the sentence to be subordinated) is placed in the main sentence at the point + where a noun declined for the required case would appear. Unlike the usual verb-final + word order of main sentences in Ithkuil, a case-frame usually has its verb appear + as the first element of the case frame. This is to easily recognize the beginning + of the case frame. The actual case of the sentence is indicated in the verbal + formative in the same way as for nominal formatives, i.e., by mutation of the + stem vowel and mutation of the C2 radical consonant. Table + 17 below offers a review of these mutations for each of the 81 cases. If inserted + into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame should + be a noun (or a personal reference adjunct – see Sec. + 8.1) and carries a special affix which signifies the end of the frame if + this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside + the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main + sentence.

    +


    + Table 17: Case-Frame Markers + (Mutation by Vowel Series and C2 Grade)

    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    Case
    Series
    + & Grade
    1
    OBL
    		Oblique
    A1
    2
    ABS
    		Absolutive
    B1
    3
    DAT
    		Dative
    C1
    4
    ERG
    		Ergative
    D1
    5
    EFF
    		Effectuative
    E1
    6
    IND
    		Inducive
    F1
    7
    AFF
    		Affective
    G1
    8
    INS
    		Instrumental
    H1
    9
    ACT
    		Activative
    J1
    10
    DER
    		Derivative
    H2
    11
    SIT
    		Situative
    J2
    12
    POS
    		Possessive
    A2
    13
    PRP
    		Proprietive
    B2
    14
    GEN
    		Genitive
    C2
    15
    ATT
    		Attributive
    D2
    16
    OGN
    		Originative
    E2
    17
    PDC
    		Productive
    F2
    18
    ITP
    		Interpretative
    G2
    19
    APL
    		Applicative
    A3
    20
    PUR
    		Purposive
    B3
    21
    INH
    		Inherent
    C3
    22
    CNV
    		Conductive
    D3
    23
    MED
    		Mediative
    E3
    24
    CRS
    		Contrastive
    F3
    25
    PAR
    		Partitive
    G3
    26
    CPS
    		Compositive
    H3
    27
    COR
    		Correlative
    J3
    28
    IDP
    		Interdependent
    J4
    29
    PRD
    		Predicative
    J5
    30
    ESS
    		Essive
    A4
    31
    ASI
    		Assimilative
    B4
    32
    FUN
    		Functive
    C4
    33
    TFM
    		Transformative
    D4
    34
    REF
    		Referential
    E4
    35
    CSD
    		Considerative
    F4
    36
    CLA
    		Classificative
    G4
    37
    DFR
    		Deferential
    H4
    38
    COM
    		Comitative
    A6
    39
    CNJ
    		Conjunctive
    B6
    40
    UTL
    		Utilitative
    C6
    +     		+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    Case
    Series
    + & Grade
    41
    BEN
    		Benefactive
    D6
    42
    TSP
    		Transpositive
    E6
    43
    CMM
    		Commutative
    F6
    44
    ABE
    		Abessive
    A5
    45
    CVS
    		Conversive
    B5
    46
    CON
    		Concessive
    C5
    47
    EXC
    		Exceptive
    D5
    48
    AVS
    		Adversative
    E5
    49
    PVS
    		Provisional
    F5
    50
    PTL
    		Postulative
    G5
    51
    SUP
    		Suppositive
    H5
    52
    DEP
    		Dependent
    G6
    53
    CMP
    		Comparative
    H6
    54
    AVR
    		Aversive
    J6
    55
    LOC
    		Locative
    A7
    56
    ORI
    		Orientative
    B7
    57
    PSV
    		Procursive
    C7
    58
    ALL
    		Allative
    D7
    59
    ABL
    		Ablative
    E7
    60
    PLT
    		Prolative
    F7
    61
    PEL
    		Perlative
    G7
    62
    PRV
    		Pervasive
    H7
    63
    PRH
    		Peripheral
    J7
    64
    INT
    		Integral
    G9
    65
    PSN
    		Positional
    H9
    66
    NAV
    		Navigative
    J9
    67
    CNR
    		Concursive
    A8
    68
    ACS
    		Accessive
    B8
    69
    DFF
    		Diffusive
    C8
    70
    PER
    		Periodic
    D8
    71
    PRO
    		Prolapsive
    E8
    72
    PCV
    		Precursive
    F8
    73
    PCR
    		Postcursive
    G8
    74
    ELP
    		Elapsive
    H8
    75
    ALP
    		Allapsive
    J8
    76
    INP
    		Interpolative
    A9
    77
    EPS
    		Episodic
    B9
    78
    PRL
    		Prolimitive
    C9
    79
    SML
    		Simultaneitive
    D9
    80
    ASS
    		Assessive
    E9
    81
    LIM
    		Limitative
    F9
    +
    +

    In general, the perspective of the verb in + the secondary sentence operates independently from that of the main verb, however, + it is also common for the perspective of the verb in the secondary sentence + to be placed in the ABSTRACT, which has the effect of + deferring all Perspective + information about the verb to the main verb, similarly to the way English subordinate + clauses using gerunds and infinitives defer all tense information to the main + verb of the sentence.

    +

    Here is an example Ithkuil sentence containing a case frame:

    +
    +

    + _Listen! + +
    +
    +
     
    +

    5.7.2 Reinterpreting the Notion of a Relative Clause

    +

    There is no direct equivalent in Ithkuil to the relative clauses + of Western languages. Ithkuil treats such clauses the same as subordinate clauses + using case-frames as described above. However, the manner in which this is done, + while ultimately logical, is somewhat complex and confusing from a Western perspective. + Therefore, to analyze how Ithkuil reinterprets Western relative clauses into + subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative + clauses in Western languages such as English.

    +

    A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies + or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types + of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent). + The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.

    +

    RESTRICTED CLAUSE
    + (1) Lions that like chasing their tails can be seen at + any circus.
    + (2) That book (that) I just finished reading was written + by a priest.

    +

    UNRESTRICTED CLAUSE
    + (3) Lions, which like chasing their tails, can be seen + at any circus.
    + (4) That book, which I just finished reading, was written + by a priest.

    +

    In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing + their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, + not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just + finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered + by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked + about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the + speaker was referring to.

    +

    Note the difference in meaning, however, when comparing the + first two sentences to the third and fourth sentences. In the third sentence, + the speaker implies that all lions chase their tails regardless of whether they + are in the circus. In the fourth sentence, the identity of the book is already + known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts + about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author. + Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing + by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ + or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in + a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immediately before and + after the clause.

    +


    + 5.7.2.1 Restricted Clauses. Ithkuil treats the above notions + about relative clauses in a different way. We will first analyze how Ithkuil + creates equivalents to restricted relative clauses. This can best be approached + by analyzing the underlying sentences which give rise to the main and relative + clauses. Analyzing Sentence No. 2 above, it can be broken up into two discrete + sentences:

    +

    That book was written by a priest. (= A priest wrote that + book.)
    + I just finished reading that book.

    +

    In Ithkuil, the sentence which will be functioning as the + main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence + is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on + what semantic role, i.e., case (see Chapter + 4) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference + of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that + book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See Sec. + 4.1.2), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the ABSOLUTIVE + subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template + ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the OBLIQUE + case (See Section 4.3.1). + Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the common point of + reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of + the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have + the two sentences as:

    +
    +

    A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-H. +

    +
    +

    The ‘-H’ in the second sentence + above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common + reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ithkuil inserts the + second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the + semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked + by the OBLIQUE case (see Sec. + 4.3.1).

    +
    +

    A priest wrote [OBL]. I just finish + reading that book-H.

    +
    +

    As described in Sec. 5.7.1, the verb + of the secondary sentence is moved to the beginning of the case-frame and takes + the relevant case marker (OBLIQUE).

    +
    +

    A priest wrote I just finished reading-OBL + that book-H.

    +
    +

    Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest + literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: A priest wrote + what I just finished reading, that book. However, this is how Ithkuil translates + the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’

    +

    Two observations can be noted from the Ithkuil sentence. First + of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” + Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, + there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types + of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged + (or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence, + the exact same way that subordinate clauses are constructed in Ithkuil. Therefore, + as was previously stated, Ithkuil makes no distinction between subordinate and + relative clauses.

    +

    Similarly, the other example sentence from above, Lions + that like chasing their tails can be seen at any circus would become in + Ithkuil: At any circus one can see certain lions-H + like to chase-OBL their tails. A literal + translation into English would be: At any circus one can see (that) certain + lions like chasing their tails.

    +


    + 5.7.2.2 Unrestricted Clauses. As for independent or unrestricted + clauses, as shown in example sentences (3) and (4) earlier, Ithkuil treats these + differently still. In Western languages, an unrestricted clause does not help + to identify a noun or provide a context for it, but simply adds additional information + about an already identified noun. Thus, unrestricted relative clauses serve + a wholly different cognitive-semantic purpose than restricted clauses, a fact + hidden by their nearly identical surface structures. Ithkuil acknowledges this + profound difference at the overt sentence level by not subordinating any clause + at all. Rather, the two sentences are given co-equal status as main clauses + and simply joined by a coordinating affix. Thus sentences (3) and (4) from earlier + become:

    +
    +

    One can see lions at any circus and they like chasing + their tails.
    + A priest wrote that book and I just finished reading it.

    +
    +


    + 5.7.2.3 Use of the INHERENT Case In Lieu of Simple + Relative Clauses. In Section + 4.5.3 we analyzed how MONADIC or UNBOUNDED + nouns in the INHERENT case take on a special function + of existential identification corresponding to the English phrase ‘that/which/who + is/are…’ to render forms structured as “the my-wife woman,” + meaning ‘the woman who is my wife.” This construction allows a “short-cut” + way of rendering what in English would be simple relative clauses involving + descriptive identifications, eliminating the need in most cases to resort to + a case-frame. For example, the sentence The man who came to dinner is my + father is rendered as The “my-father” man came to dinner, + where the noun father would be in the INHERENT plus POSITIVE + focus (see Sec. + 3.5) to indicate that it is the new information being conveyed by the speaker, + i.e., to distinguish it from the reversed focus of The man who is my father + came to dinner.

    +


    + 5.7.3 Examples of Case-Frames in Use
    +
    +
    + _Listen! + +
    +

    +

    +

     

    +
    + +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ddae21 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,1598 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 5 (Continued): Verb Morphology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 5 (continued): Verb Morphology

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + +
    5.5 Modality
    5.6 Level
    5.7 Case-Frame
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + +

    5.5 MODALITY

    +
    +

    Modality corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., can, may, must, should, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as to want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that, etc. However, + in Ithkuil, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see Sec. + 3.8) and the Perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the ACTIVATIVE + case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. + 4.3.9). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows:

    +

    As we saw in Sections + 3.8 and 4.3.9, + it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the + psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in + the following sentences.

    +
    +

    1) You must come home at once.
    + 2) That girl can sing better than anybody.
    + 3) Our troops should attack at dawn.
    + 4) Mother needs you to come with her.
    + 5) The teacher requests that I dance for you.
    + 6) The man believes clowns are dangerous.

    +
    +

    Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.

    +

    Because the clauses following the verbs must, can, should, + need, request, believe, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see Sec. + 3.4) and the REPRESENTATIVE essence (see Sec. + 3.8). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns + you, girl, troops, mother, teacher, and man in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see Sec. + 4.3.9). It should be noted that not all Ithkuil modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence She + chose to move to Australia, the verb chose signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the move to Australia + clause would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective but + would not be marked in the REPRESENTATIVE essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ithkuil modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.

    +

    There are 30 modalities in Ithkuil. Modality is marked by a + word-final vocalic suffix to a conflational or valence adjunct (see Secs. + 5.2 and 5.4). + In the absence of a conflational or valence adjunct, this vocalic suffix can + stand alone as an autonomous word, functioning as a modality adjunct. + The thirty modalities and their respective suffixes are described below.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.1
    DES
    		The Desiderative
    +
    +

    The DESIDERATIVE more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in The teacher wants the students to study hard. It is marked + by adding the suffix -a to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.2
    ASP
    		The Aspirative
    +
    +

    The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc. It is marked by adding the suffix -ü to a conflational + or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.3
    EPC
    		The Expectative
    +
    +

    The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in He expected her to be beautiful, + or I imagine he’s reached his destination. It is marked by adding + the suffix -ï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.4
    CRD
    		The Credential
    +
    +

    The CREDENTIAL corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in I think she has two sons, or + We believe the earth to be round. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as I think she’s pretty. It is marked by adding + the suffix -u to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.5
    REQ
    		The Requisitive
    +
    +

    The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in I request his presence at the banquet, + or I’d like you to visit your father. It is marked by adding + the suffix -â to a conflational or valence adjunct.
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.6
    EXH
    		The Exhortative
    +
    +

    The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in I demand you return my book + or Let the gates be opened! It is marked by adding the suffix -û + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.7
    OPR
    		The Opportunitive
    +
    +

    The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in Can we pass by our old house when we visit town? or + Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all. It + is marked by adding the suffix -ai to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.8
    CPC
    		The Capacitative
    +
    +

    The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in Can she sing opera? or He could run + like the wind. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in He speaks French like + a native [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so]. It is marked by adding the + suffix -ei to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.9
    PRM
    		The Permissive
    +
    +

    The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs can/could/be able or may/might where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert; or Could I talk to you? It is marked by adding the suffix + -oi to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.10
    PTN
    		The Potential
    +
    +

    The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area, or That man could fly into rages for no reason. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in It rains unpredictably in the Northwest. It is marked by adding + the suffix -ëi to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.11
    CLS
    		The Compulsory
    +
    +

    The COMPULSORY corresponds to the English + modal verbs must or have to/had to in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in You must get up now, or I had to attend the ceremony. + It is marked by adding the suffix -ui to a conflational or + valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.12
    OBG
    		The Obligative
    +
    +

    The OBLIGATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs should, ought to, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel, or It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns. It is marked by adding the suffix -iu + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.13
    IMS
    		The Impositive
    +
    +

    The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as be supposed to, be expected to, or be to + which impose an expectation upon a party, as in You’re supposed to + smile when introduced, or He is to give a speech at the banquet. + It is marked by adding the suffix -au to a conflational or + valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.14
    ADV
    		The Advocative
    +
    +

    The ADVOCATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as suggest that or propose that which advocate + a position, as in I suggest you study harder or They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere. It is marked by adding the + suffix -ia to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.15
    ITV
    		The Intentive
    +
    +

    The INTENTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as intend to, plan on or shall which + convey an intention, as in The girls plan on travelling to Europe, + or I shall see to it. It is marked by adding the suffix -ou + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.16
    ANT
    		The Anticipative
    +
    +

    The ANTICIPATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to look forward to or to eagerly await + which convey positive anticipation, as in We look forward to the clowns coming + to town. It is marked by addition of the suffix -eu to a conflational + or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.17
    DSP
    		The Dispositive
    +
    +

    The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English + expression to be willing to, conveying willingness as in He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns. It is marked by addition + of the suffix -äi to a conflational or valence adjunct. +

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.18
    PRE
    		The Preparative
    +
    +

    The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English + expressions be ready to or be prepared to, indicating readiness, + as in She’s ready to host the party, or They are prepared + to endure harsh weather. It is marked by addition of the suffix -öi + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.19
    NEC
    		The Necessitative
    +
    +

    The NECESSITATIVE corresponds to the + English expressions need to or be necessary to, indicating + necessity, as in You need to do something about those clowns in the yard, + or It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities. It is marked + by addition of the suffix -ëu to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.20
    DEC
    		The Decisive
    +
    +

    The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in Peter decided to cook + breakfast or Colleen chose to visit the clowns. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -aï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.21
    PTV
    		The Proclivitive
    +
    +

    The PROCLIVITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as tend to, be apt to, or be prone to, indicating + tendency, as in The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs, or Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women. It is marked by addition + of the suffix -eï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.22
    VOL
    		The Voluntative
    +
    +

    The VOLUNTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as offer to or volunteer to, indicating an act of offering + as in The foreman offered to put poison in my beer, or Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -iï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.23
    ACC
    		The Accordative
    +
    +

    The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English + expression agree to, as in Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show. It is marked by addition of the suffix -oï + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.24
    INC
    		The Inclinative
    +
    +

    The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to feel like or be up for, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in He’s up for going to the shindig, + or Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake. It is marked by + addition of the suffix -öu to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.25
    CML
    		The Compulsive
    +
    +

    The COMPULSIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as feel driven to or feel a need to, indicating + compulsion, as in Jack feels driven to hunt wolverines, or My hairdresser + feels a need to date bikers. It is marked by addition of the suffix -uï + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.26
    DVR
    		The Divertive
    +
    +

    The DIVERTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as like to, or enjoy, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in Boys like to dream about cars, or My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump. It is marked by addition of the suffix + -äu to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.27
    DVT
    		The Devotive
    +
    +

    The DEVOTIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as be devoted to or be committed to, indicating devotion + as in Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town, + or They were devoted to rooting for the losing team. It is marked by + addition of the suffix -ëï to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.28
    PFT
    		The Preferential
    +
    +

    The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English + expressions such as prefer, or would rather that, indicating + preference as in He’d rather work by himself, or Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food. It is marked by addition of the suffix + -ua to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.29
    IPS
    		The Impressional
    +
    +

    The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English + expressions such as have an impression that, have a hunch that, or + feel that, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic, or Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -üa to a conflational or valence adjunct.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.5.30
    PMS
    		The Promissory
    +
    +

    The PROMISSORY corresponds to English + expressions such as promise, or swear that, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in She promised that her son would visit my daughter, + or Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient. It + is marked by addition of the suffix -iù to a conflational + or valence adjunct.

    +


    + 5.5.31 Examples of Modality in Use

    +
    +

    + _Listen! + +
    +
    +
    +

     

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +
    +

    5.6 LEVEL

    +

    Level corresponds roughly to what is known + as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate + degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -er and + -est seen in great-greater-greatest. Ithkuil incorporates + degrees of comparison morphologically into its valence scheme by means of tone + of the conflational adjunct (or valence or modality adjunct). Specifically, + the four tones are used to show four different comparisons, each of which is + termed a level of the verb. These levels are the INDETERMINATE, + EQUATIVE, SURPASSIVE and DEFICIENT, + and are explained below.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.6.1
    IDT
    		The Indeterminate
    +
    +

    Shown by low or falling tone of the conflational, valence or + modality adjunct. The INDETERMINATE is the default level + and indicates either 1) that no comparison is being made between the first party + and the second party, 2) that the degree of comparison between the first party + and the second party is unknown or irrelevant, or 3) that comparison is inapplicable + because the verb is monoactive (i.e., there is only one party participating).

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.6.2
    EQU
    		The Equative
    +
    +

    Shown by high tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The EQUATIVE level indicates that the first party + performs its “half” of the action equally well in comparison to + the second party. It corresponds to the English construction ‘as [well] + as’ as in She sings as well as I do or He reads as fast as + you do.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.6.3
    SUR
    		The Surpassive
    +
    +

    Shown by rising tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The SURPASSIVE level indicates that the first + party manifests a state or performs an action to a greater degree or extent + than the second party. It functions equivalently to English -er as + in I ran farther than he. It also corresponds to the English verbal + prefix out- as in I out-sang him (i.e., I sang longer or better + than he), although the SURPASSIVE is more flexible than + the English construction, as it can be used with any of the thirteen valences + of the verb. For example, when used with the NONRELATIONAL + valence for a verb such as ‘laugh,’ it would translate something + like I laughed more/harder than anyone did anything else. It can even + be used with the MONOACTIVE valence, indicating that the + party performed the action superlatively and no one else did. For example, the + sentence I laughed in the MONOACTIVE valence + and SURPASSIVE level would translate as something like + I was the only one laughing and my laughter was superlative.

    +

    The SURPASSIVE can also be used to translate + the English -est superlative construction, as in She is the nicest + (of all) by simply naming a contextually universal second participant to + the verb, i.e., She “out-nices” everyone else.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    5.6.4
    DFT
    		The Deficient
    +
    +

    Shown by broken tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The DEFICIENT level corresponds roughly to the + negative comparative less in English as in This test is less difficult, + as well as the verbal prefix under- as in He under-performed tonight. + Like the other levels, it can be used with any valence of the Ithkuil verb to + indicate that the performance or state of the first participant to a co-active + verb is worse or less than that of the second participant. It would thus render + sentences corresponding to She “under-danced” tonight (i.e., + she didn’t dance as well as she might have) or The boy “under-weighs” + the girl (i.e., he weighs less than her).

    +


    + 5.6.5 Examples of Level in Use

    +
    +

    + __Listen! + +
    +
    +
     
    +

    +
    + + + + +
    +

    5.7 CASE-FRAME

    +
    +

    Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically + embedded within other sentences, a process termed subordination. + In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause + or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ + ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ + or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by + whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or + gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated + in the following sentences:

    +
    +

    The dog that ate my hat belongs to + them.
    + I want him to stop shouting.
    + The committee voted to fire the superintendant.
    + We demand (that) you give us equal pay.
    + Although he’s a college graduate, he acts like a child.
    + This is the slot through which the letter is passed.
    + In case you’re unaware, I’ll be leaving next + month.
    + The boy walking toward us is my nephew.

    +
    +

    The Ithkuil equivalent to relative or subordinate clauses is + known as a case-frame, or simply, frame. Conceptually, + the sentence to be embedded is simply treated as a noun participant to the main + verb of a sentence and is therefore marked for case like any other noun. For + example, take the following two sentences:

    + +
    +

    She and I were working together.
    + The two nations were at war.

    +
    +

    Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal + context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating + the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ + as in She and I were working together while the two nations were at war. + Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional + phrase, as in She and I were working together during the time (that) the + two nations were at war.

    +

    In Ithkuil, temporal context for a sentence may be provided + by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the CONCURSIVE + (see Sec. 4.9.1). A word + such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the + CONCURSIVE case to create a sentence corresponding to:

    +
    +

    She and I were working together during the summer.
    + She and I were working together at the time of the famine.

    +
    +

    Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ + are placed in the CONCURSIVE case, so an entire sentence + such as The two nations were at war can be placed in the CONCURSIVE + case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words, + Ithkuil treats the entire subordinate sentence as a noun phrase to be declined + into any required case. That is the purpose of a frame, to place sentences into + noun cases. By doing so, Ithkuil accomplishes the same task for which Western + languages use relative and subordinate conjunctions. In theory, any sentence + can be placed into any of the 81 cases and inserted into another sentence wherever + a simple noun might be placed in the sentence using that same case.

    +


    + 5.7.1 Placement of Frames

    +

    To construct a case-frame, the second-order sentence (i.e., + the sentence to be subordinated) is placed in the main sentence at the point + where a noun declined for the required case would appear. Unlike the usual verb-final + word order of main sentences in Ithkuil, a case-frame usually has its verb appear + as the first element of the case frame. This is to easily recognize the beginning + of the case frame. The actual case of the sentence is indicated in the verbal + formative in the same way as for nominal formatives, i.e., by mutation of the + stem vowel and mutation of the C2 radical consonant. Table + 17 below offers a review of these mutations for each of the 81 cases. If inserted + into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame should + be a noun (or a personal reference adjunct – see Sec. + 8.1) and carries a special affix which signifies the end of the frame if + this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside + the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main + sentence.

    +


    + Table 17: Case-Frame Markers + (Mutation by Vowel Series and C2 Grade)

    + + + + + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    Case
    Series
    + & Grade
    1
    OBL
    		Oblique
    A1
    2
    ABS
    		Absolutive
    B1
    3
    DAT
    		Dative
    C1
    4
    ERG
    		Ergative
    D1
    5
    EFF
    		Effectuative
    E1
    6
    IND
    		Inducive
    F1
    7
    AFF
    		Affective
    G1
    8
    INS
    		Instrumental
    H1
    9
    ACT
    		Activative
    J1
    10
    DER
    		Derivative
    H2
    11
    SIT
    		Situative
    J2
    12
    POS
    		Possessive
    A2
    13
    PRP
    		Proprietive
    B2
    14
    GEN
    		Genitive
    C2
    15
    ATT
    		Attributive
    D2
    16
    OGN
    		Originative
    E2
    17
    PDC
    		Productive
    F2
    18
    ITP
    		Interpretative
    G2
    19
    APL
    		Applicative
    A3
    20
    PUR
    		Purposive
    B3
    21
    INH
    		Inherent
    C3
    22
    CNV
    		Conductive
    D3
    23
    MED
    		Mediative
    E3
    24
    CRS
    		Contrastive
    F3
    25
    PAR
    		Partitive
    G3
    26
    CPS
    		Compositive
    H3
    27
    COR
    		Correlative
    J3
    28
    IDP
    		Interdependent
    J4
    29
    PRD
    		Predicative
    J5
    30
    ESS
    		Essive
    A4
    31
    ASI
    		Assimilative
    B4
    32
    FUN
    		Functive
    C4
    33
    TFM
    		Transformative
    D4
    34
    REF
    		Referential
    E4
    35
    CSD
    		Considerative
    F4
    36
    CLA
    		Classificative
    G4
    37
    DFR
    		Deferential
    H4
    38
    COM
    		Comitative
    A6
    39
    CNJ
    		Conjunctive
    B6
    40
    UTL
    		Utilitative
    C6
    +     		+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Label
    Case
    Series
    + & Grade
    41
    BEN
    		Benefactive
    D6
    42
    TSP
    		Transpositive
    E6
    43
    CMM
    		Commutative
    F6
    44
    ABE
    		Abessive
    A5
    45
    CVS
    		Conversive
    B5
    46
    CON
    		Concessive
    C5
    47
    EXC
    		Exceptive
    D5
    48
    AVS
    		Adversative
    E5
    49
    PVS
    		Provisional
    F5
    50
    PTL
    		Postulative
    G5
    51
    SUP
    		Suppositive
    H5
    52
    DEP
    		Dependent
    G6
    53
    CMP
    		Comparative
    H6
    54
    AVR
    		Aversive
    J6
    55
    LOC
    		Locative
    A7
    56
    ORI
    		Orientative
    B7
    57
    PSV
    		Procursive
    C7
    58
    ALL
    		Allative
    D7
    59
    ABL
    		Ablative
    E7
    60
    PLT
    		Prolative
    F7
    61
    PEL
    		Perlative
    G7
    62
    PRV
    		Pervasive
    H7
    63
    PRH
    		Peripheral
    J7
    64
    INT
    		Integral
    G9
    65
    PSN
    		Positional
    H9
    66
    NAV
    		Navigative
    J9
    67
    CNR
    		Concursive
    A8
    68
    ACS
    		Accessive
    B8
    69
    DFF
    		Diffusive
    C8
    70
    PER
    		Periodic
    D8
    71
    PRO
    		Prolapsive
    E8
    72
    PCV
    		Precursive
    F8
    73
    PCR
    		Postcursive
    G8
    74
    ELP
    		Elapsive
    H8
    75
    ALP
    		Allapsive
    J8
    76
    INP
    		Interpolative
    A9
    77
    EPS
    		Episodic
    B9
    78
    PRL
    		Prolimitive
    C9
    79
    SML
    		Simultaneitive
    D9
    80
    ASS
    		Assessive
    E9
    81
    LIM
    		Limitative
    F9
    +
    +

    In general, the perspective of the verb in + the secondary sentence operates independently from that of the main verb, however, + it is also common for the perspective of the verb in the secondary sentence + to be placed in the ABSTRACT, which has the effect of + deferring all Perspective + information about the verb to the main verb, similarly to the way English subordinate + clauses using gerunds and infinitives defer all tense information to the main + verb of the sentence.

    +

    Here is an example Ithkuil sentence containing a case frame:

    +
    +

    + _Listen! + +
    +
    +
     
    +

    5.7.2 Reinterpreting the Notion of a Relative Clause

    +

    There is no direct equivalent in Ithkuil to the relative clauses + of Western languages. Ithkuil treats such clauses the same as subordinate clauses + using case-frames as described above. However, the manner in which this is done, + while ultimately logical, is somewhat complex and confusing from a Western perspective. + Therefore, to analyze how Ithkuil reinterprets Western relative clauses into + subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative + clauses in Western languages such as English.

    +

    A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies + or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types + of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent). + The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.

    +

    RESTRICTED CLAUSE
    + (1) Lions that like chasing their tails can be seen at + any circus.
    + (2) That book (that) I just finished reading was written + by a priest.

    +

    UNRESTRICTED CLAUSE
    + (3) Lions, which like chasing their tails, can be seen + at any circus.
    + (4) That book, which I just finished reading, was written + by a priest.

    +

    In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing + their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, + not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just + finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered + by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked + about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the + speaker was referring to.

    +

    Note the difference in meaning, however, when comparing the + first two sentences to the third and fourth sentences. In the third sentence, + the speaker implies that all lions chase their tails regardless of whether they + are in the circus. In the fourth sentence, the identity of the book is already + known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts + about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author. + Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing + by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ + or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in + a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immediately before and + after the clause.

    +


    + 5.7.2.1 Restricted Clauses. Ithkuil treats the above notions + about relative clauses in a different way. We will first analyze how Ithkuil + creates equivalents to restricted relative clauses. This can best be approached + by analyzing the underlying sentences which give rise to the main and relative + clauses. Analyzing Sentence No. 2 above, it can be broken up into two discrete + sentences:

    +

    That book was written by a priest. (= A priest wrote that + book.)
    + I just finished reading that book.

    +

    In Ithkuil, the sentence which will be functioning as the + main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence + is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on + what semantic role, i.e., case (see Chapter + 4) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference + of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that + book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See Sec. + 4.1.2), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the ABSOLUTIVE + subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template + ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the OBLIQUE + case (See Section 4.3.1). + Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the common point of + reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of + the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have + the two sentences as:

    +
    +

    A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-H. +

    +
    +

    The ‘-H’ in the second sentence + above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common + reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ithkuil inserts the + second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the + semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked + by the OBLIQUE case (see Sec. + 4.3.1).

    +
    +

    A priest wrote [OBL]. I just finish + reading that book-H.

    +
    +

    As described in Sec. 5.7.1, the verb + of the secondary sentence is moved to the beginning of the case-frame and takes + the relevant case marker (OBLIQUE).

    +
    +

    A priest wrote I just finished reading-OBL + that book-H.

    +
    +

    Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest + literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: A priest wrote + what I just finished reading, that book. However, this is how Ithkuil translates + the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’

    +

    Two observations can be noted from the Ithkuil sentence. First + of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” + Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, + there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types + of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged + (or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence, + the exact same way that subordinate clauses are constructed in Ithkuil. Therefore, + as was previously stated, Ithkuil makes no distinction between subordinate and + relative clauses.

    +

    Similarly, the other example sentence from above, Lions + that like chasing their tails can be seen at any circus would become in + Ithkuil: At any circus one can see certain lions-H + like to chase-OBL their tails. A literal + translation into English would be: At any circus one can see (that) certain + lions like chasing their tails.

    +


    + 5.7.2.2 Unrestricted Clauses. As for independent or unrestricted + clauses, as shown in example sentences (3) and (4) earlier, Ithkuil treats these + differently still. In Western languages, an unrestricted clause does not help + to identify a noun or provide a context for it, but simply adds additional information + about an already identified noun. Thus, unrestricted relative clauses serve + a wholly different cognitive-semantic purpose than restricted clauses, a fact + hidden by their nearly identical surface structures. Ithkuil acknowledges this + profound difference at the overt sentence level by not subordinating any clause + at all. Rather, the two sentences are given co-equal status as main clauses + and simply joined by a coordinating affix. Thus sentences (3) and (4) from earlier + become:

    +
    +

    One can see lions at any circus and they like chasing + their tails.
    + A priest wrote that book and I just finished reading it.

    +
    +


    + 5.7.2.3 Use of the INHERENT Case In Lieu of Simple + Relative Clauses. In Section + 4.5.3 we analyzed how MONADIC or UNBOUNDED + nouns in the INHERENT case take on a special function + of existential identification corresponding to the English phrase ‘that/which/who + is/are…’ to render forms structured as “the my-wife woman,” + meaning ‘the woman who is my wife.” This construction allows a “short-cut” + way of rendering what in English would be simple relative clauses involving + descriptive identifications, eliminating the need in most cases to resort to + a case-frame. For example, the sentence The man who came to dinner is my + father is rendered as The “my-father” man came to dinner, + where the noun father would be in the INHERENT plus POSITIVE + focus (see Sec. + 3.5) to indicate that it is the new information being conveyed by the speaker, + i.e., to distinguish it from the reversed focus of The man who is my father + came to dinner.

    +


    + 5.7.3 Examples of Case-Frames in Use
    +
    +
    + _Listen! + +
    +

    +

    +

     

    +
    + +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8602e3d --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2007 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology

    + +

    In this chapter, we examine six additional morphological categories + which apply to verbal formatives: Validation, Phase, Sanction, Aspect, + Mood and Bias. Like the categories of Valence, Version, + Conflation/Derivation, Format, Modality and Level in the previous chapter, these + six categories are manifested within the morpho-phonological structure of a + specialized adjunct, in this instance called an aspectual adjunct. +

    +

    The structure of an aspectual adjunct is (CB-)VA-CX-(VS-(CB)) + where VA and Vs are + vocalic affixes indicating aspect, Cx is a consonantal infix + indicating validation, phase and sanction, and CB + is an optional consonantal prefix or suffix indicating Bias. Mood is indicated + by the tone and stress pattern of the adjunct as a whole. VA + represents either a single vowel, diphthong, or dissyllabic two-vowel combination + (e.g., -ia-, -ua-); and Cx represents a single- or dual-consonant + conjunct (e.g., -k-, -tt-, + -šp-). Not all parts of this archetypical structure may + manifest themselves in any given aspectual adjunct. For example, some adjuncts + may show only aspect or mood, some show validation or phase only, or any combination + of these categories. These variations are described below.

    +
    +
      +
    1. If an aspectual adjunct is being used to show Validation, Phase, and Sanction + only (i.e., it is not showing Aspect), it takes the form a + Cx + (+ a), where Cx represents a single, geminate, + or biconsonantal consonantal form as described above. The a- + prefix distinguishes the word as an aspectual adjunct, and the (+ + a) suffix is present if necessary to comply with Ithkuil phonological + constraints (see Sec. 1.4.1). + There are 81 Cx affix representing a combination of one + of nine validations with one of nine phases, each of which in turn mutates + into eight additional forms depending on which of nine sanctions applies + to the associated verb (see Sec. 6.3 below on Sanction). + These affixes are shown in Table 18 below. Examples. ar, + ac, axx, aks, akká, amra.
      +
      2. +
    2. If an aspectual adjunct shows a single aspect, it takes the form VA + + Cx (+ a), where Va is the vocalic aspectual prefix followed by + the consonantal Cx affix (i.e., the validation-phase-sanction + affix). Examples: eur, + oks, iakka.
      +
      3. +
    3. If an aspectual adjunct shows two aspects, it takes the form VA + + Cx + Vs, that is two aspectual vowel forms, the first in as a + prefix, the second as a suffix, separated by the validation-phase-sanction + consonantal affix. Examples: eurai, + òksëi, iakkua.
      4. +
    +
    +

    Having explained the structure of the aspectual adjunct, we + now turn to an explanation of the six morphological categories it manifests.

    + +

     

    + + + + +
    6.1 VALIDATION +
    +

    Technically, Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. However, Validation imparts more than + simply the evidential verifiability of a statement; it also operates in conjunction + with Mood (see Section 6.5 below) to indicate the precise + factuality of a statement, i.e., to what extent it is likely or certain that + the statement is, in fact, valid or real. We will see that Ithkuil moods generally + indicate the factuality of a statement as being either certain or uncertain. + Validation in turn “fine tunes” this distinction into levels of + nuance, corresponding to various English phrases which convey the specific validity + of a statement, e.g., “must be so, likely that, unlikely, perhaps, supposedly, + presumably, apparently” etc. The nine validations are CONFIRMATIVE, + REPORTIVE, INTUITIVE, INFERENTIAL, PRESUMPTIVE, CONJECTURAL, TENTATIVE, PUTATIVE + and HORTATIVE. As explained above, they are shown in conjunction + with the categories of Phase and Sanction (see Secs. 6.2 + and 6.3 below) by means of the Cx consonantal affix to + an aspectual adjunct. The values for these infixes are shown in the tables below. + The specific usage of each validation is explained following the tables.

    +


    + Tables + 18 (a – + i): Cx Affixes By Validation, Phase and Sanction

    +


    + Table 18(a): Cx Affixes for + the Confirmative Validation

    +

    +


    + Table 18(b): Cx Affixes for the Reportive Validation

    +

    +


    + Table 18(c): Cx Affixes for the Intuitive Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(d): Cx Affixes for + the Inferential Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(e): Cx Affixes for + the Presumptive Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(f): Cx Affixes for + the Conjectural Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(g): Cx Affixes for + the Tentative Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(h): Cx Affixes for + the Putative Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(i): Cx Affixes for + the Hortative Validation

    +

    +

    The nine validations are explained as follows:
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.1
    CNF
    		The Confirmative
    +
    +

    The CONFIRMATIVE indicates that a statement + is based on facts actually perceived by and/or personally known to the speaker. + It can be considered the “default” validation, in that it can be + unmarked (i.e., the aspectual adjunct can be deleted) if the other categories + shown by the adjunct are likewise in their default modes and there is no aspect + being conveyed.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.2
    RPT
    		The Reportive
    +
    +

    The REPORTIVE validation indicates that + the statement, while not personally known or perceived by the speaker, is assumed + true based on evidence considered trustworthy by the speaker, such as direct + testimony of a trusted party or knowledgeable source based on that party’s + or source’s personal knowledge or observation. If necessary, this degree + of factivity can be translated into English by the terms ‘most likely’ + or ‘probably.’
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.3
    ITU
    		The Intuitive
    +
    +

    The INTUITIVE validation indicates that + the statement is based on the speakers own intuition, instinct or “gut” + feeling. This can be translated by English phrases such as ‘I feel that…’ + or ‘I’ve got a feeling that….’
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.4
    INF
    		The Inferential
    +
    +

    The INFERENTIAL validation indicates + that the statement is essentially an inference by the speaker based on circumstantial + evidence only. This can be conveyed in translation by phrases such as ‘(it) + must (be that)…,’ or ‘must have’ as in the sentences + I must be dreaming or It must have rained last night.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.5
    PSM
    		The Presumptive
    +
    +

    The PRESUMPTIVE validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, and the fact that the + statement is potentially verifiable. If necessary, this degree of factivity + can be translated by the English phrases ‘presumably (so) or ‘apparently + (so).’
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.6
    CNJ
    		The Conjectural
    +
    +

    The CONJECTURAL validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, however its verifiability + is either unlikely or unknown. Perhaps most easily translated into English simply + by ‘may’ or ‘might,’ or more exactly by ‘allegedly’ + or ‘purportedly.’
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.7
    TEN
    		The Tentative
    +
    +

    The TENTATIVE validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source, or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker; however, the statement is potentially verifiable. Can be approximately + translated by English ‘supposedly.’
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.8
    PUT
    		The Putative
    +
    +

    The PUTATIVE validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker, and verifiability of the statement is either unlikely or unknown. Can + be approximately translated by English ‘must not (have)…,’ + ‘must not be…,’ or ‘not likely to….’ Thus + the sentence overtly structured as He caught the bus in time but marked + for the PUTATIVE would actually translate as He must + not have caught the bus in time.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.9
    HOR
    		The Hortative
    +
    +

    The HORTATIVE validation indicates that + the validity of the statement is assumed false but that the speaker wishes it + to be true. It corresponds to various exhortations such as ‘if only…,’ + ‘I wish that…’ or ‘Were that….’

    +


    + 6.1.10 Examples of Validation in Use

    +
    +

    + ___Listen! + +
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    6.2 PHASE

    +
    +

    Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an + act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive + manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena + that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, + alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of + Extension, previously described in Sec. + 3.4, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative + pattern of a state, action or event. The nine phases are the CONTEXTUAL, + PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE, + and FLUCTUATIVE. They are marked by one of nine patterns + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, depending on the validation and sanction + of the verb as previously described in Section 6.1 and + shown in Tables 18(a) through 18(i). The nine phases + are explained in the following sections.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.1
    CTX
    		The Contextual
    +
    +

    The CONTEXTUAL is the default phase, + describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not + instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual + duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can + be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., + —
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.2
    PUN
    		The Punctual
    +
    +

    The PUNCTUAL describes an act, condition, + or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as + an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between + two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It + can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.3
    ITR
    		The Iterative
    +
    +

    The ITERATIVE refers to a momentary or + instantaneous event, like the PUNCTUAL above, which repeats + itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe + light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, + the whole comprising a single CONTEXTUAL event.

    +

    Visual representation: • + • • •

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.4
    REP
    		The Repetitive
    +
    +

    The REPETITIVE refers to a relatively + brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the CONTEXTUAL + phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being + honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual + representation: — — + — —
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.5
    ITM
    		The Intermittent
    +
    +

    The INTERMITTENT is similar to the ITERATIVE + above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a PUNCTUAL + event, however, unlike the ITERATIVE, the duration of + time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would + be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping + of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc. +

    +

    Visual representation: — + • — • — + • — •
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.6
    RCT
    		The Recurrent
    +
    +

    The RECURRENT is to the REPETITIVE + as the INTERMITTENT is to the ITERATIVE. + It indicates a slow repetition of a CONTEXTUAL event, + where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. + Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl. +

    +

    Visual representation: —— + ——— + ——— + ——— + —
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.7
    FRE
    		The Frequentative
    +
    +

    The FREQUENTATIVE indicates an iterative + occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, + the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. Examples + would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short + bursts of a jackhammer.

    +

    Visual representation: ——• + • •— + • • + •— + • • + •— + • • + •
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.8
    FRG
    		The Fragmentative
    +
    +

    The FRAGMENTATIVE indicates a random + pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL + event.

    +

    Visual representation: ——• + •— + • • + • ——• + • —• + • • + • •—— + • —• + •
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.9
    FLC
    		The Fluctuative
    +
    +

    The FLUCTUATIVE indicates a random pattern + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of + birds in the wild, etc.

    +

    Visual representation:—— + • • —— + • — + • •— + ——• + • — • + • • —• + •— + —— • — + • •

    +

     

    +

    6.2.10 Examples of Phase in Use

    +
    +
    +

    + _Listen! + +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

    +


    +

    +
    + +
    + + + + +

    6.3 SANCTION

    +
    +

    The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related + purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener + should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance + is a neutral proposition or assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption, + a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.

    +

    There are nine sanctions: the PROPOSITIONAL, + EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE, + and AXIOMATIC. Sanction is shown by the mutational grade + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, as shown in Table + 18 in Sec. 6.1 above, the specific affix value being dependent on the validation + and phase of the verb. Each sanction is explained in the sections below.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.1
    PPS
    		The Propositional
    +
    +

    The PROPOSITIONAL sanction is either + unmarked (where there is no aspectual adjunct), or marked by Grade 1 mutation + of the Cx affix. It is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents + a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a + statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. + Example of such statements would be That is a mountain, or I’m + hungry.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.2
    EPI
    		The Epistemic
    +
    +

    The EPISTEMIC sanction is marked by Grade + 2 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance as being a statement + of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention + (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human + knowledge. An example would be That mountain is Mount Fuji or The + U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.3
    ALG
    		The Allegative
    +
    +

    The ALLEGATIVE identifies an utterance + as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + or refutation. Examples would be That mountain is beautiful or No + one in the United States goes hungry.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.4
    IPU
    		The Imputative
    +
    +

    The IMPUTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective + or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a + sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be He knows + how to drive [e.g., because he owns a car] or She can’t be hungry + now [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant].
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.5
    RFU
    		The Refutative
    +
    +

    The REFUTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic + in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically + objective fact.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.6
    REB
    		The Rebuttative
    +
    +

    The REBUTTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based + on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief, + or interpretation.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.7
    THR
    		The Theoretical
    +
    +

    The THEORETICAL identifies an utterance + as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.8
    EXV
    		The Expatiative
    +
    +

    The EXPATIATIVE identifies an utterance + as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.9
    AXM
    		The Axiomatic
    +
    +

    The AXIOMATIC identifies an utterance + as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential + fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be Gravity + is ubiquitous, or Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food.

    +


    + 6.3.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use

    +
    +

    + _Listen! + +
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    6.4 + ASPECT

    +
    +

    Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + (as with Perspective in Sec. + 3.3), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects, each + shown by a vocalic prefix to an aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be shown + by a vocalic suffix. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial + phrases used in English.

    +


    + 6.4.1 Aspect Prefixes and Suffixes

    +

    As explained above in Sec. 6.0, each + aspect is represented by a single vocalic form, appearing as a prefix in an + aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be associated with the verb, in which + case it appears as a vocalic suffix to the adjunct. The form of the adjunct + is Vp-Cx-(Vs), where Vp is the prefixed form + of the first aspect, Cx is the consonantal validation-phase-sanction + infix, and Vs, if present, is the suffixed form of the second + aspect.

    +

    Each prefix has seven alternate forms for a total of eight + forms whose use is explained in Sec. 6.4.2 below. The first form of the prefix + is the default form. The suffix form of each aspect has but one form. The values + of these prefixes and suffixes is shown in Table 19 below.
    +

    +

    Table + 19: Aspectual Prefixes (Vp) and Suffixes (Vs)

    +

    +


    + 6.4.2 Using Aspect Prefixes to Express Format for Primary Conflations

    +

    The eight forms of each aspect prefix are used as an alternate + way of indicating Format (See Sec. + 5.4.2) in the absence of a conflation (or valence) adjunct. Because they + also show Valence, Version and Modality, it is common to use conflation adjuncts + with an Ithkuil verb; however, where there is no modality, the verb displays + conflation (see Sec. 5.4.1) + but no derivation, and the version and valence have default values, the conflation + adjunct can be eliminated and the verb’s format can be indicated by forms + 1 through 8 of the aspect prefix to the verb’s aspectual adjunct. Thus, + in the sentence , + the conflation adjunct + indicating INSTRUMENTATIVE format for the ACTIVE + conflation shown by the main verb, can instead be shown by changing the prefix + â- + on the aspectual adjunct to wâ- + and eliminating the conflation adjunct, thus:

    +


    + Wâloi  uatumul.
    + +
    + ‘The motion being caused by means of an asteroid is indeed recurring’ + OR
    + ‘What’s indeed happening is a recurrence of motion using an + asteroid.’

    +


    + 6.4.3 Explanation of Aspect Categories

    +

    The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.1
    RTR
    		 RETROSPECTIVE
    + This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create + various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the MONADIC, + the RETROSPECTIVE can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the UNBOUNDED, + the RETROSPECTIVE is equates with the English simple past + tense. With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + verb.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.2
    PRS
    		 PROSPECTIVE
    + Like the RETROSPECTIVE above, this aspect operates in + conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense + categories. With the MONADIC, the PROSPECTIVE + equates with the English future tense. With the UNBOUNDED, + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, it + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.3
    HAB
    		 HABITUAL
    + When used with the MONADIC perspective, this aspect conveys + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the + UNBOUNDED, the English ‘used to’ construction + offers an equivalent translation, as in She used to come see me on Wednesdays.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.4
    PRG
    		 PROGRESSIVE
    + This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + in Spanish.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.5
    IMM
    		 IMMINENT
    + Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in I + think Carl is about to cry.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.6
    PCS
    		 PRECESSIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in We just + saw a clown in the toy store.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.7
    REG
    		 REGULATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event + over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + the new bridge.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.8
    EPR
    		 EXPERIENTIAL
    + Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + as in Does he ever shut up? Note the EXPERIENTIAL + does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + in Ever does he seek his destiny nor as an adverb of mere emphasis + as in Was she ever tired.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.9
    RSM
    		 RESUMPTIVE
    + Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously + ceased, as in The girl resumed singing, or He is starting to laugh + again.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.10
    CSS
    		 CESSATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + as in They stopped dancing at midnight.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.11
    RCS
    		 RECESSATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased + then resumed, as in Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy + a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.12
    PAU
    		 PAUSAL
    + Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with + her friends.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.13
    RGR
    		 REGRESSIVE
    + Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event + after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The REGRESSIVE + should be distinguished from the RESUMPTIVE above, which + merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change + of state or situation. An example would be Mr. Yates returned to golf after + recovering from his stroke.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.14
    PCL
    		 PRECLUSIVE
    + Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + etc. as in Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.15
    CNT
    		 CONTINUATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.16
    ICS
    		 INCESSATIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in They danced the night away or They’ve been battling + on and on since last year.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.17
    PMP
    		 PREEMPTIVE
    + Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.18
    CLM
    		 CLIMACTIC
    + Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’ +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.19
    PTC
    		 PROTRACTIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. + If used with the CONTEXTUAL or PUNCTUAL + phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the PROTRACTIVE + conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: It + rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a + long time coming.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.20
    TMP
    		 TEMPORARY
    + Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable + only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in This will be sufficient + for now or For the time being you’ll have to drink water. +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.21
    MTV
    		 MOTIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence + of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in + Dad’s off hunting or They went off to cavort with the clowns. +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.22
    CSQ
    		 CONSEQUENTIAL
    + This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event + despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in She went + ahead and bought the furniture or I decided to go there anyway. +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.23
    SQN
    		 SEQUENTIAL
    + This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single + event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English + use of ‘off’ as in He's checking off each item as it is inventoried, + or The sheep died off from the disease.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.24
    EPD
    		 EXPEDITIVE
    + Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English + ‘hurry (up)’ as in Hurry up and finish or They ate + in a hurry.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.25
    DSC
    		 DISCLUSIVE
    + Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.26
    CCL
    		 CONCLUSIVE
    + Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in I ended up crashing the car + or He drank to the point where he passed out.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.27
    CUL
    		 CULMINATIVE
    + Similar to the CONCLUSIVE above, but with a focus on the + eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series + of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the CONCLUSIVE + aspect above: In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.28
    IMD
    		 INTERMEDIATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point + along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.29
    TRD
    		 TARDATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens + in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source + of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.30
    TNS
    		 TRANSITIONAL
    + Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in I’m planning to take up golf.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.31
    ITC
    		 INTERCOMMUTATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + as in The boy threw it back or She stared back at the men ogling + her.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.32CSM CONSUMPTIVE
    + Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in Mother spends her life + worrying or He’s pining away.
    +


    + 6.4.4 Complementary Aspects Appearing in the Same Adjunct

    +

    Note that, while any aspectual adjunct can show two different + aspects, several aspect categories above operate as complements to each other. + For example, the PROSPECTIVE aspect complements the RETROSPECTIVE + aspect, both being essentially opposites. Such complementary aspects normally + don’t appear in the same adjunct together. If they do appear in the same + adjunct, they are interpreted as not applying to the same verb, i.e., the first + aspect (shown by the prefix) applies to the adjacent verb, while the second + aspect (shown by the suffix) applies to the next verb in the sentence. Such + combinations of complementary aspects within a single adjunct can be considered + an optional “shortcut” to utilizing a separate aspectual adjunct + with the second verb.

    +


    + 6.4.5 Using Aspect Prefixes to Show Focus

    +

    All of the aspectual prefixes shown in Table + 19 above can in turn take an initial prefix y- + (or yï- + before a w-) + to show that the associated verbal formative has semantic focus (as described + in Sec. 3.5), i.e., + it is an alternate to the usual -w- + infix to the formative previously described in Sec. 3.5. Examples: êstiu + yêstiu, + iwuil yiwuil, + wïttu + yïwïttu.

    +

    This y- + (or yï-) + prefix can in turn be augmented to yï’ + (spelled y’ + before a vowel but still pronounced yï’) + to indicate that the semantic focus instead applies to the aspectual meaning + indicated by the aspectual prefix. Examples: êstiu + y’êstiu, + iwuil + y’iwuil, wïttu + yï’wïttu.

    +


    + 6.4.6 Examples of Aspect In Use

    + +
    +

     

    +
    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    6.5 MOOD

    +
    +

    Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example + moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., Go now!, Sing it for + us! ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., She would travel + if she could), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., + I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here), and hortative (indicating + exhortations, e.g., May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!).

    +

    We have already seen in Section + 5.1 above that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages + correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically + where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ithkuil, moods + simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance + is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether + the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance + (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality + of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders eight moods in Ithkuil, + shown by stress and tone of the aspectual adjunct accompanying the verb.

    +

    The eight moods are FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE, + SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE, and ASCRIPTIVE. + These are described in the sections below.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.1
    FAC
    		The Factual
    +
    +

    The FACTUAL mood is shown by penultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood signifies that the + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality + is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. As described + above, the actual interpretation (and translation) of any statement in the FACTUAL + mood is subject to whatever specific nuances of attitude, perspective, and evidence + are imparted by the particular bias and validation associated with the verb. + Examples:

    +

    His kids are ill. [i.e., it is known he has kids and + it is known they are ill]

    +

    We’re taking a walk later on. [i.e., it is our + intention and we have the opportunity to do so]
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2
    SUB
    		The Subjunctive
    +
    +

    The SUBJUNCTIVE mood is shown by ultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the + factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the + particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition + is true. Examples:

    +

    Maybe his kids are ill. [i.e., it is known that he + has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]

    +

    We may take a walk later on. [i.e., it is known that + the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose + to]
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.3
    ASM
    		The Assumptive
    +
    +

    Shown by penultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood functions identically to the FACTUAL + except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore + conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to + the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:

    +

    His kids’ll be ill OR + If he has kids, they are ill. [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, + but if he does, they are certainly ill.]

    +

    We’ll take a walk later on [i.e., if we can] + OR We intend to take a walk. + [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.4
    SPE
    		The Speculative
    +
    +

    Shown by ultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement + itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + Compare the examples below to those above:

    +

    Maybe his kids are ill [i.e., it is unknown if he + has kids but if he does, they may be ill].

    +

    We may take a walk later on [i.e., it is unknown whether + we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether + we will choose to].
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.5
    COU
    		The Counterfactive
    +
    +

    Shown by penultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific + translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with + the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

    +

    His kids would be (would have been) ill [i.e., if + he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].

    +

    We would take (would have taken) a walk later on [i.e., + it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.6
    HYP
    		The Hypothetical
    +
    +

    Shown by ultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is + false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if + a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject + to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the + examples below to those above.

    +

    His kids might’ve been ill [if he had kids, + but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].

    +

    We might’ve taken a walk later on [i.e., but + we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.7
    IPL
    		The Implicative
    +
    +

    Shown by penultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between + the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect + chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below.

    +

    His kids are (must be) ill [i.e., as implied by some + other fact such as his staying home from work].

    +

    If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk + later on OR She’s wearing + a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on [i.e., + the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.8
    ASC
    		The Ascriptive
    +
    +

    Shown by ultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual adjunct. + The ASCRIPTIVE mood functions identically to the IMPLICATIVE + immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from + the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples:

    +

    His kids may be ill [i.e., as implied by some other + fact such as his staying home from work].

    +

    If she wears a blue dress, we might be taking a walk later + on OR She’s wearing a + blue dress, so that means we might be taking a walk later on [i.e., the + dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility].

    +


    + 6.5.9 Examples of Mood in Use

    +
    The following examples compare the seven non-FACTUAL + moods applied to the same sentence:
    +
    +


    +

    +


    +

    +


    +

    +


    +

    +

    +
    +

    +

    +
    +

    +

    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    6.6 BIAS

    +
    +

    Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which + often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation + (previously discussed in Sec. 6.1), often triggering a + translation change as well.

    +


    + 6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage

    +

    Bias is shown in any one of four ways:

    +
    +
      +
    1. as a word-initial consonantal prefix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal + stop is infixed between the prefix and the adjunct, e.g., n’urs, + ss’illui
      +
      2. +
    2. as a word-final consonantal suffix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal + stop is infixed between the adjunct and the suffix, e.g., ursau’n, + illui’ss
      +
      3. +
    3. as a consonantal infix to an aspectual adjunct, which substitutes this + consonantal infix for the Cx consonantal infix of the adjunct; this infix + always ends in -w, e.g., utwa, + enkwoi
      +
      4. +
    4. as a word-initial consonantal prefix to formative if the formative begins + with a vowel; a glottal stop is infixed between the prefix and the formative, + e.g., n’exalt, ss’imlatku
      5. +
    +
    +

    These prefix, suffix, and infix forms are shown in Table 20 + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms + described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.

    +


    + Table 20: Morpho-Phonological + Markers for Bias
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.1
    ASU
    		 ASSURATIVE
    + This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by ‘I told you so!’ or ‘You see?!’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.2
    HPB
    		 HYPERBOLIC
    + This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in I + so don’t care! or That is totally not what I wanted. The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.3
    COI
    		 COINCIDENTAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in I happened to run into Jane or It + just so happens that I’m busy. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.4
    ACP
    		 ACCEPTIVE
    + This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.5
    RAC
    		 REACTIVE
    + This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.6
    STU
    		 STUPEFACTIVE
    + This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.7
    CTV
    		 CONTEMPLATIVE
    + This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.8
    DPV
    		 DESPERATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.9
    RVL
    		 REVELATIVE
    + This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.10
    GRA
    		 GRATIFICATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.11
    SOL
    		 SOLICITIVE
    + This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence So dance already! +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.12
    SEL
    		 SELECTIVE
    + This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.13
    IRO
    		 IRONIC
    + This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.14
    EXA
    		 EXASPERATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.15
    LTL
    		 LITERAL
    + This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.16
    CRR
    		 CORRECTIVE
    + This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.17
    EUP
    		 EUPHEMISTIC
    + This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.18
    SKP
    		 SKEPTICAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.19
    CYN
    		 CYNICAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.20
    CTP
    		 CONTEMPTIVE
    + This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.21
    DSM
    		 DISMISSIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.22
    IDG
    		 INDIGNATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.23
    SGS
    		 SUGGESTIVE
    + This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.24
    PPV
    		 PROPOSITIVE
    + This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences How about going for a stroll?, We + could meet behind the barn if you want, or You can sit on my lap. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’
    +

     

    +

    6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use
    +

    +
    +

    +     __Listen! + +
    +
    + +

     

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 7: Using Affixes >>

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dd94d0b --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2007 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology

    + +

    In this chapter, we examine six additional morphological categories + which apply to verbal formatives: Validation, Phase, Sanction, Aspect, + Mood and Bias. Like the categories of Valence, Version, + Conflation/Derivation, Format, Modality and Level in the previous chapter, these + six categories are manifested within the morpho-phonological structure of a + specialized adjunct, in this instance called an aspectual adjunct. +

    +

    The structure of an aspectual adjunct is (CB-)VA-CX-(VS-(CB)) + where VA and Vs are + vocalic affixes indicating aspect, Cx is a consonantal infix + indicating validation, phase and sanction, and CB + is an optional consonantal prefix or suffix indicating Bias. Mood is indicated + by the tone and stress pattern of the adjunct as a whole. VA + represents either a single vowel, diphthong, or dissyllabic two-vowel combination + (e.g., -ia-, -ua-); and Cx represents a single- or dual-consonant + conjunct (e.g., -k-, -tt-, + -šp-). Not all parts of this archetypical structure may + manifest themselves in any given aspectual adjunct. For example, some adjuncts + may show only aspect or mood, some show validation or phase only, or any combination + of these categories. These variations are described below.

    +
    +
      +
    1. If an aspectual adjunct is being used to show Validation, Phase, and Sanction + only (i.e., it is not showing Aspect), it takes the form a + Cx + (+ a), where Cx represents a single, geminate, + or biconsonantal consonantal form as described above. The a- + prefix distinguishes the word as an aspectual adjunct, and the (+ + a) suffix is present if necessary to comply with Ithkuil phonological + constraints (see Sec. 1.4.1). + There are 81 Cx affix representing a combination of one + of nine validations with one of nine phases, each of which in turn mutates + into eight additional forms depending on which of nine sanctions applies + to the associated verb (see Sec. 6.3 below on Sanction). + These affixes are shown in Table 18 below. Examples. ar, + ac, axx, aks, akká, amra.
      +
      2. +
    2. If an aspectual adjunct shows a single aspect, it takes the form VA + + Cx (+ a), where Va is the vocalic aspectual prefix followed by + the consonantal Cx affix (i.e., the validation-phase-sanction + affix). Examples: eur, + oks, iakka.
      +
      3. +
    3. If an aspectual adjunct shows two aspects, it takes the form VA + + Cx + Vs, that is two aspectual vowel forms, the first in as a + prefix, the second as a suffix, separated by the validation-phase-sanction + consonantal affix. Examples: eurai, + òksëi, iakkua.
      4. +
    +
    +

    Having explained the structure of the aspectual adjunct, we + now turn to an explanation of the six morphological categories it manifests.

    + +

     

    + + + + +
    6.1 VALIDATION +
    +

    Technically, Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. However, Validation imparts more than + simply the evidential verifiability of a statement; it also operates in conjunction + with Mood (see Section 6.5 below) to indicate the precise + factuality of a statement, i.e., to what extent it is likely or certain that + the statement is, in fact, valid or real. We will see that Ithkuil moods generally + indicate the factuality of a statement as being either certain or uncertain. + Validation in turn “fine tunes” this distinction into levels of + nuance, corresponding to various English phrases which convey the specific validity + of a statement, e.g., “must be so, likely that, unlikely, perhaps, supposedly, + presumably, apparently” etc. The nine validations are CONFIRMATIVE, + REPORTIVE, INTUITIVE, INFERENTIAL, PRESUMPTIVE, CONJECTURAL, TENTATIVE, PUTATIVE + and HORTATIVE. As explained above, they are shown in conjunction + with the categories of Phase and Sanction (see Secs. 6.2 + and 6.3 below) by means of the Cx consonantal affix to + an aspectual adjunct. The values for these infixes are shown in the tables below. + The specific usage of each validation is explained following the tables.

    +


    + Tables + 18 (a – + i): Cx Affixes By Validation, Phase and Sanction

    +


    + Table 18(a): Cx Affixes for + the Confirmative Validation

    +

    +


    + Table 18(b): Cx Affixes for the Reportive Validation

    +

    +


    + Table 18(c): Cx Affixes for the Intuitive Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(d): Cx Affixes for + the Inferential Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(e): Cx Affixes for + the Presumptive Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(f): Cx Affixes for + the Conjectural Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(g): Cx Affixes for + the Tentative Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(h): Cx Affixes for + the Putative Validation

    +


    +

    +

    Table 18(i): Cx Affixes for + the Hortative Validation

    +

    +

    The nine validations are explained as follows:
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.1
    CNF
    		The Confirmative
    +
    +

    The CONFIRMATIVE indicates that a statement + is based on facts actually perceived by and/or personally known to the speaker. + It can be considered the “default” validation, in that it can be + unmarked (i.e., the aspectual adjunct can be deleted) if the other categories + shown by the adjunct are likewise in their default modes and there is no aspect + being conveyed.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.2
    RPT
    		The Reportive
    +
    +

    The REPORTIVE validation indicates that + the statement, while not personally known or perceived by the speaker, is assumed + true based on evidence considered trustworthy by the speaker, such as direct + testimony of a trusted party or knowledgeable source based on that party’s + or source’s personal knowledge or observation. If necessary, this degree + of factivity can be translated into English by the terms ‘most likely’ + or ‘probably.’
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.3
    ITU
    		The Intuitive
    +
    +

    The INTUITIVE validation indicates that + the statement is based on the speakers own intuition, instinct or “gut” + feeling. This can be translated by English phrases such as ‘I feel that…’ + or ‘I’ve got a feeling that….’
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.4
    INF
    		The Inferential
    +
    +

    The INFERENTIAL validation indicates + that the statement is essentially an inference by the speaker based on circumstantial + evidence only. This can be conveyed in translation by phrases such as ‘(it) + must (be that)…,’ or ‘must have’ as in the sentences + I must be dreaming or It must have rained last night.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.5
    PSM
    		The Presumptive
    +
    +

    The PRESUMPTIVE validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, and the fact that the + statement is potentially verifiable. If necessary, this degree of factivity + can be translated by the English phrases ‘presumably (so) or ‘apparently + (so).’
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.6
    CNJ
    		The Conjectural
    +
    +

    The CONJECTURAL validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, however its verifiability + is either unlikely or unknown. Perhaps most easily translated into English simply + by ‘may’ or ‘might,’ or more exactly by ‘allegedly’ + or ‘purportedly.’
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.7
    TEN
    		The Tentative
    +
    +

    The TENTATIVE validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source, or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker; however, the statement is potentially verifiable. Can be approximately + translated by English ‘supposedly.’
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.8
    PUT
    		The Putative
    +
    +

    The PUTATIVE validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker, and verifiability of the statement is either unlikely or unknown. Can + be approximately translated by English ‘must not (have)…,’ + ‘must not be…,’ or ‘not likely to….’ Thus + the sentence overtly structured as He caught the bus in time but marked + for the PUTATIVE would actually translate as He must + not have caught the bus in time.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.1.9
    HOR
    		The Hortative
    +
    +

    The HORTATIVE validation indicates that + the validity of the statement is assumed false but that the speaker wishes it + to be true. It corresponds to various exhortations such as ‘if only…,’ + ‘I wish that…’ or ‘Were that….’

    +


    + 6.1.10 Examples of Validation in Use

    +
    +

    + ___Listen! + +
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    6.2 PHASE

    +
    +

    Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an + act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive + manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena + that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, + alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of + Extension, previously described in Sec. + 3.4, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative + pattern of a state, action or event. The nine phases are the CONTEXTUAL, + PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE, + and FLUCTUATIVE. They are marked by one of nine patterns + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, depending on the validation and sanction + of the verb as previously described in Section 6.1 and + shown in Tables 18(a) through 18(i). The nine phases + are explained in the following sections.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.1
    CTX
    		The Contextual
    +
    +

    The CONTEXTUAL is the default phase, + describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not + instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual + duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can + be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., + —
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.2
    PUN
    		The Punctual
    +
    +

    The PUNCTUAL describes an act, condition, + or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as + an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between + two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It + can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.3
    ITR
    		The Iterative
    +
    +

    The ITERATIVE refers to a momentary or + instantaneous event, like the PUNCTUAL above, which repeats + itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe + light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, + the whole comprising a single CONTEXTUAL event.

    +

    Visual representation: • + • • •

    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.4
    REP
    		The Repetitive
    +
    +

    The REPETITIVE refers to a relatively + brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the CONTEXTUAL + phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being + honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual + representation: — — + — —
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.5
    ITM
    		The Intermittent
    +
    +

    The INTERMITTENT is similar to the ITERATIVE + above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a PUNCTUAL + event, however, unlike the ITERATIVE, the duration of + time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would + be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping + of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc. +

    +

    Visual representation: — + • — • — + • — •
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.6
    RCT
    		The Recurrent
    +
    +

    The RECURRENT is to the REPETITIVE + as the INTERMITTENT is to the ITERATIVE. + It indicates a slow repetition of a CONTEXTUAL event, + where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. + Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl. +

    +

    Visual representation: —— + ——— + ——— + ——— + —
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.7
    FRE
    		The Frequentative
    +
    +

    The FREQUENTATIVE indicates an iterative + occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, + the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. Examples + would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short + bursts of a jackhammer.

    +

    Visual representation: ——• + • •— + • • + •— + • • + •— + • • + •
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.8
    FRG
    		The Fragmentative
    +
    +

    The FRAGMENTATIVE indicates a random + pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL + event.

    +

    Visual representation: ——• + •— + • • + • ——• + • —• + • • + • •—— + • —• + •
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.2.9
    FLC
    		The Fluctuative
    +
    +

    The FLUCTUATIVE indicates a random pattern + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of + birds in the wild, etc.

    +

    Visual representation:—— + • • —— + • — + • •— + ——• + • — • + • • —• + •— + —— • — + • •

    +

     

    +

    6.2.10 Examples of Phase in Use

    +
    +
    +

    + _Listen! + +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

    +


    +

    +
    + +
    + + + + +

    6.3 SANCTION

    +
    +

    The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related + purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener + should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance + is a neutral proposition or assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption, + a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.

    +

    There are nine sanctions: the PROPOSITIONAL, + EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE, + and AXIOMATIC. Sanction is shown by the mutational grade + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, as shown in Table + 18 in Sec. 6.1 above, the specific affix value being dependent on the validation + and phase of the verb. Each sanction is explained in the sections below.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.1
    PPS
    		The Propositional
    +
    +

    The PROPOSITIONAL sanction is either + unmarked (where there is no aspectual adjunct), or marked by Grade 1 mutation + of the Cx affix. It is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents + a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a + statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. + Example of such statements would be That is a mountain, or I’m + hungry.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.2
    EPI
    		The Epistemic
    +
    +

    The EPISTEMIC sanction is marked by Grade + 2 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance as being a statement + of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention + (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human + knowledge. An example would be That mountain is Mount Fuji or The + U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.3
    ALG
    		The Allegative
    +
    +

    The ALLEGATIVE identifies an utterance + as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + or refutation. Examples would be That mountain is beautiful or No + one in the United States goes hungry.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.4
    IPU
    		The Imputative
    +
    +

    The IMPUTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective + or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a + sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be He knows + how to drive [e.g., because he owns a car] or She can’t be hungry + now [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant].
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.5
    RFU
    		The Refutative
    +
    +

    The REFUTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic + in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically + objective fact.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.6
    REB
    		The Rebuttative
    +
    +

    The REBUTTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based + on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief, + or interpretation.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.7
    THR
    		The Theoretical
    +
    +

    The THEORETICAL identifies an utterance + as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.8
    EXV
    		The Expatiative
    +
    +

    The EXPATIATIVE identifies an utterance + as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.3.9
    AXM
    		The Axiomatic
    +
    +

    The AXIOMATIC identifies an utterance + as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential + fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be Gravity + is ubiquitous, or Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food.

    +


    + 6.3.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use

    +
    +

    + _Listen! + +
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    6.4 + ASPECT

    +
    +

    Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + (as with Perspective in Sec. + 3.3), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects, each + shown by a vocalic prefix to an aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be shown + by a vocalic suffix. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial + phrases used in English.

    +


    + 6.4.1 Aspect Prefixes and Suffixes

    +

    As explained above in Sec. 6.0, each + aspect is represented by a single vocalic form, appearing as a prefix in an + aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be associated with the verb, in which + case it appears as a vocalic suffix to the adjunct. The form of the adjunct + is Vp-Cx-(Vs), where Vp is the prefixed form + of the first aspect, Cx is the consonantal validation-phase-sanction + infix, and Vs, if present, is the suffixed form of the second + aspect.

    +

    Each prefix has seven alternate forms for a total of eight + forms whose use is explained in Sec. 6.4.2 below. The first form of the prefix + is the default form. The suffix form of each aspect has but one form. The values + of these prefixes and suffixes is shown in Table 19 below.
    +

    +

    Table + 19: Aspectual Prefixes (Vp) and Suffixes (Vs)

    +

    +


    + 6.4.2 Using Aspect Prefixes to Express Format for Primary Conflations

    +

    The eight forms of each aspect prefix are used as an alternate + way of indicating Format (See Sec. + 5.4.2) in the absence of a conflation (or valence) adjunct. Because they + also show Valence, Version and Modality, it is common to use conflation adjuncts + with an Ithkuil verb; however, where there is no modality, the verb displays + conflation (see Sec. 5.4.1) + but no derivation, and the version and valence have default values, the conflation + adjunct can be eliminated and the verb’s format can be indicated by forms + 1 through 8 of the aspect prefix to the verb’s aspectual adjunct. Thus, + in the sentence , + the conflation adjunct + indicating INSTRUMENTATIVE format for the ACTIVE + conflation shown by the main verb, can instead be shown by changing the prefix + â- + on the aspectual adjunct to wâ- + and eliminating the conflation adjunct, thus:

    +


    + Wâloi  uatumul.
    + +
    + ‘The motion being caused by means of an asteroid is indeed recurring’ + OR
    + ‘What’s indeed happening is a recurrence of motion using an + asteroid.’

    +


    + 6.4.3 Explanation of Aspect Categories

    +

    The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below.

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.1
    RTR
    		 RETROSPECTIVE
    + This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create + various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the MONADIC, + the RETROSPECTIVE can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the UNBOUNDED, + the RETROSPECTIVE is equates with the English simple past + tense. With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + verb.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.2
    PRS
    		 PROSPECTIVE
    + Like the RETROSPECTIVE above, this aspect operates in + conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense + categories. With the MONADIC, the PROSPECTIVE + equates with the English future tense. With the UNBOUNDED, + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, it + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.3
    HAB
    		 HABITUAL
    + When used with the MONADIC perspective, this aspect conveys + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the + UNBOUNDED, the English ‘used to’ construction + offers an equivalent translation, as in She used to come see me on Wednesdays.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.4
    PRG
    		 PROGRESSIVE
    + This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + in Spanish.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.5
    IMM
    		 IMMINENT
    + Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in I + think Carl is about to cry.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.6
    PCS
    		 PRECESSIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in We just + saw a clown in the toy store.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.7
    REG
    		 REGULATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event + over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + the new bridge.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.8
    EPR
    		 EXPERIENTIAL
    + Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + as in Does he ever shut up? Note the EXPERIENTIAL + does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + in Ever does he seek his destiny nor as an adverb of mere emphasis + as in Was she ever tired.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.9
    RSM
    		 RESUMPTIVE
    + Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously + ceased, as in The girl resumed singing, or He is starting to laugh + again.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.10
    CSS
    		 CESSATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + as in They stopped dancing at midnight.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.11
    RCS
    		 RECESSATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased + then resumed, as in Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy + a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.12
    PAU
    		 PAUSAL
    + Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with + her friends.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.13
    RGR
    		 REGRESSIVE
    + Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event + after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The REGRESSIVE + should be distinguished from the RESUMPTIVE above, which + merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change + of state or situation. An example would be Mr. Yates returned to golf after + recovering from his stroke.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.14
    PCL
    		 PRECLUSIVE
    + Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + etc. as in Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.15
    CNT
    		 CONTINUATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.16
    ICS
    		 INCESSATIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in They danced the night away or They’ve been battling + on and on since last year.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.17
    PMP
    		 PREEMPTIVE
    + Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.18
    CLM
    		 CLIMACTIC
    + Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’ +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.19
    PTC
    		 PROTRACTIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. + If used with the CONTEXTUAL or PUNCTUAL + phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the PROTRACTIVE + conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: It + rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a + long time coming.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.20
    TMP
    		 TEMPORARY
    + Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable + only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in This will be sufficient + for now or For the time being you’ll have to drink water. +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.21
    MTV
    		 MOTIVE
    + Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence + of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in + Dad’s off hunting or They went off to cavort with the clowns. +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.22
    CSQ
    		 CONSEQUENTIAL
    + This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event + despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in She went + ahead and bought the furniture or I decided to go there anyway. +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.23
    SQN
    		 SEQUENTIAL
    + This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single + event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English + use of ‘off’ as in He's checking off each item as it is inventoried, + or The sheep died off from the disease.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.24
    EPD
    		 EXPEDITIVE
    + Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English + ‘hurry (up)’ as in Hurry up and finish or They ate + in a hurry.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.25
    DSC
    		 DISCLUSIVE
    + Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.26
    CCL
    		 CONCLUSIVE
    + Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in I ended up crashing the car + or He drank to the point where he passed out.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.27
    CUL
    		 CULMINATIVE
    + Similar to the CONCLUSIVE above, but with a focus on the + eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series + of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the CONCLUSIVE + aspect above: In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.28
    IMD
    		 INTERMEDIATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point + along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.29
    TRD
    		 TARDATIVE
    + Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens + in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source + of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.30
    TNS
    		 TRANSITIONAL
    + Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in I’m planning to take up golf.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.31
    ITC
    		 INTERCOMMUTATIVE
    + Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + as in The boy threw it back or She stared back at the men ogling + her.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.4.3.32CSM CONSUMPTIVE
    + Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in Mother spends her life + worrying or He’s pining away.
    +


    + 6.4.4 Complementary Aspects Appearing in the Same Adjunct

    +

    Note that, while any aspectual adjunct can show two different + aspects, several aspect categories above operate as complements to each other. + For example, the PROSPECTIVE aspect complements the RETROSPECTIVE + aspect, both being essentially opposites. Such complementary aspects normally + don’t appear in the same adjunct together. If they do appear in the same + adjunct, they are interpreted as not applying to the same verb, i.e., the first + aspect (shown by the prefix) applies to the adjacent verb, while the second + aspect (shown by the suffix) applies to the next verb in the sentence. Such + combinations of complementary aspects within a single adjunct can be considered + an optional “shortcut” to utilizing a separate aspectual adjunct + with the second verb.

    +


    + 6.4.5 Using Aspect Prefixes to Show Focus

    +

    All of the aspectual prefixes shown in Table + 19 above can in turn take an initial prefix y- + (or yï- + before a w-) + to show that the associated verbal formative has semantic focus (as described + in Sec. 3.5), i.e., + it is an alternate to the usual -w- + infix to the formative previously described in Sec. 3.5. Examples: êstiu + yêstiu, + iwuil yiwuil, + wïttu + yïwïttu.

    +

    This y- + (or yï-) + prefix can in turn be augmented to yï’ + (spelled y’ + before a vowel but still pronounced yï’) + to indicate that the semantic focus instead applies to the aspectual meaning + indicated by the aspectual prefix. Examples: êstiu + y’êstiu, + iwuil + y’iwuil, wïttu + yï’wïttu.

    +


    + 6.4.6 Examples of Aspect In Use

    + +
    +

     

    +
    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    6.5 MOOD

    +
    +

    Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example + moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., Go now!, Sing it for + us! ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., She would travel + if she could), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., + I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here), and hortative (indicating + exhortations, e.g., May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!).

    +

    We have already seen in Section + 5.1 above that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages + correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically + where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ithkuil, moods + simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance + is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether + the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance + (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality + of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders eight moods in Ithkuil, + shown by stress and tone of the aspectual adjunct accompanying the verb.

    +

    The eight moods are FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE, + SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE, and ASCRIPTIVE. + These are described in the sections below.
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.1
    FAC
    		The Factual
    +
    +

    The FACTUAL mood is shown by penultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood signifies that the + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality + is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. As described + above, the actual interpretation (and translation) of any statement in the FACTUAL + mood is subject to whatever specific nuances of attitude, perspective, and evidence + are imparted by the particular bias and validation associated with the verb. + Examples:

    +

    His kids are ill. [i.e., it is known he has kids and + it is known they are ill]

    +

    We’re taking a walk later on. [i.e., it is our + intention and we have the opportunity to do so]
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.2
    SUB
    		The Subjunctive
    +
    +

    The SUBJUNCTIVE mood is shown by ultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the + factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the + particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition + is true. Examples:

    +

    Maybe his kids are ill. [i.e., it is known that he + has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]

    +

    We may take a walk later on. [i.e., it is known that + the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose + to]
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.3
    ASM
    		The Assumptive
    +
    +

    Shown by penultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood functions identically to the FACTUAL + except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore + conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to + the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:

    +

    His kids’ll be ill OR + If he has kids, they are ill. [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, + but if he does, they are certainly ill.]

    +

    We’ll take a walk later on [i.e., if we can] + OR We intend to take a walk. + [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.4
    SPE
    		The Speculative
    +
    +

    Shown by ultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement + itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + Compare the examples below to those above:

    +

    Maybe his kids are ill [i.e., it is unknown if he + has kids but if he does, they may be ill].

    +

    We may take a walk later on [i.e., it is unknown whether + we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether + we will choose to].
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.5
    COU
    		The Counterfactive
    +
    +

    Shown by penultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific + translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with + the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

    +

    His kids would be (would have been) ill [i.e., if + he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].

    +

    We would take (would have taken) a walk later on [i.e., + it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.6
    HYP
    		The Hypothetical
    +
    +

    Shown by ultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is + false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if + a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject + to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the + examples below to those above.

    +

    His kids might’ve been ill [if he had kids, + but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].

    +

    We might’ve taken a walk later on [i.e., but + we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.7
    IPL
    		The Implicative
    +
    +

    Shown by penultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between + the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect + chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below.

    +

    His kids are (must be) ill [i.e., as implied by some + other fact such as his staying home from work].

    +

    If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk + later on OR She’s wearing + a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on [i.e., + the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.5.8
    ASC
    		The Ascriptive
    +
    +

    Shown by ultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual adjunct. + The ASCRIPTIVE mood functions identically to the IMPLICATIVE + immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from + the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples:

    +

    His kids may be ill [i.e., as implied by some other + fact such as his staying home from work].

    +

    If she wears a blue dress, we might be taking a walk later + on OR She’s wearing a + blue dress, so that means we might be taking a walk later on [i.e., the + dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility].

    +


    + 6.5.9 Examples of Mood in Use

    +
    The following examples compare the seven non-FACTUAL + moods applied to the same sentence:
    +
    +


    +

    +


    +

    +


    +

    +


    +

    +

    +
    +

    +

    +
    +

    +

    +

    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    6.6 BIAS

    +
    +

    Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which + often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation + (previously discussed in Sec. 6.1), often triggering a + translation change as well.

    +


    + 6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage

    +

    Bias is shown in any one of four ways:

    +
    +
      +
    1. as a word-initial consonantal prefix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal + stop is infixed between the prefix and the adjunct, e.g., n’urs, + ss’illui
      +
      2. +
    2. as a word-final consonantal suffix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal + stop is infixed between the adjunct and the suffix, e.g., ursau’n, + illui’ss
      +
      3. +
    3. as a consonantal infix to an aspectual adjunct, which substitutes this + consonantal infix for the Cx consonantal infix of the adjunct; this infix + always ends in -w, e.g., utwa, + enkwoi
      +
      4. +
    4. as a word-initial consonantal prefix to formative if the formative begins + with a vowel; a glottal stop is infixed between the prefix and the formative, + e.g., n’exalt, ss’imlatku
      5. +
    +
    +

    These prefix, suffix, and infix forms are shown in Table 20 + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms + described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.

    +


    + Table 20: Morpho-Phonological + Markers for Bias
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.1
    ASU
    		 ASSURATIVE
    + This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by ‘I told you so!’ or ‘You see?!’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.2
    HPB
    		 HYPERBOLIC
    + This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in I + so don’t care! or That is totally not what I wanted. The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.3
    COI
    		 COINCIDENTAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in I happened to run into Jane or It + just so happens that I’m busy. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.4
    ACP
    		 ACCEPTIVE
    + This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.5
    RAC
    		 REACTIVE
    + This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.6
    STU
    		 STUPEFACTIVE
    + This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.7
    CTV
    		 CONTEMPLATIVE
    + This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.8
    DPV
    		 DESPERATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.9
    RVL
    		 REVELATIVE
    + This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.10
    GRA
    		 GRATIFICATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.11
    SOL
    		 SOLICITIVE
    + This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence So dance already! +
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.12
    SEL
    		 SELECTIVE
    + This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.13
    IRO
    		 IRONIC
    + This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.14
    EXA
    		 EXASPERATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.15
    LTL
    		 LITERAL
    + This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.16
    CRR
    		 CORRECTIVE
    + This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.17
    EUP
    		 EUPHEMISTIC
    + This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.18
    SKP
    		 SKEPTICAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.19
    CYN
    		 CYNICAL
    + This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.20
    CTP
    		 CONTEMPTIVE
    + This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.21
    DSM
    		 DISMISSIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.22
    IDG
    		 INDIGNATIVE
    + This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.23
    SGS
    		 SUGGESTIVE
    + This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’
    +
    + + + + + + + +
    6.6.1.24
    PPV
    		 PROPOSITIVE
    + This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences How about going for a stroll?, We + could meet behind the barn if you want, or You can sit on my lap. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’
    +

     

    +

    6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use
    +

    +
    +

    +     __Listen! + +
    +
    + +

     

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 7: Using Affixes >>

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b95c0b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1423 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 7: Using Affixes + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 7: Using Affixes

    + +


    + All Ithkuil formatives are capable of taking various consonant-based + affixes. Like affixes in other languages, these are used to modify the stem + in a variety of ways and to derive new concepts. In Ithkuil, such affixes usually + appear as suffixes (i.e., are added sequentially following the stem), however, + it is possible for Ithkuil affixes to optionally appear as prefixes (i.e., added + on to the front of a stem) under certain circumstances. It is for this reason + these morphological elements are referred to as affixes and not more specifically + as prefixes or suffixes. Nevertheless, the rules for prefixation of Ithkuil + affixes are subordinate and secondary to the rules for suffixation. Therefore, + in the following discussion I will first describe the rules for using Ithkuil + affixes as suffixes, followed by a section on the options for prefixation.

    +

    The morpho-phonological structure of suffixes (how they are + formed from consonants and vowels) has already been briefly discussed in Section + 2.7. This chapter will describe the actual function of the particular affixes + themselves.

    +

    There are 153 different consonantal suffix categories, each + of which divides into the nine degrees previously discussed in Section + 2.7.2 giving a total of 1377 distinct suffixes. As described in that section, + each degree of a suffix has a distinct meaning, often representing a point along + a continuum in terms of how much or how little the underlying semantic sense + of the affix category is being manifested by the particular formative.

    +

    It is important to remember that, since all morpho-semantic + stems are both nominal and verbal in meaning, all suffixes to a stem have both + a nominal and a verbal meaning. Therefore, the choice whether to translate the + suffixes below into their nominal or verbal meaning is entirely dependent on + the morpho-syntactical structure of the word within the context of its use in + a phrase or sentence as a whole.

    +

    We have seen in Section + 2.7 that consonantal suffixes fall into three affix-types, each having nine + degrees. It is the combination of affix-type and degree which determines the + vowel infix which accompanies each consonantal suffix. For example, the suffix + -nt of Type 1 takes the following forms for its nine degrees: + -int, -ent, -änt, -önt, (a)nt, + -ünt, -ïnt, -ont, -unt. Compare this to the same affix -nt + of Type 2, whose nine forms are: -înt, -ênt, -ânt, + -ønt, -uint, -ÿnt, -ënt, -ônt, -ûnt; and + the suffix -nt of Type 3, whose nine forms are: -ient, + -iënt, -iunt, -iont, -iänt, -uänt, -uont, -uënt, -uent. + These vowel infixes for suffixes are shown in Table 21 below (this table already + appeared in Chapter 2 as Table 9; it is repeated here for convenience).

    +

    +

    Table 21: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Affix Type

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Affix + Type 1: -V1C
    Affix + Type 2: -V2C
    Affix + Type 3: -V3C
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    Degree + 1
    -iC
    -Cai
    -îC
    -Cëi
    -ieC
    -Caï
    Degree + 2
    -eC
    -Cei
    -êC / -eiC
    -Ceu
    -iëC
    -Ceï
    Degree + 3
    -äC / -aeC
    -Cia
    -âC /-aiC
    -Câ
    -iuC
    -Ciï
    Degree + 4
    -öC
    -Cua
    -øC / -euC
    -Ciu
    -ioC
    -Coï
    Degree + 5
    -(a)C
    -Ca
    -uiC
    -Cui
    -iäC
    -Cuï
    Degree + 6
    -üC / -ëuC
    -Cü
    -ÿC / -auC
    -Cau
    -uäC
    -Cäi
    Degree + 7
    -ïC / -ëiC
    -Cï
    -ëC
    -Cëu
    -uoC
    -Cöi
    Degree + 8
    -oC
    -Coi
    -ôC / -oiC / -ouC
    -Cou
    -uëC
    -Cäu
    Degree + 9
    -uC
    -Cu
    -ûC
    -Cû
    -ueC
    -Cöu
    +

    +

    NOTE: For convenience’ sake, when referring to a particular + affix of specific type and degree, we will use the notation in the paragraph + above, followed by a slash and a number indicating the degree. Thus, the affix + -nt of Type 1 and 4th degree will be written -V1nt/4, + while the affix -r of Type 3 and 8th degree would be written + -V3r/8, and so forth.

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.1 DISTINCTION IN SUFFIXES BY + AFFIX-TYPE

    +
    +

    The meaning and usage of each affix by type is particular to + each individual affix. For example, some affixes of Type 1 have a completely + different meaning than their Type 2 or Type 3 counterparts, while other affixes + can be used as both Type 1 or Type 2 with the affix having the same meaning + but conveying a different effect on the overall connotation of the word to which + they are affixed. Still other affixes retain their meaning across all three + affix types but again convey a different overall connotation on the words to + which they are affixed.

    +

    For example, the Type 1 suffix -ej (or -jei), + i.e., -V1j/2, means ‘hardly any + (of)…’ as in the word qumjéi ‘hardly + any persons,’ while its Type 2 counterpart -êj + (or -jeu), i.e., -V2j/2, + has the completely different meaning of ‘somewhat like/sort of like…’ + as in qumjéu ‘sort of like some persons.’ + Compare this, however, to the Type 1 suffix -up (or -pu), + i.e., -V1p/9, and its Type 2 counterpart + -ûp (or -pû), i.e., -V2p/9, + which both mean ‘exactly similar to…/identical…,’ the + difference in usage being that the Type 1 affix conveys merely a circumstantial + or incidental similarity, while the Type 2 suffix implies that the similarity + is an integral aspect of the word. In English, such a distinction would most + likely be conveyed by using a different word. For example, note the difference + when we add these two suffixes to the Ithkuil word qum ‘person’: + qumpu means ‘identical-looking person,’ whereas + qumpû means ‘twin.’ In this way, we can say + that the suffix -Vp with Type 1 vocalic infixes conveys a circumstantial + application of its meaning to a stem, while with Type 2 vocalic infixes, it + conveys a derivational application of its meaning (i.e., wholly new concepts + or words are derived from the stem).

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.2 SUFFIXES MODIFYING OTHER SUFFIXES

    +
    +

    In addition to the patterns of suffix usage described above, + there is another class of suffixes which not only can be used to distinguish + a circumstantial versus derivational aspect like -Vp above, + but can also be used to modify an adjacent suffix rather than the stem. This + is somewhat analogous to the way that adverbs can be used to modify descriptive + adjectives in English. For example, in the phrase suddenly blue sky, + it is the blueness that is sudden, not the sky. In Ithkuil, certain suffixes + can be used to modify another suffix (usually the one following, unless there + are only two affixes on the stem, in which case the suffix order is irrelevant); + this is done by using Type 3 vocalic infixes. For example, the suffix -Vd/5, + which means ‘enough / sufficient(ly),’ can be used both circumstantially + (using Type 1 infixes) and derivationally (using Type 2 infixes) to modify a + stem, or can be used to modify only the adjacent suffix (using Type 3 infixes). + This is illustrated below:

    +

    qumad (or qumda): ‘a + sufficient person’ (i.e., one able to perform the task at hand)
    + qumuid (or qumdui): ‘a recruit’ + (i.e., one able to meet performance or entry requirements)
    + qumüxduï (or qumiädüx): + ‘a sufficiently large person’ (where suffix -V1x/6 + = ‘large’)

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.3 THE FIVE AFFIX CLASSES

    +
    +

    All in all, there are five different patterns in which the + meanings/functions of affixes are distributed. There are those like -ej + and -êj above where the Type 1 meaning/function is completely + different than that of Type 2. We will label these classes of affixes V1C + affixes and V2C affixes respectively, + as they represent two totally independent affixes.

    +

    Additionally there are those like -up and + -ûp which are essentially a single affix with one meaning/function + that alternates between Type 1 and Type 2 infixes to distinguish a circumstantial + versus a derivational aspect in the stem to which they are affixed. We will + label such affixes V0C suffixes.

    +

    Then there are suffixes like -(a)d/-uid/-iad + shown above which alternate the circumstantial/derivational distinction using + Type 1 versus Type 2 infixes, but then go a step further by using Type 3 vocalic + infixes to indicate modification of an adjacent suffix; we will label these + V3C suffixes.

    +

    Lastly there is a class of suffixes labeled VSC + suffixes; this class of suffix operates like a V1C + suffix (i.e., an independent affix which modifies the stem circumstantially, + but not derivationally) but then also uses Type 2 infixes to apply the same + meaning to the adjacent affix, similarly to the use of Type 3 infixes for V3C + suffixes.

    +

    These five classes of affixes are summarized below:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    V1C
    Takes Type 1 vocalic infixes only. + Can be either circumstantial or derivational in meaning (but not both), + depending on the particular affix.
    V2C
    Takes Type 2 vocalic infixes only. Can be either + circumstantial or derivational in meaning (but not both), depending + on the particular affix.
    V0C
    Takes both Type 1 and Type 2 vocalic infixes. Use + of Type 1 infix means affix applies circumstantially to the particular + instance of the stem; use of Type 2 infix means the affix is derivational + and generates an emergent concept for the stem constituting a new semantic + whole.
    VSC
    Takes both Type 1 and Type 2 vocalic infixes, but + use is circumstantial only, not derivational. Use of Type 1 infix means + affix aplies the stem; use of Type 2 infix means the affix applies to + the adjacent affix only.
    V3C
    Same as V0C + affixes where Type 1 infix operates circumstantially and Type 2 infix + operates derivationally; but also takes Type 3 vocalic infixes which + function to modify an adjacent affix (as with VSC + suffixes when using Type 2 infixes)
    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.4 PERSONAL REFERENCE SUFFIXES

    +
    +

    There is one additional class of suffixes which must await + analysis until the next chapter on adjuncts. In Sec. + 8.1 we will encounter a type of adjunct known as a personal reference adjunct + which roughly corresponds to the function of personal pronouns in Western languages. + These adjuncts come in two types: single-referent and dual-referent. We will + see that the 46 single-referent adjuncts have corresponding suffix forms which + utilize Type 3 vocalic infix patterns, and that the nine degrees associated + with each suffix correspond to nine specific nominal cases (specifically the + seven Associative cases described in Sec. + 4.4 and two of the Appositive cases described in Sec. + 4.5). These suffixes will be discussed in detail in Sec. + 8.1.5.

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.5 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL RULES + FOR SUFFIXATION

    +
    +

    When adding suffixes to a stem, several factors affect how + suffixation takes place. For example, when adding the 5th degree suffix -(a)s + to the stem ruk, one cannot simply append the suffix directly + as in ruks because the resulting final consonant combination + of -ks would be misinterpreted as the Grade 4 mutation of the + C2 radical s (i.e., the reader would + misinterpret the word to be based on the stem rus instead of + ruk). In this case, there are two options. The suffix can take + its optional vowel component, giving rukas, or the suffix can + be reversed to give ruksa. Such reversals are permitted under + certain circumstances such as when the suffix is word-final, as is the case + here. An astute reader may be wondering at this point, wouldn’t the -ks- + conjunct in ruksa once again be mistaken for the Grade 4 mutation + of s as it was in ruks? In this case, the + answer is no because there is no other reason for the final -a + to be there. In words where a final vowel appears for no possible reason, then + it means it is the vocalic portion of a “reversed” suffix. However, + one must be certain there is not another reason for the final vowel. For example, + in the word ïruksá, one might be tempted to interpret + the final vowel as being the vocalic portion of a reversed -(a)s + suffix, however, in fact this word represents the word rus + with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical s, declined into the + ABSTRACT perspective, a morphological category shown by + ultimate stress plus the addition of an anaptyctic (i.e., “extra”) + vowel, in this case, the word-initial ï- (see Secs. + 2.7.3.3 and 3.3.4).

    +


    + 7.5.1 Multiple Affixation

    +

    When adding two or more suffixes to a stem, the suffixes generally + can be added to the stem in any order desired, with the exception of suffixes + which modify an adjacent suffix (i.e., VSC + suffixes utilizing Type 2 vocalic infixes and V3C + suffixes utilizing Type 3 vocalic infixes). Such suffixes must immediately precede + the suffix they are modifying, unless they are in word-final position, in which + case they modify the immediately preceding suffix.

    +


    + 7.5.2 Reversal of Suffixes

    +

    As mentioned above, the form of a suffix can be optionally + reversed from vowel+consonant to consonant+vowel under certain circumstances. + The main reason for reversing suffixes is for euphonic purposes to preserve + a CVC format for the stressed syllable whenever possible (see Sec. + 1.4.5). We have seen in the example ruksa above, that such reversals are + possible when a suffix is in word-final position if it will not cause confusion + regarding interpretation of any resulting consonantal conjunct. The same is + true of suffix reversals within a word as well, i.e., the reversal is permissible + as long as the reversal does not cause ambiguity in interpreting which vowels + go with which consonant, or that a resulting consonant conjunct is misinterpreted + as a biconsonantal suffix form or C2 radical. For example, + the stem peix plus the two suffixes -(a)r + (-V1r/5) and -uic (-V2c/5) + can be realized either as peixruic, peixarcui, peixuicra, peixcuira, + peixracui or peixuicar . However, the stem stis + plus the two suffixes -(a)k and -(a)t (-V1k/5 + and -V1t/5) can only be realized as stisatka, + stisatak or stisakat, since the forms stiskat, + stistak, or stisakt could be respectively + misinterpreted as stisk+at, stist+ak, and + stis+akt.

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.6 RULES FOR OPTIONAL PREFIXATION

    +
    +

    Under a certain narrow range of circumstances, a formative + may have one consonantal affix appear as a prefix to the stem rather than being + suffixed. The sole reason for doing so is for euphonic purposes, either to decrease + the number of syllables or to avoid euphonically awkward combinations of consonants + and vowels among the suffixes to the stem. Because of the morpho-phonological + restrictions on consonantal prefixation as described below, prefixes are uncommon. +

    +

    The rules for optional prefixation depend on whether or not + the formative has a word-initial vocalic prefix (i.e., the Affiliation/Extension + [+ Conflation] prefix as described in Sections + 3.2, 3.4, and + 5.3. These two possibilities + are each detailed in the sections which follow.

    +


    + 7.6.1 Prefixation Rules for Formatives Without Vocalic Prefixes

    +

    If the formative is a noun with no word-initial vocalic Affiliation/Extension + prefix, then the consonant is placed in word-initial position before the C1 + radical. If the resulting consonantal conjunct (with the C1 consonantal form) + is phonaesthetically impermissible or it causes ambiguity over the interpretation + of C1 (i.e., the prefix + C1 conjunct + could be misinterpreted as one of the mutational grades of that or a different + C1 radical), then an anaptyctic vowel -ï- + must be inserted between the prefixed consonant and the C1 + consonant. For example s + kuil becomes sïkuil, + not skuil, since the sk- initial conjunct + of the latter would be misinterpreted as the C1 radical + of an entirely different stem.

    +

    As for the vocalic portion of the affix (the portion which + indicates which of nine degrees is to be associated with the affix), the vocalic + portion is suffixed to the stem in word-final position (and therefore its word-final + form) in a manner so that it cannot be ambiguously interpreted as being associated + with another suffix. Thus kuil + es, if prefixed, + becomes sïkuilei. For prefixed consonants which do not + cause confusion over the interpretation of the C1 radical, + these can be directly adjoined to the C1 radical, preceded + by a word-initial ï- if phonaesthetically necessary, e.g., + guil + uj becomes jguilu, + while kuil + up becomes ïpkuilu. +

    +

    Note that forms such as sïkuilei and + ïpkuilu above are considered highly affected morphological + forms, since their “standard” forms are far more euphonically desirable + (i.e., kuiles and kuilpu). In such cases, + these “affected” prefixed forms have the rhetorical effect of emphasizing + or highlighting the affix as having exaggerated significance.

    +


    + 7.6.2 Rules for Formatives With Vocalic Prefixes

    +

    For formatives that are either verbs or nouns with a vocalic + Affiliation/Extension prefix, the rules for consonantal prefixation are more + constrained, as no forms using an anaptyctic vowel are permitted. The consonantal + affix is infixed between the word-initial vocalic prefix of the formative and + the C1 radical. This is only permissible if the infix + does not cause ambiguity in interpretation of the resulting consonant conjunct, + i.e., it will not be confused with either a different radical or an Illocution + affix (see Sec. 5.1). The + vocalic portion of the consonantal affix which indicates the degree of the affix + is suffixed in word-final position so that it cannot be ambiguously interpreted + as being associated with another suffix. Thus, for example, woikâl + + uc becomes woickâlu. If placement + of the vocalic suffix indicating degree results in ambiguity as to which consonantal + affix it applies to, then prefixation of the consonantal affix is not permitted. + For example, the form ébdortui would be impermissible + because it is ambiguous as to whether the word is equivalent to édorta+bui, + édora+(a)t+bui, or + édora+tui+(a)b.

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    +

    7.7 LIST OF AFFIXES

    +
    +

    The 153 affix categories are given in the sections which follow. + Each affix indicates which of the five classes of affixes it belongs (V1C, + V2C, V0C, VSC, + or V3C), + the consonant-form associated with it, its overall function, its three-letter + label used in morphological analysis, and the meaning or translation of each + of its nine degrees. For most degrees, a nominal and verbal meaning is given. +

    +


    + 7.7.1 Demonstrative Affixes

    +

    These affixes correspond to various determiners and modifying + adjectives in English having to do with denoting or identifying a noun within + a larger context or discourse.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1kt
    DEF
    		Degree Of Definiteness
    Degree 1any (number + of) [random selection - NOT quantitative/partitive “any”]; in + any manner
    Degree 2almost + any; in almost any (number of) way(s)
    Degree 3some X + or other; in some way or other
    Degree 4some certain + X ; in some certain way [identity unknown]
    Degree 5this X + or that; a certain X or more; in this way or that [identity almost known + – choices limited]
    Degree 6a certain + / a particular; in a certain or particular way [identity ascertainable]
    Degree 7presumably + this/that; apparently this X ; in that way presumably [tentatively identified] +
    Degree 8 this/that/said; + in said manner/(in) that way [identity known]
    Degree 9at hand/under + discussion/this one now/instant; in this manner [identity = present context]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2kt
    INL
    		Degree Of Discretion
    Degree 1announced/advertised/heralded; + w/ public disclosure
    Degree 2open & + well-known; with full public knowledge
    Degree 3open/public; + for all to see/publicly/openly
    Degree 4shown, + open, or available by request/ by request
    Degree 5semi-public(ly), + exclusive(ly)
    Degree 6own/personal; + personally
    Degree 7own private; + privately
    Degree 8 secret; + secretly
    Degree 9confidential/classified
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1
    INL
    		Degree Of Inclusion
    Degree 1not a(ny), + not one, no X whatsoever, none of X; in no such manner
    Degree 2hardly + any, barely any X; in hardly any such manner
    Degree 3some few/a + few certain … ; in a few certain ways
    Degree 4some (of)/certain + . . .; in certain ways
    Degree 5several + / more than a few / various / in various ways / in several different ways
    Degree 6a significant + portion of/a fair number of; in a fair number of ways
    Degree 7most/in + most ways
    Degree 8 almost + every; in almost every way
    Degree 9each/every; + in each way
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2
    EXT
    		Exactness of Identity / Identity As a Referent Or Standard
    Degree 1nothing + like that X; nothing like that ; in no way similar
    Degree 2somewhat + like that X; somewhat so
    Degree 3nearly + or almost that X; nearly or almost so
    Degree 4just about + . . . / for all intents and purposes
    Degree 5kind of + / type of / this sort of; typically
    Degree 6such (a); + in such a manner
    Degree 7clear (case + of); clearly / certainly / indeed[in negative sentences = no way / at all]
    Degree 8 just like + that; just so, thus(ly)
    Degree 9the exact + X / the very (one); exactly thus / exactly so
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0s
    FAM
    		Degree Of Familiarity
    Degree 1unknowable + / alien; unable to even try X-ing
    Degree 2totally + unfamiliar; totally unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 3unfamiliar; + unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 4somewhat + unfamiliar; somewhat unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 5only just + (recently) familiar; only just recently familiar to X-ing
    Degree 6somewhat + familiar; somewhat accustomed to X-ing
    Degree 7familiar/known; + accustomed to X-ing
    Degree 8 well-known + / utterly familiar with / ingrained; inherently accustomed or used to X-ing
    Degree 9intimate + with; intimately involved with / intimately accustomed to
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0p
    SIM
    		Degree Of Similarity
    Degree 1opposite; + as different as possible / at the other extreme
    Degree 2completely + different/dissimilar; in a totally different or dissimilar way
    Degree 3rather + different / barely similar / almost completely different or dissimilar; + in an almost completely different way
    Degree 4other [=different]; + in another [=different] way
    Degree 5somewhat + different, only superficially similar; somewhat differently
    Degree 6similar + in the ways that count/similar down deep, some sort of X; similarly at deep + level
    Degree 7(somewhat) + similar, only superficially different, sort of like, something like, X-like; + similarly
    Degree 8 very similar; + very similarly
    Degree 9[exactly + the] same, indistinguishable from; in the [exactly] same way
    +

     

    +

    7.7.2 Deictic Affixes

    +

    Deictic affixes refer to the grammatical process of deixis, + the act of pointing to or pointing out. The affixes correspond to the different + variants of the concepts of ‘here’ and ‘there.’ In Ithkuil, + distinctions are made in these affixes as to whether a referent is near the + speaker, near the listener, distant from both, whether it is observable or accessible, + and in some case, whether it is alienable or inalienable (i.e., whether the + entity can be separated from the associated person).
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1’
    DEX
    		Deixis Categories
    Degree 1yonder + / way over there somewhere / a long way away (not near anyone) [inaccessible + or unobservable]
    Degree 2over there + somewhere (by third party) [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 3there somewhere + (by listener) [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 4here somewhere + (by speaker] [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 5here (by + speaker and accessible]
    Degree 6here with + us (by speaker and listener and accessible]
    Degree 7there [by + listener and accessible]
    Degree 8 there (by + third party, but accessible to speaker and listener)
    Degree 9yonder + / way over there [not near any party but accessible]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2’
    DXX
    		More Deixis Categories
    Degree 1spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [inaccessible]
    Degree 2spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [inaccessible]
    Degree 3spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over the place / here + and there [inaccessible]
    Degree 4spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over / here & there + [observable but inaccessible]
    Degree 5spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [inalienable]
    Degree 6spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [alienable]
    Degree 7spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker/all over the place / here + and there [accessible]
    Degree 8 spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [accessible]
    Degree 9spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [accessible]
    +

     

    +

    7.7.3 Sequential Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1nn
    SEQ
    		Numerical Sequence
    Degree 1first / + initial; first(ly) / first of all
    Degree 2second; + secondly
    Degree 3third; + thirdly
    Degree 4still near + the beginning / not yet halfway
    Degree 5the middle + one, in between (sequentially)/ just about halfway there
    Degree 6nearing + the end
    Degree 7third from + last; antepenultimately
    Degree 8 next to + last; penultimately
    Degree 9last / + final; last(ly) / finally (in terms of sequence)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2nn
    SQT
    		Sequence Relative to Present Context
    Degree 1immediately + beforehand / first
    Degree 2one before + preceding
    Degree 3the former; + primarily
    Degree 4two before + preceding
    Degree 5current/at + hand; now/currently / at the moment [in sequence of events]
    Degree 6second + one after next
    Degree 7the latter; + secondarily
    Degree 8 one after + next
    Degree 9next / + following; then / next
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0c’
    SQC
    		Sequence of Cause and Effect
    Degree 1originating; + originally / in the first place / initially / at the outset
    Degree 2preliminary; + preliminarily
    Degree 3preparatory + / in preparation for / getting ready to
    Degree 4awaited; + waiting to/ waiting for [focus on imminency or sequential position, NOT + on anticipation]
    Degree 5precursor + to; but just beforehand
    Degree 6based on + the preceding and setting the stage for what follows
    Degree 7eventual + / at last; at last / finally (result)
    Degree 8 following + /...which follows; then subsequent to that / following that...
    Degree 9subsequent + / consequent; then / so / thus / therefore
    +

     

    +

    7.7.4 Coordinative Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1w
    +     or -V1y
    COO
    		Adjunctive Coordination
    Degree 1in conjunction + with / combined with / including X
    Degree 2and / also + / additionally/ furthermore/ moreover/ what’s more
    Degree 3 . . . + and so forth / and so on / and all that/ and whatever else
    Degree 4and at + the same time / and simultaneously
    Degree 5and [all + in a series]
    Degree 6or [potentially + inclusive] = and/or
    Degree 7either + . . . or [exclusive or] / or else
    Degree 8 . . . or + something else / or whatever / or whatever else
    Degree 9either + . . . or [exclusive or in a series]
    +

    Degree 2 of this affix is used with FOCUS (see Sec. + 3.5) to disambiguate a sentence like Our team defeated their team, too + [is our team on a winning streak or is their team on a losing streak?]
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1rr
    CTR
    		Contrastive Coordination
    Degree 1still / + nevertheless / however — (despite seemingly inherent conflict or contradiction)
    Degree 2besides + / not just . . . but also / in addition to X… also
    Degree 3even / + or even / … still [e.g., thicker still]
    Degree 4or [= otherwise]
    Degree 5as opposed + to / but not
    Degree 6but [qualifying]
    Degree 7however + / on the other hand — (simple difference in expected outcome, no inherent + conflict)
    Degree 8 but (rather) + [= substitute]
    Degree 9just in + case / should the need arise
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2rr
    DST
    		Distributive Coordination
    Degree 1applying + to each equally [unfairly]
    Degree 2applied + selectively by decision/preference [unfairly]
    Degree 3respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [unfairly]
    Degree 4selectively + at random [unfairly]
    Degree 5respectively + [= applied in the sequentially spoken order]
    Degree 6selectively + at random [fairly]
    Degree 7respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [fairly]
    Degree 8 applied + selectively by decision/calculation [fairly]
    Degree 9applying + to each equally [fairly]
    + +

     

    +

    Chapter + 7 continued >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt + any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2307087 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,1423 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 7: Using Affixes + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 7: Using Affixes

    + +


    + All Ithkuil formatives are capable of taking various consonant-based + affixes. Like affixes in other languages, these are used to modify the stem + in a variety of ways and to derive new concepts. In Ithkuil, such affixes usually + appear as suffixes (i.e., are added sequentially following the stem), however, + it is possible for Ithkuil affixes to optionally appear as prefixes (i.e., added + on to the front of a stem) under certain circumstances. It is for this reason + these morphological elements are referred to as affixes and not more specifically + as prefixes or suffixes. Nevertheless, the rules for prefixation of Ithkuil + affixes are subordinate and secondary to the rules for suffixation. Therefore, + in the following discussion I will first describe the rules for using Ithkuil + affixes as suffixes, followed by a section on the options for prefixation.

    +

    The morpho-phonological structure of suffixes (how they are + formed from consonants and vowels) has already been briefly discussed in Section + 2.7. This chapter will describe the actual function of the particular affixes + themselves.

    +

    There are 153 different consonantal suffix categories, each + of which divides into the nine degrees previously discussed in Section + 2.7.2 giving a total of 1377 distinct suffixes. As described in that section, + each degree of a suffix has a distinct meaning, often representing a point along + a continuum in terms of how much or how little the underlying semantic sense + of the affix category is being manifested by the particular formative.

    +

    It is important to remember that, since all morpho-semantic + stems are both nominal and verbal in meaning, all suffixes to a stem have both + a nominal and a verbal meaning. Therefore, the choice whether to translate the + suffixes below into their nominal or verbal meaning is entirely dependent on + the morpho-syntactical structure of the word within the context of its use in + a phrase or sentence as a whole.

    +

    We have seen in Section + 2.7 that consonantal suffixes fall into three affix-types, each having nine + degrees. It is the combination of affix-type and degree which determines the + vowel infix which accompanies each consonantal suffix. For example, the suffix + -nt of Type 1 takes the following forms for its nine degrees: + -int, -ent, -änt, -önt, (a)nt, + -ünt, -ïnt, -ont, -unt. Compare this to the same affix -nt + of Type 2, whose nine forms are: -înt, -ênt, -ânt, + -ønt, -uint, -ÿnt, -ënt, -ônt, -ûnt; and + the suffix -nt of Type 3, whose nine forms are: -ient, + -iënt, -iunt, -iont, -iänt, -uänt, -uont, -uënt, -uent. + These vowel infixes for suffixes are shown in Table 21 below (this table already + appeared in Chapter 2 as Table 9; it is repeated here for convenience).

    +

    +

    Table 21: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Affix Type

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
    Affix + Type 1: -V1C
    Affix + Type 2: -V2C
    Affix + Type 3: -V3C
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    standard + form
    optional + reversed form
    Degree + 1
    -iC
    -Cai
    -îC
    -Cëi
    -ieC
    -Caï
    Degree + 2
    -eC
    -Cei
    -êC / -eiC
    -Ceu
    -iëC
    -Ceï
    Degree + 3
    -äC / -aeC
    -Cia
    -âC /-aiC
    -Câ
    -iuC
    -Ciï
    Degree + 4
    -öC
    -Cua
    -øC / -euC
    -Ciu
    -ioC
    -Coï
    Degree + 5
    -(a)C
    -Ca
    -uiC
    -Cui
    -iäC
    -Cuï
    Degree + 6
    -üC / -ëuC
    -Cü
    -ÿC / -auC
    -Cau
    -uäC
    -Cäi
    Degree + 7
    -ïC / -ëiC
    -Cï
    -ëC
    -Cëu
    -uoC
    -Cöi
    Degree + 8
    -oC
    -Coi
    -ôC / -oiC / -ouC
    -Cou
    -uëC
    -Cäu
    Degree + 9
    -uC
    -Cu
    -ûC
    -Cû
    -ueC
    -Cöu
    +

    +

    NOTE: For convenience’ sake, when referring to a particular + affix of specific type and degree, we will use the notation in the paragraph + above, followed by a slash and a number indicating the degree. Thus, the affix + -nt of Type 1 and 4th degree will be written -V1nt/4, + while the affix -r of Type 3 and 8th degree would be written + -V3r/8, and so forth.

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.1 DISTINCTION IN SUFFIXES BY + AFFIX-TYPE

    +
    +

    The meaning and usage of each affix by type is particular to + each individual affix. For example, some affixes of Type 1 have a completely + different meaning than their Type 2 or Type 3 counterparts, while other affixes + can be used as both Type 1 or Type 2 with the affix having the same meaning + but conveying a different effect on the overall connotation of the word to which + they are affixed. Still other affixes retain their meaning across all three + affix types but again convey a different overall connotation on the words to + which they are affixed.

    +

    For example, the Type 1 suffix -ej (or -jei), + i.e., -V1j/2, means ‘hardly any + (of)…’ as in the word qumjéi ‘hardly + any persons,’ while its Type 2 counterpart -êj + (or -jeu), i.e., -V2j/2, + has the completely different meaning of ‘somewhat like/sort of like…’ + as in qumjéu ‘sort of like some persons.’ + Compare this, however, to the Type 1 suffix -up (or -pu), + i.e., -V1p/9, and its Type 2 counterpart + -ûp (or -pû), i.e., -V2p/9, + which both mean ‘exactly similar to…/identical…,’ the + difference in usage being that the Type 1 affix conveys merely a circumstantial + or incidental similarity, while the Type 2 suffix implies that the similarity + is an integral aspect of the word. In English, such a distinction would most + likely be conveyed by using a different word. For example, note the difference + when we add these two suffixes to the Ithkuil word qum ‘person’: + qumpu means ‘identical-looking person,’ whereas + qumpû means ‘twin.’ In this way, we can say + that the suffix -Vp with Type 1 vocalic infixes conveys a circumstantial + application of its meaning to a stem, while with Type 2 vocalic infixes, it + conveys a derivational application of its meaning (i.e., wholly new concepts + or words are derived from the stem).

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.2 SUFFIXES MODIFYING OTHER SUFFIXES

    +
    +

    In addition to the patterns of suffix usage described above, + there is another class of suffixes which not only can be used to distinguish + a circumstantial versus derivational aspect like -Vp above, + but can also be used to modify an adjacent suffix rather than the stem. This + is somewhat analogous to the way that adverbs can be used to modify descriptive + adjectives in English. For example, in the phrase suddenly blue sky, + it is the blueness that is sudden, not the sky. In Ithkuil, certain suffixes + can be used to modify another suffix (usually the one following, unless there + are only two affixes on the stem, in which case the suffix order is irrelevant); + this is done by using Type 3 vocalic infixes. For example, the suffix -Vd/5, + which means ‘enough / sufficient(ly),’ can be used both circumstantially + (using Type 1 infixes) and derivationally (using Type 2 infixes) to modify a + stem, or can be used to modify only the adjacent suffix (using Type 3 infixes). + This is illustrated below:

    +

    qumad (or qumda): ‘a + sufficient person’ (i.e., one able to perform the task at hand)
    + qumuid (or qumdui): ‘a recruit’ + (i.e., one able to meet performance or entry requirements)
    + qumüxduï (or qumiädüx): + ‘a sufficiently large person’ (where suffix -V1x/6 + = ‘large’)

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.3 THE FIVE AFFIX CLASSES

    +
    +

    All in all, there are five different patterns in which the + meanings/functions of affixes are distributed. There are those like -ej + and -êj above where the Type 1 meaning/function is completely + different than that of Type 2. We will label these classes of affixes V1C + affixes and V2C affixes respectively, + as they represent two totally independent affixes.

    +

    Additionally there are those like -up and + -ûp which are essentially a single affix with one meaning/function + that alternates between Type 1 and Type 2 infixes to distinguish a circumstantial + versus a derivational aspect in the stem to which they are affixed. We will + label such affixes V0C suffixes.

    +

    Then there are suffixes like -(a)d/-uid/-iad + shown above which alternate the circumstantial/derivational distinction using + Type 1 versus Type 2 infixes, but then go a step further by using Type 3 vocalic + infixes to indicate modification of an adjacent suffix; we will label these + V3C suffixes.

    +

    Lastly there is a class of suffixes labeled VSC + suffixes; this class of suffix operates like a V1C + suffix (i.e., an independent affix which modifies the stem circumstantially, + but not derivationally) but then also uses Type 2 infixes to apply the same + meaning to the adjacent affix, similarly to the use of Type 3 infixes for V3C + suffixes.

    +

    These five classes of affixes are summarized below:

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    V1C
    Takes Type 1 vocalic infixes only. + Can be either circumstantial or derivational in meaning (but not both), + depending on the particular affix.
    V2C
    Takes Type 2 vocalic infixes only. Can be either + circumstantial or derivational in meaning (but not both), depending + on the particular affix.
    V0C
    Takes both Type 1 and Type 2 vocalic infixes. Use + of Type 1 infix means affix applies circumstantially to the particular + instance of the stem; use of Type 2 infix means the affix is derivational + and generates an emergent concept for the stem constituting a new semantic + whole.
    VSC
    Takes both Type 1 and Type 2 vocalic infixes, but + use is circumstantial only, not derivational. Use of Type 1 infix means + affix aplies the stem; use of Type 2 infix means the affix applies to + the adjacent affix only.
    V3C
    Same as V0C + affixes where Type 1 infix operates circumstantially and Type 2 infix + operates derivationally; but also takes Type 3 vocalic infixes which + function to modify an adjacent affix (as with VSC + suffixes when using Type 2 infixes)
    +
    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.4 PERSONAL REFERENCE SUFFIXES

    +
    +

    There is one additional class of suffixes which must await + analysis until the next chapter on adjuncts. In Sec. + 8.1 we will encounter a type of adjunct known as a personal reference adjunct + which roughly corresponds to the function of personal pronouns in Western languages. + These adjuncts come in two types: single-referent and dual-referent. We will + see that the 46 single-referent adjuncts have corresponding suffix forms which + utilize Type 3 vocalic infix patterns, and that the nine degrees associated + with each suffix correspond to nine specific nominal cases (specifically the + seven Associative cases described in Sec. + 4.4 and two of the Appositive cases described in Sec. + 4.5). These suffixes will be discussed in detail in Sec. + 8.1.5.

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.5 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL RULES + FOR SUFFIXATION

    +
    +

    When adding suffixes to a stem, several factors affect how + suffixation takes place. For example, when adding the 5th degree suffix -(a)s + to the stem ruk, one cannot simply append the suffix directly + as in ruks because the resulting final consonant combination + of -ks would be misinterpreted as the Grade 4 mutation of the + C2 radical s (i.e., the reader would + misinterpret the word to be based on the stem rus instead of + ruk). In this case, there are two options. The suffix can take + its optional vowel component, giving rukas, or the suffix can + be reversed to give ruksa. Such reversals are permitted under + certain circumstances such as when the suffix is word-final, as is the case + here. An astute reader may be wondering at this point, wouldn’t the -ks- + conjunct in ruksa once again be mistaken for the Grade 4 mutation + of s as it was in ruks? In this case, the + answer is no because there is no other reason for the final -a + to be there. In words where a final vowel appears for no possible reason, then + it means it is the vocalic portion of a “reversed” suffix. However, + one must be certain there is not another reason for the final vowel. For example, + in the word ïruksá, one might be tempted to interpret + the final vowel as being the vocalic portion of a reversed -(a)s + suffix, however, in fact this word represents the word rus + with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical s, declined into the + ABSTRACT perspective, a morphological category shown by + ultimate stress plus the addition of an anaptyctic (i.e., “extra”) + vowel, in this case, the word-initial ï- (see Secs. + 2.7.3.3 and 3.3.4).

    +


    + 7.5.1 Multiple Affixation

    +

    When adding two or more suffixes to a stem, the suffixes generally + can be added to the stem in any order desired, with the exception of suffixes + which modify an adjacent suffix (i.e., VSC + suffixes utilizing Type 2 vocalic infixes and V3C + suffixes utilizing Type 3 vocalic infixes). Such suffixes must immediately precede + the suffix they are modifying, unless they are in word-final position, in which + case they modify the immediately preceding suffix.

    +


    + 7.5.2 Reversal of Suffixes

    +

    As mentioned above, the form of a suffix can be optionally + reversed from vowel+consonant to consonant+vowel under certain circumstances. + The main reason for reversing suffixes is for euphonic purposes to preserve + a CVC format for the stressed syllable whenever possible (see Sec. + 1.4.5). We have seen in the example ruksa above, that such reversals are + possible when a suffix is in word-final position if it will not cause confusion + regarding interpretation of any resulting consonantal conjunct. The same is + true of suffix reversals within a word as well, i.e., the reversal is permissible + as long as the reversal does not cause ambiguity in interpreting which vowels + go with which consonant, or that a resulting consonant conjunct is misinterpreted + as a biconsonantal suffix form or C2 radical. For example, + the stem peix plus the two suffixes -(a)r + (-V1r/5) and -uic (-V2c/5) + can be realized either as peixruic, peixarcui, peixuicra, peixcuira, + peixracui or peixuicar . However, the stem stis + plus the two suffixes -(a)k and -(a)t (-V1k/5 + and -V1t/5) can only be realized as stisatka, + stisatak or stisakat, since the forms stiskat, + stistak, or stisakt could be respectively + misinterpreted as stisk+at, stist+ak, and + stis+akt.

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    7.6 RULES FOR OPTIONAL PREFIXATION

    +
    +

    Under a certain narrow range of circumstances, a formative + may have one consonantal affix appear as a prefix to the stem rather than being + suffixed. The sole reason for doing so is for euphonic purposes, either to decrease + the number of syllables or to avoid euphonically awkward combinations of consonants + and vowels among the suffixes to the stem. Because of the morpho-phonological + restrictions on consonantal prefixation as described below, prefixes are uncommon. +

    +

    The rules for optional prefixation depend on whether or not + the formative has a word-initial vocalic prefix (i.e., the Affiliation/Extension + [+ Conflation] prefix as described in Sections + 3.2, 3.4, and + 5.3. These two possibilities + are each detailed in the sections which follow.

    +


    + 7.6.1 Prefixation Rules for Formatives Without Vocalic Prefixes

    +

    If the formative is a noun with no word-initial vocalic Affiliation/Extension + prefix, then the consonant is placed in word-initial position before the C1 + radical. If the resulting consonantal conjunct (with the C1 consonantal form) + is phonaesthetically impermissible or it causes ambiguity over the interpretation + of C1 (i.e., the prefix + C1 conjunct + could be misinterpreted as one of the mutational grades of that or a different + C1 radical), then an anaptyctic vowel -ï- + must be inserted between the prefixed consonant and the C1 + consonant. For example s + kuil becomes sïkuil, + not skuil, since the sk- initial conjunct + of the latter would be misinterpreted as the C1 radical + of an entirely different stem.

    +

    As for the vocalic portion of the affix (the portion which + indicates which of nine degrees is to be associated with the affix), the vocalic + portion is suffixed to the stem in word-final position (and therefore its word-final + form) in a manner so that it cannot be ambiguously interpreted as being associated + with another suffix. Thus kuil + es, if prefixed, + becomes sïkuilei. For prefixed consonants which do not + cause confusion over the interpretation of the C1 radical, + these can be directly adjoined to the C1 radical, preceded + by a word-initial ï- if phonaesthetically necessary, e.g., + guil + uj becomes jguilu, + while kuil + up becomes ïpkuilu. +

    +

    Note that forms such as sïkuilei and + ïpkuilu above are considered highly affected morphological + forms, since their “standard” forms are far more euphonically desirable + (i.e., kuiles and kuilpu). In such cases, + these “affected” prefixed forms have the rhetorical effect of emphasizing + or highlighting the affix as having exaggerated significance.

    +


    + 7.6.2 Rules for Formatives With Vocalic Prefixes

    +

    For formatives that are either verbs or nouns with a vocalic + Affiliation/Extension prefix, the rules for consonantal prefixation are more + constrained, as no forms using an anaptyctic vowel are permitted. The consonantal + affix is infixed between the word-initial vocalic prefix of the formative and + the C1 radical. This is only permissible if the infix + does not cause ambiguity in interpretation of the resulting consonant conjunct, + i.e., it will not be confused with either a different radical or an Illocution + affix (see Sec. 5.1). The + vocalic portion of the consonantal affix which indicates the degree of the affix + is suffixed in word-final position so that it cannot be ambiguously interpreted + as being associated with another suffix. Thus, for example, woikâl + + uc becomes woickâlu. If placement + of the vocalic suffix indicating degree results in ambiguity as to which consonantal + affix it applies to, then prefixation of the consonantal affix is not permitted. + For example, the form ébdortui would be impermissible + because it is ambiguous as to whether the word is equivalent to édorta+bui, + édora+(a)t+bui, or + édora+tui+(a)b.

    + +

     

    +
    + + + + +
    +

    7.7 LIST OF AFFIXES

    +
    +

    The 153 affix categories are given in the sections which follow. + Each affix indicates which of the five classes of affixes it belongs (V1C, + V2C, V0C, VSC, + or V3C), + the consonant-form associated with it, its overall function, its three-letter + label used in morphological analysis, and the meaning or translation of each + of its nine degrees. For most degrees, a nominal and verbal meaning is given. +

    +


    + 7.7.1 Demonstrative Affixes

    +

    These affixes correspond to various determiners and modifying + adjectives in English having to do with denoting or identifying a noun within + a larger context or discourse.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1kt
    DEF
    		Degree Of Definiteness
    Degree 1any (number + of) [random selection - NOT quantitative/partitive “any”]; in + any manner
    Degree 2almost + any; in almost any (number of) way(s)
    Degree 3some X + or other; in some way or other
    Degree 4some certain + X ; in some certain way [identity unknown]
    Degree 5this X + or that; a certain X or more; in this way or that [identity almost known + – choices limited]
    Degree 6a certain + / a particular; in a certain or particular way [identity ascertainable]
    Degree 7presumably + this/that; apparently this X ; in that way presumably [tentatively identified] +
    Degree 8 this/that/said; + in said manner/(in) that way [identity known]
    Degree 9at hand/under + discussion/this one now/instant; in this manner [identity = present context]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2kt
    INL
    		Degree Of Discretion
    Degree 1announced/advertised/heralded; + w/ public disclosure
    Degree 2open & + well-known; with full public knowledge
    Degree 3open/public; + for all to see/publicly/openly
    Degree 4shown, + open, or available by request/ by request
    Degree 5semi-public(ly), + exclusive(ly)
    Degree 6own/personal; + personally
    Degree 7own private; + privately
    Degree 8 secret; + secretly
    Degree 9confidential/classified
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1
    INL
    		Degree Of Inclusion
    Degree 1not a(ny), + not one, no X whatsoever, none of X; in no such manner
    Degree 2hardly + any, barely any X; in hardly any such manner
    Degree 3some few/a + few certain … ; in a few certain ways
    Degree 4some (of)/certain + . . .; in certain ways
    Degree 5several + / more than a few / various / in various ways / in several different ways
    Degree 6a significant + portion of/a fair number of; in a fair number of ways
    Degree 7most/in + most ways
    Degree 8 almost + every; in almost every way
    Degree 9each/every; + in each way
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2
    EXT
    		Exactness of Identity / Identity As a Referent Or Standard
    Degree 1nothing + like that X; nothing like that ; in no way similar
    Degree 2somewhat + like that X; somewhat so
    Degree 3nearly + or almost that X; nearly or almost so
    Degree 4just about + . . . / for all intents and purposes
    Degree 5kind of + / type of / this sort of; typically
    Degree 6such (a); + in such a manner
    Degree 7clear (case + of); clearly / certainly / indeed[in negative sentences = no way / at all]
    Degree 8 just like + that; just so, thus(ly)
    Degree 9the exact + X / the very (one); exactly thus / exactly so
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0s
    FAM
    		Degree Of Familiarity
    Degree 1unknowable + / alien; unable to even try X-ing
    Degree 2totally + unfamiliar; totally unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 3unfamiliar; + unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 4somewhat + unfamiliar; somewhat unaccustomed to X-ing
    Degree 5only just + (recently) familiar; only just recently familiar to X-ing
    Degree 6somewhat + familiar; somewhat accustomed to X-ing
    Degree 7familiar/known; + accustomed to X-ing
    Degree 8 well-known + / utterly familiar with / ingrained; inherently accustomed or used to X-ing
    Degree 9intimate + with; intimately involved with / intimately accustomed to
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0p
    SIM
    		Degree Of Similarity
    Degree 1opposite; + as different as possible / at the other extreme
    Degree 2completely + different/dissimilar; in a totally different or dissimilar way
    Degree 3rather + different / barely similar / almost completely different or dissimilar; + in an almost completely different way
    Degree 4other [=different]; + in another [=different] way
    Degree 5somewhat + different, only superficially similar; somewhat differently
    Degree 6similar + in the ways that count/similar down deep, some sort of X; similarly at deep + level
    Degree 7(somewhat) + similar, only superficially different, sort of like, something like, X-like; + similarly
    Degree 8 very similar; + very similarly
    Degree 9[exactly + the] same, indistinguishable from; in the [exactly] same way
    +

     

    +

    7.7.2 Deictic Affixes

    +

    Deictic affixes refer to the grammatical process of deixis, + the act of pointing to or pointing out. The affixes correspond to the different + variants of the concepts of ‘here’ and ‘there.’ In Ithkuil, + distinctions are made in these affixes as to whether a referent is near the + speaker, near the listener, distant from both, whether it is observable or accessible, + and in some case, whether it is alienable or inalienable (i.e., whether the + entity can be separated from the associated person).
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1’
    DEX
    		Deixis Categories
    Degree 1yonder + / way over there somewhere / a long way away (not near anyone) [inaccessible + or unobservable]
    Degree 2over there + somewhere (by third party) [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 3there somewhere + (by listener) [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 4here somewhere + (by speaker] [inaccessible or observable]
    Degree 5here (by + speaker and accessible]
    Degree 6here with + us (by speaker and listener and accessible]
    Degree 7there [by + listener and accessible]
    Degree 8 there (by + third party, but accessible to speaker and listener)
    Degree 9yonder + / way over there [not near any party but accessible]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2’
    DXX
    		More Deixis Categories
    Degree 1spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [inaccessible]
    Degree 2spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [inaccessible]
    Degree 3spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over the place / here + and there [inaccessible]
    Degree 4spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over / here & there + [observable but inaccessible]
    Degree 5spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [inalienable]
    Degree 6spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [alienable]
    Degree 7spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker/all over the place / here + and there [accessible]
    Degree 8 spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [accessible]
    Degree 9spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [accessible]
    +

     

    +

    7.7.3 Sequential Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1nn
    SEQ
    		Numerical Sequence
    Degree 1first / + initial; first(ly) / first of all
    Degree 2second; + secondly
    Degree 3third; + thirdly
    Degree 4still near + the beginning / not yet halfway
    Degree 5the middle + one, in between (sequentially)/ just about halfway there
    Degree 6nearing + the end
    Degree 7third from + last; antepenultimately
    Degree 8 next to + last; penultimately
    Degree 9last / + final; last(ly) / finally (in terms of sequence)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2nn
    SQT
    		Sequence Relative to Present Context
    Degree 1immediately + beforehand / first
    Degree 2one before + preceding
    Degree 3the former; + primarily
    Degree 4two before + preceding
    Degree 5current/at + hand; now/currently / at the moment [in sequence of events]
    Degree 6second + one after next
    Degree 7the latter; + secondarily
    Degree 8 one after + next
    Degree 9next / + following; then / next
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0c’
    SQC
    		Sequence of Cause and Effect
    Degree 1originating; + originally / in the first place / initially / at the outset
    Degree 2preliminary; + preliminarily
    Degree 3preparatory + / in preparation for / getting ready to
    Degree 4awaited; + waiting to/ waiting for [focus on imminency or sequential position, NOT + on anticipation]
    Degree 5precursor + to; but just beforehand
    Degree 6based on + the preceding and setting the stage for what follows
    Degree 7eventual + / at last; at last / finally (result)
    Degree 8 following + /...which follows; then subsequent to that / following that...
    Degree 9subsequent + / consequent; then / so / thus / therefore
    +

     

    +

    7.7.4 Coordinative Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1w
    +     or -V1y
    COO
    		Adjunctive Coordination
    Degree 1in conjunction + with / combined with / including X
    Degree 2and / also + / additionally/ furthermore/ moreover/ what’s more
    Degree 3 . . . + and so forth / and so on / and all that/ and whatever else
    Degree 4and at + the same time / and simultaneously
    Degree 5and [all + in a series]
    Degree 6or [potentially + inclusive] = and/or
    Degree 7either + . . . or [exclusive or] / or else
    Degree 8 . . . or + something else / or whatever / or whatever else
    Degree 9either + . . . or [exclusive or in a series]
    +

    Degree 2 of this affix is used with FOCUS (see Sec. + 3.5) to disambiguate a sentence like Our team defeated their team, too + [is our team on a winning streak or is their team on a losing streak?]
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1rr
    CTR
    		Contrastive Coordination
    Degree 1still / + nevertheless / however — (despite seemingly inherent conflict or contradiction)
    Degree 2besides + / not just . . . but also / in addition to X… also
    Degree 3even / + or even / … still [e.g., thicker still]
    Degree 4or [= otherwise]
    Degree 5as opposed + to / but not
    Degree 6but [qualifying]
    Degree 7however + / on the other hand — (simple difference in expected outcome, no inherent + conflict)
    Degree 8 but (rather) + [= substitute]
    Degree 9just in + case / should the need arise
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2rr
    DST
    		Distributive Coordination
    Degree 1applying + to each equally [unfairly]
    Degree 2applied + selectively by decision/preference [unfairly]
    Degree 3respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [unfairly]
    Degree 4selectively + at random [unfairly]
    Degree 5respectively + [= applied in the sequentially spoken order]
    Degree 6selectively + at random [fairly]
    Degree 7respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [fairly]
    Degree 8 applied + selectively by decision/calculation [fairly]
    Degree 9applying + to each equally [fairly]
    + +

     

    +

    Chapter + 7 continued >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt + any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5f54ec5 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5668 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 7 (Continued): Using Affixes + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 7 (continued): Using Affixes

    +


    + 7.7.5 Temporal Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    TPI
    		Impact or Duration Over Time
    Degree 1immediate + / at this instant / for this moment; momentary
    Degree 2temporary + / for right now / for the moment; temporarily / in the meantime [duration + of context. recent]
    Degree 3short term/for + now; in the short term/for now/ / for the immediate future [hours to days]
    Degree 4for the + meantime / for the meanwhile [days to weeks to months]
    Degree 5for a while + / for some time to come [months to several years]
    Degree 6for the + foreseeable future [years to decades]
    Degree 7long term/in + the long run; over the course of time [over the course of a lifetime, decades + to centuries]
    Degree 8 through + the ages / over the course of the ages [centuries to millenia]; permanent
    Degree 9ever-present + / eternal / constant / incessant / neverending; from now on / eternally + / all the time / for all time
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ll
    FRQ
    		Degree Of Frequency
    Degree 1never
    Degree 2rare / + hardly ever / once in a great while; rarely / almost unheard of
    Degree 3infrequent; + seldom / infrequently
    Degree 4now and + then / from time to time / off and on / every so often / now and again occasionally + / sometimes
    Degree 5frequent; + frequently / often
    Degree 6usual; + usually / customarily / generally
    Degree 7almost + always / rarely fail to / routinely
    Degree 8 ever-faithful + / unwavering; always / every time / without fail / like clockwork / never + fail to
    Degree 9constant + / continuous; constantly / continuously / all the time
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1z
    TPR
    		Temporal Placement/Reaction/Viewpoint
    Degree 1wistfully + looking back / in the (good) old days [with longing]
    Degree 2in hindsight + / looking back
    Degree 3upon further + consideration/upon reflection
    Degree 4initial; + at first/initially / at first blush / at first glance
    Degree 5now that + the moment has come / now that the time is here / now that the deed or event + is at hand
    Degree 6any moment + now; on the verge of; just about to
    Degree 7imminent(ly) + ; very soon
    Degree 8 soon [w/ + anticipation]
    Degree 9someday. + . . / one day [with longing]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0q’
    TPP
    		Temporal Position Relative to Present
    Degree 1in the + remote past, once upon a time
    Degree 2past/former/previous; + once [e.g., I was young once], a long time ago
    Degree 3recent; + recently
    Degree 4. . . just + past / just (happened)
    Degree 5present/current/present + day; now / at present / presently / currently
    Degree 6imminent; + just about to / about to / on the verge of
    Degree 7forthcoming + / soon to arrive; soon
    Degree 8 future + / -- to be / --to come / eventual(ly); someday...
    Degree 9in the + remote future / far in the future / long after we’re gone
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    ATC
    		Degree Of Anticipation
    Degree 1long-awaited + / long looked for
    Degree 2eagerly + awaited; can’t wait for / dying to
    Degree 3anticipated + / awaited; in anticipation of / look forward to
    Degree 4up for + / up to
    Degree 5await / + wait to / wait for / waiting to
    Degree 6ambivalent + about ; could take or leave it
    Degree 7not looking + forward to
    Degree 8 dreaded; + dread X-ing
    Degree 9long-dreaded; + dread the day when
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2z
    LAT
    		Degree Of Lateness/Earliness
    Degree 1way too + early / way too soon
    Degree 2too early + / too soon
    Degree 3a little + early / a bit soon
    Degree 4almost + late / not a moment too soon
    Degree 5just in + time / sharp / on the dot
    Degree 6a little + late
    Degree 7late
    Degree 8 too late
    Degree 9way too + late
    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3nt
    ITN
    		Degree Of Iteration
    Degree 1just once + / once only
    Degree 2again / + once more / one more time / re-
    Degree 3again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on habit, not periodicity]
    Degree 4again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on periodicity, not habit]
    Degree 5irregular, + unpredictable ; at irregular or unpredictable intervals
    Degree 6[cyclic] + return of... / ...once again; return to / …back again [e.g., summer’s + back]
    Degree 7intermittent; + intermittently / at regular intervals
    Degree 8 repetitive + / repeating; repeatedly
    Degree 9constantly + cycling or repeating / continuously or perpetually repeating / constant, + eternal, perpetual repetition of
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    RPN
    		Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set + Members
    Degree 1slow-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    Degree 2slow-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 3slow-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 4mid-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 5mid-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    Degree 6mid-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 7fast-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 8 fast-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 9fast-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    +

     

    +

    7.7.6 Quantifying Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VS
    DGR
    		Exactness of Degree
    Degree 1unknowable + degree or amount of
    Degree 2unknown + degree or amount of
    Degree 3almost + impossible to determine degree of
    Degree 4nowhere + near the desired degree of
    Degree 5hard to + pinpoint / hard to determine / difficult to determine
    Degree 6fluctuating, + ever-changing (amount of); to changing/fluctuating degree or extent of
    Degree 7vaguely + around / vaguely in the range of / somewhere around / loosely in the vicinity + of
    Degree 8 approximate(ly) + / somewhere around / just about; or something like that / …or so
    Degree 9exact/specific; + exactly / specifically / on the dot / sharp / to the letter
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1ss
    PTW
    		Contiguous Portion of the Whole
    Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
    Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
    Degree 3few / a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
    Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
    Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
    Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite; a lot / very much / to + a large extent
    Degree 7a whole + lot of / a verly large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
    Degree 8 most of + / mostly
    Degree 9 every + / all (of)/whole; entirely/in its entirety
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2ss
    PTT
    		Non-Contiguous (i.e., Intermixed) Portion of the Whole
    Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
    Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
    Degree 3 few/a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
    Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
    Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
    Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite /; a lot / very much / + to a large extent
    Degree 7a whole + lot of / a very large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
    Degree 8 most of + / mostly
    Degree 9every / + all (of) / whole; entirely / in its entirety
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -Vomt
    CNM
    		Type of Container/Packaging/Conveyance/Holder
    Degree 1jar/pot + of X [storage + containment]
    Degree 2dispensor-type + container/package, e.g., tube, barrel, bottle for multiple use
    Degree 3can/tin/bottle/sealed + pouch [= storage + packaging + protection/preservation]
    Degree 4carton/box/basket + [= temporary containment]
    Degree 5natural + or generic mass containment/packaging/holder (e.g., a loaf of bread, a lump + of clay)
    Degree 6satchel, + pack of [= for personal conveyance/moving]
    Degree 7pile of, + load of [= in context of conveyance/moving or bulk storage]
    Degree 8 X-ful of + [+ Partitive], e.g., a roomful of clowns, a skyful of clouds, a treeful + of leaves, a spoonful
    Degree 9embodiment/manifestation + of abstract essence, e.g., a life form [= an embodiment of life]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3d
    SUF
    		Degree Of Sufficiency
    Degree 1none at + all; not…at all
    Degree 2way too + little / woefully insufficient / way too few; not...anywhere enough / totally + under-[+verb]
    Degree 3not enough + / insufficient / too few; not...enough / insufficiently / under-[+verb]
    Degree 4not quite + enough / slightly insufficient; not...quite enough / a bit insufficiently + / slightly under-[+verb]
    Degree 5enough + (of) / sufficient; enough / sufficiently
    Degree 6a little + too / a little too much; a little too much / slightly over- [+verb]
    Degree 7too / toomuch; + too much / too many / over- [+verb]
    Degree 8 way too + / way too much; way too much / totally over- [+verb]
    Degree 9inundated + with; to the exclusion of all else / to the point that X overwhelms or takes + over
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3b
    EXN
    		Degree or Extent
    Degree 1none (at + all); to no extent at all
    Degree 2tiniest + part of / a bit of; to smallest extent / hardly / barely
    Degree 3only a + part of / only some of; to some extent / partially / partly / somewhat
    Degree 4less than + usual / below normal; less so than usual/ to a lesser degree or extent than + usual
    Degree 5the normal, + expected or usual amount (of)
    Degree 6more than + usual / above normal; more so than usual; to a greater degree or extent + than normal
    Degree 7way more + than usual / way above normal or expected; to a much greater degree or extent + than normal
    Degree 8 almost + as much as possible / near(ly) maximum
    Degree 9total, + -ful; to greatest extent / maximum / maximal; maximally / at full capacity, + e.g., She bought out the store.
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSšq
    EXD
    		Dynamically Changing Degree or Extent
    Degree 1less and + less / fewer and fewer / ongoing decrease in; decreasingly
    Degree 2a lot fewer + / a lot less (of); a lot less
    Degree 3fewer / + less (of); less
    Degree 4a little + less (of) / a bit less (of); a little less / a bit less
    Degree 5a fluctuating + amount or degree of; to a fluctuating degree or extent
    Degree 6a little + more (of) / a bit more (of); a little more / a bit more
    Degree 7more (of); + more
    Degree 8 a lot more + (of); a lot more
    Degree 9more and + more / continuing increase in / increasingly more / ever-increasing
    +

    This affix is used with all vector-like or gradient concepts. When used with + the COMPLETIVE version, degrees 1 and 9 imply attainment + of a change in state, e.g., sleepiness + sleep.

    +


    + 7.7.7 Modulative Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -Vons
    RCO
    		Recoil in place (spring back; snap back; fall back into place)
    -Von
    TFI
    		Back & forth; to & fro in place (e.g., pendulum, wagging tail)
    -Vonš
    TFV
    		Back & forth over linear vector (e.g., snake-like; zig-zag)
    -Vonz
    CRI
    		Cycle or circular motion in place (spin, revolve)
    -Von
    CRV
    		Cycle or circular motion over linear vector (e.g., train wheels, bike + wheels)
    -Vo
    MDL
    		Random pattern of modulation (unpredictable/irregular movement pattern)
    +

    These affixes operate in conjunction with Phase (see + Sec. 6.2) to describe contexts involving recoil, spring motion, oscillative, + cyclic, reflective or vibrative motion, using the following degrees:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1not enough
    Degree 2hardly + at all
    Degree 3to a small + degree
    Degree 4to a less + than normal degree
    Degree 5to the + normal / standard / usual degree
    Degree 6to a greater + than normal degree
    Degree 7to a large + degree
    Degree 8 to a very + large degree
    Degree 9too much + / overly
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3g
    FLC
    		Degree of Fluctuation/Stability
    Degree 1inherently + and consistently unstable and random to a high degree
    Degree 2highly + variable/random fluctuation or instability
    Degree 3moderately + variable/random fluctuation or instability
    Degree 4increasing + fluctuation or destabilization in pattern
    Degree 5tending + toward fluctuations and periods of instability
    Degree 6decreasing + fluctuation or instability in pattern = increasing stability
    Degree 7moderately + stable and lacking in fluctuations
    Degree 8 complete + lack of fluctuation or instability; highly stable
    Degree 9inherently + and consistently stable
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSf
    ICR
    		Increase
    -VSftDCRDecrease
    -VShtICDIncrease then Decrease
    -VSkfDCIDecrease then Increase
    -VSqIDRRandom/Varying Increases and Decreases 
    +

    Used with the following degrees, the above five affixes operate to expand Phase + into showing increases or decreases (or wavering) of intensity of an action + during its duration.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1so slowly + as to seem immovable
    Degree 2very slowly
    Degree 3slowly
    Degree 4somewhat slower than + normal
    Degree 5normal/usual/standard + speed
    Degree 6somewhat faster than + normal
    Degree 7fast/quickly
    Degree 8 very rapidly
    Degree 9so rapidly as to be + unable to follow
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0fs
    MVT
    		Degree of Stillness/Movement
    Degree 1unmovable + – integrated
    Degree 2unmovable + due to mass
    Degree 3not easily + moved
    Degree 4inclined + to stillness
    Degree 5holding + still
    Degree 6moving + around slightly, stirring
    Degree 7moving + around in one place
    Degree 8 moving + around, agitated
    Degree 9highly agitated, unable to keep still
    +


    +
    +
    +     7.7.8 Qualifying Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0x
    SIZ
    		Degree of Size
    Degree 1too small
    Degree 2very small/ + very little/ miniscule/ tiny/ itty-bitty;in a very small manner; barely/hardly
    Degree 3small/little
    Degree 4a little + on the small size / undersized / petite
    Degree 5a little + on the large size / oversized / jumbo
    Degree 6big/large; + in a large manner
    Degree 7very big/very + large; in a very large manner
    Degree 8 enormous(ly) + / huge(ly) / humoungous(ly) / gigantic(ally)
    Degree 9too big + / too large / too huge; in too large a manner
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    SCO
    		Dynamic Change of Size
    Degree 1smallest + single manifestation of / particle of
    Degree 2runaway + shrinkage of / rapid disappearance or diminishment of
    Degree 3solitary + / only / sole / lone / unaccompanied; alone / by -self / on his own / unaccompanied + / solely
    Degree 4decreasing + / de-escalating / shrinking
    Degree 5compact/concentrated; + in efficient or compact way [e.g., canyon + gorge]
    Degree 6expanded/enhanced; + in expanded or enhanced way [e.g., canyon + rift valley]
    Degree 7growing, + increasing, escalating
    Degree 8 runaway + / runaway growth, increase or expansion of
    Degree 9synergistic + expansion e.g., hit (+ RCP valence) + fight
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0h
    AFT
    		Degree of Affect
    Degree 1cute/darling + / in a cute or darling manner
    Degree 2too cute + / schmaltzy / in a maudlin way
    Degree 3kitschy + / quaint(ly)
    Degree 4dear, endearing(ly)
    Degree 5lovely + / elegant
    Degree 6esteemed
    Degree 7imperious + / royal / most high / most excellent / revered
    Degree 8 too grand + / too imperious
    Degree 9great / + grand; in a great / grand / grandiose manner
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    QUA
    		Degree of Quality, Effectiveness or Adequacy
    Degree 1too poor(ly); + too badly
    Degree 2very bad(ly) + / very poor(ly) / very inadequate(ly) / intolerable / intolerably / terrible + / terribly
    Degree 3bad / poor + / inadequate; badly / poorly / inadequately / wanting / lacking
    Degree 4not-so-good + / could be better; somewhat poor(ly) or bad(ly) / somewhat wanting or lacking + / below average
    Degree 5not-so-bad + / average; could be worse; so-so / somewhat well / OK, I guess / adequate(ly) + / acceptably
    Degree 6good/effective; + well/effectively/ more than adequate / above-average
    Degree 7very good + / very effective(ly) / very well
    Degree 8 excellent(ly) + / superb(ly) / outstanding(ly)
    Degree 9astounding(ly) + / amazing(ly) great or well / unbelievably excellent / absolutely superb(ly) + / unsurpassable(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0c
    UNQ
    		Degree of Specialness or Uniqueness
    Degree 1vulgar, + trashy, too cheap / in a vulgar or trashy manner
    Degree 2cheap, + tasteless, gaudy, gauche / in a cheap, gaudy, gauche or tasteless manner
    Degree 3run of + the mill / unexceptional / average / commonplace / ordinary; in a commonplace + or unexceptional manner
    Degree 4somewhat + ordinary / somewhat common(place)
    Degree 5somewhat + special / somewhat out of the ordinary / interesting(ly) / intriguing(ly) + / eye-catching / appealing(ly)
    Degree 6special; + epecially
    Degree 7extraordinary + / highly unusual; extraordinarily
    Degree 8 (one and) + only/unique; in the only way / uniquely / unparallelled
    Degree 9marvelous + / wonderful / wondrous / awesome / awe-inspiring
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    CNQ
    		Degree of Consequentiality, Finality or Irrevocability
    Degree 1inconsequential/sham/having + no effect; like it didn’t even happen/with no effect
    Degree 2relatively + inconsequential / having little effect / easily reversible or undone / to + little effect / minor / to minor degree
    Degree 3somewhat + inconsequential/having only some effect/reparable/reversible/to some effect + / somewhat minor
    Degree 4not so + minor / somwhat significant degree / reversible with effort / having a somewhat + significant impact or effect
    Degree 5consequential + / having a fair effect / reversible only with concerted effort / to good + effect
    Degree 6Overall + / signifcant degree of; all in all / for the most part/to great effect / + on the whole
    Degree 7virtually + total/near total; nearly for good/almost completely
    Degree 8 utter / + complete / total; altogether / completely / for good / utterly / irrevocably + for all intents and purposes
    Degree 9for all + time / forever / finally
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0q
    NTR
    		Degree of Notoriety, Acceptance, Respect, Honor
    Degree 1pariah-like + / ostracized; in an alienating or self-ostracizing manner
    Degree 2infamous; + infamously
    Degree 3frowned-upon + / disapproved ; in a manner guaranteed to arouse disapproval
    Degree 4tolerated; + in a tolerated manner
    Degree 5common + / customary / expected / accepted; in an common, customary, expected, or + accepted manner
    Degree 6notorious(ly)
    Degree 7well-known + / well-liked / well thought of; in a totally appropriate way / in a manner + befitting a gentleman or lady
    Degree 8 respected + / honored; respectfully / honorably
    Degree 9highly + praised / highly honored / highly esteemed / highly respected / most excellent + / most honorable
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0t
    APR
    		Degree of Contextual Appropriateness
    Degree 1contemptable(-ly) + / utterly inappropriate(ly)
    Degree 2scandalous(ly) + / trashy(-ly) / inappropriate(ly)
    Degree 3 ill-mannered + / boorish(ly) / improper(ly) / tasteless(ly)
    Degree 4eyebrow-raising + / questionable(-ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + improper(ly) / unorthodox(ically)
    Degree 6acceptable(-ly) + / adequate(ly)
    Degree 7appropriate(ly) + / proper(ly) / correct(ly)
    Degree 8 utterly + appropriate(ly), very proper(ly); strictly correct(ly)
    Degree 9stuffy + / orthodox / old-fashioned; utterly predictable(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    HRC
    		Position on Social, Occupational, or (Para-) Military Hierarchy
    Degree 1bottom + rung / the “dregs”
    Degree 2rank & + file
    Degree 3lower echeleon
    Degree 4lower-mid
    Degree 5mid-level
    Degree 6upper mid
    Degree 7upper echeleon
    Degree 8 senior
    Degree 9head / + chief / top / executive
    +

    This affix, for example, would be used to distinguish the names of the various + ranks within a military or paramilitary organization such as private, corporal, + sergeant, lieutenant, etc. all the way up to general and supreme + commander.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    FRM
    		Degree of Formality
    Degree 1too casual + / overly casual
    Degree 2very casual
    Degree 3casual
    Degree 4somewhat + casual
    Degree 5neither + casual nor formal
    Degree 6somewhat + formal
    Degree 7formal
    Degree 8 very formal
    Degree 9too formal + / overly formal
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0j
    TYP
    		Degree of Typicalness
    Degree 1unique + / never-before-seen / one of a kind / shocking
    Degree 2original + / avante-garde; surprising(ly) / innovative(ly)
    Degree 3atypical(ly) + / unusual(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + atypical(ly) or unusual(ly)
    Degree 5garden + variety / run-of-the-mill / typical(ly)
    Degree 6expected + / common; in a commonplace manner
    Degree 7disappointingly + typical; very typically
    Degree 8 unoriginal + / mundane; in an uninspired way
    Degree 9stereotyped + / stereotypical(ly)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    PTY
    		Degree of Prototypicalness
    Degree 1very dissimilar + to prototype, very atypical member, closer to members of different set
    Degree 2dissimilar + to prototype, atypical member
    Degree 3having + noticeable dissimilarities from prototype
    Degree 4somewhat + dissimilar to prototype
    Degree 5having + unknown degree of closeness or similarity to prototype
    Degree 6adequately + similar to prototype
    Degree 7as close + to prototype as is typically found
    Degree 8 as close + to prototype as possible
    Degree 9prototype/archetype/model +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0’
    ITG
    		Degree of Intelligence Manifested
    Degree 1dumb / + stupid / assinine; idiotic(ally) / moronic(ally)
    Degree 2foolhearty + / foolish(ly)
    Degree 3ill-conceived(ly) + / (in a) poorly thought out (way)
    Degree 4naïve(ly) + / simplistic(ally)
    Degree 5well-intentioned + but ill-conceived / reckless(ly); risky
    Degree 6well-reasoned + / intelligent(ly)
    Degree 7innovative(ly) + / daring [based on analysis and judgement]
    Degree 8 ingenious + / brilliant
    Degree 9wise(ly); + [V2c’ = ‘philosophical(ly)]
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    MDN
    		Degree of Age or Modernity
    Degree 1prehistoric + / proto-
    Degree 2ancient
    Degree 3old (first) + / archaic
    Degree 4classic(al) +
    Degree 5old-fashioned; + in the old-fashioned way
    Degree 6“yesteryear”; + in the era just passed; in the previous zeitgeist
    Degree 7modern, + contemporary, present-day
    Degree 8 innovative + / trailblazing; innovatively, trailblazingly, cutting-edge
    Degree 9avant-garde +
    +

     

    +

    7.7.9 Modifying Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSr
    NA1
    		Negation/affirmation of all morphological components
    -VSl
    NA2
    		Negation/affirmation of stem + affixes but not adjunct information
    -VS
    NA3
    		Negation/affirmation of all morphological components except Modality
    -VS
    NA4
    		Negation/affirmation of all but aspectual or Modality information
    +

    The above four affixes are used to affirm or negate a formative. Because much + of the information associated with an Ithkuil formative is carried in adjuncts, + the above affixes are used to indicate exactly which morpho-semantic information + is being affirmed or negated. For example, in English the sentences I don’t + want to stop eating, I want to not stop eating, and I want to stop not eating + mean different things. The above four affixes are used with the following degrees. +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1on + the contrary…most cerainly does NOT/is NOT [absolute negation]; no + X whatsoever; absolutely not = emphatic negation/denial
    Degree 2on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [absolute negation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 3on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [relative negation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 4no; not + [absolute negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (because I’m + not in the race)
    Degree 5no; not + [relative negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (although I am in + the race)
    Degree 6almost + / near(ly)
    Degree 7hardly + / barely
    Degree 8 …does + (too) / is (too) [= simple affirmation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 9…is + indeed / does indeed / most certainly is / most certainly does [emphatic + affirmation]
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    DEV
    		Degree of Development
    Degree 1reversal + or undoing of process = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
    Degree 2reversal/undoing + of process in large chunks = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
    Degree 3reversal + little by little / a little at a time = entropic change in / slowly falling + apart / unravelling
    Degree 4moribund + / stagnant; in a moribund or stagnant manner
    Degree 5well-maintained + / well-kept / “healthy”; keep X going / maintain X-ing
    Degree 6one by + one / one at a time / one after another
    Degree 7little + by little / a little at a time / bit by bit / a piece at a time
    Degree 8 by leaps + and bounds / in large amounts at a time
    Degree 9complete + achievement now irreversible / set in stone
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3pt
    REA
    		Degree of Genuineness or Veracity
    Degree 1real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed [affirmation + contrary to suggestion otherwise]
    Degree 2real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed
    Degree 3apparent + / seeming / looks like a; apparently / appears to have / seems to have
    Degree 4suspicious-looking + / ”fishy” seeming; presumably /allegedly / gives the appearance + of having
    Degree 5ersatz + / facsimile; as an equivalent to
    Degree 6substitute + / replacement / proxy / fill-in / placeholder; as a substitue or proxy for
    Degree 7fake / + pretend / mock; pretend to, fake X-ing
    Degree 8 imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing
    Degree 9imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing [contrary to suggestion + otherwise]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3k
    SCS
    		Degree of Success versus Failure
    Degree 1total failure + in; completely fail to
    Degree 2failed, + would-be; unsuccessfully, fail to
    Degree 3= INEFFECTUAL + or INCOMPLETIVE version (see Sec. 5.3)
    Degree 4certain + to be a failed / certain to fail in
    Degree 5marginally + successful(ly) / barely, hardly [in terms of adequacy or success]
    Degree 6certain + to be a successful ; certain to succeed in
    Degree 7= POSITIVE + or EFFECTIVE version (see Sec. 5.3)
    Degree 8 successful(-ly + completed); successfully
    Degree 9overwhelmingly + successful(ly)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1v
    CAP
    		Degree of Potential or Capability
    Degree 1utterly + incapable / completely lacking in all necessary abilities or capacities
    Degree 2underqualified; + almost totally lacking in necessary abilities or capacities
    Degree 3lacking + in certain key capabilities; mostly inadequate to task
    Degree 4possible + but less than likely due to underdeveloped capabilities
    Degree 5unknown + if capable or not
    Degree 6somewhat + capable / has possible potential to perform
    Degree 7sufficiently + capable / adequate potential to perform
    Degree 8 fully capable; + well within abilities
    Degree 9overly + qualified; more capable than necessary or required
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2v + *
    PRB
    		Degree of Probability or Likelihood
    + * This affix takes a -V3 affix form to apply its meaning + to an adjacent suffix only.
    Degree 1impossible + / hopeless / lost cause
    Degree 2almost + no chance of / virtually impossible
    Degree 3highly + unlikely
    Degree 4unlikely + / improbable(ly)
    Degree 5possible; + possibly
    Degree 6hopeful(ly) +
    Degree 7probable; + probably
    Degree 8 highly + probable / highly likely / certain to be a. . . certain to
    Degree 9forgone + conclusion that / in the can / done deal
    +

     

    +

    7.7.10 Adverbial Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    STR
    		Degree of Physical Strength Possible or Used
    Degree 1barely + / hardly / very weak(ly)
    Degree 2weak(ly) + / to small degree
    Degree 3soft(ly) + / guarded(ly)
    Degree 4measured(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + strong(ly) / somewhat powerful(ly)
    Degree 6adequately + strong; with adequate strength
    Degree 7strong(ly) + / powerful(ly)
    Degree 8 very strong(ly) + / very powerful(ly)
    Degree 9with maximum + power
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3ç
    FRC
    		Degree of Physical Force Exerted
    Degree 1too light(ly) + / too soft(ly) / too delicate(ly)
    Degree 2light as + a feather/ baby soft; extremely delicately or lightly or softly
    Degree 3light/soft/hardly + a; softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
    Degree 4somewhat + on the light or soft side; somewhat softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
    Degree 5neither + soft(ly) nor forceful(ly); with the right touch
    Degree 6somewhat + violent(ly) / somewhat forceful(ly)
    Degree 7violent/forceful + / rough; violently / with force / roughly
    Degree 8 very violent(ly) + / very forceful(ly) / very rough(ly)
    Degree 9too violent(ly) + / too forceful(ly) / too rough(ly)
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3sk
    ITY
    		Degree of Speed (i.e., Intensity of Movement or Change)
    Degree 1too slow(ly)
    Degree 2very slow(ly) +
    Degree 3slow(ly) +
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
    Degree 5at just + the right speed or intensity
    Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
    Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0st
    SPD
    		Degree of Speed (i.e., Velocity = Distance Over Time)
    Degree 1too slow(ly) +
    Degree 2very slow(ly) +
    Degree 3slow(ly) +
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
    Degree 5at just + the right speed
    Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
    Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly)/; at fast pace
    Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    CFD
    		Degree of Forthrightness, Confidence or Humility
    Degree 1

    too + meek(ly) / too submissive(ly) / too obedient(ly) / too docile(ly)

    +
    Degree 2very meek(ly) + / very submissive(ly) / very obedient(ly) / very docile(ly)
    Degree 3meek(ly) + / submissive(ly) / obedient(ly) / docile(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + meek(ly) / somewhat submissive(ly) / somewhat obedient(ly) / somewhat docile(ly)
    Degree 5properly + humble / properly forthright ; with proper degree of humility or forthrightness
    Degree 6somewhat + confident(ly) / somewhat strong(ly) / somewhat definite(ly) / somewhat definitive(ly) + or authoritative(ly)
    Degree 7confident(ly) + /strong(ly) / definite(ly)/ definitive(ly) / authoritative(ly)
    Degree 8 very confident(ly) + / very strong(ly) / very definite(ly) / very definitive(ly) / very authoritative(ly)
    Degree 9over-confident(ly) + / too strong(ly) / too definite(ly) / too definitive(ly) / too authoritative(ly)
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    EFI
    		Degree of Efficiency or Efficacy
    Degree 1destructively + wasteful / disastrous(ly) / accomplishing the opposite of intention / making + things worse
    Degree 2very wasteful + / accomplishing nothing / making a mess of it
    Degree 3wasteful + / accomplishing little
    Degree 4somewhat + wasteful / accomplishing somewhat less than expected
    Degree 5adequate(ly) + [in terms of efficiency]
    Degree 6rather + efficient(ly) / fairly efficient(ly) / accomplishing somewhat more than + expected
    Degree 7efficient(ly) + / with little or no waste(d effort)
    Degree 8 extremely + efficient(ly) / with no waste(d effort) whatsoever
    Degree 9a synergy + of… / sum beyond total of parts / a synergistic composite of ; to + X synergistically
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3q
    ERR
    		Degree of Correctness versus Error
    Degree 1totally + wrong / totally mis- or mal-; totally in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
    Degree 2wrong/incorrect(ly) + / mis- / mal- ; in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
    Degree 3fairly + wrong / fairly incorrect(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + wrong / more wrong than right
    Degree 5so-so; + barely adequate(ly) / barely correct(ly)
    Degree 6somewhat + right / more right than wrong
    Degree 7fairly + right / fairly correct(ly)
    Degree 8 right / + correctly
    Degree 9totally + right / totally correct(ly) / totally well-X’d
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0k
    MAT
    		Degree of Maturation
    Degree 1undeveloped + / immature(ly) / seed / embryo
    Degree 2under-developed + / newborn [stage, not age] / seedling / baby
    Degree 3growing + / budding / youthful / young
    Degree 4maturing + / developing / getting stronger or bigger or more complex or sophisticated
    Degree 5fully developed + / fully mature(d) / robust / ripe
    Degree 6overly + developed / overripe / showing signs of wear and tear / stressed / under + stress / fatigued
    Degree 7declining/fading; + trail off/fade / getting softer or weaker / faded / decrepit / has-been + / past one’s prime
    Degree 8 disintegrating + / utterly deteriorated / beyond repair or rehabilitation / irreparable / + dying
    Degree 9dead / + defunct / disintegrated
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0z
    SBT
    		Degree of Subtlety
    Degree 1too subtle(ly) +
    Degree 2very subtle(ly) +
    Degree 3subtle(ly) +
    Degree 4somewhat + subtle(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + unsubtle(ly)
    Degree 6unsubtle(ly) + / lumbering(ly) rather obvious/ fairly blatant / belabored ; belabor / lumber + along X-ing
    Degree 7obvious(ly) + / blatant(ly) / exaggerated(ly)
    Degree 8 very obvious(ly) + / very blatant(ly)
    Degree 9over-the-top + / in-your-face / to obvious(ly) / too blatant(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1kš
    DRC
    		Degree of Directness
    Degree 1too indirect(ly)
    Degree 2very indirect(ly) +
    Degree 3indirect(ly) +
    Degree 4somewhat + indirect(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + direct(ly)
    Degree 6fairly + direct(ly) / rather direct(ly)
    Degree 7direct(ly) + / straightforward
    Degree 8 very direct(ly) + / very straightforward
    Degree 9too direct(ly) + / painfully straightforward
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mš
    SUD
    		Degree of Suddenness
    Degree 1too slow(ly) + in happening, too long in X-ing, overdue, delayed
    Degree 2very slow(ly) + in happening or developing
    Degree 3slow(ly) + ; long in developing or happening
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly) ; somewhat long in developing or happening
    Degree 5taking + just the right amount of time to develop or occur
    Degree 6somewhat + immediate / somewhat sudden; somewhat imediately / somewhat suddenly
    Degree 7immediate + / sudden; imediately / suddenly
    Degree 8 very immediate + / very sudden; very imediately / very suddenly
    Degree 9too immediate + / too sudden; too imediately / too suddenly
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    PCN
    		Degree of Care, Precision or Scrutiny
    Degree 1utterly + sloppy(ily) / totally careless(ly)
    Degree 2 very sloppy(ily) + / very careless(ly)
    Degree 3 sloppy(ily) + / careless(ly) / with poor attention to detail
    Degree 4somewhat + sloppy(ily) / somewhat careless(ly)
    Degree 5less than + careful(ly) / with only some degree of care
    Degree 6somewhat + careful(ly) / fairly precise(ly)
    Degree 7precise(ly) + / careful(ly) / detailed
    Degree 8 extremely + precise(ly) / with great care or precision or scrutiny / meticulous(ly)
    Degree 9overly + precise(ly) / ‘nit-picky’ / with too much scrutiny / overly + meticulous(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2kš +
    CNC
    		Degree of Concern or Consideration
    Degree 1…the + hell…! / what the hell . . . / . . . who cares
    Degree 2self-centered(ly) + / without thought or concern for others
    Degree 3at the + very least / at the least level of concern required
    Degree 4 without + concern / indifferent(ly) / without consideration / unconcerned(ly) / thoughtless(ly)
    Degree 5reluctant(ly)
    Degree 6at best + / with the most concern one can muster
    Degree 7concerned(ly) + / with concern / with consideration for others
    Degree 8 very concerned(ly) + / highly concerned(ly) / with great concern or consideration for others
    Degree 9overly + concerned(ly) / worrisome(ly) / with too much concern or consideration for + others / altruistically
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    SPH
    		Degree of Sophistication
    Degree 1too crude(ly) + / too primitive(ly)
    Degree 2very crude(ly) + / very primitive(ly)
    Degree 3crude(ly) + / primitive(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + crude(ly) / somewhat primitive(ly)
    Degree 5with expected/normal + degree or level of sophistication
    Degree 6somewhat + sophisticated or refined
    Degree 7 sophisticated + or refined
    Degree 8 very sophisticated + or refined
    Degree 9too sophisticated + or refined
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0çt
    CVT
    		Degree of Covertness versus Overtness
    Degree 1too secretive(ly) + / overly covert(ly)
    Degree 2very secretive(ly) + / highly covert(ly) / hidden / well behind the scenes
    Degree 3secretive(ly) + / covert(ly) / behind the scenes / between the lines / under the table / + “back-room”
    Degree 4somewhat + secretive(ly) / somewhat covert(ly)
    Degree 5not too + secretive(ly) / not so open(ly)
    Degree 6somewhat + open(ly) / somewhat “up front”
    Degree 7open(ly) + / overt(ly) / “up front” / out in the open / honest / forthcoming(ly)
    Degree 8 very open(ly) + / very overt(ly) / very “up front” / flaunting(ly) / brutally + honest
    Degree 9too open(ly) + / too overt(ly) / overly flaunting(ly) / vulgar(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    EFT
    		Degree of Effort
    Degree 1too difficult + / overly difficult
    Degree 2very difficult + / so difficult
    Degree 3strained + / difficult; strain to / with difficulty / struggle to / to work at X-ing + / to X hard
    Degree 4somewhat + difficult / not that easy
    Degree 5neither + easy nor difficult
    Degree 6somewhat + easy; not so difficult
    Degree 7 easy / + certain / unhindered / with ease / without resistance / effortlessly
    Degree 8 very easy + / so easy
    Degree 9too easy + / overly easy
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0m
    DSG
    		Degree of Design or Purposefulness
    Degree 1purposeless(ly) + /random(ly) / utterly unorganized / chaotic(ally)
    Degree 2haphazard(ly) + / without plan or guidance/ disorganized(ly) / poorly planned
    Degree 3 fairly + haphazard(ly) / not well-planned / not well-organized
    Degree 4somewhat + haphazard(ly) / somewhat disorganized
    Degree 5slightly + disorganized / less than well-planned
    Degree 6somewhat + organized / somewhat well-planned
    Degree 7organized(ly) + / purposeful(ly) / well-planned
    Degree 8 very organized + / very structured
    Degree 9too organized + / overly structured / “anal(ly)”
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3sq
    DCS
    		Degree of Decisiveness, Commitment or Emphasis
    Degree 1indecisive + / meandering; indecisively / first one way then another
    Degree 2wishy washy + / flaky
    Degree 3some sort + of / some kind of / sort of (like) / ”kind of”; in a way / halfway + / does and doesn’t
    Degree 4apparent(ly); + seeming(ly)
    Degree 5mere(ly) + / only (a); merely / only
    Degree 6deliberate + / decisive; deliberately / decisively / purposefully
    Degree 7a real + / certainly a ; really / certainly [emphasis, not genuineness or veracity]
    Degree 8 the (one); + in the only way that counts
    Degree 9what (a) + ...!; how . . .! ; Boy! Did (does) X ever …
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3št
    CTN
    		Degree of Contrariness to Expectation(s) or Shift in Subject
    Degree 1but X would… + / if things were otherwise X WOULD… / on the contrary, X WOULD [affirmation + of hypothetical contrary to statement/suggestion otherwise
    Degree 2but / X + DOES/IS . . . / on the contrary … [affirmation of fact contrary to + suggestion or statement otherwise]
    Degree 3like it + or not…/ well, as much as we didn’t want to think it would happen...
    Degree 4against + expectation or belief ‘… after all’ ‘well, what + do you know…X!’
    Degree 5a genuine + / real / true ; really do, [contrary to expectation]
    Degree 6as a matter + of fact
    Degree 7‘at + least/at any rate’
    Degree 8 ‘by + the way/ just to mention’
    Degree 9not to + change the subject but…/ sorry to change the subject, but…/ + I don’t mean to change the subject, but…
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3’
    PHY
    		Degree of Physical Control
    Degree 1uncontrolled/helpless(ly) + ; without control/ out of control
    Degree 2almost + completely out of control / almost totally helpless
    Degree 3losing + control / losing the ability to…
    Degree 4insufficiently + trained in...
    Degree 5amateur(ishly) + / superficially able to…
    Degree 6learn(ing) + to… / begin(ning) to be able to…
    Degree 7w/ growing + proficiency or expertise (in)
    Degree 8 proficient(ly)
    Degree 9in full + control / expert(ly)
    +

    +

    7.7.11 Modality Affixes

    +

    Many of these correspond to the vocalic modality suffixes used with valence + or conflation adjuncts (see Sec. 5.5). The nine degrees associated with each + affix allow a speaker control over the extent to which the modality category + should apply to the utterance. These affix forms function, then, as an alternative + to adjunct forms for greater nuance in the applicability of the modality category + and to apply them to nouns. The nine degrees of each affix are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1not at + all
    Degree 2to too + little a degree; to an insufficient degree
    Degree 3hardly + at all
    Degree 4to a small + degree
    Degree 5to a fair + degree/somewhat
    Degree 6fairly + much/more so than not
    Degree 7very much + so / decidedly so / to a great degree
    Degree 8 too much + so / to too great a degree
    Degree 9to the + exclusion of all else / without consideration for anything else
    +

    The specific modality affixes are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3bb
    		resigned to
    -V3dd devoted; committed to / devoted to
    -V3 desired / sought-after; want to
    -V3 attempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt to
    -V3çç +  capable, able; can / able to / capable of
    -V3cc knowledgeable; can = know how to / familiar with
    -V3ff mandatory; must / have to
    -V3xx required; should / be to
    -V3 expected; be supposed to
    -V3hh intended; mean to / intend to / shall
    -V3gg chosen, selected; choose to / elect to
    -V3 …on impulse; feel like X-ing
    -V3  promised; promise to
    -V3 well-liked; like (to)
    -V3 feared; fear (to)
    -V3 willing; willing to
    -V3 prepared / ready; prepared to/ready to
    -V3 necessary / needed; need to
    -V3 Daring; dare to
    -V3hq decided-upon; decide to
    -V3pf offered/offer of; offer to
    -V33t aided / assisted; help to / aid in X-ing
    -V3hk not unexpected; be prone to / be apt to / tend to
    -V3ç’ +  agreed-upon; agree to
    -V3x’ +  responsible for/in charge of
    -V3 remember to
    -V3 feel a need to / feel one should / feel one must / feel driven to
    -V3 to guess or think [that]…
    -V3’ +  available; available to/for
    -V3kk potential; can = have potential to
    -V3tt +  permitted; can = permitted to
    -V3qq +  hoped-for; hope/wish to
    -V3pp X by inclination; be inclined to
    +

    +

    7.7.12 Agential/Participant Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0n
    AGC
    		Degree of Agency
    Degree 1[AGENT] + = one who forces/causes
    Degree 2[ENABLER] + = one who enables to happen
    Degree 3[INFLUENCE] + = one who persuades/influences
    Degree 4ENABLER + BY PERMISSION] = one who permits/allows/lets happen
    Degree 5[PATIENT] + = one who does/is made to do
    Degree 6[EXPERIENCER] + = one who undergoes/experiences
    Degree 7[INSTRUMENT] + = instrument which causes
    Degree 8 [STIMULUS] + = one whose status is as stimulus of affective experience
    Degree 9[SOURCE] + = that which gives rise to, provides underlying reason for, source of
    +

    This affix and the following identify a formative as filling a specific semantic + role corresponding in many cases to the semantic roles discussed in Sections + 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. In + several instances, these affixes would translate the English “agentive” + suffixes -er, or -or.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0m
    ROL
    		Role
    Degree 1that which + contains or functions as the enclosure / container / house / shelter of + or for
    Degree 2that which + results from
    Degree 3 [RECIPIENT] + = one who receives / has / "-ee"
    Degree 4one who + is / acts as / functions as
    Degree 5one who + is characterized by / described by...
    Degree 6one who + is similar to/functions or acts similarly to
    Degree 7one whose + responsibility is / who is responsible for / runs the business of (operationally + speaking)
    Degree 8 one who + constructs / makes / creates
    Degree 9one who + manages / oversees / supervises / coordinates / runs the business of (managerially + speaking)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0p
    UTE
    		Utilitative or Enabling Means
    Degree 1

    tool/device/apparatus + specifically designed for X-ing

    +
    Degree 2medium + by/through which one X’s
    Degree 3conduit-like + tool/apparatus for X-ing
    Degree 4natural/standard + body part for X-ing
    Degree 5object + employed circumstantially as implement for X-ing
    Degree 6covering/protective + element employed to allow/permit X-ing
    Degree 7enabling + element/device/apparatus to allow/foster X-ing
    Degree 8 environment/situaton/circumstances/setting + which allows/fosters X-ing
    Degree 9FORCE which + causes/permits X-ing
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ž
    CNS
    		Degree of Consent
    Degree 1deliberately + without consent of knowledge
    Degree 2without + consent or knowledge as a precaution or “for their own good”
    Degree 3without + consent or knowledge due to circumstances
    Degree 4with their + knowledge but w/o consent; against their will
    Degree 5consent + obtained under pressure, threat, coercion
    Degree 6w/ reluctant + consent
    Degree 7willingly; + with full consent
    Degree 8 with enthusiastic + approval and support
    Degree 9at their + request
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0t
    MEC
    		Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ +
    Degree 1the body’s + natural method of doing so (e.g., on foot, by hand, etc.)
    Degree 2a manually + manipulated generic tool or implement
    Degree 3a specialized + tool for that specific purpose or activity
    Degree 4a machine + or via mechanical means or process
    Degree 5 a virtual, + electronic means or via engineering
    Degree 6mental + power, force of will, concentration
    Degree 7a redirection + or collation of energy specially applied
    Degree 8 a collective + pooling of manual labor resources
    Degree 9a collective + pooling of electronic/mechanical/engineering resources
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    BOD
    		Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1

    a hand

    +
    Degree 2an arm
    Degree 3a foot
    Degree 4a leg
    Degree 5one’s + eyes
    Degree 6both legs
    Degree 7both feet
    Degree 8 both arms
    Degree 9both hands
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mp
    DBI
    		Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ +
    Degree 1

    a finger

    +
    Degree 2a thumb
    Degree 3a knee
    Degree 4one’s + head
    Degree 5one’s + teeth
    Degree 6one’s + lips
    Degree 7one’s + tongue
    Degree 8 one’s + elbow
    Degree 9one’s + fingers
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    SOC
    		Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ +
    Degree 1via lackeys, + grunt labor, go-fors or henchmen
    Degree 2by coercion, + threat, blackmail
    Degree 3 “fronts”, + or disguised go-betweens
    Degree 4indirectly + through actions of others (unbeknownst to them)
    Degree 5indirectly + through actions of others (with their knowledge)
    Degree 6by leveraging + existing resources / personnel (deploying existing methods in a new application)
    Degree 7via a proxy + or proxies
    Degree 8 hired help + or staff
    Degree 9by delegation + of task to experts
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0šš
    RSN
    		Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action +
    Degree 1for evil + or perverse reasons
    Degree 2for foolish + or naïve reason
    Degree 3due to + deception by another
    Degree 4due to + faulty information provided by another [no deception intended]
    Degree 5due to + or based on faulty perception or misinterpretation of information or evidence
    Degree 6despite + negative circumstances or reasons not to
    Degree 7for no + reason
    Degree 8 for appropriate + reasons / for good reason
    Degree 9for virtuous, + healthy reasons
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0t
    XPT
    		Expectation of Outcome
    Degree 1shockingly + unexpected; without precedent or rumour
    Degree 2surprise + X / unexpected X; completely by surprise/ completely unexpected(ly)
    Degree 3manage + to X despite inadequacy of preparation or effort
    Degree 4manage + to X despite misguided or misdirected preparation or effort
    Degree 5managed + to X despite hindrance(s) or obstacles; hard-won
    Degree 6manage + to X due to hindrances or obstacles being overestimated; easier than thought + to be
    Degree 7manage + to X due to excellent preparation / planning / execution
    Degree 8 completely + as expected / totally as anticipated / as predicted
    Degree 9pat; outcome + pre-ordained or predetermined
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3t
    DLB
    		Degree of Deliberateness/Agency
    Degree 1accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) and unaware of consequences
    Degree 2unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to and unaware of consequences
    Degree 3accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) but now aware of consequences
    Degree 4unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to but now aware of consequences
    Degree 5unforseeable + / unpredictable; unforeseeably / unpredictably
    Degree 6without + realizing or considering potential consequences
    Degree 7thinking + one can get away without reaping consequences / furtive(ly)
    Degree 8 realizing + potential risks or consequences / cognizant of potential risks or consequences
    Degree 9intentional(ly) + / deliberate(ly) / on purpose / by choice; choose to
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mz
    MOT
    		Degree of Self-Conscious Deliberation or Motivation
    Degree 1affected, + ostentatious; affectedly/ostentatiously
    Degree 2self-conscious(ly) +
    Degree 3guilty + / guiltily
    Degree 4half-hearted(ly) +
    Degree 5against + better judgement / can’t help but / can’t help it
    Degree 6ingrained, + by upbringing
    Degree 7learned + / habitual; by habit / trained to
    Degree 8 natural(ly) + / un-self-conscious(ly)
    Degree 9autonomic + / unaware, automatic
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V11k
    ENB
    		Degree of Enablement
    Degree 1by inadvertent + gesture/word/sign taken as order or permission
    Degree 2by granting + of permission
    Degree 3by cajoling + or persuasion
    Degree 4by direct + request or imploring
    Degree 5by direct + order based on one’s real or perceived authority
    Degree 6by inadvertent + removal of hindrance
    Degree 7by inadvertent + action that initiates a chain of events
    Degree 8 by deliberate + removal of hindrance
    Degree 9by deliberate + action that initiates a chain of events
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ms
    AGN
    		Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness
    Degree 1with the + anticipated max. resulting effect possible
    Degree 2with the + anticipated resulting effect to a high degree
    Degree 3with the + anticipated resulting effect to a moderate degree
    Degree 4with the + anticipated resulting effect but only to a marginal, superficial or baredly + noticable degree
    Degree 5with no + noticeable effect or resulting change
    Degree 6with only + marginal, superficial, or barely noticeable effect or resulting change unanticipated
    Degree 7with moderate + effect or resulting change — unanticipated
    Degree 8 with the + resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated
    Degree 9with the + max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V21k
    IMP
    		Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome
    Degree 1target + can do nothing - utterly inevitable
    Degree 2target + chooses to do nothing - resigned to fate
    Degree 3target + tries to prevent/avoid but fails
    Degree 4target + tries to prevent/avoid and does so partially or mitigates impact somewhat
    Degree 5target + tries to prevent/avoid and succeeds
    Degree 6target + helps/enables outcome inadvertently
    Degree 7target + helps/enables outcome against own interest (i.e., without thinking)
    Degree 8 target + helps/enables outcome intentionally despite negative consequences
    Degree 9target + helps/enables outcome intentionally for own benefit
    +

     

    +

    7.7.13 Miscellaneous Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1_’
    TPF
    		Topic, Frame and Focus
    Degree 1[sentence + topic]
    Degree 2[end of + frame]
    Degree 3[head of + relative clause]
    Degree 4[sentence + topic + head of relative clause]
    Degree 5[end of + frame + head of relative clause]
    Degree 6[sentence + topic + end of frame]
    Degree 7[sentence + focus + end of frame + head of rel. clause]
    Degree 8 [sentence + focus]
    Degree 9[sentence + focus + end of frame]
    +

    The various functions of the above affix are explained in Sec. + 3.5 on Focus, Sec. 5.7 on + Frames, and Sec. 9.2 on pragmatic roles + including Sentence Topic.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2_’
    SWR
    		Switch Reference & Obviative Specification (For an explanation + and illustration of this affix, see Sec. + 8.1.1.7 and Sec. + 8.1.4)
    Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
    Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
    Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
    Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
    Degree 5first referent + mentioned
    Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
    Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
    Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
    Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0s
    PLA
    		Place, State, Setting Where…
    Degree 1place where + one learns to
    Degree 2place where + one does, performs, carries out X
    Degree 3place where + one obtains
    Degree 4place where + one stores or inventories
    Degree 5place where + one keeps or shelters
    Degree 6place where + one sees or views
    Degree 7natural + habitat or environment of
    Degree 8 place where + one deals with/ treats/ confronts
    Degree 9place where + one feels affected by
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1mm
    APT
    		Aspects
    Degree 1yet, still
    Degree 2‘even’ + as in “I don’t even like them” = in the least bit, to + the slightest extent
    Degree 3Contemplative: + upon reflection/ in hindsight
    Degree 4upon deep + introspection / following careful consideration or meditation on the matter
    Degree 5on first + blush / at first / upon initial impression / [my] first thought is/was…
    Degree 6natural(ly) + / obvious(ly) / clear(ly) [in terms of naturalness, not blatancy]
    Degree 7Experiential: + ever
    Degree 8 Regressive: + return to previous state
    Degree 9Protractive: + over a long period of time / long-delayed
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2mm
    TEM
    		Alternative Temporal Aspects
    Degree 1Inceptive: + begin to / start to
    Degree 2Resumptive: + begin again / start again / resume
    Degree 3Continuative: + keep on / still / continue / stay / yet
    Degree 4Incessative: + to X away / not stop
    Degree 5tire of + X-ing / get tired of X-ing / become weary of X-ing
    Degree 6Cessative: + stop / discontinue / cease
    Degree 7 Pausal: + take a break from [stop with intention to re-sume]
    Degree 8 Recessative: + stop again
    Degree 9Terminative: + finish / complete
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1
    DRV
    		Format/Derivation Alternates
    Degree 1Instrumentative + Format
    Degree 2Authoritative + Format
    Degree 3Precurrent + Format
    Degree 4Resultative + Format
    Degree 5Derivation: + translative motion
    Degree 6Subsequent + Format
    Degree 7Concommitant + Format
    Degree 8 Objective + Format
    Degree 9Derivation: + attend to, deal with
    +

    The above affix forms function as alternates to the Format infix of a conflation + or valence adjunct (see Sec. 5.4.2). The SCHEMATIC format + is considered the default and therefore has no affix. Additionally, two of the + affixes refer to two common derivations (see Sec. 5.4.3).
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2
    ILL
    		Illocution/Mood/Validation Alternates
    Degree 1Directive + Illocution
    Degree 2Commissive + Illocution
    Degree 3Expressive + Illocution
    Degree 4Declarative + Illocution
    Degree 5Interrogative + Illocution
    Degree 6Admonitive + Illocution
    Degree 7Subjunctive + Mood
    Degree 8 Inferential + Validation
    Degree 9Hortative + Validation
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    PTF
    		Part/Whole Functional Metaphors
    Degree 1engine + / motor / heart / pump / core / driver mechanism
    Degree 2brain / + computer / chip / instruction set
    Degree 3input / + feeder / access point
    Degree 4exit point + / anus / exhaust / tailpipe / smokestack / vent
    Degree 5wing/ arm + / branch / extensor / manipulator
    Degree 6support + / leg / stand / base
    Degree 7skeleton + / frame
    Degree 8 wiring + / conduits / plumbing
    Degree 9sensor + / eye / ear / antennae
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0š
    PTG
    		Part/Whole Gestalt Componential Metaphors
    Degree 1“base”portion + (e.g., upper arm)
    Degree 2“extension” + portion (e.g., forearm) or “flange”
    Degree 3“trunk” + or central bulk portion
    Degree 4middle + or divisional segment or joint
    Degree 5top/upper + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
    Degree 6bottom/lower + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
    Degree 7side/flank/ + lateral component
    Degree 8 “head” + extension or main interface area
    Degree 9extension/”arm”
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0qt
    MET
    		Metonymic Categories
    Degree 1part for + whole
    Degree 2producer + for product
    Degree 3object + used or owned for user/owner
    Degree 4controller + for controlled
    Degree 5institution + for people responsible
    Degree 6place for + inhabitants/occupants
    Degree 7place for + event
    Degree 8 place for + institution
    Degree 9attribute + or characteristic for owner
    +

    Metonymy is the reference to an entity via one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business.
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1t’
    SSD
    		Stem-Specific Derivatives
    Degree 1derivative + 1
    Degree 2derivative + 2
    Degree 3derivative + 3
    Degree 4derivative + 4
    Degree 5derivative + 5
    Degree 6derivative + 6
    Degree 7derivative + 7
    Degree 8 derivative + 8
    Degree 9derivative + 9
    +

    This affix is used to distinguish particular instantiations of a more generic + entity; their meaning is semantically specific to the particular stem.
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2t’
    SBS
    		 Subset of Configurative Set
    Degree 1single + specific member (random, i.e., any given member)
    Degree 2natural + first level subset, e.g., a cell among a network, a clique within a + club, a row of an orchard
    Degree 3natural + 2nd level subset, e.g., a section of a network, a subcommittee within + a club, a section of an orchard
    Degree 4complex + natural system or pattern within a set (e.g., the circulatory system, + the heating system)
    Degree 5subset + of set (unknown if natural or select subconfiguration)
    Degree 6complex/circumstantial + select pattern/arrangement within a set (e.g., the parts/things of a + house damaged by fire)
    Degree 72nd level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select section of trees of an + orchard
    Degree 8 first level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select rocks from a pile, select + trees of an orchard
    Degree 9single + select member (externally determined)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1k’
    ATN
    		Degree of Attention or Determination
    Degree 1concentrate + fully upon; pay utmost attention to
    Degree 2concentrate + to point of distraction, to be ‘lost’ in X-ing
    Degree 3pay strict + attention to
    Degree 4determined + to
    Degree 5pay attention + to; attend to; be careful that you…; heed
    Degree 6keep an + eye on
    Degree 7take some + notice of
    Degree 8 barely + notice; take little notice of
    Degree 9ignore + completely
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1šk
    DPR
    		Dispersion or Separability of a Configurative Set
    Degree 1in total + contact / contiguous mass of; pile, “ball of…”
    Degree 2non-contiguous + but closely connected, interlinked, each linked to adjacent via connecting + medium (like web); cluster
    Degree 3connected + via intervening central medium (like a vine or branches); bunch
    Degree 4not physically + connected but with immediate accessibility and knowledge of other member + actions
    Degree 5scattered + - contact with nearest member possible but less possible with others
    Degree 6“virtual” + association only
    Degree 7temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at long intervals
    Degree 8 temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at frequent intervals
    Degree 9temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at very short, immediate intervals / one + after another
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1nd
    SEP
    		Spatio-Temporal Separability of a Configurative Set
    Degree 1

    Logical + connectedness only (spatial)

    +
    Degree 2Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned far away from another
    Degree 3Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned a little ways away from another
    Degree 4Well-integrated + spatially – one positioned right next to or behind another
    Degree 5Both spatially + and temporally well-integrated (one right after another)
    Degree 6Well-integrated + temporally – one right after the other
    Degree 7Loosely + integrated temporally – one a little while after the other
    Degree 8 Loosely + integrated temporally – one a long while after the other
    Degree 9Logical + connectedness only (temporal)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0k
    SDP
    		Subset of Duplex Set
    Degree 1first, + top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + upper lip, inhale/inhalation, left hand)
    Degree 2beginning + or leading “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 3middle + section of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of + a duplex event or object
    Degree 4ending + or trailing “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 5midpoint, + peak, or lull between the 2 halves of a duplex set or pair
    Degree 6beginning + or leading “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 7middle + section of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing “half” of + a duplex event or object
    Degree 8 ending + or trailing “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 92nd, bottom, + back, righthand or trailing “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + lower lip, exhale/exhalation, right hand)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0xt
    NEW
    		Degree of Newness/Revision
    Degree 1new = original + new, i.e., never before seen
    Degree 2new = never before seen within current context, e.g., a new student
    Degree 3new = role, i.e., never functioning/existing in this capacity/manner before
    Degree 4new/other = replacement + new
    Degree 5new/other = additional instance + new
    Degree 6new/other = revision + additional
    Degree 7new/other = revision + replacement
    Degree 8 new/other/different = different, not seen/used before within current context; status as addition/replacement unknown
    Degree 9new/other/different = different + new; status as addition/replacement unknown
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 ln
    SPR
    		Spread/wake/trail/area/expanse created by passage of entity
    Degree 1quasi-linear “trail” or wake left behind on path of linear movement; trail or wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., slime trail left by snail, footprints left on snow, mowed down foliage left by moving convoy, etc.)
    Degree 2quasi-linear spread of entity stretching behind linearly moving “head” (e.g., a line of soldiers put in place to create a front, a line left on a piece of paper as written by an ink pen, path of a ball of string or skein of yarn as it unravels while rolling down an incline)
    Degree 3quasi-linear trail/wake/spread left behind passage as line of demarcation/boundary/barrier
    Degree 42-d quasi-planar wake left behind on path of movement; wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., aftermath of a forest fire, cleaned area of dirty floor or wall after it has been wiped by a mop or dustcloth)
    Degree 52-d quasi-planar spread stretching behind moving front (e.g., area of spreading flames in a forest fire, area being inundated by a flood, area of a wall being covered up by plaster by workmen, coating of an apple dipped in chocolate, area of floor covered up by a rug)
    Degree 62-d quasi-planar wake/spread left behind passage as area of demarcation/zone/restricted area
    Degree 73-d volume left behind a moving front; volume is not composed of or inundated with the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., area left behind the passage of a tidal wave, column of superheated air left behind the passage of a rocket
    Degree 8 3-d volume inundated by spread of moving front (e.g., spread of a gas within a room, area inundated by fog, volume of a container taken up by substance placed/poured/stuffed into it)
    Degree 93-d volume left behind passage of moving front as volume/spatial area of demarcation/zone/restricted space
    +

    The above affix distinguishes movement of an entity from the “trail” or spread left behind, e.g., movement which leaves behind a wake or affected area; used with motion roots as well as roots designating shapes/forms. Use of the above suffixes in conjunction with the various roots pertaining to paths of translative movement allows for very nuanced translations of English words such as surround, cover, inundate, enclose, expand, spread out, encompass, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 ld
    TRA
    		Degree of Shift/Change/Transition (used for both spatial and temporal contexts)
    Degree 1sharp break, sudden shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another with no discernible transition period/zone (i.e., point-like/instantaneous transition)
    Degree 2disjointed/non-contiguous/non-continuous break/shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 3extremely brief/small/barely discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 4somewhat brief/small/discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 5normal/standard/expected transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 6somewhat variable/changing/fluctuating transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 7highly variable/chaotic transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 8 smooth, gradual transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 9very gradual/almost imperceptible rate/degree of change/transition from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 lm
    NNN
    		N-numbered angles/facets/faces/sides/points/forms
    Degree 1uneven /assymmetrical n–sided 2-D obtusely angled form (e.g., quadrilateral, pentagonoid, hexagonoid
    Degree 2uneven/assymetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation
    Degree 3uneven/assymetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
    Degree 4uneven/assymmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., n-hedron-like solid)
    Degree 5having n number of 3-D projections/spikes/pointed surfaces
    Degree 6symmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., tetrahedron, dodecahedron)
    Degree 7symetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
    Degree 8 symetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation (can be used with numbers as low as 2, which would refer to an elongated diamond shape)
    Degree 9symmetrical n–sided 2-D form (e.g., square, pentagon, hexagon)
    +

    The above affix is used with the number stems (see Chapter 12) to provide words for forms, shapes, and solids bearing a distinct number of angles, points, sides, facets, etc.

    +


    + 7.7.14 Locational Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0çç
    LCT
    		Locational Quadrant Markers for Object Being Located (These + affixes will be explained and illustrated in Chapter + 10.)
    Degree 1+X / +Y + / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant 1
    Degree 2+X / +Y + / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2
    Degree 3+X / -Y + / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3
    Degree 4+X / -Y + / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4
    Degree 5object + at rest relative to other object
    Degree 6-X / +Y + / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5
    Degree 7-X / +Y + / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6
    Degree 8 -X / -Y + / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7
    Degree 9-X / -Y + / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0p’
    PRX
    		Degree of Proximity
    Degree 1too close +
    Degree 2 as close + as possible without contact
    Degree 3 very close + to
    Degree 4close to +
    Degree 5somewhat + close to
    Degree 6not very + close to / somewhat far from
    Degree 7far from + / distant from
    Degree 8 far away + / very far from
    Degree 9too far + away
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    CTC
    		Degree of Contact
    Degree 1melded + with / blended with / fused
    Degree 2inseparable(ly) + / locked together / bonded
    Degree 3linked + / attached / connected / joined
    Degree 4touching + intimately / touching all over / in close contact with
    Degree 5deliberately + touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
    Degree 6deliberately + touching at one spot or place
    Degree 7casually + or incidentally touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
    Degree 8 casually + or incidentally touching at one spot or place
    Degree 9barely + touching / hardly touching at all / touching at one small spot
    +

     

    +

    + Proceed to Chapter 8: + Adjuncts >>

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +
    +©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author +and this website.
    +

    +

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5907884 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,5668 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 7 (Continued): Using Affixes + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 7 (continued): Using Affixes

    +


    + 7.7.5 Temporal Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    TPI
    		Impact or Duration Over Time
    Degree 1immediate + / at this instant / for this moment; momentary
    Degree 2temporary + / for right now / for the moment; temporarily / in the meantime [duration + of context. recent]
    Degree 3short term/for + now; in the short term/for now/ / for the immediate future [hours to days]
    Degree 4for the + meantime / for the meanwhile [days to weeks to months]
    Degree 5for a while + / for some time to come [months to several years]
    Degree 6for the + foreseeable future [years to decades]
    Degree 7long term/in + the long run; over the course of time [over the course of a lifetime, decades + to centuries]
    Degree 8 through + the ages / over the course of the ages [centuries to millenia]; permanent
    Degree 9ever-present + / eternal / constant / incessant / neverending; from now on / eternally + / all the time / for all time
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ll
    FRQ
    		Degree Of Frequency
    Degree 1never
    Degree 2rare / + hardly ever / once in a great while; rarely / almost unheard of
    Degree 3infrequent; + seldom / infrequently
    Degree 4now and + then / from time to time / off and on / every so often / now and again occasionally + / sometimes
    Degree 5frequent; + frequently / often
    Degree 6usual; + usually / customarily / generally
    Degree 7almost + always / rarely fail to / routinely
    Degree 8 ever-faithful + / unwavering; always / every time / without fail / like clockwork / never + fail to
    Degree 9constant + / continuous; constantly / continuously / all the time
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1z
    TPR
    		Temporal Placement/Reaction/Viewpoint
    Degree 1wistfully + looking back / in the (good) old days [with longing]
    Degree 2in hindsight + / looking back
    Degree 3upon further + consideration/upon reflection
    Degree 4initial; + at first/initially / at first blush / at first glance
    Degree 5now that + the moment has come / now that the time is here / now that the deed or event + is at hand
    Degree 6any moment + now; on the verge of; just about to
    Degree 7imminent(ly) + ; very soon
    Degree 8 soon [w/ + anticipation]
    Degree 9someday. + . . / one day [with longing]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0q’
    TPP
    		Temporal Position Relative to Present
    Degree 1in the + remote past, once upon a time
    Degree 2past/former/previous; + once [e.g., I was young once], a long time ago
    Degree 3recent; + recently
    Degree 4. . . just + past / just (happened)
    Degree 5present/current/present + day; now / at present / presently / currently
    Degree 6imminent; + just about to / about to / on the verge of
    Degree 7forthcoming + / soon to arrive; soon
    Degree 8 future + / -- to be / --to come / eventual(ly); someday...
    Degree 9in the + remote future / far in the future / long after we’re gone
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    ATC
    		Degree Of Anticipation
    Degree 1long-awaited + / long looked for
    Degree 2eagerly + awaited; can’t wait for / dying to
    Degree 3anticipated + / awaited; in anticipation of / look forward to
    Degree 4up for + / up to
    Degree 5await / + wait to / wait for / waiting to
    Degree 6ambivalent + about ; could take or leave it
    Degree 7not looking + forward to
    Degree 8 dreaded; + dread X-ing
    Degree 9long-dreaded; + dread the day when
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2z
    LAT
    		Degree Of Lateness/Earliness
    Degree 1way too + early / way too soon
    Degree 2too early + / too soon
    Degree 3a little + early / a bit soon
    Degree 4almost + late / not a moment too soon
    Degree 5just in + time / sharp / on the dot
    Degree 6a little + late
    Degree 7late
    Degree 8 too late
    Degree 9way too + late
    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3nt
    ITN
    		Degree Of Iteration
    Degree 1just once + / once only
    Degree 2again / + once more / one more time / re-
    Degree 3again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on habit, not periodicity]
    Degree 4again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on periodicity, not habit]
    Degree 5irregular, + unpredictable ; at irregular or unpredictable intervals
    Degree 6[cyclic] + return of... / ...once again; return to / …back again [e.g., summer’s + back]
    Degree 7intermittent; + intermittently / at regular intervals
    Degree 8 repetitive + / repeating; repeatedly
    Degree 9constantly + cycling or repeating / continuously or perpetually repeating / constant, + eternal, perpetual repetition of
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    RPN
    		Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set + Members
    Degree 1slow-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    Degree 2slow-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 3slow-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 4mid-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 5mid-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    Degree 6mid-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 7fast-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
    Degree 8 fast-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
    Degree 9fast-paced + repetition at regular intervals
    +

     

    +

    7.7.6 Quantifying Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VS
    DGR
    		Exactness of Degree
    Degree 1unknowable + degree or amount of
    Degree 2unknown + degree or amount of
    Degree 3almost + impossible to determine degree of
    Degree 4nowhere + near the desired degree of
    Degree 5hard to + pinpoint / hard to determine / difficult to determine
    Degree 6fluctuating, + ever-changing (amount of); to changing/fluctuating degree or extent of
    Degree 7vaguely + around / vaguely in the range of / somewhere around / loosely in the vicinity + of
    Degree 8 approximate(ly) + / somewhere around / just about; or something like that / …or so
    Degree 9exact/specific; + exactly / specifically / on the dot / sharp / to the letter
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1ss
    PTW
    		Contiguous Portion of the Whole
    Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
    Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
    Degree 3few / a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
    Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
    Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
    Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite; a lot / very much / to + a large extent
    Degree 7a whole + lot of / a verly large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
    Degree 8 most of + / mostly
    Degree 9 every + / all (of)/whole; entirely/in its entirety
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2ss
    PTT
    		Non-Contiguous (i.e., Intermixed) Portion of the Whole
    Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
    Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
    Degree 3 few/a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
    Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
    Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
    Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite /; a lot / very much / + to a large extent
    Degree 7a whole + lot of / a very large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
    Degree 8 most of + / mostly
    Degree 9every / + all (of) / whole; entirely / in its entirety
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -Vomt
    CNM
    		Type of Container/Packaging/Conveyance/Holder
    Degree 1jar/pot + of X [storage + containment]
    Degree 2dispensor-type + container/package, e.g., tube, barrel, bottle for multiple use
    Degree 3can/tin/bottle/sealed + pouch [= storage + packaging + protection/preservation]
    Degree 4carton/box/basket + [= temporary containment]
    Degree 5natural + or generic mass containment/packaging/holder (e.g., a loaf of bread, a lump + of clay)
    Degree 6satchel, + pack of [= for personal conveyance/moving]
    Degree 7pile of, + load of [= in context of conveyance/moving or bulk storage]
    Degree 8 X-ful of + [+ Partitive], e.g., a roomful of clowns, a skyful of clouds, a treeful + of leaves, a spoonful
    Degree 9embodiment/manifestation + of abstract essence, e.g., a life form [= an embodiment of life]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3d
    SUF
    		Degree Of Sufficiency
    Degree 1none at + all; not…at all
    Degree 2way too + little / woefully insufficient / way too few; not...anywhere enough / totally + under-[+verb]
    Degree 3not enough + / insufficient / too few; not...enough / insufficiently / under-[+verb]
    Degree 4not quite + enough / slightly insufficient; not...quite enough / a bit insufficiently + / slightly under-[+verb]
    Degree 5enough + (of) / sufficient; enough / sufficiently
    Degree 6a little + too / a little too much; a little too much / slightly over- [+verb]
    Degree 7too / toomuch; + too much / too many / over- [+verb]
    Degree 8 way too + / way too much; way too much / totally over- [+verb]
    Degree 9inundated + with; to the exclusion of all else / to the point that X overwhelms or takes + over
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3b
    EXN
    		Degree or Extent
    Degree 1none (at + all); to no extent at all
    Degree 2tiniest + part of / a bit of; to smallest extent / hardly / barely
    Degree 3only a + part of / only some of; to some extent / partially / partly / somewhat
    Degree 4less than + usual / below normal; less so than usual/ to a lesser degree or extent than + usual
    Degree 5the normal, + expected or usual amount (of)
    Degree 6more than + usual / above normal; more so than usual; to a greater degree or extent + than normal
    Degree 7way more + than usual / way above normal or expected; to a much greater degree or extent + than normal
    Degree 8 almost + as much as possible / near(ly) maximum
    Degree 9total, + -ful; to greatest extent / maximum / maximal; maximally / at full capacity, + e.g., She bought out the store.
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSšq
    EXD
    		Dynamically Changing Degree or Extent
    Degree 1less and + less / fewer and fewer / ongoing decrease in; decreasingly
    Degree 2a lot fewer + / a lot less (of); a lot less
    Degree 3fewer / + less (of); less
    Degree 4a little + less (of) / a bit less (of); a little less / a bit less
    Degree 5a fluctuating + amount or degree of; to a fluctuating degree or extent
    Degree 6a little + more (of) / a bit more (of); a little more / a bit more
    Degree 7more (of); + more
    Degree 8 a lot more + (of); a lot more
    Degree 9more and + more / continuing increase in / increasingly more / ever-increasing
    +

    This affix is used with all vector-like or gradient concepts. When used with + the COMPLETIVE version, degrees 1 and 9 imply attainment + of a change in state, e.g., sleepiness + sleep.

    +


    + 7.7.7 Modulative Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -Vons
    RCO
    		Recoil in place (spring back; snap back; fall back into place)
    -Von
    TFI
    		Back & forth; to & fro in place (e.g., pendulum, wagging tail)
    -Vonš
    TFV
    		Back & forth over linear vector (e.g., snake-like; zig-zag)
    -Vonz
    CRI
    		Cycle or circular motion in place (spin, revolve)
    -Von
    CRV
    		Cycle or circular motion over linear vector (e.g., train wheels, bike + wheels)
    -Vo
    MDL
    		Random pattern of modulation (unpredictable/irregular movement pattern)
    +

    These affixes operate in conjunction with Phase (see + Sec. 6.2) to describe contexts involving recoil, spring motion, oscillative, + cyclic, reflective or vibrative motion, using the following degrees:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1not enough
    Degree 2hardly + at all
    Degree 3to a small + degree
    Degree 4to a less + than normal degree
    Degree 5to the + normal / standard / usual degree
    Degree 6to a greater + than normal degree
    Degree 7to a large + degree
    Degree 8 to a very + large degree
    Degree 9too much + / overly
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3g
    FLC
    		Degree of Fluctuation/Stability
    Degree 1inherently + and consistently unstable and random to a high degree
    Degree 2highly + variable/random fluctuation or instability
    Degree 3moderately + variable/random fluctuation or instability
    Degree 4increasing + fluctuation or destabilization in pattern
    Degree 5tending + toward fluctuations and periods of instability
    Degree 6decreasing + fluctuation or instability in pattern = increasing stability
    Degree 7moderately + stable and lacking in fluctuations
    Degree 8 complete + lack of fluctuation or instability; highly stable
    Degree 9inherently + and consistently stable
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSf
    ICR
    		Increase
    -VSftDCRDecrease
    -VShtICDIncrease then Decrease
    -VSkfDCIDecrease then Increase
    -VSqIDRRandom/Varying Increases and Decreases 
    +

    Used with the following degrees, the above five affixes operate to expand Phase + into showing increases or decreases (or wavering) of intensity of an action + during its duration.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1so slowly + as to seem immovable
    Degree 2very slowly
    Degree 3slowly
    Degree 4somewhat slower than + normal
    Degree 5normal/usual/standard + speed
    Degree 6somewhat faster than + normal
    Degree 7fast/quickly
    Degree 8 very rapidly
    Degree 9so rapidly as to be + unable to follow
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0fs
    MVT
    		Degree of Stillness/Movement
    Degree 1unmovable + – integrated
    Degree 2unmovable + due to mass
    Degree 3not easily + moved
    Degree 4inclined + to stillness
    Degree 5holding + still
    Degree 6moving + around slightly, stirring
    Degree 7moving + around in one place
    Degree 8 moving + around, agitated
    Degree 9highly agitated, unable to keep still
    +


    +
    +
    +     7.7.8 Qualifying Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0x
    SIZ
    		Degree of Size
    Degree 1too small
    Degree 2very small/ + very little/ miniscule/ tiny/ itty-bitty;in a very small manner; barely/hardly
    Degree 3small/little
    Degree 4a little + on the small size / undersized / petite
    Degree 5a little + on the large size / oversized / jumbo
    Degree 6big/large; + in a large manner
    Degree 7very big/very + large; in a very large manner
    Degree 8 enormous(ly) + / huge(ly) / humoungous(ly) / gigantic(ally)
    Degree 9too big + / too large / too huge; in too large a manner
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    SCO
    		Dynamic Change of Size
    Degree 1smallest + single manifestation of / particle of
    Degree 2runaway + shrinkage of / rapid disappearance or diminishment of
    Degree 3solitary + / only / sole / lone / unaccompanied; alone / by -self / on his own / unaccompanied + / solely
    Degree 4decreasing + / de-escalating / shrinking
    Degree 5compact/concentrated; + in efficient or compact way [e.g., canyon + gorge]
    Degree 6expanded/enhanced; + in expanded or enhanced way [e.g., canyon + rift valley]
    Degree 7growing, + increasing, escalating
    Degree 8 runaway + / runaway growth, increase or expansion of
    Degree 9synergistic + expansion e.g., hit (+ RCP valence) + fight
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0h
    AFT
    		Degree of Affect
    Degree 1cute/darling + / in a cute or darling manner
    Degree 2too cute + / schmaltzy / in a maudlin way
    Degree 3kitschy + / quaint(ly)
    Degree 4dear, endearing(ly)
    Degree 5lovely + / elegant
    Degree 6esteemed
    Degree 7imperious + / royal / most high / most excellent / revered
    Degree 8 too grand + / too imperious
    Degree 9great / + grand; in a great / grand / grandiose manner
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    QUA
    		Degree of Quality, Effectiveness or Adequacy
    Degree 1too poor(ly); + too badly
    Degree 2very bad(ly) + / very poor(ly) / very inadequate(ly) / intolerable / intolerably / terrible + / terribly
    Degree 3bad / poor + / inadequate; badly / poorly / inadequately / wanting / lacking
    Degree 4not-so-good + / could be better; somewhat poor(ly) or bad(ly) / somewhat wanting or lacking + / below average
    Degree 5not-so-bad + / average; could be worse; so-so / somewhat well / OK, I guess / adequate(ly) + / acceptably
    Degree 6good/effective; + well/effectively/ more than adequate / above-average
    Degree 7very good + / very effective(ly) / very well
    Degree 8 excellent(ly) + / superb(ly) / outstanding(ly)
    Degree 9astounding(ly) + / amazing(ly) great or well / unbelievably excellent / absolutely superb(ly) + / unsurpassable(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0c
    UNQ
    		Degree of Specialness or Uniqueness
    Degree 1vulgar, + trashy, too cheap / in a vulgar or trashy manner
    Degree 2cheap, + tasteless, gaudy, gauche / in a cheap, gaudy, gauche or tasteless manner
    Degree 3run of + the mill / unexceptional / average / commonplace / ordinary; in a commonplace + or unexceptional manner
    Degree 4somewhat + ordinary / somewhat common(place)
    Degree 5somewhat + special / somewhat out of the ordinary / interesting(ly) / intriguing(ly) + / eye-catching / appealing(ly)
    Degree 6special; + epecially
    Degree 7extraordinary + / highly unusual; extraordinarily
    Degree 8 (one and) + only/unique; in the only way / uniquely / unparallelled
    Degree 9marvelous + / wonderful / wondrous / awesome / awe-inspiring
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    CNQ
    		Degree of Consequentiality, Finality or Irrevocability
    Degree 1inconsequential/sham/having + no effect; like it didn’t even happen/with no effect
    Degree 2relatively + inconsequential / having little effect / easily reversible or undone / to + little effect / minor / to minor degree
    Degree 3somewhat + inconsequential/having only some effect/reparable/reversible/to some effect + / somewhat minor
    Degree 4not so + minor / somwhat significant degree / reversible with effort / having a somewhat + significant impact or effect
    Degree 5consequential + / having a fair effect / reversible only with concerted effort / to good + effect
    Degree 6Overall + / signifcant degree of; all in all / for the most part/to great effect / + on the whole
    Degree 7virtually + total/near total; nearly for good/almost completely
    Degree 8 utter / + complete / total; altogether / completely / for good / utterly / irrevocably + for all intents and purposes
    Degree 9for all + time / forever / finally
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0q
    NTR
    		Degree of Notoriety, Acceptance, Respect, Honor
    Degree 1pariah-like + / ostracized; in an alienating or self-ostracizing manner
    Degree 2infamous; + infamously
    Degree 3frowned-upon + / disapproved ; in a manner guaranteed to arouse disapproval
    Degree 4tolerated; + in a tolerated manner
    Degree 5common + / customary / expected / accepted; in an common, customary, expected, or + accepted manner
    Degree 6notorious(ly)
    Degree 7well-known + / well-liked / well thought of; in a totally appropriate way / in a manner + befitting a gentleman or lady
    Degree 8 respected + / honored; respectfully / honorably
    Degree 9highly + praised / highly honored / highly esteemed / highly respected / most excellent + / most honorable
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0t
    APR
    		Degree of Contextual Appropriateness
    Degree 1contemptable(-ly) + / utterly inappropriate(ly)
    Degree 2scandalous(ly) + / trashy(-ly) / inappropriate(ly)
    Degree 3 ill-mannered + / boorish(ly) / improper(ly) / tasteless(ly)
    Degree 4eyebrow-raising + / questionable(-ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + improper(ly) / unorthodox(ically)
    Degree 6acceptable(-ly) + / adequate(ly)
    Degree 7appropriate(ly) + / proper(ly) / correct(ly)
    Degree 8 utterly + appropriate(ly), very proper(ly); strictly correct(ly)
    Degree 9stuffy + / orthodox / old-fashioned; utterly predictable(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    HRC
    		Position on Social, Occupational, or (Para-) Military Hierarchy
    Degree 1bottom + rung / the “dregs”
    Degree 2rank & + file
    Degree 3lower echeleon
    Degree 4lower-mid
    Degree 5mid-level
    Degree 6upper mid
    Degree 7upper echeleon
    Degree 8 senior
    Degree 9head / + chief / top / executive
    +

    This affix, for example, would be used to distinguish the names of the various + ranks within a military or paramilitary organization such as private, corporal, + sergeant, lieutenant, etc. all the way up to general and supreme + commander.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    FRM
    		Degree of Formality
    Degree 1too casual + / overly casual
    Degree 2very casual
    Degree 3casual
    Degree 4somewhat + casual
    Degree 5neither + casual nor formal
    Degree 6somewhat + formal
    Degree 7formal
    Degree 8 very formal
    Degree 9too formal + / overly formal
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0j
    TYP
    		Degree of Typicalness
    Degree 1unique + / never-before-seen / one of a kind / shocking
    Degree 2original + / avante-garde; surprising(ly) / innovative(ly)
    Degree 3atypical(ly) + / unusual(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + atypical(ly) or unusual(ly)
    Degree 5garden + variety / run-of-the-mill / typical(ly)
    Degree 6expected + / common; in a commonplace manner
    Degree 7disappointingly + typical; very typically
    Degree 8 unoriginal + / mundane; in an uninspired way
    Degree 9stereotyped + / stereotypical(ly)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    PTY
    		Degree of Prototypicalness
    Degree 1very dissimilar + to prototype, very atypical member, closer to members of different set
    Degree 2dissimilar + to prototype, atypical member
    Degree 3having + noticeable dissimilarities from prototype
    Degree 4somewhat + dissimilar to prototype
    Degree 5having + unknown degree of closeness or similarity to prototype
    Degree 6adequately + similar to prototype
    Degree 7as close + to prototype as is typically found
    Degree 8 as close + to prototype as possible
    Degree 9prototype/archetype/model +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0’
    ITG
    		Degree of Intelligence Manifested
    Degree 1dumb / + stupid / assinine; idiotic(ally) / moronic(ally)
    Degree 2foolhearty + / foolish(ly)
    Degree 3ill-conceived(ly) + / (in a) poorly thought out (way)
    Degree 4naïve(ly) + / simplistic(ally)
    Degree 5well-intentioned + but ill-conceived / reckless(ly); risky
    Degree 6well-reasoned + / intelligent(ly)
    Degree 7innovative(ly) + / daring [based on analysis and judgement]
    Degree 8 ingenious + / brilliant
    Degree 9wise(ly); + [V2c’ = ‘philosophical(ly)]
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    MDN
    		Degree of Age or Modernity
    Degree 1prehistoric + / proto-
    Degree 2ancient
    Degree 3old (first) + / archaic
    Degree 4classic(al) +
    Degree 5old-fashioned; + in the old-fashioned way
    Degree 6“yesteryear”; + in the era just passed; in the previous zeitgeist
    Degree 7modern, + contemporary, present-day
    Degree 8 innovative + / trailblazing; innovatively, trailblazingly, cutting-edge
    Degree 9avant-garde +
    +

     

    +

    7.7.9 Modifying Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -VSr
    NA1
    		Negation/affirmation of all morphological components
    -VSl
    NA2
    		Negation/affirmation of stem + affixes but not adjunct information
    -VS
    NA3
    		Negation/affirmation of all morphological components except Modality
    -VS
    NA4
    		Negation/affirmation of all but aspectual or Modality information
    +

    The above four affixes are used to affirm or negate a formative. Because much + of the information associated with an Ithkuil formative is carried in adjuncts, + the above affixes are used to indicate exactly which morpho-semantic information + is being affirmed or negated. For example, in English the sentences I don’t + want to stop eating, I want to not stop eating, and I want to stop not eating + mean different things. The above four affixes are used with the following degrees. +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1on + the contrary…most cerainly does NOT/is NOT [absolute negation]; no + X whatsoever; absolutely not = emphatic negation/denial
    Degree 2on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [absolute negation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 3on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [relative negation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 4no; not + [absolute negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (because I’m + not in the race)
    Degree 5no; not + [relative negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (although I am in + the race)
    Degree 6almost + / near(ly)
    Degree 7hardly + / barely
    Degree 8 …does + (too) / is (too) [= simple affirmation contrary to expectation]
    Degree 9…is + indeed / does indeed / most certainly is / most certainly does [emphatic + affirmation]
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    DEV
    		Degree of Development
    Degree 1reversal + or undoing of process = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
    Degree 2reversal/undoing + of process in large chunks = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
    Degree 3reversal + little by little / a little at a time = entropic change in / slowly falling + apart / unravelling
    Degree 4moribund + / stagnant; in a moribund or stagnant manner
    Degree 5well-maintained + / well-kept / “healthy”; keep X going / maintain X-ing
    Degree 6one by + one / one at a time / one after another
    Degree 7little + by little / a little at a time / bit by bit / a piece at a time
    Degree 8 by leaps + and bounds / in large amounts at a time
    Degree 9complete + achievement now irreversible / set in stone
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3pt
    REA
    		Degree of Genuineness or Veracity
    Degree 1real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed [affirmation + contrary to suggestion otherwise]
    Degree 2real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed
    Degree 3apparent + / seeming / looks like a; apparently / appears to have / seems to have
    Degree 4suspicious-looking + / ”fishy” seeming; presumably /allegedly / gives the appearance + of having
    Degree 5ersatz + / facsimile; as an equivalent to
    Degree 6substitute + / replacement / proxy / fill-in / placeholder; as a substitue or proxy for
    Degree 7fake / + pretend / mock; pretend to, fake X-ing
    Degree 8 imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing
    Degree 9imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing [contrary to suggestion + otherwise]
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3k
    SCS
    		Degree of Success versus Failure
    Degree 1total failure + in; completely fail to
    Degree 2failed, + would-be; unsuccessfully, fail to
    Degree 3= INEFFECTUAL + or INCOMPLETIVE version (see Sec. 5.3)
    Degree 4certain + to be a failed / certain to fail in
    Degree 5marginally + successful(ly) / barely, hardly [in terms of adequacy or success]
    Degree 6certain + to be a successful ; certain to succeed in
    Degree 7= POSITIVE + or EFFECTIVE version (see Sec. 5.3)
    Degree 8 successful(-ly + completed); successfully
    Degree 9overwhelmingly + successful(ly)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1v
    CAP
    		Degree of Potential or Capability
    Degree 1utterly + incapable / completely lacking in all necessary abilities or capacities
    Degree 2underqualified; + almost totally lacking in necessary abilities or capacities
    Degree 3lacking + in certain key capabilities; mostly inadequate to task
    Degree 4possible + but less than likely due to underdeveloped capabilities
    Degree 5unknown + if capable or not
    Degree 6somewhat + capable / has possible potential to perform
    Degree 7sufficiently + capable / adequate potential to perform
    Degree 8 fully capable; + well within abilities
    Degree 9overly + qualified; more capable than necessary or required
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2v + *
    PRB
    		Degree of Probability or Likelihood
    + * This affix takes a -V3 affix form to apply its meaning + to an adjacent suffix only.
    Degree 1impossible + / hopeless / lost cause
    Degree 2almost + no chance of / virtually impossible
    Degree 3highly + unlikely
    Degree 4unlikely + / improbable(ly)
    Degree 5possible; + possibly
    Degree 6hopeful(ly) +
    Degree 7probable; + probably
    Degree 8 highly + probable / highly likely / certain to be a. . . certain to
    Degree 9forgone + conclusion that / in the can / done deal
    +

     

    +

    7.7.10 Adverbial Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    STR
    		Degree of Physical Strength Possible or Used
    Degree 1barely + / hardly / very weak(ly)
    Degree 2weak(ly) + / to small degree
    Degree 3soft(ly) + / guarded(ly)
    Degree 4measured(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + strong(ly) / somewhat powerful(ly)
    Degree 6adequately + strong; with adequate strength
    Degree 7strong(ly) + / powerful(ly)
    Degree 8 very strong(ly) + / very powerful(ly)
    Degree 9with maximum + power
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3ç
    FRC
    		Degree of Physical Force Exerted
    Degree 1too light(ly) + / too soft(ly) / too delicate(ly)
    Degree 2light as + a feather/ baby soft; extremely delicately or lightly or softly
    Degree 3light/soft/hardly + a; softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
    Degree 4somewhat + on the light or soft side; somewhat softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
    Degree 5neither + soft(ly) nor forceful(ly); with the right touch
    Degree 6somewhat + violent(ly) / somewhat forceful(ly)
    Degree 7violent/forceful + / rough; violently / with force / roughly
    Degree 8 very violent(ly) + / very forceful(ly) / very rough(ly)
    Degree 9too violent(ly) + / too forceful(ly) / too rough(ly)
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3sk
    ITY
    		Degree of Speed (i.e., Intensity of Movement or Change)
    Degree 1too slow(ly)
    Degree 2very slow(ly) +
    Degree 3slow(ly) +
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
    Degree 5at just + the right speed or intensity
    Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
    Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0st
    SPD
    		Degree of Speed (i.e., Velocity = Distance Over Time)
    Degree 1too slow(ly) +
    Degree 2very slow(ly) +
    Degree 3slow(ly) +
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
    Degree 5at just + the right speed
    Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
    Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
    Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly)/; at fast pace
    Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    CFD
    		Degree of Forthrightness, Confidence or Humility
    Degree 1

    too + meek(ly) / too submissive(ly) / too obedient(ly) / too docile(ly)

    +
    Degree 2very meek(ly) + / very submissive(ly) / very obedient(ly) / very docile(ly)
    Degree 3meek(ly) + / submissive(ly) / obedient(ly) / docile(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + meek(ly) / somewhat submissive(ly) / somewhat obedient(ly) / somewhat docile(ly)
    Degree 5properly + humble / properly forthright ; with proper degree of humility or forthrightness
    Degree 6somewhat + confident(ly) / somewhat strong(ly) / somewhat definite(ly) / somewhat definitive(ly) + or authoritative(ly)
    Degree 7confident(ly) + /strong(ly) / definite(ly)/ definitive(ly) / authoritative(ly)
    Degree 8 very confident(ly) + / very strong(ly) / very definite(ly) / very definitive(ly) / very authoritative(ly)
    Degree 9over-confident(ly) + / too strong(ly) / too definite(ly) / too definitive(ly) / too authoritative(ly)
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    EFI
    		Degree of Efficiency or Efficacy
    Degree 1destructively + wasteful / disastrous(ly) / accomplishing the opposite of intention / making + things worse
    Degree 2very wasteful + / accomplishing nothing / making a mess of it
    Degree 3wasteful + / accomplishing little
    Degree 4somewhat + wasteful / accomplishing somewhat less than expected
    Degree 5adequate(ly) + [in terms of efficiency]
    Degree 6rather + efficient(ly) / fairly efficient(ly) / accomplishing somewhat more than + expected
    Degree 7efficient(ly) + / with little or no waste(d effort)
    Degree 8 extremely + efficient(ly) / with no waste(d effort) whatsoever
    Degree 9a synergy + of… / sum beyond total of parts / a synergistic composite of ; to + X synergistically
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3q
    ERR
    		Degree of Correctness versus Error
    Degree 1totally + wrong / totally mis- or mal-; totally in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
    Degree 2wrong/incorrect(ly) + / mis- / mal- ; in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
    Degree 3fairly + wrong / fairly incorrect(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + wrong / more wrong than right
    Degree 5so-so; + barely adequate(ly) / barely correct(ly)
    Degree 6somewhat + right / more right than wrong
    Degree 7fairly + right / fairly correct(ly)
    Degree 8 right / + correctly
    Degree 9totally + right / totally correct(ly) / totally well-X’d
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0k
    MAT
    		Degree of Maturation
    Degree 1undeveloped + / immature(ly) / seed / embryo
    Degree 2under-developed + / newborn [stage, not age] / seedling / baby
    Degree 3growing + / budding / youthful / young
    Degree 4maturing + / developing / getting stronger or bigger or more complex or sophisticated
    Degree 5fully developed + / fully mature(d) / robust / ripe
    Degree 6overly + developed / overripe / showing signs of wear and tear / stressed / under + stress / fatigued
    Degree 7declining/fading; + trail off/fade / getting softer or weaker / faded / decrepit / has-been + / past one’s prime
    Degree 8 disintegrating + / utterly deteriorated / beyond repair or rehabilitation / irreparable / + dying
    Degree 9dead / + defunct / disintegrated
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0z
    SBT
    		Degree of Subtlety
    Degree 1too subtle(ly) +
    Degree 2very subtle(ly) +
    Degree 3subtle(ly) +
    Degree 4somewhat + subtle(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + unsubtle(ly)
    Degree 6unsubtle(ly) + / lumbering(ly) rather obvious/ fairly blatant / belabored ; belabor / lumber + along X-ing
    Degree 7obvious(ly) + / blatant(ly) / exaggerated(ly)
    Degree 8 very obvious(ly) + / very blatant(ly)
    Degree 9over-the-top + / in-your-face / to obvious(ly) / too blatant(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1kš
    DRC
    		Degree of Directness
    Degree 1too indirect(ly)
    Degree 2very indirect(ly) +
    Degree 3indirect(ly) +
    Degree 4somewhat + indirect(ly)
    Degree 5somewhat + direct(ly)
    Degree 6fairly + direct(ly) / rather direct(ly)
    Degree 7direct(ly) + / straightforward
    Degree 8 very direct(ly) + / very straightforward
    Degree 9too direct(ly) + / painfully straightforward
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mš
    SUD
    		Degree of Suddenness
    Degree 1too slow(ly) + in happening, too long in X-ing, overdue, delayed
    Degree 2very slow(ly) + in happening or developing
    Degree 3slow(ly) + ; long in developing or happening
    Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly) ; somewhat long in developing or happening
    Degree 5taking + just the right amount of time to develop or occur
    Degree 6somewhat + immediate / somewhat sudden; somewhat imediately / somewhat suddenly
    Degree 7immediate + / sudden; imediately / suddenly
    Degree 8 very immediate + / very sudden; very imediately / very suddenly
    Degree 9too immediate + / too sudden; too imediately / too suddenly
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    PCN
    		Degree of Care, Precision or Scrutiny
    Degree 1utterly + sloppy(ily) / totally careless(ly)
    Degree 2 very sloppy(ily) + / very careless(ly)
    Degree 3 sloppy(ily) + / careless(ly) / with poor attention to detail
    Degree 4somewhat + sloppy(ily) / somewhat careless(ly)
    Degree 5less than + careful(ly) / with only some degree of care
    Degree 6somewhat + careful(ly) / fairly precise(ly)
    Degree 7precise(ly) + / careful(ly) / detailed
    Degree 8 extremely + precise(ly) / with great care or precision or scrutiny / meticulous(ly)
    Degree 9overly + precise(ly) / ‘nit-picky’ / with too much scrutiny / overly + meticulous(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2kš +
    CNC
    		Degree of Concern or Consideration
    Degree 1…the + hell…! / what the hell . . . / . . . who cares
    Degree 2self-centered(ly) + / without thought or concern for others
    Degree 3at the + very least / at the least level of concern required
    Degree 4 without + concern / indifferent(ly) / without consideration / unconcerned(ly) / thoughtless(ly)
    Degree 5reluctant(ly)
    Degree 6at best + / with the most concern one can muster
    Degree 7concerned(ly) + / with concern / with consideration for others
    Degree 8 very concerned(ly) + / highly concerned(ly) / with great concern or consideration for others
    Degree 9overly + concerned(ly) / worrisome(ly) / with too much concern or consideration for + others / altruistically
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    SPH
    		Degree of Sophistication
    Degree 1too crude(ly) + / too primitive(ly)
    Degree 2very crude(ly) + / very primitive(ly)
    Degree 3crude(ly) + / primitive(ly)
    Degree 4somewhat + crude(ly) / somewhat primitive(ly)
    Degree 5with expected/normal + degree or level of sophistication
    Degree 6somewhat + sophisticated or refined
    Degree 7 sophisticated + or refined
    Degree 8 very sophisticated + or refined
    Degree 9too sophisticated + or refined
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0çt
    CVT
    		Degree of Covertness versus Overtness
    Degree 1too secretive(ly) + / overly covert(ly)
    Degree 2very secretive(ly) + / highly covert(ly) / hidden / well behind the scenes
    Degree 3secretive(ly) + / covert(ly) / behind the scenes / between the lines / under the table / + “back-room”
    Degree 4somewhat + secretive(ly) / somewhat covert(ly)
    Degree 5not too + secretive(ly) / not so open(ly)
    Degree 6somewhat + open(ly) / somewhat “up front”
    Degree 7open(ly) + / overt(ly) / “up front” / out in the open / honest / forthcoming(ly)
    Degree 8 very open(ly) + / very overt(ly) / very “up front” / flaunting(ly) / brutally + honest
    Degree 9too open(ly) + / too overt(ly) / overly flaunting(ly) / vulgar(ly)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    EFT
    		Degree of Effort
    Degree 1too difficult + / overly difficult
    Degree 2very difficult + / so difficult
    Degree 3strained + / difficult; strain to / with difficulty / struggle to / to work at X-ing + / to X hard
    Degree 4somewhat + difficult / not that easy
    Degree 5neither + easy nor difficult
    Degree 6somewhat + easy; not so difficult
    Degree 7 easy / + certain / unhindered / with ease / without resistance / effortlessly
    Degree 8 very easy + / so easy
    Degree 9too easy + / overly easy
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0m
    DSG
    		Degree of Design or Purposefulness
    Degree 1purposeless(ly) + /random(ly) / utterly unorganized / chaotic(ally)
    Degree 2haphazard(ly) + / without plan or guidance/ disorganized(ly) / poorly planned
    Degree 3 fairly + haphazard(ly) / not well-planned / not well-organized
    Degree 4somewhat + haphazard(ly) / somewhat disorganized
    Degree 5slightly + disorganized / less than well-planned
    Degree 6somewhat + organized / somewhat well-planned
    Degree 7organized(ly) + / purposeful(ly) / well-planned
    Degree 8 very organized + / very structured
    Degree 9too organized + / overly structured / “anal(ly)”
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3sq
    DCS
    		Degree of Decisiveness, Commitment or Emphasis
    Degree 1indecisive + / meandering; indecisively / first one way then another
    Degree 2wishy washy + / flaky
    Degree 3some sort + of / some kind of / sort of (like) / ”kind of”; in a way / halfway + / does and doesn’t
    Degree 4apparent(ly); + seeming(ly)
    Degree 5mere(ly) + / only (a); merely / only
    Degree 6deliberate + / decisive; deliberately / decisively / purposefully
    Degree 7a real + / certainly a ; really / certainly [emphasis, not genuineness or veracity]
    Degree 8 the (one); + in the only way that counts
    Degree 9what (a) + ...!; how . . .! ; Boy! Did (does) X ever …
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3št
    CTN
    		Degree of Contrariness to Expectation(s) or Shift in Subject
    Degree 1but X would… + / if things were otherwise X WOULD… / on the contrary, X WOULD [affirmation + of hypothetical contrary to statement/suggestion otherwise
    Degree 2but / X + DOES/IS . . . / on the contrary … [affirmation of fact contrary to + suggestion or statement otherwise]
    Degree 3like it + or not…/ well, as much as we didn’t want to think it would happen...
    Degree 4against + expectation or belief ‘… after all’ ‘well, what + do you know…X!’
    Degree 5a genuine + / real / true ; really do, [contrary to expectation]
    Degree 6as a matter + of fact
    Degree 7‘at + least/at any rate’
    Degree 8 ‘by + the way/ just to mention’
    Degree 9not to + change the subject but…/ sorry to change the subject, but…/ + I don’t mean to change the subject, but…
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3’
    PHY
    		Degree of Physical Control
    Degree 1uncontrolled/helpless(ly) + ; without control/ out of control
    Degree 2almost + completely out of control / almost totally helpless
    Degree 3losing + control / losing the ability to…
    Degree 4insufficiently + trained in...
    Degree 5amateur(ishly) + / superficially able to…
    Degree 6learn(ing) + to… / begin(ning) to be able to…
    Degree 7w/ growing + proficiency or expertise (in)
    Degree 8 proficient(ly)
    Degree 9in full + control / expert(ly)
    +

    +

    7.7.11 Modality Affixes

    +

    Many of these correspond to the vocalic modality suffixes used with valence + or conflation adjuncts (see Sec. 5.5). The nine degrees associated with each + affix allow a speaker control over the extent to which the modality category + should apply to the utterance. These affix forms function, then, as an alternative + to adjunct forms for greater nuance in the applicability of the modality category + and to apply them to nouns. The nine degrees of each affix are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1not at + all
    Degree 2to too + little a degree; to an insufficient degree
    Degree 3hardly + at all
    Degree 4to a small + degree
    Degree 5to a fair + degree/somewhat
    Degree 6fairly + much/more so than not
    Degree 7very much + so / decidedly so / to a great degree
    Degree 8 too much + so / to too great a degree
    Degree 9to the + exclusion of all else / without consideration for anything else
    +

    The specific modality affixes are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3bb
    		resigned to
    -V3dd devoted; committed to / devoted to
    -V3 desired / sought-after; want to
    -V3 attempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt to
    -V3çç +  capable, able; can / able to / capable of
    -V3cc knowledgeable; can = know how to / familiar with
    -V3ff mandatory; must / have to
    -V3xx required; should / be to
    -V3 expected; be supposed to
    -V3hh intended; mean to / intend to / shall
    -V3gg chosen, selected; choose to / elect to
    -V3 …on impulse; feel like X-ing
    -V3  promised; promise to
    -V3 well-liked; like (to)
    -V3 feared; fear (to)
    -V3 willing; willing to
    -V3 prepared / ready; prepared to/ready to
    -V3 necessary / needed; need to
    -V3 Daring; dare to
    -V3hq decided-upon; decide to
    -V3pf offered/offer of; offer to
    -V33t aided / assisted; help to / aid in X-ing
    -V3hk not unexpected; be prone to / be apt to / tend to
    -V3ç’ +  agreed-upon; agree to
    -V3x’ +  responsible for/in charge of
    -V3 remember to
    -V3 feel a need to / feel one should / feel one must / feel driven to
    -V3 to guess or think [that]…
    -V3’ +  available; available to/for
    -V3kk potential; can = have potential to
    -V3tt +  permitted; can = permitted to
    -V3qq +  hoped-for; hope/wish to
    -V3pp X by inclination; be inclined to
    +

    +

    7.7.12 Agential/Participant Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0n
    AGC
    		Degree of Agency
    Degree 1[AGENT] + = one who forces/causes
    Degree 2[ENABLER] + = one who enables to happen
    Degree 3[INFLUENCE] + = one who persuades/influences
    Degree 4ENABLER + BY PERMISSION] = one who permits/allows/lets happen
    Degree 5[PATIENT] + = one who does/is made to do
    Degree 6[EXPERIENCER] + = one who undergoes/experiences
    Degree 7[INSTRUMENT] + = instrument which causes
    Degree 8 [STIMULUS] + = one whose status is as stimulus of affective experience
    Degree 9[SOURCE] + = that which gives rise to, provides underlying reason for, source of
    +

    This affix and the following identify a formative as filling a specific semantic + role corresponding in many cases to the semantic roles discussed in Sections + 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. In + several instances, these affixes would translate the English “agentive” + suffixes -er, or -or.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0m
    ROL
    		Role
    Degree 1that which + contains or functions as the enclosure / container / house / shelter of + or for
    Degree 2that which + results from
    Degree 3 [RECIPIENT] + = one who receives / has / "-ee"
    Degree 4one who + is / acts as / functions as
    Degree 5one who + is characterized by / described by...
    Degree 6one who + is similar to/functions or acts similarly to
    Degree 7one whose + responsibility is / who is responsible for / runs the business of (operationally + speaking)
    Degree 8 one who + constructs / makes / creates
    Degree 9one who + manages / oversees / supervises / coordinates / runs the business of (managerially + speaking)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0p
    UTE
    		Utilitative or Enabling Means
    Degree 1

    tool/device/apparatus + specifically designed for X-ing

    +
    Degree 2medium + by/through which one X’s
    Degree 3conduit-like + tool/apparatus for X-ing
    Degree 4natural/standard + body part for X-ing
    Degree 5object + employed circumstantially as implement for X-ing
    Degree 6covering/protective + element employed to allow/permit X-ing
    Degree 7enabling + element/device/apparatus to allow/foster X-ing
    Degree 8 environment/situaton/circumstances/setting + which allows/fosters X-ing
    Degree 9FORCE which + causes/permits X-ing
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ž
    CNS
    		Degree of Consent
    Degree 1deliberately + without consent of knowledge
    Degree 2without + consent or knowledge as a precaution or “for their own good”
    Degree 3without + consent or knowledge due to circumstances
    Degree 4with their + knowledge but w/o consent; against their will
    Degree 5consent + obtained under pressure, threat, coercion
    Degree 6w/ reluctant + consent
    Degree 7willingly; + with full consent
    Degree 8 with enthusiastic + approval and support
    Degree 9at their + request
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0t
    MEC
    		Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ +
    Degree 1the body’s + natural method of doing so (e.g., on foot, by hand, etc.)
    Degree 2a manually + manipulated generic tool or implement
    Degree 3a specialized + tool for that specific purpose or activity
    Degree 4a machine + or via mechanical means or process
    Degree 5 a virtual, + electronic means or via engineering
    Degree 6mental + power, force of will, concentration
    Degree 7a redirection + or collation of energy specially applied
    Degree 8 a collective + pooling of manual labor resources
    Degree 9a collective + pooling of electronic/mechanical/engineering resources
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    BOD
    		Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
    Degree 1

    a hand

    +
    Degree 2an arm
    Degree 3a foot
    Degree 4a leg
    Degree 5one’s + eyes
    Degree 6both legs
    Degree 7both feet
    Degree 8 both arms
    Degree 9both hands
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mp
    DBI
    		Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ +
    Degree 1

    a finger

    +
    Degree 2a thumb
    Degree 3a knee
    Degree 4one’s + head
    Degree 5one’s + teeth
    Degree 6one’s + lips
    Degree 7one’s + tongue
    Degree 8 one’s + elbow
    Degree 9one’s + fingers
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    SOC
    		Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ +
    Degree 1via lackeys, + grunt labor, go-fors or henchmen
    Degree 2by coercion, + threat, blackmail
    Degree 3 “fronts”, + or disguised go-betweens
    Degree 4indirectly + through actions of others (unbeknownst to them)
    Degree 5indirectly + through actions of others (with their knowledge)
    Degree 6by leveraging + existing resources / personnel (deploying existing methods in a new application)
    Degree 7via a proxy + or proxies
    Degree 8 hired help + or staff
    Degree 9by delegation + of task to experts
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0šš
    RSN
    		Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action +
    Degree 1for evil + or perverse reasons
    Degree 2for foolish + or naïve reason
    Degree 3due to + deception by another
    Degree 4due to + faulty information provided by another [no deception intended]
    Degree 5due to + or based on faulty perception or misinterpretation of information or evidence
    Degree 6despite + negative circumstances or reasons not to
    Degree 7for no + reason
    Degree 8 for appropriate + reasons / for good reason
    Degree 9for virtuous, + healthy reasons
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0t
    XPT
    		Expectation of Outcome
    Degree 1shockingly + unexpected; without precedent or rumour
    Degree 2surprise + X / unexpected X; completely by surprise/ completely unexpected(ly)
    Degree 3manage + to X despite inadequacy of preparation or effort
    Degree 4manage + to X despite misguided or misdirected preparation or effort
    Degree 5managed + to X despite hindrance(s) or obstacles; hard-won
    Degree 6manage + to X due to hindrances or obstacles being overestimated; easier than thought + to be
    Degree 7manage + to X due to excellent preparation / planning / execution
    Degree 8 completely + as expected / totally as anticipated / as predicted
    Degree 9pat; outcome + pre-ordained or predetermined
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V3t
    DLB
    		Degree of Deliberateness/Agency
    Degree 1accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) and unaware of consequences
    Degree 2unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to and unaware of consequences
    Degree 3accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) but now aware of consequences
    Degree 4unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to but now aware of consequences
    Degree 5unforseeable + / unpredictable; unforeseeably / unpredictably
    Degree 6without + realizing or considering potential consequences
    Degree 7thinking + one can get away without reaping consequences / furtive(ly)
    Degree 8 realizing + potential risks or consequences / cognizant of potential risks or consequences
    Degree 9intentional(ly) + / deliberate(ly) / on purpose / by choice; choose to
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0mz
    MOT
    		Degree of Self-Conscious Deliberation or Motivation
    Degree 1affected, + ostentatious; affectedly/ostentatiously
    Degree 2self-conscious(ly) +
    Degree 3guilty + / guiltily
    Degree 4half-hearted(ly) +
    Degree 5against + better judgement / can’t help but / can’t help it
    Degree 6ingrained, + by upbringing
    Degree 7learned + / habitual; by habit / trained to
    Degree 8 natural(ly) + / un-self-conscious(ly)
    Degree 9autonomic + / unaware, automatic
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V11k
    ENB
    		Degree of Enablement
    Degree 1by inadvertent + gesture/word/sign taken as order or permission
    Degree 2by granting + of permission
    Degree 3by cajoling + or persuasion
    Degree 4by direct + request or imploring
    Degree 5by direct + order based on one’s real or perceived authority
    Degree 6by inadvertent + removal of hindrance
    Degree 7by inadvertent + action that initiates a chain of events
    Degree 8 by deliberate + removal of hindrance
    Degree 9by deliberate + action that initiates a chain of events
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0ms
    AGN
    		Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness
    Degree 1with the + anticipated max. resulting effect possible
    Degree 2with the + anticipated resulting effect to a high degree
    Degree 3with the + anticipated resulting effect to a moderate degree
    Degree 4with the + anticipated resulting effect but only to a marginal, superficial or baredly + noticable degree
    Degree 5with no + noticeable effect or resulting change
    Degree 6with only + marginal, superficial, or barely noticeable effect or resulting change unanticipated
    Degree 7with moderate + effect or resulting change — unanticipated
    Degree 8 with the + resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated
    Degree 9with the + max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V21k
    IMP
    		Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome
    Degree 1target + can do nothing - utterly inevitable
    Degree 2target + chooses to do nothing - resigned to fate
    Degree 3target + tries to prevent/avoid but fails
    Degree 4target + tries to prevent/avoid and does so partially or mitigates impact somewhat
    Degree 5target + tries to prevent/avoid and succeeds
    Degree 6target + helps/enables outcome inadvertently
    Degree 7target + helps/enables outcome against own interest (i.e., without thinking)
    Degree 8 target + helps/enables outcome intentionally despite negative consequences
    Degree 9target + helps/enables outcome intentionally for own benefit
    +

     

    +

    7.7.13 Miscellaneous Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1_’
    TPF
    		Topic, Frame and Focus
    Degree 1[sentence + topic]
    Degree 2[end of + frame]
    Degree 3[head of + relative clause]
    Degree 4[sentence + topic + head of relative clause]
    Degree 5[end of + frame + head of relative clause]
    Degree 6[sentence + topic + end of frame]
    Degree 7[sentence + focus + end of frame + head of rel. clause]
    Degree 8 [sentence + focus]
    Degree 9[sentence + focus + end of frame]
    +

    The various functions of the above affix are explained in Sec. + 3.5 on Focus, Sec. 5.7 on + Frames, and Sec. 9.2 on pragmatic roles + including Sentence Topic.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2_’
    SWR
    		Switch Reference & Obviative Specification (For an explanation + and illustration of this affix, see Sec. + 8.1.1.7 and Sec. + 8.1.4)
    Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
    Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
    Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
    Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
    Degree 5first referent + mentioned
    Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
    Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
    Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
    Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0s
    PLA
    		Place, State, Setting Where…
    Degree 1place where + one learns to
    Degree 2place where + one does, performs, carries out X
    Degree 3place where + one obtains
    Degree 4place where + one stores or inventories
    Degree 5place where + one keeps or shelters
    Degree 6place where + one sees or views
    Degree 7natural + habitat or environment of
    Degree 8 place where + one deals with/ treats/ confronts
    Degree 9place where + one feels affected by
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1mm
    APT
    		Aspects
    Degree 1yet, still
    Degree 2‘even’ + as in “I don’t even like them” = in the least bit, to + the slightest extent
    Degree 3Contemplative: + upon reflection/ in hindsight
    Degree 4upon deep + introspection / following careful consideration or meditation on the matter
    Degree 5on first + blush / at first / upon initial impression / [my] first thought is/was…
    Degree 6natural(ly) + / obvious(ly) / clear(ly) [in terms of naturalness, not blatancy]
    Degree 7Experiential: + ever
    Degree 8 Regressive: + return to previous state
    Degree 9Protractive: + over a long period of time / long-delayed
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2mm
    TEM
    		Alternative Temporal Aspects
    Degree 1Inceptive: + begin to / start to
    Degree 2Resumptive: + begin again / start again / resume
    Degree 3Continuative: + keep on / still / continue / stay / yet
    Degree 4Incessative: + to X away / not stop
    Degree 5tire of + X-ing / get tired of X-ing / become weary of X-ing
    Degree 6Cessative: + stop / discontinue / cease
    Degree 7 Pausal: + take a break from [stop with intention to re-sume]
    Degree 8 Recessative: + stop again
    Degree 9Terminative: + finish / complete
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1
    DRV
    		Format/Derivation Alternates
    Degree 1Instrumentative + Format
    Degree 2Authoritative + Format
    Degree 3Precurrent + Format
    Degree 4Resultative + Format
    Degree 5Derivation: + translative motion
    Degree 6Subsequent + Format
    Degree 7Concommitant + Format
    Degree 8 Objective + Format
    Degree 9Derivation: + attend to, deal with
    +

    The above affix forms function as alternates to the Format infix of a conflation + or valence adjunct (see Sec. 5.4.2). The SCHEMATIC format + is considered the default and therefore has no affix. Additionally, two of the + affixes refer to two common derivations (see Sec. 5.4.3).
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2
    ILL
    		Illocution/Mood/Validation Alternates
    Degree 1Directive + Illocution
    Degree 2Commissive + Illocution
    Degree 3Expressive + Illocution
    Degree 4Declarative + Illocution
    Degree 5Interrogative + Illocution
    Degree 6Admonitive + Illocution
    Degree 7Subjunctive + Mood
    Degree 8 Inferential + Validation
    Degree 9Hortative + Validation
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    PTF
    		Part/Whole Functional Metaphors
    Degree 1engine + / motor / heart / pump / core / driver mechanism
    Degree 2brain / + computer / chip / instruction set
    Degree 3input / + feeder / access point
    Degree 4exit point + / anus / exhaust / tailpipe / smokestack / vent
    Degree 5wing/ arm + / branch / extensor / manipulator
    Degree 6support + / leg / stand / base
    Degree 7skeleton + / frame
    Degree 8 wiring + / conduits / plumbing
    Degree 9sensor + / eye / ear / antennae
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0š
    PTG
    		Part/Whole Gestalt Componential Metaphors
    Degree 1“base”portion + (e.g., upper arm)
    Degree 2“extension” + portion (e.g., forearm) or “flange”
    Degree 3“trunk” + or central bulk portion
    Degree 4middle + or divisional segment or joint
    Degree 5top/upper + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
    Degree 6bottom/lower + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
    Degree 7side/flank/ + lateral component
    Degree 8 “head” + extension or main interface area
    Degree 9extension/”arm”
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0qt
    MET
    		Metonymic Categories
    Degree 1part for + whole
    Degree 2producer + for product
    Degree 3object + used or owned for user/owner
    Degree 4controller + for controlled
    Degree 5institution + for people responsible
    Degree 6place for + inhabitants/occupants
    Degree 7place for + event
    Degree 8 place for + institution
    Degree 9attribute + or characteristic for owner
    +

    Metonymy is the reference to an entity via one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business.
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1t’
    SSD
    		Stem-Specific Derivatives
    Degree 1derivative + 1
    Degree 2derivative + 2
    Degree 3derivative + 3
    Degree 4derivative + 4
    Degree 5derivative + 5
    Degree 6derivative + 6
    Degree 7derivative + 7
    Degree 8 derivative + 8
    Degree 9derivative + 9
    +

    This affix is used to distinguish particular instantiations of a more generic + entity; their meaning is semantically specific to the particular stem.
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2t’
    SBS
    		 Subset of Configurative Set
    Degree 1single + specific member (random, i.e., any given member)
    Degree 2natural + first level subset, e.g., a cell among a network, a clique within a + club, a row of an orchard
    Degree 3natural + 2nd level subset, e.g., a section of a network, a subcommittee within + a club, a section of an orchard
    Degree 4complex + natural system or pattern within a set (e.g., the circulatory system, + the heating system)
    Degree 5subset + of set (unknown if natural or select subconfiguration)
    Degree 6complex/circumstantial + select pattern/arrangement within a set (e.g., the parts/things of a + house damaged by fire)
    Degree 72nd level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select section of trees of an + orchard
    Degree 8 first level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select rocks from a pile, select + trees of an orchard
    Degree 9single + select member (externally determined)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1k’
    ATN
    		Degree of Attention or Determination
    Degree 1concentrate + fully upon; pay utmost attention to
    Degree 2concentrate + to point of distraction, to be ‘lost’ in X-ing
    Degree 3pay strict + attention to
    Degree 4determined + to
    Degree 5pay attention + to; attend to; be careful that you…; heed
    Degree 6keep an + eye on
    Degree 7take some + notice of
    Degree 8 barely + notice; take little notice of
    Degree 9ignore + completely
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1šk
    DPR
    		Dispersion or Separability of a Configurative Set
    Degree 1in total + contact / contiguous mass of; pile, “ball of…”
    Degree 2non-contiguous + but closely connected, interlinked, each linked to adjacent via connecting + medium (like web); cluster
    Degree 3connected + via intervening central medium (like a vine or branches); bunch
    Degree 4not physically + connected but with immediate accessibility and knowledge of other member + actions
    Degree 5scattered + - contact with nearest member possible but less possible with others
    Degree 6“virtual” + association only
    Degree 7temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at long intervals
    Degree 8 temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at frequent intervals
    Degree 9temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at very short, immediate intervals / one + after another
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V1nd
    SEP
    		Spatio-Temporal Separability of a Configurative Set
    Degree 1

    Logical + connectedness only (spatial)

    +
    Degree 2Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned far away from another
    Degree 3Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned a little ways away from another
    Degree 4Well-integrated + spatially – one positioned right next to or behind another
    Degree 5Both spatially + and temporally well-integrated (one right after another)
    Degree 6Well-integrated + temporally – one right after the other
    Degree 7Loosely + integrated temporally – one a little while after the other
    Degree 8 Loosely + integrated temporally – one a long while after the other
    Degree 9Logical + connectedness only (temporal)
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0k
    SDP
    		Subset of Duplex Set
    Degree 1first, + top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + upper lip, inhale/inhalation, left hand)
    Degree 2beginning + or leading “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 3middle + section of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of + a duplex event or object
    Degree 4ending + or trailing “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 5midpoint, + peak, or lull between the 2 halves of a duplex set or pair
    Degree 6beginning + or leading “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 7middle + section of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing “half” of + a duplex event or object
    Degree 8 ending + or trailing “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
    Degree 92nd, bottom, + back, righthand or trailing “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + lower lip, exhale/exhalation, right hand)
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0xt
    NEW
    		Degree of Newness/Revision
    Degree 1new = original + new, i.e., never before seen
    Degree 2new = never before seen within current context, e.g., a new student
    Degree 3new = role, i.e., never functioning/existing in this capacity/manner before
    Degree 4new/other = replacement + new
    Degree 5new/other = additional instance + new
    Degree 6new/other = revision + additional
    Degree 7new/other = revision + replacement
    Degree 8 new/other/different = different, not seen/used before within current context; status as addition/replacement unknown
    Degree 9new/other/different = different + new; status as addition/replacement unknown
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 ln
    SPR
    		Spread/wake/trail/area/expanse created by passage of entity
    Degree 1quasi-linear “trail” or wake left behind on path of linear movement; trail or wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., slime trail left by snail, footprints left on snow, mowed down foliage left by moving convoy, etc.)
    Degree 2quasi-linear spread of entity stretching behind linearly moving “head” (e.g., a line of soldiers put in place to create a front, a line left on a piece of paper as written by an ink pen, path of a ball of string or skein of yarn as it unravels while rolling down an incline)
    Degree 3quasi-linear trail/wake/spread left behind passage as line of demarcation/boundary/barrier
    Degree 42-d quasi-planar wake left behind on path of movement; wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., aftermath of a forest fire, cleaned area of dirty floor or wall after it has been wiped by a mop or dustcloth)
    Degree 52-d quasi-planar spread stretching behind moving front (e.g., area of spreading flames in a forest fire, area being inundated by a flood, area of a wall being covered up by plaster by workmen, coating of an apple dipped in chocolate, area of floor covered up by a rug)
    Degree 62-d quasi-planar wake/spread left behind passage as area of demarcation/zone/restricted area
    Degree 73-d volume left behind a moving front; volume is not composed of or inundated with the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., area left behind the passage of a tidal wave, column of superheated air left behind the passage of a rocket
    Degree 8 3-d volume inundated by spread of moving front (e.g., spread of a gas within a room, area inundated by fog, volume of a container taken up by substance placed/poured/stuffed into it)
    Degree 93-d volume left behind passage of moving front as volume/spatial area of demarcation/zone/restricted space
    +

    The above affix distinguishes movement of an entity from the “trail” or spread left behind, e.g., movement which leaves behind a wake or affected area; used with motion roots as well as roots designating shapes/forms. Use of the above suffixes in conjunction with the various roots pertaining to paths of translative movement allows for very nuanced translations of English words such as surround, cover, inundate, enclose, expand, spread out, encompass, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 ld
    TRA
    		Degree of Shift/Change/Transition (used for both spatial and temporal contexts)
    Degree 1sharp break, sudden shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another with no discernible transition period/zone (i.e., point-like/instantaneous transition)
    Degree 2disjointed/non-contiguous/non-continuous break/shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 3extremely brief/small/barely discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 4somewhat brief/small/discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 5normal/standard/expected transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 6somewhat variable/changing/fluctuating transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 7highly variable/chaotic transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 8 smooth, gradual transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    Degree 9very gradual/almost imperceptible rate/degree of change/transition from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0 lm
    NNN
    		N-numbered angles/facets/faces/sides/points/forms
    Degree 1uneven /assymmetrical n–sided 2-D obtusely angled form (e.g., quadrilateral, pentagonoid, hexagonoid
    Degree 2uneven/assymetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation
    Degree 3uneven/assymetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
    Degree 4uneven/assymmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., n-hedron-like solid)
    Degree 5having n number of 3-D projections/spikes/pointed surfaces
    Degree 6symmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., tetrahedron, dodecahedron)
    Degree 7symetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
    Degree 8 symetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation (can be used with numbers as low as 2, which would refer to an elongated diamond shape)
    Degree 9symmetrical n–sided 2-D form (e.g., square, pentagon, hexagon)
    +

    The above affix is used with the number stems (see Chapter 12) to provide words for forms, shapes, and solids bearing a distinct number of angles, points, sides, facets, etc.

    +


    + 7.7.14 Locational Affixes

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0çç
    LCT
    		Locational Quadrant Markers for Object Being Located (These + affixes will be explained and illustrated in Chapter + 10.)
    Degree 1+X / +Y + / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant 1
    Degree 2+X / +Y + / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2
    Degree 3+X / -Y + / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3
    Degree 4+X / -Y + / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4
    Degree 5object + at rest relative to other object
    Degree 6-X / +Y + / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5
    Degree 7-X / +Y + / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6
    Degree 8 -X / -Y + / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7
    Degree 9-X / -Y + / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0p’
    PRX
    		Degree of Proximity
    Degree 1too close +
    Degree 2 as close + as possible without contact
    Degree 3 very close + to
    Degree 4close to +
    Degree 5somewhat + close to
    Degree 6not very + close to / somewhat far from
    Degree 7far from + / distant from
    Degree 8 far away + / very far from
    Degree 9too far + away
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V0
    CTC
    		Degree of Contact
    Degree 1melded + with / blended with / fused
    Degree 2inseparable(ly) + / locked together / bonded
    Degree 3linked + / attached / connected / joined
    Degree 4touching + intimately / touching all over / in close contact with
    Degree 5deliberately + touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
    Degree 6deliberately + touching at one spot or place
    Degree 7casually + or incidentally touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
    Degree 8 casually + or incidentally touching at one spot or place
    Degree 9barely + touching / hardly touching at all / touching at one small spot
    +

     

    +

    + Proceed to Chapter 8: + Adjuncts >>

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +
    +©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author +and this website.
    +

    +

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..17d5ad0 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1422 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 8: Adjuncts + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 8: Adjuncts

    + +


    + The notion of adjuncts was introduced in Section + 2.6.2. We have already discussed some details of various kinds of adjuncts: + valence adjuncts and conflation adjuncts were introduced in Secs. + 5.2 and 5.4, modality + adjuncts were mentioned in Sec. 5.5, + and aspectual adjuncts were described in Chapter + 6. In this chapter, more information is given about these adjuncts and several +additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    8.1 PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS

    +
    +

    The first type of adjunct we will analyze are those relating + to personal reference. By “personal reference” is meant the grammatical + description of nouns by abbreviated forms of reference. In most languages, this + is accomplished by means of personal pronouns (e.g., English he, she, it, I, + you, him, her, mine, ours, etc.). Generally, personal pronouns are distinguished + by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) and case (e.g., compare English + we, us, and ours). Ithkuil accomplishes the equivalent function by means of + personal reference adjuncts, of which there are two types: single-referent and + dual-referent.

    +

    Like all adjuncts in Ithkuil, personal reference adjuncts are + highly synthetic in their structure, comprised of at least two morphemes and + usually more. Before we examine the componential structure of personal reference + adjuncts themselves, we must first introduce the personal reference categories + they refer to.

    +


    + 8.1.1 Personal Reference Categories

    +

    The morpho-semantic delineations of Ithkuil personal reference + categorization are based on inclusion or exclusion in relation to an utterance. + These delineations begin with identifying whether or not the party speaking + is included or excluded in relation to the utterance. The next delineation made + is whether the party being addressed (i.e., the audience/listener) is included + or excluded, then finally whether any third party (i.e., a party other than + the speaker and the addressee) is included or excluded.

    +

    There are 46 personal reference categories in Ithkuil, each + of which is represented by a single consonant affix plus a corresponding falling + or high tone as shown in Table 22 below. The various terms and abbreviations + used in the table are explained following the table.
    +

    +

    Table 22(a) + and (b): Personal Reference Categories

    +
    + + + + + +
    +
    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 + = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    +     E + = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)
    +

    +
    +

    The following sections explain the terminology in the above + table.

    +

    8.1.1.1 + + Monadic vs. Unbounded. These terms were discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.3 on Perspective. For simplicity’s sake, the difference between + a MONADIC third party versus an UNBOUNDED + third party can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ + and ‘they.’

    +

    8.1.1.2 + + Speaker and Addressee. These terms refer respectively to the party + speaking (in Western grammar the first person), the party being spoken to (the + second person), and a third party being considered or mentioned (the third person). + Unlike the standard six-person matrix common in Western grammar (the three persons + divided into singular and plural), Ithkuil divides personal reference along + logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance. +

    +

    From the viewpoint of Ithkuil grammar, only a single individual + can speak. Even if there are two or more persons speaking the same utterance + simultaneously it is but a collection of single individuals, each of which is + one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ithkuil, the speaker, + can be only MONADIC, never UNBOUNDED. + Thus, in Ithkuil, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” + since inherent in the various categories which translate “we” is + the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From this + we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s + utterance that determines the various personal reference categories.

    +

    The “second person” in Ithkuil is the addressee, + the person(s) being addressed or spoken to. There can be one addressee, or more + than one addressee, i.e., MONADIC or UNBOUNDED.

    +

    The “third person” in Ithkuil is where things get + very complicated, in that a party being referenced who is not the speaker or + the addressee can have many distinctions, including the presence or absence + of animacy, being MONADIC versus UNBOUNDED, + being referred to as a collective entity, being an intangible abstraction, being + indefinite, being an impersonal generic reference, or being a combination of + two or more of these categories. These distinctions are explained below.

    +

    8.1.1.3 + + Animate vs. Inanimate. This is as it sounds. As we saw in earlier chapters, + particularly Sec. 4.1, several + important morphological categories in Ithkuil are dependent on whether the party + to the act, condition, or event is a living entity or inanimate. Note that the + distinction between gender (he vs. she) found in most Western languages does + not exist in the Ithkuil personal reference system.

    +

    8.1.1.4 + “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible for the third + party being referenced to be two or more entities of different natures. For + example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” where + “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic + animate entity), three boxes (i.e., a polyadic inanimate entity), and an intangible + concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract entity). In such + cases, Ithkuil personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” + parties to be included in a particular personal referent.

    +

    8.1.1.5 + Collective Reference. This corresponds to the NOMIC + Perspective in which a noun can be spoken of as a generic collective. For example, + the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast + refers to all dogs in a collective sense, not any dog in particular. This COLLECTIVE + category has its own set of personal reference affixes in Ithkuil, depending + on what other entities are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.6 + Abstract Reference. This corresponds to the ABSTRACT + perspective, equivalent to derivational abstract forms such as English nouns + ending with -hood, -ness, etc. In Ithkuil, all nouns can be + spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the + sense of being or functioning as a book), and the personal reference system + provides affixes for this category whose form again depends on what other entities + are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.7 + Obviative (4th Person) Reference. This category has no equivalent in + Western languages, although it is found in various Native American languages. + It refers to a third party referent other than one previously mentioned, which + would otherwise be identically marked. In Native American grammatical treatises, + this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. + For example, the English sentence He saw his book is ambiguous because + we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer to the + same person or to two different persons (i.e., one who did the seeing and another + who owns the book). In Ithkuil, no such ambiguity occurs because the latter + third person referent, if a distinct person from the initial third person referent, + would be marked using the OBVIATIVE, not the third person. + This disambiguation of third person referents is the purpose of the OBVIATIVE. + Its translation into English is therefore dependent on a preceding personal + referent. (See Sec. 8.1.4 below for more information + about the OBVIATIVE).

    +

    8.1.1.8 + Indefinite Reference. This category indicates that the third party + refers to any third party within the specified parameters. For example, the + referent + indicates an indefinite animate party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or + ‘anybody,’ while the referent + indicates an indefinite inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’ +

    +

    8.1.1.9 + Universal Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers + to every third party within the specified parameters. For example, the referent + -l + indicates a universal animate party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or + ‘everybody,’ while the referent -l¯ + + indicates a universal inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’ +

    +

    8.1.1.10 + Impersonal Reference. This category corresponds to the German pronoun + man or French pronoun on, as well as the various circumlocutions + used in English to describe impersonal reference (e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ + ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). + Such impersonal reference is illustrated in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    · One should + never speak to clowns alone.
    + · To dance the tango you need a partner.
    + · They say it never rains in August.
    + · That town is said to be haunted.
    + · She just wants to talk to someone + without being criticized.

    +
    +

    8.1.1.11 Inclusivity vs. Exclusivity. Since + Ithkuil personal reference adjuncts are designed to specify who among the speaker, + addressee(s), and any third party is included or excluded in the context of + the utterance, there are many possible personal reference distinctions possible + in Ithkuil for which English has no equivalent pronouns. Such exacting distinctions + would have to be made periphrastically in English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ + the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and + he but not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English + word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings equivalent to ‘you + (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ + ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and those things,’ etc.

    +


    +8.1.2 Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    Adjuncts with one personal referent are termed single-referent + adjuncts and have three forms: (1) a short form, (2) a long form, and (3) a + conjunct form, as shown in Table 23 below.
    +

    +

    Table 23: + Morphological Structure of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Form 1: Example:
    Form 2: Examples:
    +
    Form 3: Example:
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Where: 
    +
    + =
    		consonant indicating + Referent 1 [from Table 22 above]
    +
    + =
    		short form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table + 24 below]
    +
    + =
    		vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, Designation & Focus of Referent + 1
    + _____ (see Table 25 + below)
    +
    + =
    		long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 [see Table + 24 below]
    +
    + =
    		vocalic suffix + (+ stress) showing Context:
    + _____-a = EXS; -u + = FNC; -a + ultimate stress = SYM; -u + + ultimate stress = AMG
    +
    + =
    		vocalic infix + showing degree of (see + Table 26 below)
    +
    + =
    		consonantal suffix + for Referent 1 from standard suffix tables
    +
    + =
    		vocalic suffix + showing Context for Referent 1: -a = EXS; -u + = FNC; -û = SYM; -â + = AMG
    +
    + =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 20 in Sec. + 6.6))
    +
    Form + 3:
    		Stress pattern + shows affix-type: penultimate = V1C, + ultimate = V2C, antepenultimate + = V3C
    +
    Forms +
    + 1, 2, & 3:
    		Tone + shift shows RPV essence for Referent 1: falling + broken, high + rising

    +

    The short form of the adjunct consists of a single consonant + (labeled CR in the diagram) plus tone, + corresponding to one of the 46 particular referents (as described in Sec. + 8.1.1 above). This is followed by a single vocalic suffix VC + indicating the case of the personal referent (see Chapter 4 on Case). The 81 + possible values for this suffix are shown in Table 24 below.
    +

    +Table 24: Case Suffixes/Infixes +for Personal Reference Adjuncts
    +     + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
     
     
     
    +

    As for the long form of the adjunct, the first part is an optional + vocalic prefix + which indicates the Configuration, Affiliation, and Designation of the personal + referent (see Chapter 3 + for a discussion of these morphological categories). The possible values for + + are shown in Tables 25(a) and (b) below.

    +


    + Table 25(a) and (b): Prefixes + for Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    25(a) Designation + of Referent 1 = INFORMAL
    +
    +
    + 25(b) Designation + of Referent 1 = FORMAL
    +

    +


    + The second part of the long form of the adjunct is the single consonant () + plus tone shown previously in Table 22, corresponding + to the personal referent. The third part of the long form of the adjunct is + a syllabic infix () + which shows the case of the personal referent; it is a combination of a vowel + or diphthong followed by the consonant y or w. + The 81 possible values for this + infix are shown in the last column of Table 24 above. + The final term of the long form of the adjunct is a single vowel suffix - + which, in conjunction with syllabic stress, indicates the Context of the personal + referenct (see Sec. + 3.6 on Context). The four values for this - + suffix are shown in Table 23 above.

    +

    As for the third type, or conjunct form of the adjunct, the + first three terms of are identical to those of the long-form. The new terms + are , + which is merely a standard suffix used with formatives, as analyzed in Sec. + 7.7, and a vocalic infix, , + which indicates the degree of . + The values of + are shown in Table 26 below. The affix-type + of is shown by the adjunct’s stress pattern. Optional terms are , + one of four vocalic suffixes showing the Context of the personal referent, and + , + a consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. + 6.6. The use of + is optional if the context of the referent is already known (or can be inferred) + from the utterance. The appearance of the + bias suffix is dependent on the appearance of , + i.e., + must appear if + is to appear, although + can appear in word-final position without any + bias suffix.
    +

    +

    Table 26: + Values for

    + + + + + +
      + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1
    ï
    Degree 2
    u
    Degree 3
    ë
    Degree 4
    e
    Degree 5
    a
    Degree 6
    ö
    Degree 7
    o
    Degree 8
    ä
    Degree 9
    i
    +

    For all three forms of the adjunct, shift from falling to broken + tone, or from high to rising, indicates the REPRESENTATIVE + essence of the personal referent.

    +

    8.1.2.1 Use of the Short Form. The short form + of a single-referent personal reference adjunct is used when it is clear from + the surrounding context of the utterance which previously identified noun participant + is being referred to, so that it is unnecessary to indicate the Configuration, + Affiliation, Designation, Focus, and Context of the referent. The short form + of the adjunct merely indicates the party itself and its case.

    +

    8.1.2.2 Use of the Long Form: The long form + of the adjunct is used when necessary to indicate the context and/or the Configuration, + Affiliation, Designation, and Focus of the referent when the surrounding sentences + do not provide or make clear this information.

    +

    8.1.2.3 Use of the Conjunct Form: Form 3 of + the adjunct, the conjunct form, is a single-referent adjunct which combines + with a standard formative affix, allowing an affix category to be applied to + a personal referent, just as an affix category would normally apply to the formative + to which it is affixed. This allows personal referents to be spoken of in contexts + created by affix categories, such as when combining -V1/7 + ‘there (by addressee)’ with paw(a) + + to give the form pawo + meaning ‘you people there.’

    +
    8.1.2.4 Examples of Single-Referent Personal Reference + Adjuncts in Use +

    + _Listen! + +
    +
    +
    +
    +

    8.1.3 Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    Ithkuil allows a personal reference adjunct to show the personal + reference category and associated case for two separate parties all in one adjunct. + This is called a dual-referent adjunct and serves to combine two unrelated personal + referents into one adjunct, no matter what their associated cases may be. There + is only one form of a dual-referent adjunct, shown in Table 27 below.

    +


    + Table 27: Morphological Structure + of a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct +

    + + + + + + + + +
    Form 3:
    +

    Examples: p’awik
    + Examples: ûksaiwénz
    + Examples: ççäyokluss

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Where: 
    + =
    		vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, Designation & Focus of Referent + 1
    + _____ (see Table 25 + above and Table 28 below)
    =
    		consonant(s) + indicating Referent 1 and Referent 2 [see Table + 30]
    + =
    		long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 [see Table + 24 above]
    + =
    		vocalic infix + showing Context & Designation of Referent 2 (see Table + 29 below)
    + =
    		consonantal suffix + showing Case and Configuration of Referent 2 (see Table + 31; 9 degrees of case suffix correspond to the 9 configurations)
    + =
    		vocalic suffix + showing Affiliation of Referent 2: -a = CSD, -u + = ASO, -û = VAR, -â + = COA
    +
    =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 20 in Sec. + 6.6)
    Tone + =
    		Combinations + of Ref. 1& 2:
    + _____ falling + falling = falling, high + + high = high, falling + high = rising,
    + _____ high + falling = broken
    Stress + =
    		shows Ref. 2 + Essence & Focus: penultimate = -RPV/-FC, ultimate = -RPV/+FC, + antepenult = +RPV/-FC, preantepenult = +RPV/+FC
    +

    + represents the same optional vocalic prefix as used with single-referent adjuncts + (see Section 8.1.2) and is used to give Configuration, + Affiliation, Focus, and Designation information about the first referent, Referent-1; + the values for + when Referent-1 is in the NORMAL essence are as shown in Tables + 25(a) and (b). For dual-referent adjuncts where the essence of Referent-1 + is the REPRESENTATIVE, the values for + are given in the Tables 28(a) and (b)below.

    +


    + Table 28(a) - (b): + Prefixes for Dual-Referent Pers. Ref. Adjuncts
    + _______________( Where Essence of + Referent-1 = RPV)

    +

    28(a) Designation + of Referent 1 = INFORMAL
    +

    +

    28(b) Designation + of Referent 1 = FORMAL
    +

    +

     

    +

    Table 29: Values for +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    DESIGNATION
    		 +
    CONTEXT
    		 +
    -FR
    + INFORMAL
    EXS
    a
    FNC
    e
    RPS
    o
    AMG
    ä
    +FR
    + FORMAL
    EXS
    ï
    FNC
    i/u
    RPS
    ë
    AMG
    ü
    +

    + is a vocalic suffix indicating the Context and Designation of Referent-2; its + values are shown in Table 29 immediately above. The composite prefix (labeled + ) + is a synthetic consonantal prefix formed from the combination of the Referent-1 + prefix and the Referent-2 prefix. For example, the combination of the prefix + s- with the + prefix f- + renders the composite prefix sf-, + while the combination of the prefix t- + with the prefix q- + gives the composite t’-. + Table 30 below illustrates how the 23 single-consonant prefixes combine with + each other.

    +

    Table 30: Personal Reference + Adjunct Prefixes
    +

    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 + = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    +     E + = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)

    +
    +

    Note that when combining two referent prefixes to form the + composite + prefix the tones associated with each referent must also be combined (remember + it is the distinction between low and high tone that expands the 23 single-consonant + referents into 46). Since all single-referent adjuncts are either of falling + or high tone, their combination proceeds as follows:

    + +
    +

    falling + + falling + falling
    + high + high high
    + falling + high rising
    + high + falling broken

    +
    +

    As for the Referent-1 case infix, this is the same vocalic + case-affix (VC1) we saw for single-referent adjuncts in Sec. + 8.1.2 above (with the vocalic increment ending in -y- + or -w-). The + forms for these case infixes were given in Table 24.

    +

    Deferring for a moment the explanation of the Referent-2 consonantal + case suffix (), + the last two terms of the dual-referent adjunct are + and . + The former is one of four vocalic affixes representing the affiliation of Referent-2, + while the latter is the consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. + 6.6. The use of + is optional if the affiliation of the referent is already known (or can be inferred) + from the context of the utterance. The appearance of the + bias suffix is dependent on the appearance of , + i.e., + must appear if + is to appear, although + can appear in word-final position without any + bias suffix.

    +

    The four-way combination of Essence and Focus for Referent-2 + is shown by the four available stress patterns: penultimate stress indicates + NORMAL + UNFOCUSED, ultimate stress + indicates NORMAL + FOCUSED, antepenultimate + indicates REPRESENTATIVE + UNFOCUSED, + and preantepenultimate indicates REPRESENTATIVE + FOCUSED. + (See Sec. 3.8 on + Essence, and Sec. 3.5 + on Focus.)

    +

    The Referent-2 consonantal case suffix () + is a consonantal suffix associated with each of the 81 noun cases. Note that + each of these case-frame adjunct markers has nine forms (a default form and + eight mutations). These nine variants are used to indicate the configuration + of Referent-2 (see Sec. + 3.1 on Configuration). The values for are shown in Tables 31 below.

    +


    + Table 31: + Suffixes for Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    +


    + 8.1.3.1 Special Use of Short Adjunct Form. The short form of + the single-referent adjunct discussed in Sec. 8.1.2 + above (utilizing the abbreviated + suffix from Table 24) can be used with the special dual-referent + + composite prefixes from Table 30 under the following + circumstance: to show that two different parties are governed by the same case + and participate equally with the verb, equivalent to connecting two pronouns + in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or + The man looked at them and me. Examples: ksau¯, + xnû, + hhea. + Note in the last example hhea + how the combination of a low-toned referent and a high-toned referent combines + to give a rising-toned adjunct.

    +

    8.1.3.2 Illustration of a Dual-Referent Adjunct: + Based on the above information, we can now analyze an example dual-referent + adjunct — diawàsmûç:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ( + )-
    =
    		INFORMAL designation, UNIPLEX + configuration, CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation, NORMAL + essence and negative FOCUS for Referent No. 1
    -d + -
    =
    		combination of Referent No. 1, t- + , + plus Referent No. 2, ¯- + +
    -iaw-
    =
    		PROLATIVE case infix (meaning “along [the + surface of] X”) for Referent No. 1
    -a-
    =
    		INFORMAL designation and EXISTENTIAL + context for Referent No. 2
    -sm-
    =
    		POSSESSIVE case and MULTIFORM + configuration for Referent No. 2
    -û-
    =
    		VARIATIVE affiliation for Referent No. 2
    -ç
    =
    		REACTIVE bias
    [stress]
    =
    		ultimate stress indicating NORMAL essence and positive + FOCUS for Referent No. 2
    +

    Approximate translation: over me + [= along my body] + what belongs to a rag-tag amalgamation of you (singular) + and all those things + [sense of surprise].

    +

    While such a word might seem contrived at first, it nevertheless + proves quite functional in a sentence such as the following (which a Star Trek© + character might say to a Borg after the latter has produced an “assimilated” + spider from its pocket and let it loose during the night):

    +
    +


    +
    + _Listen! + +

    +
    +

     

    +

    Other examples of the use of dual-referent personal reference adjuncts are + given below.

    +
    +


    + _Listen! + +

    +
    +


    + 8.1.4 Use of the Switch Reference Suffix

    +

    In Section + 7.7.13, the SWR switch reference suffix was introduced. + This affix works with the OBVIATIVE personal referent + (see Sec. 8.1.1.7) to specifically indicate which + party is being referred to. The following is a review of this affix for all + nine degrees. By use of this affix, reference can be made immediately to any + party relevant to a discourse, even to a third party not previously mentioned.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2_’
    SWR
    		Switch Reference & Obviative Specification
    Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
    Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
    Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
    Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
    Degree 5first referent + mentioned
    Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
    Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
    Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
    Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
    +

    The following example illustrates the use of the switch reference suffix:

    +


    + _Listen! +

    +

     

    +

    8.1.5 Details of Personal Reference Suffixes

    +

    Sec. 7.4 described + the existence of a special group of specialized suffixes derived from personal + reference adjunct consonantal infixes. As previously discussed in Sec. + 8.1.1, there are 23 single consonants associated with 46 single-referent + personal reference categories (based on a distinction between low and high tone). + These 23 consonants can be combined with Type 3 vocalic infix patterns (see + Sec. 2.7.2) to correspond + to certain Associative and Appositive noun cases. The low versus high tone distinction + for these 23 consonants (from which the 46 categories are derived) is shown + by distinguishing between the V+C standard form of the suffix and its reversed + C+V form (see Sec. 7.5.2 on + the “reversed” form of suffixes). Unlike other -V3C + suffixes, there are no -V1C or -V2C + counterparts to these suffixes (or rather, the -V1C or + -V2C counterparts have completely different meanings and + uses). The use of these suffixes is optional, since they are merely substitutes + for single-referent personal reference adjuncts. The noun cases associated with + the nine suffix degrees are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1POSSESSIVE + Case
    Degree 2PROPRIETIVE + Case
    Degree 3GENITIVE + Case
    Degree 4ATTRIBUTIVE + Case
    Degree 5ORIGINATIVE + Case
    Degree 6PRODUCTIVE + Case
    Degree 7INTERPRETATIVE + Case
    Degree 8 INHERENT + Case
    Degree 9CONDUCTIVE + Case
    +

    Examples of Use:

    +

    +
    + _Listen! + +
    +

    +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    8.2 SUBSIDIARY ADJUNCTS

    +

    Subsidiary adjuncts refer to adjuncts which are essentially + subsets or “pieces” of the conflation adjunct first introduced in + Chapter 5. Conflation adjuncts comprise the morphological categories of Derivation, + Valence, Version, Format, Modality and Level, and are of the form CN + + VV + CK + Vm [+ tone], exemplified by the word t’uillia¯ + = t’+ui+ll+ia+¯.
    + However, it is possible to take this same adjunct and present only select portions + of it. We already saw this in Sec. 5.2 when we were introduced to valence adjuncts, + which are essentially composed of the VV + CK “subset” of a conflation + adjunct. Similarly we can have simple modality adjuncts of the form Vm + [+ tone] as in the word ia¯ which also shows + the category of Level (via the tone indication). A simple format adjunct is + possible by simply using CK by itself as a word, e.g., ll. + To this can be added the Vm [+ tone] increment to provide a + subsidiary adjunct showing Format, Modality and Level, as in llia¯.

    +

     

    + +
    + + + + +

    8.3 COMBINATION ADJUNCTS

    +
    +

    Combination adjuncts refer to adjuncts which start with an + autonomous consonantal form indicating Mood (see Sec. + 6.5), then add on various morphological categories other than those combinations + seen in conflation, subsidiary, and aspectual adjuncts. The use combination + adjuncts is optional, determined primarily by euphonic (i.e., phonotactical + and phonaesthetic) concerns in order to decrease the number of syllables which + a formative might otherwise have due to multiple affixation and mutation of + its phonemes. The various combination adjunct structures are de-tailed in the + sections below.

    +


    + 8.3.1 Mood + Aspect Adjuncts

    +

    The most basic combination adjunct combines Aspect with Mood. + In this adjunct, Mood is indicated by an initial w- + or y- plus + tone (the tone pattern is shown in Table 32 below). This is followed by one + of the 32 aspect suffixes from Table + 19 in Sec. 6.4.1. Examples: wea¯, + yaï. + Note that, in the absence of an aspectual adjunct (which normally shows mood), + this simple element can function by itself as a mood adjunct + by simply using the neutral -VS suffix, + e.g., wa, + ya¯.

    +


    + Table 32: Consonant + Tone Values for Mood Adjuncts and Mood+Aspect Adjuncts
    +
    +
    +
    +
    + 8.3.2 Phase/Validation + Format + Level + Mood + Bias Adjuncts

    +

    This combination adjunct has the form Vj + + w/y + VF (+Cb) + [tone + & stress], where:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Vj
    =
    an initial vowel indicating either one + of the nine phases or one of the nine validations, as shown in Table 33 + below; a following -w- infix indicates that Vj + shows Phase, while a following -y- infix indicates Vj + shows Validation
    VF
    =
    a vowel form indicating one of eight Formats and + four Levels (see Sec. 5.6), + as shown in Table 34 below
    Cb
    =
    one of the 48 optional Bias affixes from Table + 20 in Sec. 6.6
    tone+ + stress
    =
    The combination of four tones with ultimate versus + antepenultimate stress signifies one of the eight moods, consistent with + the tone/stress pattern for mood used with aspectual adjuncts, as described + in Section 6.5
    +

    Example: oweiç.

    +


    + Table 33: Vj + Format + Level Vocalic Infixes for Combination Adjuncts
    +
    +

    +

     

    +

    8.3.3 Affix + Format + Mood + Bias Adjuncts

    +

    This combination adjunct is structured identically to the immediately + preceding adjunct form except that the adjunct adds a word-initial affix (one + of the consonantal affix forms from Sec. + 7.7) and Vj now indicates one of + the nine affix-degrees associated with this affix. Additionally, the first three + forms of the Format/Focus infix from Table 33 above are now used to indicate + affix-type instead of Level. + Examples: psiyoul, + juwä’mm. +

     

    + + + + +

    8.4 AFFIXUAL ADJUNCTS

    +

    Any single formative affix, or any two such affixes, may be + removed from the formative and positioned as an adjacent adjunct for purposes + of euphony. Additionally, since affix categories represent common concepts generally + applicable to many contexts, an affixual adjunct can also be informally used + as a “short cut” method of conveying a notion, essentially as an + abbreviated one-word sentence somewhat like an interjection or exclamation in + English, thus conveying the concept of the affix category. For example, the + affix -V1/7 + connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, ï.’a, + it can be used by itself as an informal expression translatable by the English + phrase How typical!

    +


    + 8.4.1 Forms for Single- and Dual-Affix Adjuncts

    +

    The form of a single-affix affixual adjunct is CV’a, + where CV represents the word-final + “reversed” form of a standard suffix for formatives from Sec. + 7.7 (see Secs. 2.7.2 + and 7.5.2 on the alternate + “reversed” forms of suffixes). So, for example, the suffix -eu’/’iu + (i.e., -V2’/4) + becomes the autonomous word ’iu’a, + meaning ‘scattered all around here.’

    +

    The form for a dual-affix affixual adjunct is CV’’VC, + where the first part, CV, is + the same reversed form of a standard suffix as for the single-affix adjunct + above. The second part, VC, + represents the “normal,” unreversed form of a standard suffix. When + pronouncing such an adjunct, it is important to geminate (i.e., double) the + glottal stop, so as not to confuse the word with a simple formative in Secondary + Mode, Series B vowel mutation (see Sec. + 2.5). So, combining the two suffixes -V2v/7 + and -V1kt/9 + would give the adjunct vë’’ukt, + meaning ‘probably this one.’

    +


    + 8.4.2 Combining Mood with Affixual Adjuncts

    +

    Using stress and tone, it becomes possible to combine Mood + with both single- and dual-affix affixual adjuncts (with the exception of the + default FACTUAL mood which is unmarked). Because the standard forms for both + types of affixual adjuncts have at least two syllables, the regular indicators + for Mood used with aspectual adjuncts as described in Sec. + 6.5 (four tones + two stress patterns = 8 moods) can be applied to affixual + adjuncts as well.

    +

     

    + +
    + + + + +

    8.5 ALTERNATE INDICATORS FOR VOCALIC MUTATION

    +
    +

    In looking at the tables in Sec. + 2.5, one can see that several vocalic mutational series cause an additional + syllable to be added to a formative (e.g., kad + ka’wed). + For phonaesthetic purposes (see Sec. + 1.4.5), it may become desirable to eliminate this extra syllable in the + formative by indicating the vocalic mutation series elsewhere. Ithkuil allows + this to be done by using word-initial vocalic prefixes to certain adjuncts as + an alternate way of indicating the vocalic mutation series of an adjacent formative. + As a result, the formative itself displays the default Series A form. The two + types of adjuncts which can take such prefixes are affixual adjuncts (both single- + and dual-affix types) and conflation adjuncts. The specific prefixes used with + the adjunct are shown in Table 34 below.

    +


    + Table 34: Alternate Vocalic Mutation Prefixes For Affixual Adjuncts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    Series A
    		 +
    Series B
    		 +
    Series C
    		 +
    Series D
    		 +
    Series E
    		 +
    Series F
    		 +
    Series G
    		 +
    Series H
    		 +
    Series J
    —
    a-
    i-
    e-
    u-
    o-
    ö-
    ë-
    ä-
    +

    To illustrate this process for the + two example adjuncts ’iu’a + and vë’’ukt, + adding Series B and Series G mutation respectively results in the forms a’iu’a + and + övë’’ukt. Illustrating the process + for conflation adjuncts, the adjunct p’uimû + plus Series C mutation becomes ip’uimû.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    8.6 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON BIAS +

    +

    Section + 6.6.1 describes the standard ways in which Bias is shown on aspectual adjuncts + and on formatives. In Sec. 8.1.2, we saw how the conjunct + form of a single-referent personal reference adjunct can take an optional affix, + Cb, + to indicate Bias. And in Sec. 8.3.2, we saw how a Bias + suffix can be added to a Mood-based combination adjunct. In the absence of these + possibilities, the following sections offer additional ways to display Bias.

    +


    + 8.6.1 Adding Bias to Valence, Conflation or Subsidiary Adjuncts

    +

    Both valence and conflation adjuncts (see Secs. + 5.2 and 5.4), as well + as their subsidiary adjuncts (see Sec. 8.2) can take a + word-final Bias suffix if needed, as long as there is a vocalic Modality suffix + present as part of the adjunct. The Bias suffix is the same consonantal form + shown in Table 20 of Sec. + 6.6.1. As an example, adding the SUGGESTIVE bias suffix + -ps to the + valence adjunct oiiu + gives the resulting forms oiiups.

    +


    + 8.6.2 Informal Bias Adjuncts

    +

    Just as affixual adjuncts can stand on their own as informal + expressions, so can the consonantal Bias affixes (shown Table 20 of Sec. + 6.6.1) be used autonomously to informally convey one’s attitude toward + a situation. For example, if one wishes to convey a sense of awe, one could + state the Ithkuil equivalent to the sentence, I feel a sense of awe! + or one can simply hiss out a long s-sound, ‘ss,’ + which is the intensive form of the affix for the STUPEFACTIVE + bias category, whose translation can be approximated by the English expressions + ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’

    +

    Other examples would be the expression + to signify fulfillment and contentment, the equivalent to a long sigh of satisfaction + ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression kšš + to convey contempt and disgust, similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ + or ‘What bullshit!’

    +

    It is even possible to combine two biases into a single bias + adjunct, using the form C+ï+C, where each C + represents a single consonantal bias affix. For example, combining the intensive + forms of the REVELATIVE and the ASSURATIVE + biases gives the adjunct llïnn, + translatable as ‘Aha! I told you so!’

    +

     

    +

    Proceed +to Chapter 9: Syntax >>

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..839d9da --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,1422 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 8: Adjuncts + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 8: Adjuncts

    + +


    + The notion of adjuncts was introduced in Section + 2.6.2. We have already discussed some details of various kinds of adjuncts: + valence adjuncts and conflation adjuncts were introduced in Secs. + 5.2 and 5.4, modality + adjuncts were mentioned in Sec. 5.5, + and aspectual adjuncts were described in Chapter + 6. In this chapter, more information is given about these adjuncts and several +additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

    +

     

    +
    + + + + +

    8.1 PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS

    +
    +

    The first type of adjunct we will analyze are those relating + to personal reference. By “personal reference” is meant the grammatical + description of nouns by abbreviated forms of reference. In most languages, this + is accomplished by means of personal pronouns (e.g., English he, she, it, I, + you, him, her, mine, ours, etc.). Generally, personal pronouns are distinguished + by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) and case (e.g., compare English + we, us, and ours). Ithkuil accomplishes the equivalent function by means of + personal reference adjuncts, of which there are two types: single-referent and + dual-referent.

    +

    Like all adjuncts in Ithkuil, personal reference adjuncts are + highly synthetic in their structure, comprised of at least two morphemes and + usually more. Before we examine the componential structure of personal reference + adjuncts themselves, we must first introduce the personal reference categories + they refer to.

    +


    + 8.1.1 Personal Reference Categories

    +

    The morpho-semantic delineations of Ithkuil personal reference + categorization are based on inclusion or exclusion in relation to an utterance. + These delineations begin with identifying whether or not the party speaking + is included or excluded in relation to the utterance. The next delineation made + is whether the party being addressed (i.e., the audience/listener) is included + or excluded, then finally whether any third party (i.e., a party other than + the speaker and the addressee) is included or excluded.

    +

    There are 46 personal reference categories in Ithkuil, each + of which is represented by a single consonant affix plus a corresponding falling + or high tone as shown in Table 22 below. The various terms and abbreviations + used in the table are explained following the table.
    +

    +

    Table 22(a) + and (b): Personal Reference Categories

    +
    + + + + + +
    +
    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 + = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    +     E + = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)
    +

    +
    +

    The following sections explain the terminology in the above + table.

    +

    8.1.1.1 + + Monadic vs. Unbounded. These terms were discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.3 on Perspective. For simplicity’s sake, the difference between + a MONADIC third party versus an UNBOUNDED + third party can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ + and ‘they.’

    +

    8.1.1.2 + + Speaker and Addressee. These terms refer respectively to the party + speaking (in Western grammar the first person), the party being spoken to (the + second person), and a third party being considered or mentioned (the third person). + Unlike the standard six-person matrix common in Western grammar (the three persons + divided into singular and plural), Ithkuil divides personal reference along + logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance. +

    +

    From the viewpoint of Ithkuil grammar, only a single individual + can speak. Even if there are two or more persons speaking the same utterance + simultaneously it is but a collection of single individuals, each of which is + one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ithkuil, the speaker, + can be only MONADIC, never UNBOUNDED. + Thus, in Ithkuil, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” + since inherent in the various categories which translate “we” is + the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From this + we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s + utterance that determines the various personal reference categories.

    +

    The “second person” in Ithkuil is the addressee, + the person(s) being addressed or spoken to. There can be one addressee, or more + than one addressee, i.e., MONADIC or UNBOUNDED.

    +

    The “third person” in Ithkuil is where things get + very complicated, in that a party being referenced who is not the speaker or + the addressee can have many distinctions, including the presence or absence + of animacy, being MONADIC versus UNBOUNDED, + being referred to as a collective entity, being an intangible abstraction, being + indefinite, being an impersonal generic reference, or being a combination of + two or more of these categories. These distinctions are explained below.

    +

    8.1.1.3 + + Animate vs. Inanimate. This is as it sounds. As we saw in earlier chapters, + particularly Sec. 4.1, several + important morphological categories in Ithkuil are dependent on whether the party + to the act, condition, or event is a living entity or inanimate. Note that the + distinction between gender (he vs. she) found in most Western languages does + not exist in the Ithkuil personal reference system.

    +

    8.1.1.4 + “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible for the third + party being referenced to be two or more entities of different natures. For + example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” where + “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic + animate entity), three boxes (i.e., a polyadic inanimate entity), and an intangible + concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract entity). In such + cases, Ithkuil personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” + parties to be included in a particular personal referent.

    +

    8.1.1.5 + Collective Reference. This corresponds to the NOMIC + Perspective in which a noun can be spoken of as a generic collective. For example, + the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast + refers to all dogs in a collective sense, not any dog in particular. This COLLECTIVE + category has its own set of personal reference affixes in Ithkuil, depending + on what other entities are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.6 + Abstract Reference. This corresponds to the ABSTRACT + perspective, equivalent to derivational abstract forms such as English nouns + ending with -hood, -ness, etc. In Ithkuil, all nouns can be + spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the + sense of being or functioning as a book), and the personal reference system + provides affixes for this category whose form again depends on what other entities + are included in the context of the utterance.

    +

    8.1.1.7 + Obviative (4th Person) Reference. This category has no equivalent in + Western languages, although it is found in various Native American languages. + It refers to a third party referent other than one previously mentioned, which + would otherwise be identically marked. In Native American grammatical treatises, + this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. + For example, the English sentence He saw his book is ambiguous because + we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer to the + same person or to two different persons (i.e., one who did the seeing and another + who owns the book). In Ithkuil, no such ambiguity occurs because the latter + third person referent, if a distinct person from the initial third person referent, + would be marked using the OBVIATIVE, not the third person. + This disambiguation of third person referents is the purpose of the OBVIATIVE. + Its translation into English is therefore dependent on a preceding personal + referent. (See Sec. 8.1.4 below for more information + about the OBVIATIVE).

    +

    8.1.1.8 + Indefinite Reference. This category indicates that the third party + refers to any third party within the specified parameters. For example, the + referent + indicates an indefinite animate party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or + ‘anybody,’ while the referent + indicates an indefinite inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’ +

    +

    8.1.1.9 + Universal Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers + to every third party within the specified parameters. For example, the referent + -l + indicates a universal animate party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or + ‘everybody,’ while the referent -l¯ + + indicates a universal inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’ +

    +

    8.1.1.10 + Impersonal Reference. This category corresponds to the German pronoun + man or French pronoun on, as well as the various circumlocutions + used in English to describe impersonal reference (e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ + ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). + Such impersonal reference is illustrated in the following English sentences:

    +
    +

    · One should + never speak to clowns alone.
    + · To dance the tango you need a partner.
    + · They say it never rains in August.
    + · That town is said to be haunted.
    + · She just wants to talk to someone + without being criticized.

    +
    +

    8.1.1.11 Inclusivity vs. Exclusivity. Since + Ithkuil personal reference adjuncts are designed to specify who among the speaker, + addressee(s), and any third party is included or excluded in the context of + the utterance, there are many possible personal reference distinctions possible + in Ithkuil for which English has no equivalent pronouns. Such exacting distinctions + would have to be made periphrastically in English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ + the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and + he but not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English + word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings equivalent to ‘you + (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ + ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and those things,’ etc.

    +


    +8.1.2 Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    Adjuncts with one personal referent are termed single-referent + adjuncts and have three forms: (1) a short form, (2) a long form, and (3) a + conjunct form, as shown in Table 23 below.
    +

    +

    Table 23: + Morphological Structure of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Form 1: Example:
    Form 2: Examples:
    +
    Form 3: Example:
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Where: 
    +
    + =
    		consonant indicating + Referent 1 [from Table 22 above]
    +
    + =
    		short form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table + 24 below]
    +
    + =
    		vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, Designation & Focus of Referent + 1
    + _____ (see Table 25 + below)
    +
    + =
    		long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 [see Table + 24 below]
    +
    + =
    		vocalic suffix + (+ stress) showing Context:
    + _____-a = EXS; -u + = FNC; -a + ultimate stress = SYM; -u + + ultimate stress = AMG
    +
    + =
    		vocalic infix + showing degree of (see + Table 26 below)
    +
    + =
    		consonantal suffix + for Referent 1 from standard suffix tables
    +
    + =
    		vocalic suffix + showing Context for Referent 1: -a = EXS; -u + = FNC; -û = SYM; -â + = AMG
    +
    + =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 20 in Sec. + 6.6))
    +
    Form + 3:
    		Stress pattern + shows affix-type: penultimate = V1C, + ultimate = V2C, antepenultimate + = V3C
    +
    Forms +
    + 1, 2, & 3:
    		Tone + shift shows RPV essence for Referent 1: falling + broken, high + rising

    +

    The short form of the adjunct consists of a single consonant + (labeled CR in the diagram) plus tone, + corresponding to one of the 46 particular referents (as described in Sec. + 8.1.1 above). This is followed by a single vocalic suffix VC + indicating the case of the personal referent (see Chapter 4 on Case). The 81 + possible values for this suffix are shown in Table 24 below.
    +

    +Table 24: Case Suffixes/Infixes +for Personal Reference Adjuncts
    +     + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     
     
     
     
    +

    As for the long form of the adjunct, the first part is an optional + vocalic prefix + which indicates the Configuration, Affiliation, and Designation of the personal + referent (see Chapter 3 + for a discussion of these morphological categories). The possible values for + + are shown in Tables 25(a) and (b) below.

    +


    + Table 25(a) and (b): Prefixes + for Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    25(a) Designation + of Referent 1 = INFORMAL
    +
    +
    + 25(b) Designation + of Referent 1 = FORMAL
    +

    +


    + The second part of the long form of the adjunct is the single consonant () + plus tone shown previously in Table 22, corresponding + to the personal referent. The third part of the long form of the adjunct is + a syllabic infix () + which shows the case of the personal referent; it is a combination of a vowel + or diphthong followed by the consonant y or w. + The 81 possible values for this + infix are shown in the last column of Table 24 above. + The final term of the long form of the adjunct is a single vowel suffix - + which, in conjunction with syllabic stress, indicates the Context of the personal + referenct (see Sec. + 3.6 on Context). The four values for this - + suffix are shown in Table 23 above.

    +

    As for the third type, or conjunct form of the adjunct, the + first three terms of are identical to those of the long-form. The new terms + are , + which is merely a standard suffix used with formatives, as analyzed in Sec. + 7.7, and a vocalic infix, , + which indicates the degree of . + The values of + are shown in Table 26 below. The affix-type + of is shown by the adjunct’s stress pattern. Optional terms are , + one of four vocalic suffixes showing the Context of the personal referent, and + , + a consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. + 6.6. The use of + is optional if the context of the referent is already known (or can be inferred) + from the utterance. The appearance of the + bias suffix is dependent on the appearance of , + i.e., + must appear if + is to appear, although + can appear in word-final position without any + bias suffix.
    +

    +

    Table 26: + Values for

    + + + + + +
      + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1
    ï
    Degree 2
    u
    Degree 3
    ë
    Degree 4
    e
    Degree 5
    a
    Degree 6
    ö
    Degree 7
    o
    Degree 8
    ä
    Degree 9
    i
    +

    For all three forms of the adjunct, shift from falling to broken + tone, or from high to rising, indicates the REPRESENTATIVE + essence of the personal referent.

    +

    8.1.2.1 Use of the Short Form. The short form + of a single-referent personal reference adjunct is used when it is clear from + the surrounding context of the utterance which previously identified noun participant + is being referred to, so that it is unnecessary to indicate the Configuration, + Affiliation, Designation, Focus, and Context of the referent. The short form + of the adjunct merely indicates the party itself and its case.

    +

    8.1.2.2 Use of the Long Form: The long form + of the adjunct is used when necessary to indicate the context and/or the Configuration, + Affiliation, Designation, and Focus of the referent when the surrounding sentences + do not provide or make clear this information.

    +

    8.1.2.3 Use of the Conjunct Form: Form 3 of + the adjunct, the conjunct form, is a single-referent adjunct which combines + with a standard formative affix, allowing an affix category to be applied to + a personal referent, just as an affix category would normally apply to the formative + to which it is affixed. This allows personal referents to be spoken of in contexts + created by affix categories, such as when combining -V1/7 + ‘there (by addressee)’ with paw(a) + + to give the form pawo + meaning ‘you people there.’

    +
    8.1.2.4 Examples of Single-Referent Personal Reference + Adjuncts in Use +

    + _Listen! + +
    +
    +
    +
    +

    8.1.3 Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    +

    Ithkuil allows a personal reference adjunct to show the personal + reference category and associated case for two separate parties all in one adjunct. + This is called a dual-referent adjunct and serves to combine two unrelated personal + referents into one adjunct, no matter what their associated cases may be. There + is only one form of a dual-referent adjunct, shown in Table 27 below.

    +


    + Table 27: Morphological Structure + of a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct +

    + + + + + + + + +
    Form 3:
    +

    Examples: p’awik
    + Examples: ûksaiwénz
    + Examples: ççäyokluss

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Where: 
    + =
    		vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, Designation & Focus of Referent + 1
    + _____ (see Table 25 + above and Table 28 below)
    =
    		consonant(s) + indicating Referent 1 and Referent 2 [see Table + 30]
    + =
    		long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 [see Table + 24 above]
    + =
    		vocalic infix + showing Context & Designation of Referent 2 (see Table + 29 below)
    + =
    		consonantal suffix + showing Case and Configuration of Referent 2 (see Table + 31; 9 degrees of case suffix correspond to the 9 configurations)
    + =
    		vocalic suffix + showing Affiliation of Referent 2: -a = CSD, -u + = ASO, -û = VAR, -â + = COA
    +
    =
    		consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 20 in Sec. + 6.6)
    Tone + =
    		Combinations + of Ref. 1& 2:
    + _____ falling + falling = falling, high + + high = high, falling + high = rising,
    + _____ high + falling = broken
    Stress + =
    		shows Ref. 2 + Essence & Focus: penultimate = -RPV/-FC, ultimate = -RPV/+FC, + antepenult = +RPV/-FC, preantepenult = +RPV/+FC
    +

    + represents the same optional vocalic prefix as used with single-referent adjuncts + (see Section 8.1.2) and is used to give Configuration, + Affiliation, Focus, and Designation information about the first referent, Referent-1; + the values for + when Referent-1 is in the NORMAL essence are as shown in Tables + 25(a) and (b). For dual-referent adjuncts where the essence of Referent-1 + is the REPRESENTATIVE, the values for + are given in the Tables 28(a) and (b)below.

    +


    + Table 28(a) - (b): + Prefixes for Dual-Referent Pers. Ref. Adjuncts
    + _______________( Where Essence of + Referent-1 = RPV)

    +

    28(a) Designation + of Referent 1 = INFORMAL
    +

    +

    28(b) Designation + of Referent 1 = FORMAL
    +

    +

     

    +

    Table 29: Values for +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    DESIGNATION
    		 +
    CONTEXT
    		 +
    -FR
    + INFORMAL
    EXS
    a
    FNC
    e
    RPS
    o
    AMG
    ä
    +FR
    + FORMAL
    EXS
    ï
    FNC
    i/u
    RPS
    ë
    AMG
    ü
    +

    + is a vocalic suffix indicating the Context and Designation of Referent-2; its + values are shown in Table 29 immediately above. The composite prefix (labeled + ) + is a synthetic consonantal prefix formed from the combination of the Referent-1 + prefix and the Referent-2 prefix. For example, the combination of the prefix + s- with the + prefix f- + renders the composite prefix sf-, + while the combination of the prefix t- + with the prefix q- + gives the composite t’-. + Table 30 below illustrates how the 23 single-consonant prefixes combine with + each other.

    +

    Table 30: Personal Reference + Adjunct Prefixes
    +

    +

    Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

    +
    +

    1 + = Inclusion of speaker
    + 2 = Inclusion of addressee
    + m = monadic (single party)
    + u = unbounded (more than one party)
    + a = animate 3rd party
    + i = inanimate 3rd party
    +     E + = universal ('everyone/everything')
    + M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
    + IP = Impersonal ('one')
    + ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
    + Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
    + Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
    + Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)

    +
    +

    Note that when combining two referent prefixes to form the + composite + prefix the tones associated with each referent must also be combined (remember + it is the distinction between low and high tone that expands the 23 single-consonant + referents into 46). Since all single-referent adjuncts are either of falling + or high tone, their combination proceeds as follows:

    + +
    +

    falling + + falling + falling
    + high + high high
    + falling + high rising
    + high + falling broken

    +
    +

    As for the Referent-1 case infix, this is the same vocalic + case-affix (VC1) we saw for single-referent adjuncts in Sec. + 8.1.2 above (with the vocalic increment ending in -y- + or -w-). The + forms for these case infixes were given in Table 24.

    +

    Deferring for a moment the explanation of the Referent-2 consonantal + case suffix (), + the last two terms of the dual-referent adjunct are + and . + The former is one of four vocalic affixes representing the affiliation of Referent-2, + while the latter is the consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. + 6.6. The use of + is optional if the affiliation of the referent is already known (or can be inferred) + from the context of the utterance. The appearance of the + bias suffix is dependent on the appearance of , + i.e., + must appear if + is to appear, although + can appear in word-final position without any + bias suffix.

    +

    The four-way combination of Essence and Focus for Referent-2 + is shown by the four available stress patterns: penultimate stress indicates + NORMAL + UNFOCUSED, ultimate stress + indicates NORMAL + FOCUSED, antepenultimate + indicates REPRESENTATIVE + UNFOCUSED, + and preantepenultimate indicates REPRESENTATIVE + FOCUSED. + (See Sec. 3.8 on + Essence, and Sec. 3.5 + on Focus.)

    +

    The Referent-2 consonantal case suffix () + is a consonantal suffix associated with each of the 81 noun cases. Note that + each of these case-frame adjunct markers has nine forms (a default form and + eight mutations). These nine variants are used to indicate the configuration + of Referent-2 (see Sec. + 3.1 on Configuration). The values for are shown in Tables 31 below.

    +


    + Table 31: + Suffixes for Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

    + + + + + + + + + + +
    +


    + 8.1.3.1 Special Use of Short Adjunct Form. The short form of + the single-referent adjunct discussed in Sec. 8.1.2 + above (utilizing the abbreviated + suffix from Table 24) can be used with the special dual-referent + + composite prefixes from Table 30 under the following + circumstance: to show that two different parties are governed by the same case + and participate equally with the verb, equivalent to connecting two pronouns + in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or + The man looked at them and me. Examples: ksau¯, + xnû, + hhea. + Note in the last example hhea + how the combination of a low-toned referent and a high-toned referent combines + to give a rising-toned adjunct.

    +

    8.1.3.2 Illustration of a Dual-Referent Adjunct: + Based on the above information, we can now analyze an example dual-referent + adjunct — diawàsmûç:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    ( + )-
    =
    		INFORMAL designation, UNIPLEX + configuration, CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation, NORMAL + essence and negative FOCUS for Referent No. 1
    -d + -
    =
    		combination of Referent No. 1, t- + , + plus Referent No. 2, ¯- + +
    -iaw-
    =
    		PROLATIVE case infix (meaning “along [the + surface of] X”) for Referent No. 1
    -a-
    =
    		INFORMAL designation and EXISTENTIAL + context for Referent No. 2
    -sm-
    =
    		POSSESSIVE case and MULTIFORM + configuration for Referent No. 2
    -û-
    =
    		VARIATIVE affiliation for Referent No. 2
    -ç
    =
    		REACTIVE bias
    [stress]
    =
    		ultimate stress indicating NORMAL essence and positive + FOCUS for Referent No. 2
    +

    Approximate translation: over me + [= along my body] + what belongs to a rag-tag amalgamation of you (singular) + and all those things + [sense of surprise].

    +

    While such a word might seem contrived at first, it nevertheless + proves quite functional in a sentence such as the following (which a Star Trek© + character might say to a Borg after the latter has produced an “assimilated” + spider from its pocket and let it loose during the night):

    +
    +


    +
    + _Listen! + +

    +
    +

     

    +

    Other examples of the use of dual-referent personal reference adjuncts are + given below.

    +
    +


    + _Listen! + +

    +
    +


    + 8.1.4 Use of the Switch Reference Suffix

    +

    In Section + 7.7.13, the SWR switch reference suffix was introduced. + This affix works with the OBVIATIVE personal referent + (see Sec. 8.1.1.7) to specifically indicate which + party is being referred to. The following is a review of this affix for all + nine degrees. By use of this affix, reference can be made immediately to any + party relevant to a discourse, even to a third party not previously mentioned.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -V2_’
    SWR
    		Switch Reference & Obviative Specification
    Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
    Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
    Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
    Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
    Degree 5first referent + mentioned
    Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
    Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
    Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
    Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
    +

    The following example illustrates the use of the switch reference suffix:

    +


    + _Listen! +

    +

     

    +

    8.1.5 Details of Personal Reference Suffixes

    +

    Sec. 7.4 described + the existence of a special group of specialized suffixes derived from personal + reference adjunct consonantal infixes. As previously discussed in Sec. + 8.1.1, there are 23 single consonants associated with 46 single-referent + personal reference categories (based on a distinction between low and high tone). + These 23 consonants can be combined with Type 3 vocalic infix patterns (see + Sec. 2.7.2) to correspond + to certain Associative and Appositive noun cases. The low versus high tone distinction + for these 23 consonants (from which the 46 categories are derived) is shown + by distinguishing between the V+C standard form of the suffix and its reversed + C+V form (see Sec. 7.5.2 on + the “reversed” form of suffixes). Unlike other -V3C + suffixes, there are no -V1C or -V2C + counterparts to these suffixes (or rather, the -V1C or + -V2C counterparts have completely different meanings and + uses). The use of these suffixes is optional, since they are merely substitutes + for single-referent personal reference adjuncts. The noun cases associated with + the nine suffix degrees are as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Degree 1POSSESSIVE + Case
    Degree 2PROPRIETIVE + Case
    Degree 3GENITIVE + Case
    Degree 4ATTRIBUTIVE + Case
    Degree 5ORIGINATIVE + Case
    Degree 6PRODUCTIVE + Case
    Degree 7INTERPRETATIVE + Case
    Degree 8 INHERENT + Case
    Degree 9CONDUCTIVE + Case
    +

    Examples of Use:

    +

    +
    + _Listen! + +
    +

    +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    8.2 SUBSIDIARY ADJUNCTS

    +

    Subsidiary adjuncts refer to adjuncts which are essentially + subsets or “pieces” of the conflation adjunct first introduced in + Chapter 5. Conflation adjuncts comprise the morphological categories of Derivation, + Valence, Version, Format, Modality and Level, and are of the form CN + + VV + CK + Vm [+ tone], exemplified by the word t’uillia¯ + = t’+ui+ll+ia+¯.
    + However, it is possible to take this same adjunct and present only select portions + of it. We already saw this in Sec. 5.2 when we were introduced to valence adjuncts, + which are essentially composed of the VV + CK “subset” of a conflation + adjunct. Similarly we can have simple modality adjuncts of the form Vm + [+ tone] as in the word ia¯ which also shows + the category of Level (via the tone indication). A simple format adjunct is + possible by simply using CK by itself as a word, e.g., ll. + To this can be added the Vm [+ tone] increment to provide a + subsidiary adjunct showing Format, Modality and Level, as in llia¯.

    +

     

    + +
    + + + + +

    8.3 COMBINATION ADJUNCTS

    +
    +

    Combination adjuncts refer to adjuncts which start with an + autonomous consonantal form indicating Mood (see Sec. + 6.5), then add on various morphological categories other than those combinations + seen in conflation, subsidiary, and aspectual adjuncts. The use combination + adjuncts is optional, determined primarily by euphonic (i.e., phonotactical + and phonaesthetic) concerns in order to decrease the number of syllables which + a formative might otherwise have due to multiple affixation and mutation of + its phonemes. The various combination adjunct structures are de-tailed in the + sections below.

    +


    + 8.3.1 Mood + Aspect Adjuncts

    +

    The most basic combination adjunct combines Aspect with Mood. + In this adjunct, Mood is indicated by an initial w- + or y- plus + tone (the tone pattern is shown in Table 32 below). This is followed by one + of the 32 aspect suffixes from Table + 19 in Sec. 6.4.1. Examples: wea¯, + yaï. + Note that, in the absence of an aspectual adjunct (which normally shows mood), + this simple element can function by itself as a mood adjunct + by simply using the neutral -VS suffix, + e.g., wa, + ya¯.

    +


    + Table 32: Consonant + Tone Values for Mood Adjuncts and Mood+Aspect Adjuncts
    +
    +
    +
    +
    + 8.3.2 Phase/Validation + Format + Level + Mood + Bias Adjuncts

    +

    This combination adjunct has the form Vj + + w/y + VF (+Cb) + [tone + & stress], where:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Vj
    =
    an initial vowel indicating either one + of the nine phases or one of the nine validations, as shown in Table 33 + below; a following -w- infix indicates that Vj + shows Phase, while a following -y- infix indicates Vj + shows Validation
    VF
    =
    a vowel form indicating one of eight Formats and + four Levels (see Sec. 5.6), + as shown in Table 34 below
    Cb
    =
    one of the 48 optional Bias affixes from Table + 20 in Sec. 6.6
    tone+ + stress
    =
    The combination of four tones with ultimate versus + antepenultimate stress signifies one of the eight moods, consistent with + the tone/stress pattern for mood used with aspectual adjuncts, as described + in Section 6.5
    +

    Example: oweiç.

    +


    + Table 33: Vj + Format + Level Vocalic Infixes for Combination Adjuncts
    +
    +

    +

     

    +

    8.3.3 Affix + Format + Mood + Bias Adjuncts

    +

    This combination adjunct is structured identically to the immediately + preceding adjunct form except that the adjunct adds a word-initial affix (one + of the consonantal affix forms from Sec. + 7.7) and Vj now indicates one of + the nine affix-degrees associated with this affix. Additionally, the first three + forms of the Format/Focus infix from Table 33 above are now used to indicate + affix-type instead of Level. + Examples: psiyoul, + juwä’mm. +

     

    + + + + +

    8.4 AFFIXUAL ADJUNCTS

    +

    Any single formative affix, or any two such affixes, may be + removed from the formative and positioned as an adjacent adjunct for purposes + of euphony. Additionally, since affix categories represent common concepts generally + applicable to many contexts, an affixual adjunct can also be informally used + as a “short cut” method of conveying a notion, essentially as an + abbreviated one-word sentence somewhat like an interjection or exclamation in + English, thus conveying the concept of the affix category. For example, the + affix -V1/7 + connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, ï.’a, + it can be used by itself as an informal expression translatable by the English + phrase How typical!

    +


    + 8.4.1 Forms for Single- and Dual-Affix Adjuncts

    +

    The form of a single-affix affixual adjunct is CV’a, + where CV represents the word-final + “reversed” form of a standard suffix for formatives from Sec. + 7.7 (see Secs. 2.7.2 + and 7.5.2 on the alternate + “reversed” forms of suffixes). So, for example, the suffix -eu’/’iu + (i.e., -V2’/4) + becomes the autonomous word ’iu’a, + meaning ‘scattered all around here.’

    +

    The form for a dual-affix affixual adjunct is CV’’VC, + where the first part, CV, is + the same reversed form of a standard suffix as for the single-affix adjunct + above. The second part, VC, + represents the “normal,” unreversed form of a standard suffix. When + pronouncing such an adjunct, it is important to geminate (i.e., double) the + glottal stop, so as not to confuse the word with a simple formative in Secondary + Mode, Series B vowel mutation (see Sec. + 2.5). So, combining the two suffixes -V2v/7 + and -V1kt/9 + would give the adjunct vë’’ukt, + meaning ‘probably this one.’

    +


    + 8.4.2 Combining Mood with Affixual Adjuncts

    +

    Using stress and tone, it becomes possible to combine Mood + with both single- and dual-affix affixual adjuncts (with the exception of the + default FACTUAL mood which is unmarked). Because the standard forms for both + types of affixual adjuncts have at least two syllables, the regular indicators + for Mood used with aspectual adjuncts as described in Sec. + 6.5 (four tones + two stress patterns = 8 moods) can be applied to affixual + adjuncts as well.

    +

     

    + +
    + + + + +

    8.5 ALTERNATE INDICATORS FOR VOCALIC MUTATION

    +
    +

    In looking at the tables in Sec. + 2.5, one can see that several vocalic mutational series cause an additional + syllable to be added to a formative (e.g., kad + ka’wed). + For phonaesthetic purposes (see Sec. + 1.4.5), it may become desirable to eliminate this extra syllable in the + formative by indicating the vocalic mutation series elsewhere. Ithkuil allows + this to be done by using word-initial vocalic prefixes to certain adjuncts as + an alternate way of indicating the vocalic mutation series of an adjacent formative. + As a result, the formative itself displays the default Series A form. The two + types of adjuncts which can take such prefixes are affixual adjuncts (both single- + and dual-affix types) and conflation adjuncts. The specific prefixes used with + the adjunct are shown in Table 34 below.

    +


    + Table 34: Alternate Vocalic Mutation Prefixes For Affixual Adjuncts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    +
    Series A
    		 +
    Series B
    		 +
    Series C
    		 +
    Series D
    		 +
    Series E
    		 +
    Series F
    		 +
    Series G
    		 +
    Series H
    		 +
    Series J
    —
    a-
    i-
    e-
    u-
    o-
    ö-
    ë-
    ä-
    +

    To illustrate this process for the + two example adjuncts ’iu’a + and vë’’ukt, + adding Series B and Series G mutation respectively results in the forms a’iu’a + and + övë’’ukt. Illustrating the process + for conflation adjuncts, the adjunct p’uimû + plus Series C mutation becomes ip’uimû.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    8.6 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON BIAS +

    +

    Section + 6.6.1 describes the standard ways in which Bias is shown on aspectual adjuncts + and on formatives. In Sec. 8.1.2, we saw how the conjunct + form of a single-referent personal reference adjunct can take an optional affix, + Cb, + to indicate Bias. And in Sec. 8.3.2, we saw how a Bias + suffix can be added to a Mood-based combination adjunct. In the absence of these + possibilities, the following sections offer additional ways to display Bias.

    +


    + 8.6.1 Adding Bias to Valence, Conflation or Subsidiary Adjuncts

    +

    Both valence and conflation adjuncts (see Secs. + 5.2 and 5.4), as well + as their subsidiary adjuncts (see Sec. 8.2) can take a + word-final Bias suffix if needed, as long as there is a vocalic Modality suffix + present as part of the adjunct. The Bias suffix is the same consonantal form + shown in Table 20 of Sec. + 6.6.1. As an example, adding the SUGGESTIVE bias suffix + -ps to the + valence adjunct oiiu + gives the resulting forms oiiups.

    +


    + 8.6.2 Informal Bias Adjuncts

    +

    Just as affixual adjuncts can stand on their own as informal + expressions, so can the consonantal Bias affixes (shown Table 20 of Sec. + 6.6.1) be used autonomously to informally convey one’s attitude toward + a situation. For example, if one wishes to convey a sense of awe, one could + state the Ithkuil equivalent to the sentence, I feel a sense of awe! + or one can simply hiss out a long s-sound, ‘ss,’ + which is the intensive form of the affix for the STUPEFACTIVE + bias category, whose translation can be approximated by the English expressions + ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’

    +

    Other examples would be the expression + to signify fulfillment and contentment, the equivalent to a long sigh of satisfaction + ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression kšš + to convey contempt and disgust, similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ + or ‘What bullshit!’

    +

    It is even possible to combine two biases into a single bias + adjunct, using the form C+ï+C, where each C + represents a single consonantal bias affix. For example, combining the intensive + forms of the REVELATIVE and the ASSURATIVE + biases gives the adjunct llïnn, + translatable as ‘Aha! I told you so!’

    +

     

    +

    Proceed +to Chapter 9: Syntax >>

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..902b681 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm @@ -0,0 +1,685 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 9: Syntax + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 9: Syntax

    + +


    + Syntax refers to the rules for sequencing the order of words + within a phrase or sentence, including rules permitting more than one possible + sequential ordering of words. To understand the following discussion of Ithkuil + syntax it is necessary to have a cursory understanding of the notions of semantic + role, pragmatic role, and grammatical (or syntactical) + relations:

    +
    +
      +
    • Semantic role: This refers to the underlying semantic + function of a particular word, irrespective of overt morphological category. + We have already seen how Ithkuil marks its noun cases to reflect semantic + roles, not grammatical relations. Such roles include Agent, Patient, Experiencer, + Recipient, Instrument, etc., as previously explained in Section + 4.1 et seq.
      +
      • +
    • Pragmatic role: This refers to the function of a word + or phrase in relation to its predicate or the rest of the sentence in terms + of whether and how it represents “given” versus “new” + information, i.e., whether or not the word or phrase represents background + information already known to the addressee, or whether it represents new + information previously unknown to the addressee. Three such roles or relations + are generally delineated: topic, comment, + and focus. The topic of a sentence is the word + or phrase about which the speaker has been asked or is expected by the addressee + to talk about. The comment is the information (usually a predicate) + given by the speaker about the particular topic. The term focus + refers to whatever information in a sentence is new to the addressee, (i.e., + not previously known), and has been discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.5. To illustrate these concepts, consider the sentence I can see + why Mary’s angry, but what about Bill? (i.e., What happened + to make Bill angry, too?). In the hypothetical answer Bill (or + He) is angry because he lost his keys, ‘Bill’ (or ‘he’) + is the topic, ‘is angry because he lost his keys’ is the comment, + and ‘he lost his keys’ is the focus.
      +
      • +
    • Grammatical (or syntactical) + relations: the arbitrary word-ordering rules of a language, irrespective + of semantic or pragmatic roles, e.g., the subject of the sentence in English + normally precedes the main verb and the direct object normally follows the + main verb.
      • +
    +
    +

    In general, the syntax of a language either (1) establishes + the permissible grammatical relations of the language, (2) reflects and/or reinforces + semantic roles, (3) reflects and/or reinforces pragmatic roles, or (4) any combination + of these. As one might surmise from the above, English syntax is weighted heavily + toward establishing grammatical relations at the near-total expense of identifying + semantic roles. As for pragmatic roles, English rarely reflects these in its + syntax (one exception is the strong tendency for placing wh- question + words in sentence-initial position in specialized questions, even if they represent + a direct object, e.g., What have you done? or Who[m] are they talking + about?), however, such roles do tend to be marked “supra-segmentally” + by inflection of vocal pitch and tone of voice.

    +

    We have already seen the extreme to which Ithkuil marks semantic + roles morphologically as opposed to syntactically. And since grammatial relations + in and of themselves are relatively arbitrary within language, Ithkuil uses + pure word order constraints only to an extent necessary to ensure avoidance + of ambiguity in determining which nouns belong as participants to a verb, which + nouns lie in apposition to their head, and which words of a compound sentence + lie within a case-frame as opposed to outside the case-frame. As for pragmatic + roles, we have already seen that semantic focus and optional topicalization + are accomplished morphologically in Ithkuil (see Sec. + 3.5 and the TPF affix in Sec. + 7.7.13). As a result, Ithkuil has relatively free word order which, subject + to a few constraints, is manipulated for euphonic and phonaesthetic reasons. + Those constraints on word order which do exist are explained below.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    9.1 WORD ORDER

    +

    The highly inflected nature of Ithkuil morphology allows the + order of words within a sentence to be quite flexible. Nevertheless, two neutral + or “default” patterns exist, one for main clauses, the other for + case frames.

    +


    + 9.1.1 Word Order Within Main Clauses

    +

    The default word-order for a main clause is as follows:

    +
    +
     
    +
    +
    +

    Nt1/R (Nt2) (Na) (Ns) (A) (Cv) (Co) Vb, + where:

    +
    +

    Nt1/R = first transrelative participant or + a personal reference adjunct
    + Nt2 = second transrelative participant
    + Na = attributive/associative/adverbial nouns
    + Ns = spatio-temporal nouns
    + A = aspectual adjunct
    + Cv = conflation or valence adjunct
    + Co = other adjuncts (e.g., affixual adjunct or combination + adjunct)
    + Vb = verb

    +

    Thus we see that a main clause normally starts with the highest-order + transrelative noun (see Sec. 4.2) + or any personal reference adjunct, followed by any nouns in lower-order transrelative + cases, followed by nouns in non-transrelative cases. The last part of the clause + consists of the verb in final position preceded by any aspectual adjunct, conflation + (or valence) adjunct, and combination or affixual adjunct, in that order. As + for “higher-” versus “lower-” order transrelative nouns, + this refers to the hierarchy or sequence of transrelative cases in which certain + cases take precedence over others. This hierarchy is as follows:

    +

    ERGATIVE + EFFECTUATIVE + INDUCIVE ABSOLUTIVE + DERIVATIVE +
    + SITUATIVE + AFFECTIVE + DATIVE INSTRUMENTAL + OBLIQUE

    +

     

    +

    9.1.2 Word-order within Case-Frames

    +

    Within a case-frame (see Section + 5.7), a different default order is used in order to identify the clause + as a case frame:

    +

    Vc (A) (Cv) (Co) (Na) (Ns) (Nt2) Nt1/R, where:

    +

    Vc = verb inflected for case-frame
    + A = aspectual adjunct
    + Cv = conflation or valence adjunct
    + Co = other adjuncts (e.g., affixual adjunct or combination + adjunct)
    + Na = attributive/associative/adverbial nouns
    + Ns = spatio-temporal nouns
    + Nt2 = second transrelative participant
    + Nt1/R = first transrelative participant or a personal reference + adjunct

    +

    This is nearly the reverse order of the main clause, with the + case-marked verb appearing initially within the case-frame followed by its attendant + adjuncts, then any secondary nouns, followed by any transrelative nouns with + the highest-order transrelative noun or any personal reference adjunct in final + position within the case-frame. Additionally, the last noun within the case-frame + will usually take one of the –V1’ + suffixes (see Sec. 7.7.13) + signifying the end of the case-frame unless this is clear without the suffix + (e.g., because the case-frame is in sentence-final position).

    +

    +

    +

    9.1.3 Flexibility and Constraints in Word Order

    +

    Despite there being a normal word-order for main clauses and + case-frames, these are by no means grammatically required. In general, the order + of most words can be changed for purposes of euphony. Nevertheless, Ithkuil + word order is not completely free. The following word-order constraints exist + in order to avoid potential ambiguity or semantic incoherence.

    +
    +
      +
    • Nouns in Attributive, Associative and Adverbial cases (see Secs. + 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5) + which are dependent on, or in apposition to a “head” noun, must + immediately precede or follow that head noun, unless the relationship between + the two nouns is readily ascertainable without the two being in apposition.
      +
      • +
    • Sentences containing case-frames are most likely to follow the default, + normal word-order, in order to avoid ambiguity as to which formatives and + adjuncts belong to the main clause and which to the case-frame. Case-frames + especially often reflect a verb-initial pattern, in order to easily signify + the beginning of the case-frame.
      +
      • +
    • A case-frame cannot be broken apart into segments within a main sentence, + i.e., the case-frame must constitute a single cohesive clause and not contain + elements of the main clause within it. It is possible to “nest” + a second case-frame within a case-frame, similar to the way in which subordinate + or relative clauses can be nested in English and other Western languages, + e.g., [Despite owning a Picasso [that comes from his Blue period] [of + which I, [a mere student,] am fond,]] Joe is actually a very humble person.
      +
      • +
    +
    +

    9.1.4 Phonotactically-Induced Syntactic Modifications

    +

    As mentioned above, word-order can shift in an Ithkuil sentence + to accommodate phonotactic or phonaesthetic ends, i.e., for purposes of euphony. + This is because suffixes on a formative, as well as morphemes associated with + categories of Bias and Mood, can be transformed into autonomous adjuncts (see + Secs. 8.3, 8.4 + and 8.6.2). As + was described in Sec. 1.4.5, words + of six syllables or more are generally undesirable, therefore any formative + with numerous affixes is potentially subject to having several of its morphemes + redistributed to adjuncts. As an example, the word umreiquçîîmšën + ‘series of bombs’ can separate out two of its four suffixes into + a separate word çu’’î + to give the form çu’’î_umreiqîmšën + whose morphological structure is .

    +

    When ordering such phonaesthetically-induced adjuncts, it is + important that they can be easily associated with the formative to which they + apply. Generally, this means that they will be adjacent to the formative, or + occur on either side of other adjuncts associated with the formative.

    +


    + 9.1.5 Iconicity

    +

    English and other languages generally display phrase-structure + patterns and word-order patterns which reinforce, or even reflect, a cognitive + understanding of what is being described, i.e., the order of the words themselves + reflects information about how we are to understand the utterance. Such a phenomenon + is known as iconicity. In English and other Western languages, + the most common way in which iconicity is manifested is what is termed “sequential + order iconicity,” the idea that the actual sequential order of words in + a phrase or sentence reflects the sequential order of the events they describe. + For example, the phrases ‘eye it, try it, buy it,’ ‘I came, + I saw, I conquered,’ or ‘dine and dash’ describe sequential + events where the sequence of the words reflect the sequence of the events. What + is most important is that re-ordering of the words either changes the meaning + of the phrase or leads to semantic nonsense, e.g., ‘buy it, eye it, try + it’ implies that a different sequence of events actually takes place than + ‘eye it, try it, buy it.’ This can be more dramatically illustrated + with the following pair of sentences.

    +
    +

    1) Jane got married and had a baby.
    + 2) Jane had a baby and got married.

    +
    +

    In English, the ambiguous word ‘and’ is interpreted + as connecting a sequence of events, i.e., ‘and’ is interpreted to + mean sequential ‘then’ (= ‘and following that,’ ‘then + next’ or ‘then later’). As a result, the meanings of the two + sentences imply very different social interpretations about Jane.

    +

    Besides the reflection of sequential order, other types of + word-order iconicity are possible. For example, compare the subtle difference + in meaning between the following two sentences:

    +
    +

    3) Sam painted the fence white.
    + 4) Sam painted the white fence.

    +
    +

    In the first sentence, we do not know what color the fence + was prior to being painted, or even if it was a new fence that had never been + painted before. In the second sentence, not only do we know what color the fence + had been, but also that it was not previously unpainted, however, we do not + necessarily know what its new color is. This sort of iconicity is used to convey + a resultative state of affairs, i.e., by placing the adjective ‘white’ + after the word ‘fence’ (seemingly in violation of the usual adjective-before-noun + word order used in English), we describe a resulting state of affairs.

    +

    Yet another type of word-order iconicity is displayed in comparing + the following two sentences.

    +
    +

    5) Loretta gave Sue a wedding gift.
    + 6) Loretta gave a wedding gift to Sue.

    +
    +

    Most grammar textbooks would state that these two sentences + are semantically equivalent, the first employing a “ditransitive” + pattern (i.e., juxtaposing an indirect object ‘Sue’ with a direct + object ‘wedding gift’), while the second uses a “complement” + pattern in which the indirect object follows the direct object and is changed + to a prepositional phrase using ‘to.’ However, there is a subtle + semantic distinction between the two sentences. The first strongly implies that + the wedding gift is for Sue, i.e., Sue is the bride and intended recipient. + The second sentence, however, invites the possibility that Sue is only a temporary + or circumstantial goal for the act of giving, but not the bride and intended + recipient. For example, if Sue is merely a guest at the wedding and Loretta + needed Sue’s help carrying an armload of wedding gifts, she might give + a wedding gift to Sue, but that does not mean she would give Sue + a wedding gift. This type of iconicity distinguishing a recipient from a directional + goal is an example of what is termed “distance iconicity,” because + the two linked words are made more “distant” from each other in + the sentence as a reflection of their more circumstantial association.

    +

    Ithkuil does not display iconicity. While the order of words + in an Ithkuil phrase or sentence may coincidentally reflect a temporal or causative + sequence of events, this is not by syntactic design. Because of the myriad means + available in Ithkuil to morphologically distinguish sequence, cause-and-effect, + resulting states, and the distinction of recipients from directional goals, + no iconicity patterns are required.

    +

    For example, we saw in sentences (1) and (2) above how English + ‘and’ can be used to convey not just mere coordination, but also + a sequencing function. In Sections + 7.7.3 and 7.7.4, we saw + that Ithkuil has no less than thirty-six suffixes (four suffix categories, each + with nine different degrees) which convey various coordinative and sequencing + patterns with great specificity. Thus, Ithkuil has no morpheme directly equivalent + to the ambiguous English word ‘and.’ There is an affix corresponding + to ‘and’ in its use as a mere additive listing device (e.g., ‘pears + and apples and bananas’), another corresponding to its use as an indicator + of simultaneity (e.g., ‘I clenched my fists and scowled’), another + corresponding to its use as an indicator of additional information (e.g., ‘The + clown likes children and loves to eat’), another to its use as an indicator + of parallel description or activity (e.g., ‘We went dancing and so did + they’), and yet another as a temporal sequencing indicator (e.g., ‘I + went to the window and looked out’).

    +

     

    + + + + +

    9.2 SEMANTIC FOCUS AND PRAGMATIC RELATIONS

    +

    We first discussed semantic focus in Section + 3.5, describing it as a means to distinguish new from background information + in a sentence. In languages like English, such distinctions are generally accomplished + syntactically by means of word order, as illustrated by the distinction between + The clown selected a redheaded girl from the audience versus It + was a redheaded girl the clown selected from the audience. Because semantic + focus (along with optional topicalization) is shown morphologically (with affixes) + in Ithkuil, word order changes are not necessary to distinguish new from background + information in a sentence. Comparison between the word-order based system of + English and the morphology based system of Ithkuil is analyzed in Sec. 9.2.1 + below. Additionally, while Ithkuil’s system for indicating topics and + semantic focus does not require changes in word order per se, it does + allow for significant word deletion, creating abbreviated sentences which, in + effect, modify the default word order of a sentence. Such word deletion is analyzed + in Sec. 9.2.2.

    +


    + 9.2.1 Using Focus and Sequencing Affixes in Lieu of Word-Order Changes

    +

    Focus, in conjunction with the sequencing affixes described + in Sec. 7.7.3, can be used + to subtle effect in Ithkuil, providing semantic nuance. For example, compare + the following English sentences:

    +
    +
      +
    • After I shopped, I went home.
      • +
    • I went home after I shopped.
      • +
    • I shopped before I went home.
      • +
    • Before I went home, I shopped.
      • +
    +
    +

    All four sentences indicate two sequential events: shopping, + then going home. The difference between them is one of focus and viewpoint. + In the first two sentences, going home has semantic focus, as that is the new + information being conveyed, while in the latter two sentences it is shopping + that has focus. The first and third sentence have a “prospective” + viewpoint in that the sentence conveys the events in the same sequence in which + they occurred, looking upon the events from the viewpoint of the one that occurred + first. However, the second and fourth sentences have a “retrospective” + viewpoint, conveying the two events in a reverse order from how they occurred, + looking back on the events from the viewpoint of the event which occurred last.

    +

    In Ithkuil, the distinction in focus and viewpoint in these + four sentences would be accomplished morphologically, not syntactically. Positive + Focus would be used to identify those parts of the sentence which present new + information, while the two viewpoints would be accomplished using the aforementioned + sequencing suffixes.
    +

    +

    +

    9.2.2 Abbreviated Sentences Using Focus and Topicalization

    +

    Focus and topicalization allow Ithkuil, as with other languages, + to provide abbreviated sentences in direct answer to commands, the equivalent + of questions (see Sec. 5.1.6), + or to comment on a topic already under discussion. Because the topic is already + known within the contextual discourse, only the portion of the new sentence + carrying semantic focus need be spoken. Similarly, the topicalization + suffix in conjunction with the INTERROGATIVE + illocution affix, allows for abbreviated inquiries within a known contextual + discourse, similar to such abbreviated sentences in English, e.g., ‘and + Bill?’ in lieu of the full sentence ‘Comment on how this applies + to Bill.’

    +

     

    + + + + +

    9.3 MORPHO-SEMANTIC CONSIDERATIONS

    +

    It should be noted that when structuring an Ithkuil sentence, + particularly when translating from other languages such as English, care must + be given to avoid capturing irrelevant semantic information reflected by the + morphology of the source language and trying to find an equivalent or parallel + way to reflect those irrelevancies in the Ithkuil sentence. This can have a + profound effect on the morpho-syntactical structure of the resulting Ithkuil + sentence.

    +

     

    +

    9.3.1 Arbitrary Delineations of Perspective or Point of View

    +

    One area where word-choice in English and other Western languages + arbitrarily affects sentence structure is in the unintentional schematicization + of a particular perspective or point of view. For example, consider the following + pair of sentences in English.

    +
    +

    1) The path climbs steeply out of the canyon.
    + 2) That path descends steeply into the canyon.

    +
    +

    Both of these sentences are describing the same property of + the path — its steepness. The distinction in the sentences comes from + the point of view being reflected by the speaker. In sentence (1) the implied + point of view is from the bottom of the canyon upward, while in sentence (2) + the viewpoint is from the top of the canyon downward. What is important is that, + semantically, the point of view is of no relevance to the steepness of the path + per se. So if the cognitive intent of the utterance is simply to describe + the vertical gradient of the path within the canyon, there would be only one + Ithkuil translation for both of these sentences, eschewing the point of view + entirely and restating the sentence to read:

    +
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + _Listen! + +

    +
    +

     

    +

    9.3.2 Masking of Semantic or Participatory Roles

    +

    Similarly, care must be made, when comparing Ithkuil sentence + structure with other languages, to note that Ithkuil grammar allows for a more + overt reflection of the underlying semantic roles inherent in a given sentence. + As a result, sentence structures in Western languages which “mask” + potentially anomalous semantic structures are avoided in Ithkuil. For example, + compare the following pairs of sentences.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + +
     3a) He supplied a report to the analyst.4a) She applied a solvent to the stain.
     3b) He supplied the analyst a report.4b) *She applied the stain a solvent.
    +
    +

    The syntactical patterns of these two pairs of sentences are + identical, yet the word-order in sentence (4b) is ungrammatical (as indicated + by the asterisk), while the same word-order in sentence (3b) presents no problem. + The underlying reason for the difference is one of semantic role. While ‘analysts’ + can function in the role of Recipients, ‘stains’ cannot (they are + merely directional Goals, i.e., where the solvent gets applied). Cognitively, + stains cannot “possess” a solvent the way analysts can “possess” + a report. In Ithkuil, the semantic roles would be clearly defined by the case-markings + of the participants. Therefore, syntactically inconsistent pairs such as (3b) + and (4b) do not occur.

    +

    Sometimes, rather than semantic role, it is a participant’s + relationship to an underlying clause that presents the problem. For example, + He’s a tall president means ‘He’s a president who + is tall.’ So why doesn’t He’s a likely president + mean ‘*He’s a president who is likely’? The reason is that, + while ‘tall’ describes its adjacent referent ‘president,’ + ‘likely’ does not describe its adjacent referent. Rather, ‘likely’ + describes an underlying process in which that referent is or will be engaged, + i.e., ‘running for president.’ Therefore, while these two sentences + are morpho-syntactically identical in English, their Ithkuil translations are + quite different from one another morpho-syntactically:
    +

    +
    +


    + [literally: There is much height to him who formally presides.] + _______Listen!

    +

    +


    + [literally: He is one who probably will begin to formally preside.] +

    +

     

    +
    +

    9.3.3 Negation

    +

    Negation is another morpho-semantic area where translation + from English or other Western languages can be tricky. Consider the English + sentence Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Note this + sentence does not mean what a literal word-for-word analysis implies, i.e., + ‘That they like her cooking is not something that Shelly is thinking.’ + Rather, the correct meaning is ‘Shelly thinks that they don’t like + her cooking.’ Ithkuil is very precise in specifying exactly what components + of a sentence are to be negated. Use of the four affirmation/negation affixes + from Sec. 7.7.9 () + in conjunction with a formative carries very specific information as to what + morphological components of a sentence are being affirmed or negated and to + what degree. Using these four affixes alone, Ithkuil can distinguish between + the following four sentences without any syntactic rearrangement of the words:

    +
    +

    I don’t want to begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to not want to sing.

    +

    I want to not begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to want to not sing.

    +
    +

    Thus when translating negative sentences into Ithkuil, care + must be taken to not syntactically “rearrange” a sentence as with + Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Additionally, Ithkuil + makes a morpho-semantic distinction not found in Western languages: the difference + between absolute negation and relative negation. + Absolute negation implies that the non-existence or non-occurrence of an entity, + state, or event is due to contextual inapplicability, while relative negation + indicates that the non-existence or non-occurrence is circumstantial. This distinction + is illustrated in the two sentences below:

    +


    +
    + The girl doesn’t sing [because she can’t, i.e., she is + mute].

    +


    + .
    + The girl doesn’t sing [even though she can, i.e., she chooses + not to].

    +

     

    + + + + +

    9.4 THE “CARRIER” + ROOT

    +

    Since the Ithkuil declensional and conjugational system is + based on predictable multi-level patterns of consonant and vowel mutation, proper + nouns such as personal and place names, as well as non-Ithkuil words from other + languages are by nature morpho-phonologically incompatible with such as system. + Nevertheless, such words can be declined or conjugated like any other Ithkuil + formative by means of the “carrier” root k-r. + In addition to this use, the carrier root is employed in certain other contexts + as well, as described below.

    +


    + 9.4.1 Words that Cannot Take Affixes or Be Mutated

    +

    The six primary stems of the carrier root (kar, + kur, kir and their Form II counterparts kâr, + kûr, kîr) are respectively associated with animate + beings (the two complementary derivatives being humans versus non-humans or + figuratively/metaphorically animate entities); inanimate entities (the two complementary + derivatives being objectively concrete entities versus subjective entities such + as thoughts, emotions, sensations, etc.); and finally intangible abstract referents + (the two complementary derivatives being place names and abstractions). The + carrier stem is placed immediately before the proper noun or foreign word or + phrase, then declined or conjugated normally for any desired morphological categories, + even verbal categories. The proper noun or foreign word or phrase itself is + left unchanged.
    +

    +
    + +
    +

    9.4.2 Emphasizing or Highlighting a Particular Category

    +

    Another use of the carrier root is to emphasize or topicalize + a particular affix or grammatical element associated with a word. For example, + in English we can say ‘a big house’ with extra intonation + on the word ‘big’ to emphasize that word. To accomplish such emphasis + in Ithkuil, the carrier root is used with the augmentative suffix in conjunction + with the noun ‘house’ as opposed to simply using the augmentative + suffix on the stem for ‘house.’ No change in vocal pitch or intonation + is required, as the grammatically unnecessary use of the carrier root serves + to accomplish the required emphasis. Any morphological category manifested by + a carrier root rather than an adjunct or mutation serves to emphasize that category. + (It should be noted that the use of optional combination and euphonic adjuncts + do not accomplish such emphasis. Their use versus non-use imparts no difference + in emphasis for the particular morphological categories contained in the adjunct.) +

    +

    +

    9.4.3 Titles of Address

    +

    It should be noted that the use of the carrier root in front + of the names of persons serves to function as a title of address corresponding + to English Mister, Ms. or Miss. There is no distinction of + gender or marital status conveyed by the term.

    +

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +
    +©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author +and this website. + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..304ea00 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,685 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 9: Syntax + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Chapter 9: Syntax

    + +


    + Syntax refers to the rules for sequencing the order of words + within a phrase or sentence, including rules permitting more than one possible + sequential ordering of words. To understand the following discussion of Ithkuil + syntax it is necessary to have a cursory understanding of the notions of semantic + role, pragmatic role, and grammatical (or syntactical) + relations:

    +
    +
      +
    • Semantic role: This refers to the underlying semantic + function of a particular word, irrespective of overt morphological category. + We have already seen how Ithkuil marks its noun cases to reflect semantic + roles, not grammatical relations. Such roles include Agent, Patient, Experiencer, + Recipient, Instrument, etc., as previously explained in Section + 4.1 et seq.
      +
      • +
    • Pragmatic role: This refers to the function of a word + or phrase in relation to its predicate or the rest of the sentence in terms + of whether and how it represents “given” versus “new” + information, i.e., whether or not the word or phrase represents background + information already known to the addressee, or whether it represents new + information previously unknown to the addressee. Three such roles or relations + are generally delineated: topic, comment, + and focus. The topic of a sentence is the word + or phrase about which the speaker has been asked or is expected by the addressee + to talk about. The comment is the information (usually a predicate) + given by the speaker about the particular topic. The term focus + refers to whatever information in a sentence is new to the addressee, (i.e., + not previously known), and has been discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.5. To illustrate these concepts, consider the sentence I can see + why Mary’s angry, but what about Bill? (i.e., What happened + to make Bill angry, too?). In the hypothetical answer Bill (or + He) is angry because he lost his keys, ‘Bill’ (or ‘he’) + is the topic, ‘is angry because he lost his keys’ is the comment, + and ‘he lost his keys’ is the focus.
      +
      • +
    • Grammatical (or syntactical) + relations: the arbitrary word-ordering rules of a language, irrespective + of semantic or pragmatic roles, e.g., the subject of the sentence in English + normally precedes the main verb and the direct object normally follows the + main verb.
      • +
    +
    +

    In general, the syntax of a language either (1) establishes + the permissible grammatical relations of the language, (2) reflects and/or reinforces + semantic roles, (3) reflects and/or reinforces pragmatic roles, or (4) any combination + of these. As one might surmise from the above, English syntax is weighted heavily + toward establishing grammatical relations at the near-total expense of identifying + semantic roles. As for pragmatic roles, English rarely reflects these in its + syntax (one exception is the strong tendency for placing wh- question + words in sentence-initial position in specialized questions, even if they represent + a direct object, e.g., What have you done? or Who[m] are they talking + about?), however, such roles do tend to be marked “supra-segmentally” + by inflection of vocal pitch and tone of voice.

    +

    We have already seen the extreme to which Ithkuil marks semantic + roles morphologically as opposed to syntactically. And since grammatial relations + in and of themselves are relatively arbitrary within language, Ithkuil uses + pure word order constraints only to an extent necessary to ensure avoidance + of ambiguity in determining which nouns belong as participants to a verb, which + nouns lie in apposition to their head, and which words of a compound sentence + lie within a case-frame as opposed to outside the case-frame. As for pragmatic + roles, we have already seen that semantic focus and optional topicalization + are accomplished morphologically in Ithkuil (see Sec. + 3.5 and the TPF affix in Sec. + 7.7.13). As a result, Ithkuil has relatively free word order which, subject + to a few constraints, is manipulated for euphonic and phonaesthetic reasons. + Those constraints on word order which do exist are explained below.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    9.1 WORD ORDER

    +

    The highly inflected nature of Ithkuil morphology allows the + order of words within a sentence to be quite flexible. Nevertheless, two neutral + or “default” patterns exist, one for main clauses, the other for + case frames.

    +


    + 9.1.1 Word Order Within Main Clauses

    +

    The default word-order for a main clause is as follows:

    +
    +
     
    +
    +
    +

    Nt1/R (Nt2) (Na) (Ns) (A) (Cv) (Co) Vb, + where:

    +
    +

    Nt1/R = first transrelative participant or + a personal reference adjunct
    + Nt2 = second transrelative participant
    + Na = attributive/associative/adverbial nouns
    + Ns = spatio-temporal nouns
    + A = aspectual adjunct
    + Cv = conflation or valence adjunct
    + Co = other adjuncts (e.g., affixual adjunct or combination + adjunct)
    + Vb = verb

    +

    Thus we see that a main clause normally starts with the highest-order + transrelative noun (see Sec. 4.2) + or any personal reference adjunct, followed by any nouns in lower-order transrelative + cases, followed by nouns in non-transrelative cases. The last part of the clause + consists of the verb in final position preceded by any aspectual adjunct, conflation + (or valence) adjunct, and combination or affixual adjunct, in that order. As + for “higher-” versus “lower-” order transrelative nouns, + this refers to the hierarchy or sequence of transrelative cases in which certain + cases take precedence over others. This hierarchy is as follows:

    +

    ERGATIVE + EFFECTUATIVE + INDUCIVE ABSOLUTIVE + DERIVATIVE +
    + SITUATIVE + AFFECTIVE + DATIVE INSTRUMENTAL + OBLIQUE

    +

     

    +

    9.1.2 Word-order within Case-Frames

    +

    Within a case-frame (see Section + 5.7), a different default order is used in order to identify the clause + as a case frame:

    +

    Vc (A) (Cv) (Co) (Na) (Ns) (Nt2) Nt1/R, where:

    +

    Vc = verb inflected for case-frame
    + A = aspectual adjunct
    + Cv = conflation or valence adjunct
    + Co = other adjuncts (e.g., affixual adjunct or combination + adjunct)
    + Na = attributive/associative/adverbial nouns
    + Ns = spatio-temporal nouns
    + Nt2 = second transrelative participant
    + Nt1/R = first transrelative participant or a personal reference + adjunct

    +

    This is nearly the reverse order of the main clause, with the + case-marked verb appearing initially within the case-frame followed by its attendant + adjuncts, then any secondary nouns, followed by any transrelative nouns with + the highest-order transrelative noun or any personal reference adjunct in final + position within the case-frame. Additionally, the last noun within the case-frame + will usually take one of the –V1’ + suffixes (see Sec. 7.7.13) + signifying the end of the case-frame unless this is clear without the suffix + (e.g., because the case-frame is in sentence-final position).

    +

    +

    +

    9.1.3 Flexibility and Constraints in Word Order

    +

    Despite there being a normal word-order for main clauses and + case-frames, these are by no means grammatically required. In general, the order + of most words can be changed for purposes of euphony. Nevertheless, Ithkuil + word order is not completely free. The following word-order constraints exist + in order to avoid potential ambiguity or semantic incoherence.

    +
    +
      +
    • Nouns in Attributive, Associative and Adverbial cases (see Secs. + 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5) + which are dependent on, or in apposition to a “head” noun, must + immediately precede or follow that head noun, unless the relationship between + the two nouns is readily ascertainable without the two being in apposition.
      +
      • +
    • Sentences containing case-frames are most likely to follow the default, + normal word-order, in order to avoid ambiguity as to which formatives and + adjuncts belong to the main clause and which to the case-frame. Case-frames + especially often reflect a verb-initial pattern, in order to easily signify + the beginning of the case-frame.
      +
      • +
    • A case-frame cannot be broken apart into segments within a main sentence, + i.e., the case-frame must constitute a single cohesive clause and not contain + elements of the main clause within it. It is possible to “nest” + a second case-frame within a case-frame, similar to the way in which subordinate + or relative clauses can be nested in English and other Western languages, + e.g., [Despite owning a Picasso [that comes from his Blue period] [of + which I, [a mere student,] am fond,]] Joe is actually a very humble person.
      +
      • +
    +
    +

    9.1.4 Phonotactically-Induced Syntactic Modifications

    +

    As mentioned above, word-order can shift in an Ithkuil sentence + to accommodate phonotactic or phonaesthetic ends, i.e., for purposes of euphony. + This is because suffixes on a formative, as well as morphemes associated with + categories of Bias and Mood, can be transformed into autonomous adjuncts (see + Secs. 8.3, 8.4 + and 8.6.2). As + was described in Sec. 1.4.5, words + of six syllables or more are generally undesirable, therefore any formative + with numerous affixes is potentially subject to having several of its morphemes + redistributed to adjuncts. As an example, the word umreiquçîîmšën + ‘series of bombs’ can separate out two of its four suffixes into + a separate word çu’’î + to give the form çu’’î_umreiqîmšën + whose morphological structure is .

    +

    When ordering such phonaesthetically-induced adjuncts, it is + important that they can be easily associated with the formative to which they + apply. Generally, this means that they will be adjacent to the formative, or + occur on either side of other adjuncts associated with the formative.

    +


    + 9.1.5 Iconicity

    +

    English and other languages generally display phrase-structure + patterns and word-order patterns which reinforce, or even reflect, a cognitive + understanding of what is being described, i.e., the order of the words themselves + reflects information about how we are to understand the utterance. Such a phenomenon + is known as iconicity. In English and other Western languages, + the most common way in which iconicity is manifested is what is termed “sequential + order iconicity,” the idea that the actual sequential order of words in + a phrase or sentence reflects the sequential order of the events they describe. + For example, the phrases ‘eye it, try it, buy it,’ ‘I came, + I saw, I conquered,’ or ‘dine and dash’ describe sequential + events where the sequence of the words reflect the sequence of the events. What + is most important is that re-ordering of the words either changes the meaning + of the phrase or leads to semantic nonsense, e.g., ‘buy it, eye it, try + it’ implies that a different sequence of events actually takes place than + ‘eye it, try it, buy it.’ This can be more dramatically illustrated + with the following pair of sentences.

    +
    +

    1) Jane got married and had a baby.
    + 2) Jane had a baby and got married.

    +
    +

    In English, the ambiguous word ‘and’ is interpreted + as connecting a sequence of events, i.e., ‘and’ is interpreted to + mean sequential ‘then’ (= ‘and following that,’ ‘then + next’ or ‘then later’). As a result, the meanings of the two + sentences imply very different social interpretations about Jane.

    +

    Besides the reflection of sequential order, other types of + word-order iconicity are possible. For example, compare the subtle difference + in meaning between the following two sentences:

    +
    +

    3) Sam painted the fence white.
    + 4) Sam painted the white fence.

    +
    +

    In the first sentence, we do not know what color the fence + was prior to being painted, or even if it was a new fence that had never been + painted before. In the second sentence, not only do we know what color the fence + had been, but also that it was not previously unpainted, however, we do not + necessarily know what its new color is. This sort of iconicity is used to convey + a resultative state of affairs, i.e., by placing the adjective ‘white’ + after the word ‘fence’ (seemingly in violation of the usual adjective-before-noun + word order used in English), we describe a resulting state of affairs.

    +

    Yet another type of word-order iconicity is displayed in comparing + the following two sentences.

    +
    +

    5) Loretta gave Sue a wedding gift.
    + 6) Loretta gave a wedding gift to Sue.

    +
    +

    Most grammar textbooks would state that these two sentences + are semantically equivalent, the first employing a “ditransitive” + pattern (i.e., juxtaposing an indirect object ‘Sue’ with a direct + object ‘wedding gift’), while the second uses a “complement” + pattern in which the indirect object follows the direct object and is changed + to a prepositional phrase using ‘to.’ However, there is a subtle + semantic distinction between the two sentences. The first strongly implies that + the wedding gift is for Sue, i.e., Sue is the bride and intended recipient. + The second sentence, however, invites the possibility that Sue is only a temporary + or circumstantial goal for the act of giving, but not the bride and intended + recipient. For example, if Sue is merely a guest at the wedding and Loretta + needed Sue’s help carrying an armload of wedding gifts, she might give + a wedding gift to Sue, but that does not mean she would give Sue + a wedding gift. This type of iconicity distinguishing a recipient from a directional + goal is an example of what is termed “distance iconicity,” because + the two linked words are made more “distant” from each other in + the sentence as a reflection of their more circumstantial association.

    +

    Ithkuil does not display iconicity. While the order of words + in an Ithkuil phrase or sentence may coincidentally reflect a temporal or causative + sequence of events, this is not by syntactic design. Because of the myriad means + available in Ithkuil to morphologically distinguish sequence, cause-and-effect, + resulting states, and the distinction of recipients from directional goals, + no iconicity patterns are required.

    +

    For example, we saw in sentences (1) and (2) above how English + ‘and’ can be used to convey not just mere coordination, but also + a sequencing function. In Sections + 7.7.3 and 7.7.4, we saw + that Ithkuil has no less than thirty-six suffixes (four suffix categories, each + with nine different degrees) which convey various coordinative and sequencing + patterns with great specificity. Thus, Ithkuil has no morpheme directly equivalent + to the ambiguous English word ‘and.’ There is an affix corresponding + to ‘and’ in its use as a mere additive listing device (e.g., ‘pears + and apples and bananas’), another corresponding to its use as an indicator + of simultaneity (e.g., ‘I clenched my fists and scowled’), another + corresponding to its use as an indicator of additional information (e.g., ‘The + clown likes children and loves to eat’), another to its use as an indicator + of parallel description or activity (e.g., ‘We went dancing and so did + they’), and yet another as a temporal sequencing indicator (e.g., ‘I + went to the window and looked out’).

    +

     

    + + + + +

    9.2 SEMANTIC FOCUS AND PRAGMATIC RELATIONS

    +

    We first discussed semantic focus in Section + 3.5, describing it as a means to distinguish new from background information + in a sentence. In languages like English, such distinctions are generally accomplished + syntactically by means of word order, as illustrated by the distinction between + The clown selected a redheaded girl from the audience versus It + was a redheaded girl the clown selected from the audience. Because semantic + focus (along with optional topicalization) is shown morphologically (with affixes) + in Ithkuil, word order changes are not necessary to distinguish new from background + information in a sentence. Comparison between the word-order based system of + English and the morphology based system of Ithkuil is analyzed in Sec. 9.2.1 + below. Additionally, while Ithkuil’s system for indicating topics and + semantic focus does not require changes in word order per se, it does + allow for significant word deletion, creating abbreviated sentences which, in + effect, modify the default word order of a sentence. Such word deletion is analyzed + in Sec. 9.2.2.

    +


    + 9.2.1 Using Focus and Sequencing Affixes in Lieu of Word-Order Changes

    +

    Focus, in conjunction with the sequencing affixes described + in Sec. 7.7.3, can be used + to subtle effect in Ithkuil, providing semantic nuance. For example, compare + the following English sentences:

    +
    +
      +
    • After I shopped, I went home.
      • +
    • I went home after I shopped.
      • +
    • I shopped before I went home.
      • +
    • Before I went home, I shopped.
      • +
    +
    +

    All four sentences indicate two sequential events: shopping, + then going home. The difference between them is one of focus and viewpoint. + In the first two sentences, going home has semantic focus, as that is the new + information being conveyed, while in the latter two sentences it is shopping + that has focus. The first and third sentence have a “prospective” + viewpoint in that the sentence conveys the events in the same sequence in which + they occurred, looking upon the events from the viewpoint of the one that occurred + first. However, the second and fourth sentences have a “retrospective” + viewpoint, conveying the two events in a reverse order from how they occurred, + looking back on the events from the viewpoint of the event which occurred last.

    +

    In Ithkuil, the distinction in focus and viewpoint in these + four sentences would be accomplished morphologically, not syntactically. Positive + Focus would be used to identify those parts of the sentence which present new + information, while the two viewpoints would be accomplished using the aforementioned + sequencing suffixes.
    +

    +

    +

    9.2.2 Abbreviated Sentences Using Focus and Topicalization

    +

    Focus and topicalization allow Ithkuil, as with other languages, + to provide abbreviated sentences in direct answer to commands, the equivalent + of questions (see Sec. 5.1.6), + or to comment on a topic already under discussion. Because the topic is already + known within the contextual discourse, only the portion of the new sentence + carrying semantic focus need be spoken. Similarly, the topicalization + suffix in conjunction with the INTERROGATIVE + illocution affix, allows for abbreviated inquiries within a known contextual + discourse, similar to such abbreviated sentences in English, e.g., ‘and + Bill?’ in lieu of the full sentence ‘Comment on how this applies + to Bill.’

    +

     

    + + + + +

    9.3 MORPHO-SEMANTIC CONSIDERATIONS

    +

    It should be noted that when structuring an Ithkuil sentence, + particularly when translating from other languages such as English, care must + be given to avoid capturing irrelevant semantic information reflected by the + morphology of the source language and trying to find an equivalent or parallel + way to reflect those irrelevancies in the Ithkuil sentence. This can have a + profound effect on the morpho-syntactical structure of the resulting Ithkuil + sentence.

    +

     

    +

    9.3.1 Arbitrary Delineations of Perspective or Point of View

    +

    One area where word-choice in English and other Western languages + arbitrarily affects sentence structure is in the unintentional schematicization + of a particular perspective or point of view. For example, consider the following + pair of sentences in English.

    +
    +

    1) The path climbs steeply out of the canyon.
    + 2) That path descends steeply into the canyon.

    +
    +

    Both of these sentences are describing the same property of + the path — its steepness. The distinction in the sentences comes from + the point of view being reflected by the speaker. In sentence (1) the implied + point of view is from the bottom of the canyon upward, while in sentence (2) + the viewpoint is from the top of the canyon downward. What is important is that, + semantically, the point of view is of no relevance to the steepness of the path + per se. So if the cognitive intent of the utterance is simply to describe + the vertical gradient of the path within the canyon, there would be only one + Ithkuil translation for both of these sentences, eschewing the point of view + entirely and restating the sentence to read:

    +
    +
    +
    +

    +
    + _Listen! + +

    +
    +

     

    +

    9.3.2 Masking of Semantic or Participatory Roles

    +

    Similarly, care must be made, when comparing Ithkuil sentence + structure with other languages, to note that Ithkuil grammar allows for a more + overt reflection of the underlying semantic roles inherent in a given sentence. + As a result, sentence structures in Western languages which “mask” + potentially anomalous semantic structures are avoided in Ithkuil. For example, + compare the following pairs of sentences.

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + +
     3a) He supplied a report to the analyst.4a) She applied a solvent to the stain.
     3b) He supplied the analyst a report.4b) *She applied the stain a solvent.
    +
    +

    The syntactical patterns of these two pairs of sentences are + identical, yet the word-order in sentence (4b) is ungrammatical (as indicated + by the asterisk), while the same word-order in sentence (3b) presents no problem. + The underlying reason for the difference is one of semantic role. While ‘analysts’ + can function in the role of Recipients, ‘stains’ cannot (they are + merely directional Goals, i.e., where the solvent gets applied). Cognitively, + stains cannot “possess” a solvent the way analysts can “possess” + a report. In Ithkuil, the semantic roles would be clearly defined by the case-markings + of the participants. Therefore, syntactically inconsistent pairs such as (3b) + and (4b) do not occur.

    +

    Sometimes, rather than semantic role, it is a participant’s + relationship to an underlying clause that presents the problem. For example, + He’s a tall president means ‘He’s a president who + is tall.’ So why doesn’t He’s a likely president + mean ‘*He’s a president who is likely’? The reason is that, + while ‘tall’ describes its adjacent referent ‘president,’ + ‘likely’ does not describe its adjacent referent. Rather, ‘likely’ + describes an underlying process in which that referent is or will be engaged, + i.e., ‘running for president.’ Therefore, while these two sentences + are morpho-syntactically identical in English, their Ithkuil translations are + quite different from one another morpho-syntactically:
    +

    +
    +


    + [literally: There is much height to him who formally presides.] + _______Listen!

    +

    +


    + [literally: He is one who probably will begin to formally preside.] +

    +

     

    +
    +

    9.3.3 Negation

    +

    Negation is another morpho-semantic area where translation + from English or other Western languages can be tricky. Consider the English + sentence Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Note this + sentence does not mean what a literal word-for-word analysis implies, i.e., + ‘That they like her cooking is not something that Shelly is thinking.’ + Rather, the correct meaning is ‘Shelly thinks that they don’t like + her cooking.’ Ithkuil is very precise in specifying exactly what components + of a sentence are to be negated. Use of the four affirmation/negation affixes + from Sec. 7.7.9 () + in conjunction with a formative carries very specific information as to what + morphological components of a sentence are being affirmed or negated and to + what degree. Using these four affixes alone, Ithkuil can distinguish between + the following four sentences without any syntactic rearrangement of the words:

    +
    +

    I don’t want to begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to not want to sing.

    +

    I want to not begin singing.

    +

    I’m beginning to want to not sing.

    +
    +

    Thus when translating negative sentences into Ithkuil, care + must be taken to not syntactically “rearrange” a sentence as with + Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Additionally, Ithkuil + makes a morpho-semantic distinction not found in Western languages: the difference + between absolute negation and relative negation. + Absolute negation implies that the non-existence or non-occurrence of an entity, + state, or event is due to contextual inapplicability, while relative negation + indicates that the non-existence or non-occurrence is circumstantial. This distinction + is illustrated in the two sentences below:

    +


    +
    + The girl doesn’t sing [because she can’t, i.e., she is + mute].

    +


    + .
    + The girl doesn’t sing [even though she can, i.e., she chooses + not to].

    +

     

    + + + + +

    9.4 THE “CARRIER” + ROOT

    +

    Since the Ithkuil declensional and conjugational system is + based on predictable multi-level patterns of consonant and vowel mutation, proper + nouns such as personal and place names, as well as non-Ithkuil words from other + languages are by nature morpho-phonologically incompatible with such as system. + Nevertheless, such words can be declined or conjugated like any other Ithkuil + formative by means of the “carrier” root k-r. + In addition to this use, the carrier root is employed in certain other contexts + as well, as described below.

    +


    + 9.4.1 Words that Cannot Take Affixes or Be Mutated

    +

    The six primary stems of the carrier root (kar, + kur, kir and their Form II counterparts kâr, + kûr, kîr) are respectively associated with animate + beings (the two complementary derivatives being humans versus non-humans or + figuratively/metaphorically animate entities); inanimate entities (the two complementary + derivatives being objectively concrete entities versus subjective entities such + as thoughts, emotions, sensations, etc.); and finally intangible abstract referents + (the two complementary derivatives being place names and abstractions). The + carrier stem is placed immediately before the proper noun or foreign word or + phrase, then declined or conjugated normally for any desired morphological categories, + even verbal categories. The proper noun or foreign word or phrase itself is + left unchanged.
    +

    +
    + +
    +

    9.4.2 Emphasizing or Highlighting a Particular Category

    +

    Another use of the carrier root is to emphasize or topicalize + a particular affix or grammatical element associated with a word. For example, + in English we can say ‘a big house’ with extra intonation + on the word ‘big’ to emphasize that word. To accomplish such emphasis + in Ithkuil, the carrier root is used with the augmentative suffix in conjunction + with the noun ‘house’ as opposed to simply using the augmentative + suffix on the stem for ‘house.’ No change in vocal pitch or intonation + is required, as the grammatically unnecessary use of the carrier root serves + to accomplish the required emphasis. Any morphological category manifested by + a carrier root rather than an adjunct or mutation serves to emphasize that category. + (It should be noted that the use of optional combination and euphonic adjuncts + do not accomplish such emphasis. Their use versus non-use imparts no difference + in emphasis for the particular morphological categories contained in the adjunct.) +

    +

    +

    9.4.3 Titles of Address

    +

    It should be noted that the use of the carrier root in front + of the names of persons serves to function as a title of address corresponding + to English Mister, Ms. or Miss. There is no distinction of + gender or marital status conveyed by the term.

    +

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +
    +©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author +and this website. + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-intro.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-intro.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..267d179 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-intro.htm @@ -0,0 +1,881 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Introduction + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Update: Important Changes Coming to the Ithkuil Website in June-July 2011!

    +

     

    +

    INTRODUCTION
    +

    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    0.1 Background

    +

    Ithkuil is an artificially constructed human language systematically + designed to blend a high degree of communication of cognitive intent and meaning + with a high degree of efficiency, i.e., to allow speakers to say a lot in as + few syllables as possible. The navigational links above (or at the bottom + of this page) lead to chapters on the major grammatical components of the language + and should be read in sequence, as each chapter is cumulative and assumes knowledge + of the preceding. While this grammar assumes only a basic knowledge of linguistic + concepts, it will be helpful to briefly familiarize the reader with the hierarchical/schematic + structure of human language in general, as the organization of this grammar + is somewhat based around this structure. The analysis of human language can + be organized into the following hierarchical schema of primary concepts:

    +
      +
    • +
      Phonology: The manner in which vocally + articulated sound is structured for use within a language; this is the basic + realm of the acoustic sounds produced by the lungs, vocal cords, tongue, + and lips, i.e., consonants, vowels, volume, pitch, tone, stress, etc.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Morphology: The grammatical rules, structures, + categories and functions which can be manipulated to form words and the + component phrases of sentences; this is the realm of prefixes, suffixes, + word-roots, and conceptual categories like tense, singular vs. plural, moods, + active vs. passive voice, etc.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Syntax: The rules governing how words + and phrases can be combined into grammatically acceptable sentences.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Semantics: The realm of meaning; what + the words, phrases, and syntactical structures of the language represent + in terms of meaning.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Lexicon: The list of word-roots within + a language, i.e., the vocabulary of the language.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Pragmatics and Discourse Rules: + The analysis of how language is actually used in real-world situations as + determined by cultural and context-driven rules; the realm of style, rhetoric, + formal versus informal language, slang, etc., outside the realm of grammar. + Because this is a formal grammar for a hypothetical language (i.e., it has + no “real world” linguistic context), pragmatics and discourse + rules will not be covered.
      +
      • +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    The above components of language in turn operate in an interrelated + fashion, combining to designate several additional or secondary levels of analysis. + For example:
    +
    +
      +
    • Morpho-phonology: The interrelationship between phonology + and morphology, i.e., the manner in which the sounds of the language are + manipulated into structures that can contain meaning. For example it is + morpho-phonology that explains why different word-endings signify concepts + such as masculine or feminine in Spanish.
      +
      • +
    • Morpho-syntax: The interrelationship between morphology + and syntax, i.e., how the grammatical structures within words impact the + overall structure of a sentence, as illustrated by the relationship between + the sentences It is undeliverable versus It cannot be delivered.
      +
      • +
    • Lexico-Morphology: The interrelationship between morphology + and the lexicon, i.e., the structure of word-roots and how they interact + with other morphological categories, as illustrated by the concept of “irregular” + verbs, e.g., ‘go’ + PAST = ‘went.’
      +
      • +
    • Lexico-Semantics: The interrelationship between the lexicon + and semantics, i.e. between words and their meaning; what mental concepts + are selected by a language to be instantiated as word-roots and the cognitive + processes behind the selection criterhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ia.
      • +
    +
    +

    The interrelationships between these components can be illustrated + by the following diagram.

    +

    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    0.2 How the Language Works

    +

    As a model for human language, Ithkuil is capable of high levels + of conciseness and semantic detail while overtly reflecting a deep level of + cognitive conceptualization, more so than in natural languages. This means, + essentially, that Ithkuil is designed to convey large amounts of linguistic + information using fewer words, with those words being based on monosyllabic + roots and word-parts. In turn, the grammar supporting these words reflect the + speaker’s cognitive intent explicitly, while displaying little of the + euphemism, vagueness, circumlocution, redundancy, polysemy (i.e., mulhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/tiple meanings), + and ambiguity manifested in natural languages.

    +

    NOTE: The preceding paragraph may remind some readers of the + “Speedtalk” + language in Robert Heinlein’s novella Gulf, in which every morpheme + (meaningful word-part) is apparently represented by a single phoneme (sound). + To some extent, Ithkuil approaches this ideal. However, Heinlein’s Speedtalk + appears to focus only on the morpho-phonological component of language (i.e., + the correspondence between sound and individual grammatical components) without + any corresponding focus on the logical redesign of a language’s morphology, + lexico-morphology, or lexico-semantics to provide an equally “compressed” + morpho-syntactical and lexical component. Ithkuil has been designed with an + equal focus on these latter linguistic components. Additionally, the apparent + purpose of Heinlein's language is simple rapidity/brevity of speech and thought, + while Ithkuil is focused on maximal communication in the most efficient manner, + a somewhat different purpose, in which brevity per se is irrelevant.

    +

    As an example of the morphological richness and efficiency + possible in this language, examine the following Ithkuil sentence, comphttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/aring + it to its literal English translation:

    + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    +

    		Listen! +
    TRANSLATION:‘On the contrary, I think it may turn + out thttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/hat this rugged mountain range trails off at some point.’
    +NOTE: See Phonology, Section +1.2 on how to pronounce the Romanized orthography used to transliterate the +Ithkuil characters.
    +

    The reader may well wonder why it takes a 19-word sentence + in English to translate a two-word Ithkuil sentence. One might assume the sentence + “cheats” in that the two Ithkuil words simply have innately intricate + and specialized meanings. While it is true that the first word, oumpeá, + translates as ‘on the contrary, I havhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/e a feeling it may turn out at + some point (that),’ and the second word, äx’ääuktëx, + means ‘the unevenly high range of mountains in question trails off,’ + it would be quite erroneous to conclude that these are simply autonomous words + one might theoretically find in an Ithkuil dicthttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ionary. Indeed, the only part + of the sentence that represents any sort of “root” word is -xä-, + a stem more or less meaning ‘hill’ or ‘upland.’ The + remainder of the sentence is made up entirely of morphological, not lexical + components, i.e., prefixes, suffixes, infixes, vowel permutations, shifts in + stress, etc. For example, the first word, oumpeá, + has four parts to it as shown below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     1.ou-=an aspectual prefix translatable as ‘it + turns out that’ or ‘it is revealed that’
     2.-mp-=an infix indicating both a rebuttal to an allegation + and a conclusion based on the speaker’s intuition, translatable as + ‘on the contrary, I have a feeling’
     3.-ea=an aspectual suffix translatable as ‘at + some point’ or ‘somewhere along the way’
     4.stress + on final syllable + falling tone = subjunctive mood, translatable + https://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/as ‘may’
    +


    + The second word, äx’ääuktëx, + breaks down morphologically as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     1.ä-=a prefix indicating, among other things, that + the entity displays depletion (i.e., ‘trailing off’ or ‘petering + out’)
     https://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/2.x’ä=a stem derived from xä + ‘hill, upland’ (in turn derived from the root x- + indicating the level of a landscape), the mutation of the initial consonant + x- into + x’- + indicating that the stem is to be re-interpreted as comprising a composite + entity of non-identical members consolidated together into a single segmented + whole (i.e., ‘hill’ becomes ‘uneven range of hills’)
     3.-ukt-=a demonstrative suffix translatable as ‘this’ + (= ‘the one in question’ or ‘the one at hand’)
     4.-ëx=a suffix indicating that the stem is to be interpreted + as being very large in size, and furthermore, that the increase in size + creates a new gestalt entity, i.e., not simply a ‘very large hill + or upland’ but rather a ‘mountain’
     5.stress + on antepenultimate (i.e., third-from-last) syllable (indicated in the Romanized + spelling by doubling of the stem vowel -ä-)= generic statement neutral as to time or present + impact
     6.falling + tone (unmarked)=statement reflects objective fact as opposed to subjective + interpretation, i.e., that it describes a real situation irrespective of + the speaker’s beliefs, opinions, convention, usage, etc. (i.e., the + fact that the mountain range does have an ending whether one knows where + it is or not)
    +

    The following additional example sentences illustrate how the + language manifests a cohttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/mbination of semantic richness withhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ morphological conciseness:
    +

    + + + + + + + + +
    Listen! + https://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/
    +Hey! Something belonging to you and your hodge-podge of parts is crawling +on me!
    +[What a Star Trek character might say to a Borg who has just produced an assimilated +arachnid from hhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/is pocket]
    +     +

     

    + + + + + +
    Listen! +
    +We successfully took part in the effort using a formal set of varying parts +on behalf of the group of people with whom you anhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/d he are associated.
    +

     

    + + + + + +
    Listen! +
    +The sound coming from the banks of prihttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nters kept on steadily repeating. +
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + +
    Listen! +
    +As it turned out, the snake-handler apparently began trapping each mouse in +a container, one at a time like clhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ockwork.
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + +
    Listen! +
    +Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man, in inadvertently letting +it out of the house, unexpectedly and accidentally killed it without even realizing +he’d done so.
    +


    + Such detail plus conciseness is possible due to the design of the grammar, essentially + a matrix of grammatical concepts and structures designed for compactness, cross-functionality + and reusability. This matrix-like grammar is combined with a vocabulary/lexicon + of semantic stems which (1) are capable of a high degree of flexibility and + synergism within that matrix, (2) have been completely reconceptualized from + the cognitive level up regardless of their correspondence to actual word roots + and grammatical categories in existing languages, and (3) reflect the inherent + dependencies and interrelationships between one semantic concept and another. + Therefore, the morphemes of the language (i.e., word-roots, suffixes, prefixes, + grammatical categories, etc.) are as phonetically brief as possible, function + in multiple roles with one another, and correspond more closely to human cognitive + categories than in natural languages. In this fashion, a limited number of sounds + and word-roots can be made to generate a vast array of variations and derivations + corresponding to and even surpassing all of the grammatical and semantic functions + of the usual stock of words, phrases, and idiomatic constructions in natural + languages. These linguistic design principles are described in greater detail + in the sections below by means of illustrative analogies with English examples. +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    0.3 + A Synergistic Matrix of Semantic and Grammatical Categories

    +

    The above-described matrix can be dramatically illustrated + by describing the distinct difference between Ithkuil and other languages in + the way its lexicon (stock of word-roots) has been created and the principles + underlying its lexico-semantics (the relationship between words and meaning). + In natural languages, the choice as to what mental concepts and categories will + be overtly reflected as word-roots and stems is arbitrary and unsystematic (while + in most invented languages, the lexicon is by and large consciously or sub-consciously + patterned after that of natural languages). While it is true that virtually + all languages reflect certain basic universals of word choice (e.g., all have + words for sun, moon, speak, mother, father, laugh, I, you, one, two, water, + blood, black, white, hot, cold, etc.), the manner in which these words + are created is haphazard and with little regard for basic conceptual interrelationships. + The result, in most cases, is a plethora of separate, distinct word roots which + bear no morpho-phonological, or morpho-semantic relation to one another (i.e., + the patterns of sounds used to create particular words are unsystematic and + independent for each word-root regardless of whether those word-roots are semantically + or cognitively related to one another). Ithkuil word-roots have been created + in a more efficient and systematic manner, with a recognition that the interrelatedness + between what are large sets of discrete words in other languages can be formalized + and systematized into a vast array or matrix of derivational rules, the result + being a drastic reduction in the number of basic word-roots, which in turn allows + all individual stems to be extremely compact phonologically-speaking.

    +

    For example, consider the following series of English words: + see, sight, vision, glimpse, stare, gawk, view, panorama, look, eye, glance, + visualize. Note how each of these is a separate, autonomous word despite + the fact that it shares a single underlying semantic concept with the others + (a concept which we can conveniently refer to as SIGHT/VISION), + each representing a mere manipulation of either durational aspect, situational + perspective, or manner of participation relating to that underlying concept. + What is more, these manipulations are, by and large, haphazardly applied, vague, + subjective, and particular to the specific underlying concept (i.e., the aspectual/perspectival + manipulations applied to SIGHT/VISION do not parallel + those manipulations applied to the concept TRANSFERENCE OF POSSESSION + by which we derive the series give, take, receive, steal, donate, lend, + borrow, send, etc.).

    +

    In Ithkuil, it is the seminal underlying concept which is lexified + into a word-root which then undergoes a series of regular, predictable, and + universally applicable modifications at the morphological (i.e., grammatical) + level to generate new words that, in some cases, parallel such series of English + words, but in most cases, far exceed the dynamism and range of such English + word series. This is illustrated by the list of Ithkuil words in the table below, + all of which are simply grammatical derivations, using affixes and systematic + phonemic mutations (i.e., sound shifts), of a single word-root r–q + whose meaning is translatable as ‘EXISTENT THING; TO EXIST + (AS SOMETHING).’ Alongside each word is its translation. (Note: + the translations below represent convenient approximations at best, as purely + literal translations would have to capture the systematic and derivative structure + of the Ihttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/thkuil words. For example, the word + amriqoçi + translated below as ‘destroy’ literally means ‘unmake + a constructed componential set by extreme violence.’ Note also that the + list below represents only a smalhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/l number of the thousands of derivations theoretically + possible for this single word-root.)

    + + + + +
    +

    Another principle underlying the formation of words in Ithkuil + is complementarity. Western thought and language generally + reflect Aristotelian logic in the way they conceptualize the world and the interrelationships + between discrete entities in that world. Ithkuil, on the other hand, views the + world as being based on complementary principles, where, instead of discrete + independence between related entities, such concepts are seen as complementary + aspects of a single holistic entity. Such complementarity is in turn reflected + in the derivation of word-roots. By “complementarity” is meant that + the manifestation of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort + of entity or another, but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation + can be considered to be a discrete whole without the existence of the other. + A simple illustration of complementarity is the flip of a coin: the coin can + only land on one side or the other, yet without both sides being part of the + coin, any given coin toss has no meaning or contextual relevance no matter which + side is face-up.

    +

    For example, in Western languages, words such as male, + night, limb, sit, and happen are all autonomous + words, linguistically representing what are inherently considered to be basic + mental concepts or semantic primitives. However, in Ithkuil, none of these words + is considered to be a semantic primitive. Instead, they are seen to be parts + of greater, more holistic semantic concepts, existing in complementary relationship + to another part, the two together making up the whole.

    +

    Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male + has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) + from the underlying concept translatable as day (24-hour period), while + limb, along with its complement trunk or torso, derives + from the stem (corporeal) body.

    +

    Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon automatically + functions as a seat. We see the awkward attempt of English to convey these jointly + dependent but mutually exclusive perspectives when comparing the sentences Please + sit down and Please be seated. Another example involves the word + happen or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real + meaning without the attendant implication of consequence or result, + the two being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable + as event or situation.

    +

    The Ithkuil word for hole illustrates another instance + of complementarity. Holes can be looked at from two different, but interrelated + perspectives: either as an opening connecting two different spaces (or access + point to a previously unavailable space, i.e., a pit), or as a discontinuity + in the surface or structural integrity of the dividing entity separating the + two realms. In other words, one can focus on the potential function or consequences + of the hole, or on the structural nature of the hole. Either of these two perspectives + represents a legitimate, but complementary way to consider a hole or puncture. + Thus, the Ithkuil word would have two derivative roots each indicating one of + these two perspectives. One such root would be used when saying There’s + a hole in your shirt, while the other would be used when saying She + saw me through a hole in the fence.

    +

    Ithkuil recognizes that such complementarity exists for virtually + any concept, in fact that it is one of the foundational principles of the universe + itself. No beam of light can be spoken of without implicit recognition of its + source. No signal can be described without accounting for the signaling device. + Indeed, in Ithkuil no river is without its channel, no surface without its firmament, + no message without its medium, no sense impression without its sense faculty, + no contents without their container, no occurrence without its consequence, + no memory without its present effect, no plan without its purpose, no music + without its playing, no relief without prerequisite deprivation, no pleasure + without its absence, no motion without space in which to move.

    +

    Other principles underlying Ithkuil word-derivation include + the interrelated principles of fuzzy logic, prototype theory, and radial categorization. + Incorporation of these principles into the architecture for word-formation allows + roots to be grouped into various types of affiliated sets, each of which then + functions as a conceptual gestalt, the individual members of which being marked + as having varying degrees and kinds of relatedness or similarity to a hypothetical + prototype member or archetype. Thus, Ithkuil is able to systematically derive + words such as crowd, mob, group, troop, club, association, assembly, and + gathering all from the single root-word person. Similarly, + words such as grove, orchard, forest, woods, jungle, and copse + can all be derived from the single root-word tree.

    +

    As one last example exemplifying the dynamism and conciseness + of Ithkuil lexico-semantics, consider the following list of English words and + phrases: drenched, wet, damp, moist, near-dry, dry, parched. Rather + than provide separate autonomous words for these concepts, Ithkuil recognizes + that these terms all indicate relative degrees of moisture along a continuous + range. Such continua would be addressed by a single root whose meaning more + or less corresponds to [DEGREE OF] MOISTURE to which an + array of simple suffixes would be added to specify the particular degree along + that range, all the way from bone dry (or parched) through + drenched to saturated. All such phenomena which Western languages + tend to semantically delineate into binary oppositions (e.g., hard/soft, + light/dark, shallow/deep, etc.) are recognized and lexified in Ithkuil + as single roots which then systematically use suffixes to specify the particular + degree along a continuous range.

    +

    The above paragraphs illustrate how Ithkuil is able to capture + and systematically present at the morphological level what other languages accomplish + haphazardly at the lexical level. By systematically finding and structuring + the covert dependencies and interrelationships between what are disparate words + in other languages, the hundreds of thousands of words in a language like English + are drastically reduced down to the 3600 word-roots of Ithkuil. This is morpho-lexical + efficiency on a grand scale. Nevertheless, by means of the matrix-like morphological + scheme previously described, each of these 3600 roots can in turn generate thousands + of permutations to convey complex and subtle semantic distinctions and operations + which dwarf the capacity of existing languages to convey without resorting to + cumbersome paraphrase. This is lexico-semantic and morpho-semantic efficiency + on an equally grand scale. Such a synergistic design for grammar lends a dynamism + that allows the Ithkuil language to describe reality to a minute lehttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/vel of detail + and exactitude despite a limited number of word-roots. This dynamism is visible + throughout this work, but is discussed in systematic detail in Chapter + 10: Lexico-Semantics.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    0.4 + Addressing the Vagueness Inherent in Natural Languages

    +

    To further illustrate the cognitive depth at which Ithkuil + operates, consider one of the most pervasive aspects of natural human languages: + semantic vagueness. For example, consider the following four English sentences:

    +
    +
    +

    (a) The boy rolled down the hill.
    + (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking.
    + (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday.
    + (d) There is a dog on my porch.

    +
    +
    +

    In examining these four sentences most native English speakers + would deny that any vagueness exists. This is because the vagueness does not + exist in terms of the overt meanings of the words themselves. Rather, the vagueness + lies at the nearly subconscious level of their grammatical (or syntactical) + relations and cognitive intent. For example, in sentence (a) we have no idea + whether the boy chose to roll himself down the hill or whether he was pushed + against his will. (In formal linguistic terms we would say it is unknown whether + the semantic role of the subject ‘boy’ is as agent or patient.) + And yet knowing which scenario is correct is crucial to understanding the speaker’s + intent in describing the action.

    +

    Imagine sentence (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking + being spoken as an answer to the question ‘Why does she seem so irritable?’ + In interpreting sentence (b), we have no idea whether the subject is indeed + a smoker or not; i.e., is the speaker offering this speculation because he/she + knows the subject to be a smoker, or as mere conjecture without knowledge one + way or the other whether the subject smokes or not?

    +

    Sentence (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday + illustrates four-way ambiguity. Joe’s failure to win the lottery could + be either because: the speaker knows Joe didn’t play; because the speaker + knows Joe did play but lost; because the speaker doesn’t know whether + Joe played or not and is simply voicing a conjecture; or because the statement + is an inference based on some indirect clue (e.g., since Joe showed up for work + today, he must not have won the lottery).

    +

    And while sentence (d) There is a dog on my porch seems + on its surface to be the most straightforward of the four, is the intent of + the speaker to simply describe and identify the participants to a scene, or + does she wish to convey the idea that the scene has personal significance to + her, e.g., because she has a phobia of dogs or has been waiting for a long-lost + pet dog to return home? In other words, the sentence itself does not convey + the intent behind the utterance, only the static description of the scene.

    +

    In all four instances, such vagueness exists unless and until + the audience can ascertain information from the surrounding context of other + sentences. This shows that, despite the fact that all four sentences are grammatically + well-formed English sentences whose words in and of themselves are unambiguous, + their grammar alone is insufficient to convey the cognitive information necessary + to fully comprehend the intent of the speaker’s utterance. This failure + of grammar to inherently convey the requisite information necessary to understand + a speaker’s cognitive intent is a functional pitfall of human language + in general which Ithkuil grammar has been designed to avoid. The Ithkuil equivalents + to the above four sentences would mandatorily convey all of the “missing” + information noted above without requiring any extra words not corresponding + to the English originals. The grammatical elements of the words themselves (word-selection, + declensions, conjugations, prefixes, suffixes, etc.) would convey all the elements + mentioned.

    +

    Similar examples can be given to show the extent to which natural + languages such as English must often resort to idiomatic expressions, metaphor, + paraphrase, circumlocution and “supra-segmental” phenomena (e.g., + changing the pitch of one’s voice) in their attempts to convey a speaker’s + intended meaning. Ithkuil grammar has been designed to overtly and unambiguously + reflect the intention of a speaker with a minimum of such phenomena.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    0.5 + Comparison to Other Constructed Languages

    +

    Those readers familiar with the history of artificial + language construction might think this endeavor belated or unnecessary, + in that logical + languages such as James Cooke Brown’s renowned Loglan (or its popular + derivative, Lojban) already exist. This serves to illustrate exactly what distinguishes + Ithkuil from such previous attempts. Loglan was published in the 1950s as a + spoken/written language based on symbolic logic (formally known as the first-order + predicate calculus), an algorithmic system of symbol manipulation devised by + mathematicians and logicians. As a result, one might think that such a language + is the most capable means of achieving logical, unambiguous linguistic communication. + However, Loglan and its derivatives are merely sophisticated tools for symbol + manipulation, i.e., the levels of language previously described as morphology + and syntax. It is not within the scope of such languages to address any reorganization + of the semantic realm. This means that symbolic logic simply manipulates arguments + which are input into the system, they do not analyze the origin of those arguments + in terms of meaning, nor are they capable of analyzing or formalizing the structure + of the cognitive or semantic realm of the human mind in terms of how meaning + itself is assigned to arguments. (Indeed, Lojban derives its roots via statistical + “sampling” of the most frequent roots in the six most spoken natural + languages, a method virtually guaranteed to carry over into the Lojban lexicon + all of the lexico-semantic inefficiencies previously described.) By not addressing + these components of language, Loglan and similar efforts fail to address the + inconsistencies and inefficiency inherent in language at the lexico-semantic + level. Ithkuil has been designed to systematically address this issue.

    +

    Other readers might think of international languages (or “interlanguages”) + such as Esperanto, Interlingua, or Ido, as being logical and efficient representations of language. + However, these languages are merely simplified, regularized amalgamations of + existing languages (usually Indo-European), designed for ease of learning. While + addressing many overt irregularities, inconsistencies, and redundancies of language + found at the morpho-phonological and morpho-syntactic levels, they do little + to address the problems found within the other components of language, especially + the lexico-semantic. For example, while Esperanto admirably employs systematic + rules for word derivation as knabo ‘boy’ versus knabino + ‘girl,’ it preserves the basic lexico-semantic categorization scheme + of Indo-European languages in general, rather than seeking opportunities to + expand such word derivation schemes into multidimensional arrays as will be + shortly illustrated for Ithkuil.

    +

    All in all, neither logical languages such as Loglan nor interlanguages + such as Esperanto, are designed specifically to achievehttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ the purpose of cognitive + exactness and conciseness of communication which is the goal of Ithkuil. Actually, + Ithkuil might more readily be compared with the analytical + language of John Wilkins of the Royal Society of London, published in 1668, + in which he divided the realm of human conception into forty categories, each + containing a hierarchy of subcategories and sub-subcategories, each in turn + systematically represented in the phonological structure of an individual word. + For example an initial g- might stand for a plant, while go- + indicated a tree, gob- a particular class of tree, and gobo + a particular tree species. While unworkable in terms of specifics, Wilkins’ + underlying principles are similar in a simplistic way to some of the abstract + derivational principles employed in Ithkuil lexico-morphology and lexico-semantics. + Another comparable predecessor in a simplistic sense is the musical language, + Solresol, created by Jean François Sudre and published in + 1866.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    0.6 + The Uniqueness of Ithkuil

    +

    The above description demonstrates that Ithkuil is rather unique + in the niche it occupies in the array of both natural and invented languages. + The design of Ithkuil has slowly and painstakingly evolved from my early attempts + as a teenager (following my introduction to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and Charles + Fillmore’s seminal 1968 article on case grammar) to explore beyond the + boundaries of Western Indo-European languages to a complex, intricate array + of interwoven grammatical concepts, many of which are wholly of my own creation, + others of which have been inspired by such obscure linguistic sources as the + morpho-phonology of Abkhaz verb complexes, the moods of verbs in certain American + Indian languages, the aspectual system of Niger-Kordofanian languages, the nominal + case systems of Basque and the Dagestanian languages, the enclitic system of + Wakashan languages, the positional orientation systems of Tzeltal and Guugu + Yimidhirr, the Semitic triliteral root morphology, and the hearsay and possessive + categories of Suzette Elgin’s Láadan language, not to mention ideas + inspired by countless hours studying texts in theoretical linguistics, cognitive + grammar, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, linguistic relativity, semantics, + semiotics, philosophy, fuzzy set theory, and even quantum physics.

    +

    The Ithkuil writing system likewise derives from both original + and inspired sources: it employs a unique “morpho-phonemic” principle + of my own invention, its logical design borrows from the mutational principles + underlying the Ethiopic and Brahmi scripts, and its aesthetic visual design + bears a superficial resemblance to Hebhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/rew square script and the various Klingon + fonts.

    +

    As for the name of the language, Ithkuil, it is an anglicized + rendering of the word , + whose approximate translation is ‘hypothetical language.’

    +

    This website provides a systematic presentation of the grammar + of the language. In addition to a description of the various components of the + grammar, the reader will find example phrases or sentences illustrating those + components. Each example comprises an Ithkuil word, phrase, or sentence written + in native Ithkuil script, accompanied by a Romanized transliteration, an English + translation (sometimes divided into a “natural” versus literal translation), + and a morphological analysis. The morphological analysis is presented serially, + morpheme-by-morpheme, using three-letter abbreviations or labels for Ithkuil + morphological categories. These labels are presented within the body of the + work in conjunction with the explanation of each morphological category. This + system is illustrated by the example below, where the labels OBL + and PRP refer https://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/to the OBLIQUE and + PROPRIETIVE noun cases respectively. (These noun cases + are explhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ained in Chapter + 4):

    +
    +


    + têr hionn
    + title-OBL + father-PRP
    + ‘a father’s title’

    +
    +

    This work is not meant as a primer or means of self-instruction + in speaking the language, a task beyond even its creator, given that Ithkuil + may be perhaps the most grammatically complex language ever devised. Simplicity + was not my purpose, but rather bridging the gap between extreme morphological + dynamism, the overt reflection of human cognitive processes via language, and + extreme morpho-semantic economy and efficiency. I believe I have achieved a + result which is close to the ideal I sought. I leave it to the reader to explore + that result.

    +

    I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil. I especially wish to thank Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of so manyhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ people. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian. My appreciation also to fellow linguist and conlanger Davhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/id J. Peterson for bestowing upon Ithkuil the 2008 Smiley Award.

    +

    Smiley Award

    +

    I dedicate this work to my brother, Paul, in fond memory of + Kccöj, Mbozo, and our other made-up langhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/uages, and all + the fun times we had as kids learning about and playing with linguistics.

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter One: Phonology >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology&nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/sp;7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7bhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + Using Affixes (continued) Thhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606100823id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/e + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-intro.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-intro.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b024622 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-intro.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,881 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Introduction + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
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    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

     

    +

    Update: Important Changes Coming to the Ithkuil Website in June-July 2011!

    +

     

    +

    INTRODUCTION
    +

    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    0.1 Background

    +

    Ithkuil is an artificially constructed human language systematically + designed to blend a high degree of communication of cognitive intent and meaning + with a high degree of efficiency, i.e., to allow speakers to say a lot in as + few syllables as possible. The navigational links above (or at the bottom + of this page) lead to chapters on the major grammatical components of the language + and should be read in sequence, as each chapter is cumulative and assumes knowledge + of the preceding. While this grammar assumes only a basic knowledge of linguistic + concepts, it will be helpful to briefly familiarize the reader with the hierarchical/schematic + structure of human language in general, as the organization of this grammar + is somewhat based around this structure. The analysis of human language can + be organized into the following hierarchical schema of primary concepts:

    +
      +
    • +
      Phonology: The manner in which vocally + articulated sound is structured for use within a language; this is the basic + realm of the acoustic sounds produced by the lungs, vocal cords, tongue, + and lips, i.e., consonants, vowels, volume, pitch, tone, stress, etc.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Morphology: The grammatical rules, structures, + categories and functions which can be manipulated to form words and the + component phrases of sentences; this is the realm of prefixes, suffixes, + word-roots, and conceptual categories like tense, singular vs. plural, moods, + active vs. passive voice, etc.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Syntax: The rules governing how words + and phrases can be combined into grammatically acceptable sentences.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Semantics: The realm of meaning; what + the words, phrases, and syntactical structures of the language represent + in terms of meaning.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Lexicon: The list of word-roots within + a language, i.e., the vocabulary of the language.
      +
      +
      • +
    • +
      Pragmatics and Discourse Rules: + The analysis of how language is actually used in real-world situations as + determined by cultural and context-driven rules; the realm of style, rhetoric, + formal versus informal language, slang, etc., outside the realm of grammar. + Because this is a formal grammar for a hypothetical language (i.e., it has + no “real world” linguistic context), pragmatics and discourse + rules will not be covered.
      +
      • +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    The above components of language in turn operate in an interrelated + fashion, combining to designate several additional or secondary levels of analysis. + For example:
    +
    +
      +
    • Morpho-phonology: The interrelationship between phonology + and morphology, i.e., the manner in which the sounds of the language are + manipulated into structures that can contain meaning. For example it is + morpho-phonology that explains why different word-endings signify concepts + such as masculine or feminine in Spanish.
      +
      • +
    • Morpho-syntax: The interrelationship between morphology + and syntax, i.e., how the grammatical structures within words impact the + overall structure of a sentence, as illustrated by the relationship between + the sentences It is undeliverable versus It cannot be delivered.
      +
      • +
    • Lexico-Morphology: The interrelationship between morphology + and the lexicon, i.e., the structure of word-roots and how they interact + with other morphological categories, as illustrated by the concept of “irregular” + verbs, e.g., ‘go’ + PAST = ‘went.’
      +
      • +
    • Lexico-Semantics: The interrelationship between the lexicon + and semantics, i.e. between words and their meaning; what mental concepts + are selected by a language to be instantiated as word-roots and the cognitive + processes behind the selection criteria.
      • +
    +
    +

    The interrelationships between these components can be illustrated + by the following diagram.

    +

    +

     

    + + + + +
    +

    0.2 How the Language Works

    +

    As a model for human language, Ithkuil is capable of high levels + of conciseness and semantic detail while overtly reflecting a deep level of + cognitive conceptualization, more so than in natural languages. This means, + essentially, that Ithkuil is designed to convey large amounts of linguistic + information using fewer words, with those words being based on monosyllabic + roots and word-parts. In turn, the grammar supporting these words reflect the + speaker’s cognitive intent explicitly, while displaying little of the + euphemism, vagueness, circumlocution, redundancy, polysemy (i.e., multiple meanings), + and ambiguity manifested in natural languages.

    +

    NOTE: The preceding paragraph may remind some readers of the + “Speedtalk” + language in Robert Heinlein’s novella Gulf, in which every morpheme + (meaningful word-part) is apparently represented by a single phoneme (sound). + To some extent, Ithkuil approaches this ideal. However, Heinlein’s Speedtalk + appears to focus only on the morpho-phonological component of language (i.e., + the correspondence between sound and individual grammatical components) without + any corresponding focus on the logical redesign of a language’s morphology, + lexico-morphology, or lexico-semantics to provide an equally “compressed” + morpho-syntactical and lexical component. Ithkuil has been designed with an + equal focus on these latter linguistic components. Additionally, the apparent + purpose of Heinlein's language is simple rapidity/brevity of speech and thought, + while Ithkuil is focused on maximal communication in the most efficient manner, + a somewhat different purpose, in which brevity per se is irrelevant.

    +

    As an example of the morphological richness and efficiency + possible in this language, examine the following Ithkuil sentence, comparing + it to its literal English translation:

    + + + + + + + + + +
    +

    +

    		Listen! +
    TRANSLATION:‘On the contrary, I think it may turn + out that this rugged mountain range trails off at some point.’
    +NOTE: See Phonology, Section +1.2 on how to pronounce the Romanized orthography used to transliterate the +Ithkuil characters.
    +

    The reader may well wonder why it takes a 19-word sentence + in English to translate a two-word Ithkuil sentence. One might assume the sentence + “cheats” in that the two Ithkuil words simply have innately intricate + and specialized meanings. While it is true that the first word, oumpeá, + translates as ‘on the contrary, I have a feeling it may turn out at + some point (that),’ and the second word, äx’ääuktëx, + means ‘the unevenly high range of mountains in question trails off,’ + it would be quite erroneous to conclude that these are simply autonomous words + one might theoretically find in an Ithkuil dictionary. Indeed, the only part + of the sentence that represents any sort of “root” word is -xä-, + a stem more or less meaning ‘hill’ or ‘upland.’ The + remainder of the sentence is made up entirely of morphological, not lexical + components, i.e., prefixes, suffixes, infixes, vowel permutations, shifts in + stress, etc. For example, the first word, oumpeá, + has four parts to it as shown below:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     1.ou-=an aspectual prefix translatable as ‘it + turns out that’ or ‘it is revealed that’
     2.-mp-=an infix indicating both a rebuttal to an allegation + and a conclusion based on the speaker’s intuition, translatable as + ‘on the contrary, I have a feeling’
     3.-ea=an aspectual suffix translatable as ‘at + some point’ or ‘somewhere along the way’
     4.stress + on final syllable + falling tone = subjunctive mood, translatable + as ‘may’
    +


    + The second word, äx’ääuktëx, + breaks down morphologically as follows:

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     1.ä-=a prefix indicating, among other things, that + the entity displays depletion (i.e., ‘trailing off’ or ‘petering + out’)
     2.x’ä=a stem derived from xä + ‘hill, upland’ (in turn derived from the root x- + indicating the level of a landscape), the mutation of the initial consonant + x- into + x’- + indicating that the stem is to be re-interpreted as comprising a composite + entity of non-identical members consolidated together into a single segmented + whole (i.e., ‘hill’ becomes ‘uneven range of hills’)
     3.-ukt-=a demonstrative suffix translatable as ‘this’ + (= ‘the one in question’ or ‘the one at hand’)
     4.-ëx=a suffix indicating that the stem is to be interpreted + as being very large in size, and furthermore, that the increase in size + creates a new gestalt entity, i.e., not simply a ‘very large hill + or upland’ but rather a ‘mountain’
     5.stress + on antepenultimate (i.e., third-from-last) syllable (indicated in the Romanized + spelling by doubling of the stem vowel -ä-)= generic statement neutral as to time or present + impact
     6.falling + tone (unmarked)=statement reflects objective fact as opposed to subjective + interpretation, i.e., that it describes a real situation irrespective of + the speaker’s beliefs, opinions, convention, usage, etc. (i.e., the + fact that the mountain range does have an ending whether one knows where + it is or not)
    +

    The following additional example sentences illustrate how the + language manifests a combination of semantic richness with morphological conciseness:
    +

    + + + + + + + + +
    Listen! +
    +Hey! Something belonging to you and your hodge-podge of parts is crawling +on me!
    +[What a Star Trek character might say to a Borg who has just produced an assimilated +arachnid from his pocket]
    +     +

     

    + + + + + +
    Listen! +
    +We successfully took part in the effort using a formal set of varying parts +on behalf of the group of people with whom you and he are associated.
    +

     

    + + + + + +
    Listen! +
    +The sound coming from the banks of printers kept on steadily repeating. +
    +
    +
    +
    + + + + + +
    Listen! +
    +As it turned out, the snake-handler apparently began trapping each mouse in +a container, one at a time like clockwork.
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + +
    Listen! +
    +Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man, in inadvertently letting +it out of the house, unexpectedly and accidentally killed it without even realizing +he’d done so.
    +


    + Such detail plus conciseness is possible due to the design of the grammar, essentially + a matrix of grammatical concepts and structures designed for compactness, cross-functionality + and reusability. This matrix-like grammar is combined with a vocabulary/lexicon + of semantic stems which (1) are capable of a high degree of flexibility and + synergism within that matrix, (2) have been completely reconceptualized from + the cognitive level up regardless of their correspondence to actual word roots + and grammatical categories in existing languages, and (3) reflect the inherent + dependencies and interrelationships between one semantic concept and another. + Therefore, the morphemes of the language (i.e., word-roots, suffixes, prefixes, + grammatical categories, etc.) are as phonetically brief as possible, function + in multiple roles with one another, and correspond more closely to human cognitive + categories than in natural languages. In this fashion, a limited number of sounds + and word-roots can be made to generate a vast array of variations and derivations + corresponding to and even surpassing all of the grammatical and semantic functions + of the usual stock of words, phrases, and idiomatic constructions in natural + languages. These linguistic design principles are described in greater detail + in the sections below by means of illustrative analogies with English examples. +

    +

     

    + + + + +

    0.3 + A Synergistic Matrix of Semantic and Grammatical Categories

    +

    The above-described matrix can be dramatically illustrated + by describing the distinct difference between Ithkuil and other languages in + the way its lexicon (stock of word-roots) has been created and the principles + underlying its lexico-semantics (the relationship between words and meaning). + In natural languages, the choice as to what mental concepts and categories will + be overtly reflected as word-roots and stems is arbitrary and unsystematic (while + in most invented languages, the lexicon is by and large consciously or sub-consciously + patterned after that of natural languages). While it is true that virtually + all languages reflect certain basic universals of word choice (e.g., all have + words for sun, moon, speak, mother, father, laugh, I, you, one, two, water, + blood, black, white, hot, cold, etc.), the manner in which these words + are created is haphazard and with little regard for basic conceptual interrelationships. + The result, in most cases, is a plethora of separate, distinct word roots which + bear no morpho-phonological, or morpho-semantic relation to one another (i.e., + the patterns of sounds used to create particular words are unsystematic and + independent for each word-root regardless of whether those word-roots are semantically + or cognitively related to one another). Ithkuil word-roots have been created + in a more efficient and systematic manner, with a recognition that the interrelatedness + between what are large sets of discrete words in other languages can be formalized + and systematized into a vast array or matrix of derivational rules, the result + being a drastic reduction in the number of basic word-roots, which in turn allows + all individual stems to be extremely compact phonologically-speaking.

    +

    For example, consider the following series of English words: + see, sight, vision, glimpse, stare, gawk, view, panorama, look, eye, glance, + visualize. Note how each of these is a separate, autonomous word despite + the fact that it shares a single underlying semantic concept with the others + (a concept which we can conveniently refer to as SIGHT/VISION), + each representing a mere manipulation of either durational aspect, situational + perspective, or manner of participation relating to that underlying concept. + What is more, these manipulations are, by and large, haphazardly applied, vague, + subjective, and particular to the specific underlying concept (i.e., the aspectual/perspectival + manipulations applied to SIGHT/VISION do not parallel + those manipulations applied to the concept TRANSFERENCE OF POSSESSION + by which we derive the series give, take, receive, steal, donate, lend, + borrow, send, etc.).

    +

    In Ithkuil, it is the seminal underlying concept which is lexified + into a word-root which then undergoes a series of regular, predictable, and + universally applicable modifications at the morphological (i.e., grammatical) + level to generate new words that, in some cases, parallel such series of English + words, but in most cases, far exceed the dynamism and range of such English + word series. This is illustrated by the list of Ithkuil words in the table below, + all of which are simply grammatical derivations, using affixes and systematic + phonemic mutations (i.e., sound shifts), of a single word-root r–q + whose meaning is translatable as ‘EXISTENT THING; TO EXIST + (AS SOMETHING).’ Alongside each word is its translation. (Note: + the translations below represent convenient approximations at best, as purely + literal translations would have to capture the systematic and derivative structure + of the Ithkuil words. For example, the word + amriqoçi + translated below as ‘destroy’ literally means ‘unmake + a constructed componential set by extreme violence.’ Note also that the + list below represents only a small number of the thousands of derivations theoretically + possible for this single word-root.)

    + + + + +
    +

    Another principle underlying the formation of words in Ithkuil + is complementarity. Western thought and language generally + reflect Aristotelian logic in the way they conceptualize the world and the interrelationships + between discrete entities in that world. Ithkuil, on the other hand, views the + world as being based on complementary principles, where, instead of discrete + independence between related entities, such concepts are seen as complementary + aspects of a single holistic entity. Such complementarity is in turn reflected + in the derivation of word-roots. By “complementarity” is meant that + the manifestation of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort + of entity or another, but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation + can be considered to be a discrete whole without the existence of the other. + A simple illustration of complementarity is the flip of a coin: the coin can + only land on one side or the other, yet without both sides being part of the + coin, any given coin toss has no meaning or contextual relevance no matter which + side is face-up.

    +

    For example, in Western languages, words such as male, + night, limb, sit, and happen are all autonomous + words, linguistically representing what are inherently considered to be basic + mental concepts or semantic primitives. However, in Ithkuil, none of these words + is considered to be a semantic primitive. Instead, they are seen to be parts + of greater, more holistic semantic concepts, existing in complementary relationship + to another part, the two together making up the whole.

    +

    Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male + has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) + from the underlying concept translatable as day (24-hour period), while + limb, along with its complement trunk or torso, derives + from the stem (corporeal) body.

    +

    Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon automatically + functions as a seat. We see the awkward attempt of English to convey these jointly + dependent but mutually exclusive perspectives when comparing the sentences Please + sit down and Please be seated. Another example involves the word + happen or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real + meaning without the attendant implication of consequence or result, + the two being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable + as event or situation.

    +

    The Ithkuil word for hole illustrates another instance + of complementarity. Holes can be looked at from two different, but interrelated + perspectives: either as an opening connecting two different spaces (or access + point to a previously unavailable space, i.e., a pit), or as a discontinuity + in the surface or structural integrity of the dividing entity separating the + two realms. In other words, one can focus on the potential function or consequences + of the hole, or on the structural nature of the hole. Either of these two perspectives + represents a legitimate, but complementary way to consider a hole or puncture. + Thus, the Ithkuil word would have two derivative roots each indicating one of + these two perspectives. One such root would be used when saying There’s + a hole in your shirt, while the other would be used when saying She + saw me through a hole in the fence.

    +

    Ithkuil recognizes that such complementarity exists for virtually + any concept, in fact that it is one of the foundational principles of the universe + itself. No beam of light can be spoken of without implicit recognition of its + source. No signal can be described without accounting for the signaling device. + Indeed, in Ithkuil no river is without its channel, no surface without its firmament, + no message without its medium, no sense impression without its sense faculty, + no contents without their container, no occurrence without its consequence, + no memory without its present effect, no plan without its purpose, no music + without its playing, no relief without prerequisite deprivation, no pleasure + without its absence, no motion without space in which to move.

    +

    Other principles underlying Ithkuil word-derivation include + the interrelated principles of fuzzy logic, prototype theory, and radial categorization. + Incorporation of these principles into the architecture for word-formation allows + roots to be grouped into various types of affiliated sets, each of which then + functions as a conceptual gestalt, the individual members of which being marked + as having varying degrees and kinds of relatedness or similarity to a hypothetical + prototype member or archetype. Thus, Ithkuil is able to systematically derive + words such as crowd, mob, group, troop, club, association, assembly, and + gathering all from the single root-word person. Similarly, + words such as grove, orchard, forest, woods, jungle, and copse + can all be derived from the single root-word tree.

    +

    As one last example exemplifying the dynamism and conciseness + of Ithkuil lexico-semantics, consider the following list of English words and + phrases: drenched, wet, damp, moist, near-dry, dry, parched. Rather + than provide separate autonomous words for these concepts, Ithkuil recognizes + that these terms all indicate relative degrees of moisture along a continuous + range. Such continua would be addressed by a single root whose meaning more + or less corresponds to [DEGREE OF] MOISTURE to which an + array of simple suffixes would be added to specify the particular degree along + that range, all the way from bone dry (or parched) through + drenched to saturated. All such phenomena which Western languages + tend to semantically delineate into binary oppositions (e.g., hard/soft, + light/dark, shallow/deep, etc.) are recognized and lexified in Ithkuil + as single roots which then systematically use suffixes to specify the particular + degree along a continuous range.

    +

    The above paragraphs illustrate how Ithkuil is able to capture + and systematically present at the morphological level what other languages accomplish + haphazardly at the lexical level. By systematically finding and structuring + the covert dependencies and interrelationships between what are disparate words + in other languages, the hundreds of thousands of words in a language like English + are drastically reduced down to the 3600 word-roots of Ithkuil. This is morpho-lexical + efficiency on a grand scale. Nevertheless, by means of the matrix-like morphological + scheme previously described, each of these 3600 roots can in turn generate thousands + of permutations to convey complex and subtle semantic distinctions and operations + which dwarf the capacity of existing languages to convey without resorting to + cumbersome paraphrase. This is lexico-semantic and morpho-semantic efficiency + on an equally grand scale. Such a synergistic design for grammar lends a dynamism + that allows the Ithkuil language to describe reality to a minute level of detail + and exactitude despite a limited number of word-roots. This dynamism is visible + throughout this work, but is discussed in systematic detail in Chapter + 10: Lexico-Semantics.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    0.4 + Addressing the Vagueness Inherent in Natural Languages

    +

    To further illustrate the cognitive depth at which Ithkuil + operates, consider one of the most pervasive aspects of natural human languages: + semantic vagueness. For example, consider the following four English sentences:

    +
    +
    +

    (a) The boy rolled down the hill.
    + (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking.
    + (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday.
    + (d) There is a dog on my porch.

    +
    +
    +

    In examining these four sentences most native English speakers + would deny that any vagueness exists. This is because the vagueness does not + exist in terms of the overt meanings of the words themselves. Rather, the vagueness + lies at the nearly subconscious level of their grammatical (or syntactical) + relations and cognitive intent. For example, in sentence (a) we have no idea + whether the boy chose to roll himself down the hill or whether he was pushed + against his will. (In formal linguistic terms we would say it is unknown whether + the semantic role of the subject ‘boy’ is as agent or patient.) + And yet knowing which scenario is correct is crucial to understanding the speaker’s + intent in describing the action.

    +

    Imagine sentence (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking + being spoken as an answer to the question ‘Why does she seem so irritable?’ + In interpreting sentence (b), we have no idea whether the subject is indeed + a smoker or not; i.e., is the speaker offering this speculation because he/she + knows the subject to be a smoker, or as mere conjecture without knowledge one + way or the other whether the subject smokes or not?

    +

    Sentence (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday + illustrates four-way ambiguity. Joe’s failure to win the lottery could + be either because: the speaker knows Joe didn’t play; because the speaker + knows Joe did play but lost; because the speaker doesn’t know whether + Joe played or not and is simply voicing a conjecture; or because the statement + is an inference based on some indirect clue (e.g., since Joe showed up for work + today, he must not have won the lottery).

    +

    And while sentence (d) There is a dog on my porch seems + on its surface to be the most straightforward of the four, is the intent of + the speaker to simply describe and identify the participants to a scene, or + does she wish to convey the idea that the scene has personal significance to + her, e.g., because she has a phobia of dogs or has been waiting for a long-lost + pet dog to return home? In other words, the sentence itself does not convey + the intent behind the utterance, only the static description of the scene.

    +

    In all four instances, such vagueness exists unless and until + the audience can ascertain information from the surrounding context of other + sentences. This shows that, despite the fact that all four sentences are grammatically + well-formed English sentences whose words in and of themselves are unambiguous, + their grammar alone is insufficient to convey the cognitive information necessary + to fully comprehend the intent of the speaker’s utterance. This failure + of grammar to inherently convey the requisite information necessary to understand + a speaker’s cognitive intent is a functional pitfall of human language + in general which Ithkuil grammar has been designed to avoid. The Ithkuil equivalents + to the above four sentences would mandatorily convey all of the “missing” + information noted above without requiring any extra words not corresponding + to the English originals. The grammatical elements of the words themselves (word-selection, + declensions, conjugations, prefixes, suffixes, etc.) would convey all the elements + mentioned.

    +

    Similar examples can be given to show the extent to which natural + languages such as English must often resort to idiomatic expressions, metaphor, + paraphrase, circumlocution and “supra-segmental” phenomena (e.g., + changing the pitch of one’s voice) in their attempts to convey a speaker’s + intended meaning. Ithkuil grammar has been designed to overtly and unambiguously + reflect the intention of a speaker with a minimum of such phenomena.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    0.5 + Comparison to Other Constructed Languages

    +

    Those readers familiar with the history of artificial + language construction might think this endeavor belated or unnecessary, + in that logical + languages such as James Cooke Brown’s renowned Loglan (or its popular + derivative, Lojban) already exist. This serves to illustrate exactly what distinguishes + Ithkuil from such previous attempts. Loglan was published in the 1950s as a + spoken/written language based on symbolic logic (formally known as the first-order + predicate calculus), an algorithmic system of symbol manipulation devised by + mathematicians and logicians. As a result, one might think that such a language + is the most capable means of achieving logical, unambiguous linguistic communication. + However, Loglan and its derivatives are merely sophisticated tools for symbol + manipulation, i.e., the levels of language previously described as morphology + and syntax. It is not within the scope of such languages to address any reorganization + of the semantic realm. This means that symbolic logic simply manipulates arguments + which are input into the system, they do not analyze the origin of those arguments + in terms of meaning, nor are they capable of analyzing or formalizing the structure + of the cognitive or semantic realm of the human mind in terms of how meaning + itself is assigned to arguments. (Indeed, Lojban derives its roots via statistical + “sampling” of the most frequent roots in the six most spoken natural + languages, a method virtually guaranteed to carry over into the Lojban lexicon + all of the lexico-semantic inefficiencies previously described.) By not addressing + these components of language, Loglan and similar efforts fail to address the + inconsistencies and inefficiency inherent in language at the lexico-semantic + level. Ithkuil has been designed to systematically address this issue.

    +

    Other readers might think of international languages (or “interlanguages”) + such as Esperanto, Interlingua, or Ido, as being logical and efficient representations of language. + However, these languages are merely simplified, regularized amalgamations of + existing languages (usually Indo-European), designed for ease of learning. While + addressing many overt irregularities, inconsistencies, and redundancies of language + found at the morpho-phonological and morpho-syntactic levels, they do little + to address the problems found within the other components of language, especially + the lexico-semantic. For example, while Esperanto admirably employs systematic + rules for word derivation as knabo ‘boy’ versus knabino + ‘girl,’ it preserves the basic lexico-semantic categorization scheme + of Indo-European languages in general, rather than seeking opportunities to + expand such word derivation schemes into multidimensional arrays as will be + shortly illustrated for Ithkuil.

    +

    All in all, neither logical languages such as Loglan nor interlanguages + such as Esperanto, are designed specifically to achieve the purpose of cognitive + exactness and conciseness of communication which is the goal of Ithkuil. Actually, + Ithkuil might more readily be compared with the analytical + language of John Wilkins of the Royal Society of London, published in 1668, + in which he divided the realm of human conception into forty categories, each + containing a hierarchy of subcategories and sub-subcategories, each in turn + systematically represented in the phonological structure of an individual word. + For example an initial g- might stand for a plant, while go- + indicated a tree, gob- a particular class of tree, and gobo + a particular tree species. While unworkable in terms of specifics, Wilkins’ + underlying principles are similar in a simplistic way to some of the abstract + derivational principles employed in Ithkuil lexico-morphology and lexico-semantics. + Another comparable predecessor in a simplistic sense is the musical language, + Solresol, created by Jean François Sudre and published in + 1866.

    +

     

    + + + + +

    0.6 + The Uniqueness of Ithkuil

    +

    The above description demonstrates that Ithkuil is rather unique + in the niche it occupies in the array of both natural and invented languages. + The design of Ithkuil has slowly and painstakingly evolved from my early attempts + as a teenager (following my introduction to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and Charles + Fillmore’s seminal 1968 article on case grammar) to explore beyond the + boundaries of Western Indo-European languages to a complex, intricate array + of interwoven grammatical concepts, many of which are wholly of my own creation, + others of which have been inspired by such obscure linguistic sources as the + morpho-phonology of Abkhaz verb complexes, the moods of verbs in certain American + Indian languages, the aspectual system of Niger-Kordofanian languages, the nominal + case systems of Basque and the Dagestanian languages, the enclitic system of + Wakashan languages, the positional orientation systems of Tzeltal and Guugu + Yimidhirr, the Semitic triliteral root morphology, and the hearsay and possessive + categories of Suzette Elgin’s Láadan language, not to mention ideas + inspired by countless hours studying texts in theoretical linguistics, cognitive + grammar, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, linguistic relativity, semantics, + semiotics, philosophy, fuzzy set theory, and even quantum physics.

    +

    The Ithkuil writing system likewise derives from both original + and inspired sources: it employs a unique “morpho-phonemic” principle + of my own invention, its logical design borrows from the mutational principles + underlying the Ethiopic and Brahmi scripts, and its aesthetic visual design + bears a superficial resemblance to Hebrew square script and the various Klingon + fonts.

    +

    As for the name of the language, Ithkuil, it is an anglicized + rendering of the word , + whose approximate translation is ‘hypothetical language.’

    +

    This website provides a systematic presentation of the grammar + of the language. In addition to a description of the various components of the + grammar, the reader will find example phrases or sentences illustrating those + components. Each example comprises an Ithkuil word, phrase, or sentence written + in native Ithkuil script, accompanied by a Romanized transliteration, an English + translation (sometimes divided into a “natural” versus literal translation), + and a morphological analysis. The morphological analysis is presented serially, + morpheme-by-morpheme, using three-letter abbreviations or labels for Ithkuil + morphological categories. These labels are presented within the body of the + work in conjunction with the explanation of each morphological category. This + system is illustrated by the example below, where the labels OBL + and PRP refer to the OBLIQUE and + PROPRIETIVE noun cases respectively. (These noun cases + are explained in Chapter + 4):

    +
    +


    + têr hionn
    + title-OBL + father-PRP
    + ‘a father’s title’

    +
    +

    This work is not meant as a primer or means of self-instruction + in speaking the language, a task beyond even its creator, given that Ithkuil + may be perhaps the most grammatically complex language ever devised. Simplicity + was not my purpose, but rather bridging the gap between extreme morphological + dynamism, the overt reflection of human cognitive processes via language, and + extreme morpho-semantic economy and efficiency. I believe I have achieved a + result which is close to the ideal I sought. I leave it to the reader to explore + that result.

    +

    I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil. I especially wish to thank Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of so many people. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian. My appreciation also to fellow linguist and conlanger David J. Peterson for bestowing upon Ithkuil the 2008 Smiley Award.

    +

    Smiley Award

    +

    I dedicate this work to my brother, Paul, in fond memory of + Kccöj, Mbozo, and our other made-up languages, and all + the fun times we had as kids learning about and playing with linguistics.

    +

    Proceed + to Chapter One: Phonology >>

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-lexicon.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-lexicon.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7236e5e --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-lexicon.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7616 @@ + + + +Untitled Document + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    + +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + Adjuncts
    +

     

    +

    The Lexicon

    +

    Currently, the lexicon lists 16200 stems as derived from 900 roots (see + Sections 2.2, 2.3, + and 10.1.1 for an explanation + of the structure of individual roots and their 18 stems). This represents only + a random sampling from the 17 different morpho-semantic classes of Ithkuil roots + (see Sec. 10.2 for an explanation + of these classes). Additional roots and their stems will be periodically added +to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most recently added roots (August 2008) are marked in blue-colored font.

    +

    The reader should be aware that the glosses (i.e., the English translations + or definitions) for each of the stems below are at times somewhat arbitrary, + as Ithkuil roots and their stems have been conceptualized from the cognitive + level up, without regard as to whether they correspond necessarily to an existing + word or phrase in English or other languages. As a result, some of the English + glosses chosen as representations for the Ithkuil stems are approximations at + best. This is especially true for verbal glosses, since the translation of an + Ithkuil verbal formative is usually dependent on the specific Conflation, Format + or Derivation (see Sec. 5.4). +

    +

    Ideally, the best way to represent the meanings of Ithkuil stems would be to + use a semantic “meta-language” comprised of a closed set of semantically + universal (or near-universal) “primitives” to create semantic “formulas” + which define the use of a particular stem. (The design and use of such a meta-language + to translate the meanings of words from one language to another can be found + in the writings of linguist Anna Wierzbicka.) However, the author has chosen + not to pursue such an effort for the sake of time, as such an analysis for all + of the 3600 roots and their 64,800 stems would likely take decades to complete.

    +

    In regard to the list below, note that in some cases both a nominal (i.e., + noun) and verbal gloss have been provided, while in others only one or the other + is present. Nevertheless, the reader should keep in mind at all times that Ithkuil + stems always convey both a nominal and verbal meaning, as explained in detail + in Section 2.6.1.

    +

     

    +

    CLASS 1 ROOTS: numerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics +

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-Š ‘WHOLE NUMBER/INTEGER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a (whole) number, numeral, digit, integer

    Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to formal, authoritative, permanent context as per Section 3.7

    2. having more than one aspect; multifaceted

    3. numerical series/sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. multiply (by)

    1. divide (by)

    2. consisting of more than instance; multiple instance(s) of

    2. having more than one part; consisting of parts; non-unitary; non-unified

    3. exponential/logarithmic progression

    3. negative exponential/logarithmic progression

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-S   ‘ONE/UNITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. one

    1. single entity / single / singular

    2. (something) alone/lone/sole

    2. (something) isolated / apart / separate

    3. (something) unique

    3. 9something) independent / self-reliant / self-sufficient

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. unit (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    1. unify/unite; unit (in terms of being indivisible)

    Same as above 3 stems in terms of there being no other instance/example thereof

    Same as above 3 stems in terms of entity being indivisible

    2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being indivisible)

    3. unique (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    3. unique (in terms of being indivisible)

    +

    EXAMPLES OF MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  individual(ity), solitude, lonely, loneliness

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-S   ‘TWO/DUALITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set of two / a duo; to be two in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make dual / having 2 uses or aspects / bi- / twofold

    3. second one in a sequence; be/make second in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. twice the number of something; to double / multiply by two

    1. half; halve / divide by or into two

    2. two times [= iterations] / twice; to be/make/do twice

    2. be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)

    3. to the second power / squared; to square / raise to the second power

    3. to the negative second power / inverse square; to divide by the square of

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-S   ‘SEVEN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 7 / a septet; to be 7 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make seven-faceted / having 7 uses or aspects / septi- / sevenfold

    3. seventh one in a sequence; be/make seventh in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 7 times the number of something; to septuple / multiply by 7

    1. a seventh / divide by 7 or into 7 parts

    2. 7 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 7 times

    2. be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts

    3. to the 7th power; raise to the 7th power

    3. to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN FOR ‘TWO’ AND ‘SEVEN’ APPLIES TO THE REMAINING NUMBER ROOTS AS FOLLOWS:
    + Š-S     ‘3’
    + P-S    ‘4’
    + Ţ-S    ‘5’
    + T-S    ‘6’
    + X-S    ‘8’
    + F-S    ‘9’
    + M-S   ‘10’
    + R-S    ‘100’
    + Q-S    ‘10,000’
    + Ç-S   ‘100,000,000’
    + Ċ-S    ‘10 QUADRILLION’
    +

    +
    +


    + CLASS 2 ROOTS: intellectual concepts, thought, ideation

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-P   ‘FACT/KNOW/LEARN/UNDERSTAND/EXPERTISE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ontological fact;  observe/notice an ontological fact

    1. study/practice [= formal process to acquire skill or knowledge]

    2. epistemological/conventionalized fact; know fact

    2. realize/understand/comprehension via act of insight

    3. experience/proficiency [= know via familiarity]

    3. understand [= know via sharing/communication of knowledge]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of knowing

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing known

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of study/understanding

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing studied or understood

    +

    INFORMAL Stem Derivations:  find out, discover, determine, wisdom
    + FORMAL Stem Derivations:  learn, insight, enlightenment, education, school, scholar, student

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-T  - ‘(CRIMINAL) LAW/ADJUDICATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. statute, a particular law

    1. act of official law enforcement (enforcement authority + manifested act of enforcement/administration)

    2. applicability of a statute, law to a particular situation or geopolitical area, rule of law

    2. jurisdiction/applicability of enforcement powers to particular situation or geopolitical area

    3. investigate an alleged violation of law; act of criminal investigation

    3. try/adjudicate a criminal complaint, go to trial

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. statement (the wording) of a law or statute

    1. application of, or compliance with a law or statute

    1. authority to enforce law or statute

    1. act/manifestion of enforcing/administering law or statute

    2. applicability of a statute or law

    2. state of being subject to, or required to obey/ comply w/ a statute or law

    2. jurisdiction of law enforcement powers

    2. state of being subject to the jurisdiction of a law enforcement entity

    3. gather material evidence as part of criminal investigation, e.g., questioning of witnesses, viewing of records, inspecting clues and material evidence

    3. act by law enforcement for purposes of criminal identification or apprehension, e.g., interrogation or component of sting-type operation, or legal “trap” set up

    3. presentation of evidence in support of alleged crime; prosecution

    3. formal weighing of evidence by judge or jury

    +

    Morphological Derivations: code of law, rule of law, rule on an adjudicatory matter, verdict, justice
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  obtaining of warrant/authorization to detain, seizure/detention of suspect, interrogation of suspect, gathering of evidence, arrest, detention in jail cell, indictment, preparation of prosecution, incarceration

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  stake-out/surveillance, reconnaisance, infiltration of mole, component of sting operation, identification of suspect

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-P   ‘GOOD/BENEFICIAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. good [= beneficial to context]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to concrete, range-of-moment tangible contexts, whereas INFORMAL stems are applied to general, metaphysical contexts.

    2. good [= morally right; beneficial metaphysically]

    3. good [= advantageous/effective]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act, event or situation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on desired outcome/reward/benefit

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-T   ‘QUESTION/INQUIRY/ANSWER/RESPONSE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. question & answer [statement requesting information + the answer/reply/response thereto]

    1. inquire/inquiry + answer

    2. query/investigate [investigative act + discovery made]

    2. research + findings

    3. ponder/introspect [self-questioning + conclusion]

    3. analyze + results of analysis

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. question [statement requesting information]

    1. response/reply/answer [information desired or given]

    1. inquire/inquiry

    1. answer [i.e., result of inquiry]

    2. query

    2. answer (to query) [i.e., cause/reason for what is being looked into or investigated]

    2. research

    2. finding(s)/discovery made via research

    3. ponder/introspect; to question oneself mentally

    3. conclusion [(desired) result of self-analysis]

    3. analyze

    3. conclusion/results of analysis

    +

    Morphological derivations:  problem; solution; solve; resolution; resolve; elucidate

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-T   ‘DEITY / SPIRITUAL ENTITY / SUPERNATURAL ENTITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (a) spirit / supernatural entity

    1. angel

    2. deity / god / “overseer” spirit

    2. God / Supreme Being / Creator deity

    3. demon

    3. the Devil / Satan

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Q    ‘REMEMBER/RECALL/MEMORY/RECORD’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. memory; remember (= recall) [whether unwilled/affective or self -willed/voluntary]

    1. trace/track/vestige

    2. retain / retention of something past into present

    2. memorial (object/action formally recognizing or acknowledging something/someone past)

    3. remember [= commit to memory] / memorize

    3. to record / a record

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. a memory itself (i.e., the content thereof)

    1. faculty of memory/recall (i.e., the process of using one’s memory)

    same as above 3 stems with focus on that which the physical manifestation memorializes or gives evidence/remembrance of

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the object/event/physical manifestation itself which conveys the memory or record

    2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the content thereof)

    2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the process thereof)

    3. thing remembered or memorized [=event/act/situation/state, etc. committed to memory]

    3. process of committing something to memory

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  recollect(ion), remind, memorize, memento, monument, archive, commemorate, commemoration, souvenir/keepsake, relic, to bear in mind, ponder/relish a memory, sear into one’s memory

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PŠ-K     ‘FANTASTIC OR IMAGINARY CREATURE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fantastic or imaginary creature/beast

    1. mythological/symbolic creature/beast

    2. winged fantastic creature/beast

    2. legendary being/creature/beast, allegedly real

    3. reptilian/saurian fantastic creature/beast

    3. alien/extraterrestrial being

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 1: 
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  5) dragon
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  centaur, sphinx, satyr, unicorn, chimera, Phoenix, Scylla, Pegasus
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  vampyre, werewolf, yeti,

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-K   ‘THOUGHT/IDEA/REASON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. think / cogitate + thought or idea cogitated

    1. to reason / use logic + content of reasoning

    2. consider + idea considered

    2. analyze + object of analysis

    3. propose + argument or idea proposed

    3. abstract (= to mentally construct) + concept

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. think / cogitate; an act of thinking

    1. a thought / an idea

    1. to reason / use logic; act of reasoning

    1. object of reasoning

    2. consider; an act of consideration

    2. a thought or idea considered

    2. analyze; act of analysis

    2. object of analysis

    3. propose / posit

    3. a proposition or argument

    3. to abstract / conceive / conceptualize; act of abstraction or conception

    3. concept

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: ponder, deliberate/deliberation, plan, contemplate, theory, hypothesis, deduce/deduction, postulate, infer(ence), judge, conclude/conclusion

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    S-T  ‘MIND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mind / mental (faculty + use)

    1. sentience / capacity for self awareness and self-identity + act of self-reflection

    2. perception / awareness (faculty + use)

    2. conscious + subconscious mind

    3. instinct (faculty + practice)

    3. intellect / wits /mind as efficacious tool

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. mental faculty / mind

    1. application of mental faculty; act of mentation / use one’s mind

    1. feeling of sentience

    1. act of self-reflection

    2. faculty of perception or awareness

    2. use of perception or awareness; to perceive / be aware of

    2. conscious mind

    2. subconscious mind

    3. instinct

    3. instinctual act; to act instinctively

    3. intellect; use one’s intellect

    3. product of one’s intellect / intellectual feat

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: philosophy, metaphysics

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ST-K   ‘COMPARISON/MEASUREMENT/WEIGH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. compare/contrast

    1. measure

    2. discriminate/distinguish

    2. discern

    3. “weigh”/ponder choice/pro-con analysis

    3. relate/collate/determine relationships between

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or outcome

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 3 ROOTS: concepts relating to change and causation

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-C      ‘WEATHER CONDITION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (current) weather condition

    1. adverse weather condition

    2. amenable weather condition (warm seasons)

    2. adverse weather condition (warm seasons)

    3. amenable weather condition (cold seasons)

    3. adverse weather condition (cold seasons)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: climate, the weather, clime
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  mild, balmy, sunny, warm, still/calm, gently breezy
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  brisk, cool, clear, still/calm, crisp, light snowfall, drizzle
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2: mugginess, heat, drought, summer rainstorm, summer flood, mud, hurricane/    cyclone/typhoon, smog, hot wind
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  fog/mist, cloudy/overcast, wind, rain, snow, blizzard, rainstorm, tornado/twister, flood

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-C  - ‘BAKE/SOMETHING BAKED’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. bake (something); something baked [method + result]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except that context is that of a commercial venture, i.e., food for sale, as in a restaurant or grocery store

    2. oven [= environment or primary infrastructure used for baking]

    3. baking pan [= primary supporting interface for manipulating the food being baked]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bake; baking (as a cooking method)

    1. food cooked by baking; something baked

    2. oven (as primary baking environment)

    2. oven (as functional heating/cooking means)

    3. baking pan (as supporting interface within the oven)

    3. baking pan (as primary accessory/tool needed for manipulating, removing, shaping the baked food)

    +

    Derivatives:  baked goods, bakery, baker
    + The following roots follow the same model as the above:
    + T-C  roast
    + P-Ċ  toast
    +Š-Č  fry
    +F-C  griddle
    +T-Ċ  smoke
    +Ķ-Č  sun-dry
    +X-C  sautee
    +TL-Ċ  simmer
    +T-Č  boil
    +S-C  steam
    +ŢL-Ċ  parboil
    +Č-Č  stew
    +R-C  brew
    +KL-Ċ  marinade
    +Ţ-Č  broil
    +L-C  grill
    +PL-Ċ  barbecue
    +H-Č  poach
    +N-C  pressure-cook
    +XL-Ċ  slow-cook (e.g., in crockpot, Dutch oven, claypot, Tandoori pot, etc.)
    +N-Č  flash-fry
    +Ļ-C  sear
    +FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing sushi, making a peanut butter sandwich, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L- Č ‘BINARY REVERSAL / POLARITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. switch to opposing or complementary value

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Sec. 3.7.

    2. switch or reverse [linear] direction

    3. toggle between active/positive or inactive/negative state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. set to positive, primary, or initial value

    1. set to negative, secondary, or complementary value

    2. change current course or direction

    2. reverse course or direction

    3. active / activate / turn on / render active / on / positive state

    3. inactive / deactivate / turn off / render inactive / off / negative state

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-C  TOOL/INSTRUMENT

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tool, instrument, implement as extension of bodily appendage(s) (e.g., as per force, strength, precision, reach, pressure, instrument as labor-saving or efficiency-increasing means etc.)

    1. utensil, specialized implement for assisting in refined task

    2. tool, instrument as means of “defying nature” (e.g., wheel, wedge, fulcrum, etc.

    2. mechanical/motorized/electric/electronic implement/device

    3. supply-like resource/implement used by itself or in  association with specific tool (e.g., nail, tack, clothespin, hook)

    3. supply-like resource/implement used as fuel or input for mechanical/electrical/electronic implement/device

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  equipment, gear (collection of associated tools/supplies), apparatus, appliance, paraphernalia, machine
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1: awl, pliers, screwdriver, wrench, pick, shovel/spade, chisel, file, stick/pole/bar
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  wheel, jack, wedge, fulcrum, pulley, sling, lever, gear, spool
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3: nail, tack, clip/fastener, hook, screw, bolt, nut, piece of wire, screwdriver bit/head
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  anvil, fork, spoon, scissors, vice/clamp, plane, saw, tweezers, puncher
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  drill, power saw, engine/motor
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  drill bit,

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Č   ‘SWITCH/ALTERATION BETWEEN MULTI-VALUED SETTINGS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. switch to a different value or setting

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

    2. veer, change course

    3. change to a less active or more active setting; increase or decrease intensity or setting

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. switch to higher/greater value or setting

    1. switch to lower/lesser value or setting

    2. change to more difficult, dangerous, or unpredictable course

    2. change to easier, safer, or more predictable course

    3. increase to higher/stronger intensity

    3. decrease to lower/weaker intensity

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-C   ‘GROWTH/CULTIVATION/HUSBANDRY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. grow; stage of growth

    1. stage of plant growth; grow (plant)

    2. raise; look after; foster; function as guardian

    2. till/cultivate/raise crop; stage of cultivation (e.g., etc.)

    3. nurture / provide requirements for growth; husbandry

    3. to garden/specialized act of plant nurturage (e.g., prune, graft, weed, etc.)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

    +

    Stems of this root are often used with the MAT suffix
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2:  plow, sow, irrigate, fertilize; hoe, reap, pick, dry, store
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 3:  prune, graft, weed, transplant, thin out
    + Morphological Derivatives:  shepherd, garden, gardener, field (of crop), crop, harvest, plow/plough, hoe, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Č ‘LARGE IMPLEMENT FOR COUNTERING GRAVITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ladder [object itself + use]

    1. winch/windlass

    2. stair

    2. expandable boom

    3. bridge; span

    3. derrick

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  staircase, stairway

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Q-Č ‘PHYSICAL CONTACT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. physical contact between 2 or more objects [contact + effect]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that the context is specific to physical contact by one’s “default” appendage(s) for volitional physical contact, i.e., hands/fingers, beak, snout, tongue, pseudopod, tendril, tentacle, etc.

    2. application of physical pressure/force + effect

    3. move or set in motion via physical contact + resulting motion

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on physical act of contact

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on resulting effect/movement

    +

    EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THESE STEMS: feel, push, stroke, caress, tap, nudge, hit, strike, slap, punch, shove, press, rub, knock over, fall [due to being pushed], injure [via striking], etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-Č   - WEAPON

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hand-held or hand-thrown bladed weapon for cutting or stabbing [object + use]

    1. ballistically launched projectile [projectile + use]

    2. pointed-tipped handheld or propelled weapon for piercing [object + use]

    2. explosive/incendiary substance/device [substance/device + use]

    3. blunt force-driven hand-held or propelled weapon [object + use]

    3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon [substance + use]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bladed weapon itself

    1. use/function of bladed weapon

    1. ballistically launched projectile

    1. use/function of ballistically launched projectile

    2. pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon itself

    2. use/function of pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon

    2. explosive/incendiary substance/device

    2. use/function of explosive/incendiary substance/device

    3. blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon itself

    3. use/function of blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon

    3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon

    3. use/function of gaseous/chemical/other weapon

    +

    SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1:  1) dagger  2) switchblade  3) axe  4) bayonet  5) sword  6) scimitar
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  arrow, lance, spear, javelin, harpoon
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  mace, club, hammer, catapult fodder, shot from slingshot. cudgel
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  bullet, shell, shrapnel, cannonball, shot, rocket, self-propelled missile
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  bomb, grenade, plastic explosive, firecracker, dynamite stick
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  gas irritant/poison, poison chemical vapor, liquid irritant/poison, radioactive compound used as weapon

    +

    NOTE:  In Ithkuil, guns, catapults, slings and all other firearms or devices for shooting/hurling projectiles utilize Degree 1 of the UTE suffix ('tool/implement for doing X'), as it is not the firearm/shooting device that kills but the projectile shot/fired from it. Thus a gun is a "bullet-implementer".  Care must be taken in assigning appropriate noun Cases or verbal Formats to stems associated with ballistic aerial weapons to distinguish the fact that it is the projectile that is the actual "weapon" and not the object it was fired/projected from. This is the good old "shoot bullets" vs. "shoot guns" vs. "shoot bullets from a gun" vs. "shoot him with a gun" vs. "shoot him with bullets from a gun" problem . This which would translate into Ithkuil/Ilaksh as "I bulleted him due to/enabled by a gun" or incorparatively as "I gun-bulleted him" using either the RESULTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him as a result of concurrently gun-activating") or the INSTRUMENTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him by the enabling means of gun-activating").

    +
    +


    + CLASS 4 ROOTS: concepts relating to the physical attributes of organic + matter

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    C-M  ‘SENSE OF TASTE / THE TASTE OF SOMETHING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to taste a taste (taste faculty + flavor tasted)

    1. to taste for an anticipated/expected flavor

    2. tongue/palate (tissue containing taste buds + taste buds themselves)

    2. instrument/device for detecting flavor + flavor detected

    3. imagine a taste (act + the flavor imagined)

    3. create/manufacture a flavor + flavor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to taste; faculty of taste

    1. flavor

    1. to taste

    1.

    2. tongue/palate  (as sensory organs of tasting)

    2. taste bud

    2. instrument for detecting flavor

    2. flavor detected via instrument

    3. imagine a taste in one’s mind

    3. an imagined taste

    3. create/manufacture a flavor

    3. flavor created

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  tasty, savory, flavorful
    + SSD Derivatives:  1) bitter 2) chemical-like taste 3)  salty  4) foul/rancid taste 5) sweet  6) sweet & sour  7) sour 8)  hot (= spicy)  9) umami

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    C-Ņ   ‘SPECIALIZED VOLITIONAL BODILY SOUNDS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-linguistic sound made by mouth (i.e., tongue, teeth, lips)

    1.  consonant

    2. non-linguistic sound made from throat or vocal chords

    2. vowel

    3. sound made by non-oral, non-vocal part of the body

    3. phoneme

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

    +

    SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 1:  1) whistle 2) hum 3) “raspberry” 4) hoot/whoop 5) non-avian animal call 6) bird call 7) scream 8) click-sound (i.e., w/ ingressive airstream) 9) non-phonemic consonantal gibberish sound

    +

    SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 3:  1) slap 2) rubbing sound 3) footfall (--> stomp) 4) snap of fingers 5) finger tap 6) toe/foot tap 7) suction-based sound (e.g., “armpit fart”) 8) knuckle crack  9) other joint cracking

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ċ-N   ‘IN-LAW/FOSTER RELATIONS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of parent/child in-law relationship

    1. member of foster family

    2. male member of parent/child in-law relationship

    2. male member of foster family

    3. female member of parent/child in-law relationship

    3. female member of foster family

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. parent in-law

    1. child in-law

    1. foster parent

    1. foster child

    2. father in-law

    2. son in-law

    2. foster father

    2. foster son

    3. mother in-law

    3. daughter in-law

    3. foster mother

    3. foster daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ç-M   ‘LOWER ORDER LIFE FORM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. lower-order life form (i.e. non-vertebrate)

    same as INFORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

    2. microbe

    3. non-microbial animal

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bacterium

    1. soft-bodied animal (e.g., jellyfish, sponge, slime mold)

    2. virus

    2. exoskeletal animal (e.g., insect, arthropod, crustacean)

    3. protist

    3. endoskeletal animal

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ç-Ņ    ‘HEAR(ING)/SOUND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hear a sound; aural faculty + sound heard

    1. listen to a (specific) sound / discern aurally a (specific) sound

    2. ear (aural organ + physical part of body, i.e., Spanish oído + oreja)

    2. aural instrument / device for detecting sound waves + sound detected

    3. imagine a sound (act + sound)

    3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to hear; aural faculty

    1. sound

    1. listen

    1. (selected) sound

    2. ear (aural organ)

    2. ear (body part)

    2. aural instrument

    2. sound detected via aural instrument

    3. imagine a sound / hear in one’s mind

    3. imagined sound

    3. create or manufacture a sound

    3. sound created

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: speaker, megaphone, telephone, stereo, microphone, hearing aid

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-N  ‘COUSIN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cousin [male or female]

    1. step-cousin [male or female]

    2. male cousin

    2. male step-cousin

    3. female cousin

    3. female step-cousin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s mother]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s father]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepmother]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepfather]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s mother]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s father]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s mother]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s father]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FL-Ņ    ‘TYPES OF HARD OR NON-LIVING BODILY TISSUES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tooth

    1. head hair

    2. fingernail/toenail/claw

    2. whisker / facial hair

    3. hard growth of skin (e.g., wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar)

    3. pubic/armpit hair

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

    +

    mustache, beard, sideburn, bald
    + incisor/fang, bicuspid, molar
    + wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-N   ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. nuclear family member

    1. non-sanguine family member

    2. male family member

    2. non-sanguine male family member

    3. female family member

    3. non-sanguine female family member

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. parent

    1. child/offspring

    1. step-parent

    1. step-child

    2. father

    2. boy child / son

    2. step-father

    2. step-son

    3. mother

    3. girl child / daughter

    3. step-mother

    3. step-daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KS-Ņ    ‘COMPONENT OF BODY’S RESPIRATORY/CARDIO-VASCULATORY SYSTEM

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. heart

    1. lung

    2. vascular component

    2. component of respiratory system

    3. (an amount of) blood

    3. oxygen

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  ventricle, atrium, vein, coronary artery, capillary,
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 2:  blood vessel, vein, artery, capillary, aorta, vena cava
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1: bronchus, bronchiolus, alveolar sac
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 21:  nasal cavity, trachea

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ķ-Ņ   ‘ABDOMEN/THORAX/TORSO/CHEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. thorax/torso [both body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “mid-section” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. abdomen/midsection (lower front half of torso) [both body part and function]

    3. chest (upper front of torso) [both  body part and function)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Ņ  ‘CLASSES OF ANIMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. animal of land or air (i.e., “terroid”)

    Same as INFORMAL holistic stems but domesticated, tamed, captive, or bred

    2. waterlife (i.e., “aquoid”)

    3. amphibian

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems but domesticable

    same as above 3 stems but undomesticable

    same as above FORMAL stems but as pets or tamed

    same as above FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, breeding stock, etc.)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-N   ‘GENDER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. gender

    1. psycho-sexual identity

    2. neuter

    2. asexual / psychologically neuter

    3. androgynous

    3. sexual preference/orientation

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male (anatomically)

    1. female (anatomically)

    1. masculine (psycho-behaviorally)

    1. feminine (psycho-behaviorally)

    2. sterile (incapable of procreation)

    2. genderless (neither male nor female anatomically)

    2. celibate/chaste

    2. asexual; devoid of sexual desire

    3. androgyne / androgynous (difficultyfor others to determine gender)

    3. hermophrodite / hermophroditic (anatomically both male & female)

    3. sexual preference or orientation psychologically

    3. sexual orientation in actuality (as manifested)

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  homosexual, bisexual, heterosexual, bisexual with preference for heterosexuality, bisexual with preference for homosexuality, homosexual with preference for functioning in male role, homosexual with preference for functioning in female role

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KL-Ņ    ‘BODILY JOINT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. bodily joint (physical joint + function); to flex joint

    1. specialized bodily joint/juncture

    2. ball & socket-type bodily joint

    2. vertebra

    3. standard-type joint

    3. wrist/ankle/waist (lateral circular joint type)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to external hard or knob-like external body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to internal joint and its function/process

    Same as above 3 stems referring to external hard or knob-like external body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to internal joint and its function/process

    +

    hip/flex hip, shoulder, flex shoulder
    + finger joint, toe joint, knee, elbow
    + spinal column; flex spine
    + wrist, ankle waist

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŞ-Ņ    ‘NECK’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. neck (as gestalt entity) [body part + function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “neck” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

    2. neck (as bodily support/swivel point for head) [body part + function

    3. neck (as narrowest, most vulnerable body part) [body part + function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. neck as physical body part

    1. neck as functional body part

    2. neck as bodily support/swivel point for head

    2. neck as functional support/swivel point for head

    3. neck as physically narrowest, most vulnerable body part)

    3. neck as functionally narrowest, most vulnerable body part

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  nape, throat (i.e., front part of neck)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-M  ‘SIBLING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sibling

    1. step-sibling

    2. brother

    2. step-brother

    3. sister

    3. step-sister

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. half-sibling [shared mother]

    1. half-sibling [shared father]

    1. step-sibling [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    1. step-sibling [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    2. half-brother [shared mother]

    2. half-brother [shared father]

    2. step-brother [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    2. step-brother [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    3. half-sister [shared mother]

    3. half-sister [shared father]

    3. step-sister [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    3. step-sister [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-N   ‘CLASSES OF WATERLIFE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. skeletal/vertebral waterlife form

    Same as INFORMAL holistic stems referring to tamed, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

    2. exoskeletal/arthropod form

    3. soft-bodied waterlife form

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. jellyfish-like lifeform

    1. gilled/finned fish

    Same INFORMAL complementary stems referring to tamed, pet, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

    2. crustacean

    2. “non-standard”-shaped fish (e.g., ray, eel, squid, octopus, etc.)

    3. shellfish

    3. sea mammal (e.g., whale, seal, walrus, etc.)

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  fisherman, whale hunter, aquarium, fishery, fish hatchery

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ļ-Ņ     ‘CLASSES OF LAND/AIR ANIMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mammal

    Same as INFORMAL stems referring to domesticated, tamed, bred, pet, etc. individual

    2. non-mammalian, non-avian, non-reptilian animal, i.e.,  insect/arthropod/arachnid/worm/mollusk

    3. avian or reptilian lifeform

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. insect

    1. mollusc

    2. worm

    2. bird

    3. arthropod/arachnid

    3. reptile

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-L   ‘TRAGICOMIC-BASED VOCAL/FACIAL GESTURE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mouth gesture

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) gestures/vocalizations (INFORMAL stems are affective/non-volitional)

    2. vocalization

    3. facial expression

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. smile

    1. frown

    2. laugh

    2. whine, moan

    3. “light up” (referring to one’s face’)

    3. crestfallen look, look of dejection

    +

    SSD DERIVATIONS:  scowl

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-N   ‘FOOD PLANT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. plant grown/harvested/cultured as food source

    1. food dish/serving derived from plant

    2. vegetable

    2. food dish/serving derived from vegetable

    3. fruit

    3. food dish/serving derived from fruit

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to plant itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to edible part of plant or plant in edible condition following any necessary processing

    Same as above 3 stems referring to serving/dish itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to consumption/ingestion  of the dish

    +

    SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL stems:  stem, leaf, seed/nut, pod/fruit, flower, juice, sap, rhizome, root/tuber
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL stems:  soup, stew, salad, sauteed, deep-fried, boiled, steamed, baked, fancy/other style of preparation

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-M   ‘SMELL/ODOR’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to smell (= use olfactory sense) + odor smelled

    1. examine or inspect via smelling + odor smelled

    2. nose (olfactory organ + facial proboscis)

    2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument + odor detected

    3. imagine a smell (act + imagined odor)

    3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to smell (= use olfactory sense)

    1. an odor, a smell; to give off an odor

    1. examine or inspect via smelling

    1. odor detected via inspection or examination

    2. nose (= olfactory organ)

    2. nose (= facial proboscis)

    2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument

    2. odor detected via olfactory instrument

    3. imagine an odor

    3. an imagined odor

    3. create or manufacture an odor

    3. manufactured odor

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sniff, aroma, “bouquet”, perfume, stench

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ņ   ‘STATE OF HEALTH/ILLNESS/WELL-BEING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. state of physical health / physical well-being

    1. state of mental health / mental well-being

    2. physical illness; sick(ness)

    2. mental illness

    3. physical injury/wound/lesion/trauma

    3. mental trauma

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

    +

    SSD affix used with Stem 2 of both INFORMAL and FORMAL stem in conjunction w/ the AGC2/7 affix give:  1) nurse 2) emergency technician 3) therapist 4) caregiver 5) doctor 6) surgeon 7) healer 8) “medicine man” 9) medical assistant
    + Derivations:  madness, craziness, insanity

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PL-Ņ    ‘THROAT (interior tract of neck)/GULLET’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. throat (= interior respiratory/digestive tract of neck)

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “throat/gullet” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

    2. gullet (= tube- or trumpet-shaped digestive conduit from oral cavity)

    3. interior chamber of throat (containing pharynx, larynx, plus epiglottal and glottal structures)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    SSD derivatives:  pharynx, larynx, syrinx, epiglottis, glottis, trachea/windpipe, vocal fold/chord, hyoid bone / “Adam’s apple”

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PS-Ņ    ‘GASTRO-INTESTINAL/UROLOGICAL COMPONENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. gastrointestinal component (body part + function)

    1. urological component (body part + function)

    2. gastrointestinal process / digestive process / digest(ion) (physical process + nutritive function

    2. urological process (physical process + waste elimination function)

    3. (amount/piece of) feces, dung, excrement

    3. (an amount of) urine, piss, pee

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part/process  itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  gastrointestinal tract
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  esophagus, stomach, guts/viscera/intestine, jejenum, ilium, colon, rectum, small intestine/bowel, anus
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  kidney, ureter, adrenal gland, bladder, urethra

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PŞ-Ņ    ‘PREGNANCY/GESTATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. pregnancy/gestation

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring exclusively to human pregnancy/gestation

    2. manifestation of morning sickness

    3. contraction during labor

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical condition/state
    +  

    Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  conception, labor, birth/delivery

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Q-M   ‘HIGHER ORDER ANIMAL LIFE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. higher order being (i.e., large bilateral vertebrate with discrete organs)

    1. authorized or officially designated person or animal/beast

    2. human, person

    2. official, authorized person

    3. non-human higher order being or animal, beast

    3. pet or zoo animal/beast

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male higher order being

    1. female higher order being

    1. authorized male animal/ or officially designated man or beast

    1. authorized or officially designated woman or female animal/ beast

    2. human male, man

    2. human female, woman

    2. official, authorized man

    2. official, authorized woman

    3. male higher order animal or beast

    3. female higher order animal or beast

    3. male pet or zoo animal/beast

    3. female pet or zoo animal/beast

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: boy, girl, child [developmentally, not as offspring], population, group of people, crowd, mob, assembly, people, masses, elder, crone, adult, youth, adulthood, fetus, adolescent, zoo
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-N  DÈ-  ‘HAND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hand (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “hand” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. hand (as holder, grasper, striker) [both physical body part and function]; to grasp-->hold

    3. leg (as manipulator, handler, feeler) [both physical body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. hand as physical body part

    1. function of hand as “feeler”- focuser of body’s tactile sense

    2. hand as main tool of body

    2. function of hand as holder/grasper

    3. hand as limb/extension

    3. function of hand as manipulator/handler

    +

    SSD derivatives:  1) fist 2) palm 3) knuckle 4) hand as flat “blade”, e.g., for karate chop 5) finger 6) thumb 7) “butt” of hand [=lower part of palm] 8) fingernail  9) bottom side of fist [as when pounding fist onto table; for individual fingers, use following affixes + SSD/5 for ‘finger’:  index = “main finger” or “first finger”, middle finger = “mid-finger” or “long finger” or “2nd finger”, ring finger = “3rd finger”, pinkie = 4th finger or small(est) finger

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-Ņ    ‘COLLATERAL FAMILY MEMBER/RELATIVE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. paternal collateral relative

    1. maternal collateral relative

    2. paternal male collateral relative

    2. maternal male collateral relative

    3. paternal female collateral relative

    3. maternal female collateral relative

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. paternal aunt/uncle

    1. paternal aunt/uncle

    1. maternal nephew/neice

    1. maternal aunt/uncle

    2. paternal uncle

    2. paternal uncle

    2. maternal nephew

    2. maternal uncle

    3. paternal aunt

    3. paternal aunt

    3. maternal neice

    3. maternal aunt

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-M  ‘NUTRITION / NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. food and drink; to eat and drink

    1. eat a serving of food or drink; to dine

    2. food; to eat

    2. prepared/cooked food; to eat prepared food

    3. drink (i.e., substance drunk); to drink

    3. processed drink or spirits; to drink processed drink or spirits

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. eat and drink as biological process

    1. food and drink (substances consumed)

    same as abvoe 3 stems but with focus on the process of consumption

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on the items consumed

    2. eat/ingest/consume

    2. item of solid food

    3. drink/imbibe

    3. liquid (to be) drunk

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: cooking, meal, repast, feast, become drunk, gorge(d); chef, cook, brewer

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ŗ-N    ‘CLASSES OF MAMMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. marsupial

    Same as INFORMAL stems referring to tamed, domesticated, pet, bred, etc. individual

    2. egg-laying mammal, ovoviviparous mammal

    3. placental mammal

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to male

    Same as above 3 stems referring to female

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ŗ-Ņ   - ‘INFIRMITY/PHYSICAL DISABILITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. general weakness/infirmity (e.g., age-related or illness-related)

    1. acute infirmity, attack, flare-up

    2. specific physical disability or abnormality; disabled

    2. injury; injure(d)

    3. lame, crippled, handicapped, impaired (permanently or chronically)

    3. impaired; decreased mobility (temporary)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    S-M    ‘LEG’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. leg (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. leg (as support) [both physical body part and function]

    3. leg (as ambulator, extension, limb) [both physical body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. leg as physical body part

    1. leg as manipulating body part (e.g., for kicking, stomping)

    2. leg as or balancing appendage for body

    2. leg as support against gravity

    3. leg as limb/extension

    3. leg as ambulatory organ

    +

    SIMILAR PATTERNS EXIST FOR:
    + Ņ-N  ‘TAIL’
    + K-Ņ   ‘FOOT’ -->   SSD Derivatives:  heel, ball of foot, upper side of foot, arch, plantar fascia, achilles tendon

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    S-N  ‘PLANT TYPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. branched/leaved plant including its fruit or flower

    same as FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

    2. grass-like or stalked plant including its seed or grain

    3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold including its spore or cyst

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. branched/leaved plant

    1. flower, fruit, or blossom of branched/leaved plant

    2. grass-like or stalked plant

    2. seed, grain, or kernel of grass-like or stalked plant

    3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold

    3. spore or cyst of moss-like or fungal plant or mold

    +

    SSD for Stem 2:  1) grass  2) ground-covering plant 3) clover  4) weed 5) wildgrass
    + SSD for Stem 3:  1) lichen  2)  mushroom  3)  mold  4)  slime mold 5) moss  6) non-mushroom fungus

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    S-Ņ     ‘RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act + sound]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act + sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act + sound]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act]

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [sound]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [sound]

    +

    Morphological derivations:  clear throat, harrumph, hacking cough, cough up

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SX-M   ‘MOUTH/ORAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mouth [= oral orifice]

    Same as INFORMAL Stems but for non-animal entity or figuratively

    2. lip [use of DPX = lips]

    3. interior of mouth/oral cavity

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on bodily location/physical aspect

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose, use, function

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ş-Ņ    ‘BODY PART’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. body part/component  (e.g., appendage, section, organ, gland, tissue, fluid, etc.)

    1. bodily tissue/flesh/sinew

    2. bodily organ

    2. secondary organ/gland

    3. bone

    3. bodily fluid/secretion

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  body, corpse
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 3:  1) spine 2) rib 3) skull 4) limb bone (tibia, femur, ulna, etc.) 5) bone of hand/foot  6) “shield” bone (e.g., patella, shoulder blade) 7) hipbone
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  1) membrane 2) tendon 3) ligament 4) nerve 5) muscle 6) skin/integument 7) sphincter/valve 8)  marrow 9) fat/gristle
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 2:  1) gonad 2) esophagus 3) adrenal gland 4) bowel/intestine 5) brain 6) lung 7) kidne    y 8) pancreas 9) liver
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 3:  1) tear  2) bile 3) semen 4) pus 5) blood 6) mucus/mucal secretion 7) saliva 8) lymph  9) sweat/perspiration

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Š-N   ‘NON-SANGUINE RELATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of godparent-godchild relationship

    1. adoptive family member

    2. male member of godparent-godchild relationship

    2. male adoptive family member

    3. female member of godparent-godchild relationship

    3. female adoptive family member

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. godparent

    1. godchild

    1. adoptive parent

    1. adopted child

    2. godfather

    2. godson

    2. adoptive father

    2. adopted son

    3. godmother

    3. goddaughter

    3. adoptive mother

    3. adopted daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Š-Ņ    ‘SOIL/GROUND/DIRT (MIXED ORGANIC + MINERAL)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. dirt/ground/soil [=substance + function as substrate/firmament]

    1. peat

    2. mud

    2. dirt(y)/filth(y) [= soiled, unclean]

    3. ground cover [organic-based, e.g., carpet of leaves]

    3. mulch/compost/fertilizer

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

    same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-M  ‘BREATHE/RESPIRATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. respire/inhale or exhale; a breath

    1. inflate (w/ air)

    2. yawn

    2. blow (passage of air under pressure through narrow opening)

    3. pump (by air)

    3. suck/suckle/siphon

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to gaseous compound itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  breathe, pant, gasp, suffocate, suffocation, asphyxiate, asphyxiation, drown

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-N   ‘ALIVE/LIVING THING/LIVING BEING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. living thing; be alive / to live

    1. domesticated or civilized being

    2. [wild] animal (all orders)

    2. domesticated animal

    3. [wild] plant (all orders)

    3. cultivated plant

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male being

    1. female being

    1. domesticated or civilized male being

    1. domesticated or civilized female being

    2. male [wild] animal

    2. female [wild] animal

    2. male [domesticated] animal

    2. female [domesticated] animal

    3. male [wild] plant

    3. female [wild] plant

    3. male [cultivated] plant

    3. female [cultivated] plant

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: life, vegetation, flora, fauna, wildlife; farm, farmer, breeder, livestock

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Ņ    ‘PLEASURE- or PAIN-BASED VOCALIZATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sigh (affective/non-volitional)

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) vocalizations

    2. squeal/groan/moan (affective/non-volitional)

    3. gasp (affective/non-volitional)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental  pleasure or satisfaction

    Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental distress, pain, torment, or dissatisfaction

    +

    SSD DERIVATIONS:  cry, sob, howl, whimper, murmur
    + OTHER MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  weep

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TL-Ņ    ‘COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. component of CNS

    1. brain

    2. CNS- eurological process

    2. spinal cord

    3. component of peripheral nervous system

    3. nerve

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    sympathetic nerve, parasympathetic nerve, vegus nerve
    + neuron, neuron firing, synapse, synaptic uptake, axon, dendrite, glial cell, blood-brain barrier

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ţ-N   ‘HEAD’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. head (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. head (as seat of brain/mind) [both body part and function]

    3. head (as entity’s primary “interface” area of body)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. head as physical body part

    1. head as functional body part

    2. head as physical seat of brain/mind

    2. head as functional seat of brain/mind

    3. head as “top” or “forward” part or “access” point

    3. head as vital seat of identity

    +

    SSD Derivatives = parts of head 1) cheek  2) chin  3) upper lip [plane between mouth and nose] 4) forehead 5) temple 6) crown of head 6) occipital area [back of head] 7) socket area around eye 8) upper part of back of head 9) cheekbone

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŢL-Ņ    ‘MISCELLANEOUS BODY PARTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. buttock

    1. haunch

    2. breast/teat

    2. snout/proboscis

    3. navel

    3. fin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-M   ‘ARM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. arm (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. arm (as holder, support, carrier) [both body part and function]

    3. arm (as protective extension of body) [both body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. arm as single body part

    1. arm as reacher or manipulator

    2. arm as limb (focus on part/whole relation to body)

    2. arm as holder/carrier

    3. arm as extension of body

    3. arm as natural protective/defensive implement of body

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-N   ‘VISION/SIGHT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to sight (see + thing seen); sight

    1. observe / visually examine + thing seen

    2. eye (functional organ + visible facial feature)

    2. optical instrument + image

    3. visualize / imagine / picture a visual image in one’s mind + image

    3. create image / render an image

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. see

    1. a sight / image; to project an image

    1. visually examine / observe

    1. thing observed / visual evidence

    2. eye (functional organ)

    2. eye (visible facial feature)

    2. optical instrument

    2. thing observed via optical instrument

    3. visualize / envision; act of visualization

    3. an image / a vision (in one’s mind)

    3. create image

    3. image created

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: look (at), view, glimpse, glance, ogle, gawk, stare, spy, espy, peep, voyeur, panorama, scrutinize (visually), camera, telescope, microscope, binoculars, magnifying glass, lens, glasses

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-Ņ    ‘BACK/DORSAL AREA OF BODY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to the dorsal area of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. lower back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

    3. upper back & shoulder blade area

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XL-M   ‘SENSE/SENSATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sense/sensation, “feel” / “feeling” [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]

    1. examine via the senses [both act and result/outcome]

    2. sensor / sensory organ [function + sensor itself]

    2. sensor(y) device/instrument [both use and device itself]

    3. imagine a sensation or feeling / imagined sensation or feeling [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]

    3. create/induce a sensory experience [both act and result/outcome]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to sense / act of sensing

    1. a sensation, a feeling

    1. examine via the senses [the act thereof]

    1. resulting evidence of senses

    2. sense faculty/ability

    2. sensor(y) organ

    2. sensor(y) device/instrument [the use thereof]

    2. sensor(y) device or instrument [the device/instrument itself]

    3. imagine a sensation/feeling

    3. a mentally imagined sensation

    3. create a sensory experience or feeling [the act thereof]

    3. sensation/feeling as externally created/induced

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XL-Ņ    ‘DEGREE OF BODILY SLENDERNESS/FATNESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of slenderness/fatness

    same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

    2. decrease in degree of slenderness/fatness; lose weight; become thin(ner); slenderize

    3. increase in degree of slenderness/fatness; gain weight; become fat(ter); fatten up

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring specifically to physical size/girth/volume

    Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  skinny, rail-thin, obese, plump

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    x + cedilla-M  - ‘DISEASE/DISORDER/MALADY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. chronic systemic illness/condition/ailment; to suffer from

    1. acute abnormal/unhealthy condition/illness/malady/ailment; “come down with”

    2. chronic illness/condition/ailment – infectious in origin; to suffer from a chronic infectious illness

    2. infection; infect(ed), to “catch” a disease

    3.  chronic illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

    3. acute illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    +

    The following roots follow the same pattern as the above:
    + PS-M  neurological
    + PL-M  neuro-muscular/myalgic disorder 
    + PŞ-M  cardio-vascular disorder 
    + KL-M peripheral nervous system disorder
    + KŠ-M  pulmonary disorder
    + KŞ-M  non-malignant tumorous/neoplastic disorder; non-cancerous growth 
    +ŠL-N  malignant tumorous /neoplastic disorder; cancer  SSD derivatives:
    +TL-M  genetic disorder 
    +ŢL-M  musculo-skeletal disorder 
    +ŠL-M  lower gastro-intestinal disorder; bowel problem 
    +PŠ-M  upper gastric disorder; throat/mouth disorder 
    +SL-N  mid gastric disorder; stomach/esophagal disorder 
    +KS-N  ocular/eye disorder 
    +PS-N  nasal disorder 
    +PŠ-N  mid/inner ear disorder; hearing problem 
    +PŞ-N  topical skin disorder 
    +KL-N invasive skin disorder 
    +KŠ-N auto-immune condition 
    +KŞ-N blood/hematological disorder 
    +PL-N  glandular/endocrine disorder 
    +TL-N  liver disorder  — SSD derivatives:
    +ŢL-N  cellular/metabolic disorder — SSD derivative: 1) diabetes (Type 2 only)
    +XL-N  inflammatory disorder
    + SL-M degenerative tissue disorder
    + FL-N physical brain disorder (i.e., discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives:  general dementia, multi-infarct dementia, stroke
    +ŞL- M  mental disorder (i.e., no discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives:  1) schizo-affective 2) sociopathic condition 3) schizophrenia 4) personality disorder 5) depression 6) dissociative disorder 7) manic condition, mania 8) unknown disorder 9) bipolar condition
    +ŞL- N  spinal condition or disorder
    +FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    x + cedilla-Ņ    ‘GASTRONOMIC PAROXYSM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act + sound]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act + sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act + sound]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act]

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [sound]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [sound]

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 5 ROOTS: concepts relating to communication, learning and language

    +
    + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-L   ‘SPEAK/VOICE/ORAL SOUND/INTERPRETATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. vocal utterance / oral sound; utter

    1. meaning or interpretation of vocal utterance; to mean or signify

    2. talk / speak / spoken utterance [parole]

    2. meaning or interpretation of word; to mean or signify

    3. rhetorical utterance / express [langue]

    3. meaning or interpretation of sentence or phrase; to mean or signify

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical production of sound

    same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

    same as above 3 stems referring to objective meaning, signification or denotation

    same as above 3 stems referring to subjective interpretation, connotation or “impact”

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: voice, (a) language, linguistic(s), yell, shout, cry, bark/meow/bleat/neigh, etc., [vocal] message, account, recount, story, tell, eloquence, glib(ness), smooth-talk, rhetoric, speech, dialect, slang

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŠ-L   ‘FOOL/CLOWN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fool(ish); dupe

    1. town fool, village idiot

    2. buffoon, laughingstock

    2. clown

    3. nerd, dweeb

    3. jester

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems in non-serious context of “in fun” or “for laughs”

    Same as above 3 stems in poignant, sorrowful, pathetic context

    Same as above 3 stems in context of entertainment

    Same as above 3 stems in context of parody or as a foil for society

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ķ-R  - ‘DESCRIPTION/ACCOUNT/STORY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. description/account; to describe, to informally communicate an account of something [process + contents]

    1. narrative story; communicate a story [process + contents]

    2. relate/report/recount = communication from memory or observations [process + contents]

    2. recitation; recite (=communicate/describe from record or based on memorization) [process + contents]

    3. historical narrative / historical account [work itself + contents]

    3. fictional narrative / fictional story [work itself + contents]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the process of describing/communi-cating

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to the process of describing/communi-cating

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-L  - ‘SIGN/MARK/SYMBOL/VISUAL MEANS OF INDICATION/REPRESENTATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sign, signal, gesture, indication (= general indication, not 2-D planar surface bearing graphic/written communication)

    1. mark, token, single graphic representation

    2. track, print, trail (=naturally produced bodily trace)

    2. symbol, emblem, device, insignia

    3. identifying characteristic or trait

    3. formal representation

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the indicator/sign itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content/meaning thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to the indicator/sign itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content/meaning thereof

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-L   ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/DOCUMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. inscribe [= make written symbol]; written symbol

    1. written record / thing containing writing

    2. write message; written content

    2. document

    3. “write” [= compose via writing] / to author

    3. a writing / a written work

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical act of inscription

    same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

    ame as above 3 stems referring to the physical document

    same as above 3 stems referring to the content

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: book, treatise, manuscript, author, archive

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-R   ‘NAME/DESIGNATION/TITLE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. name + referent; to be named, to be called

    1. title + referent

    2. designation/reference + referent; refer to as

    2. formal designation + referent

    3. label / nickname + referent; to go by

    3. role

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 6 ROOTS: concepts relating to the physical attributes of matter + in general

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-Ġ ‘GAS / FLUME’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cloud/flume of gas/vapor + gas/vapor itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or liquid state

    2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance + the derived gas itself

    2. thing/object composed of gas + its function/purpose

    3. source of a gas

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a gaseous state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. cloud/flume of a gas or vapor

    1. gas/vapor itself

    1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

    1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

    2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance

    2. the derived gas itself

    2. thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

    2. function/purpose of thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

    3.  natural source of a gas

    3.  derived or artificially created source of gas

    3. gaseous/vapor state

    3. semi-gaseous state (combination or gaseous + non-gaseous state, e.g., as w/ CO2 vapor rising from dry ice)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-B  DIMENSIONAL/SPATIO-TEMPORAL RELATIONS

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of (static) dimensional property (e.g., short/long)

    same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to an applied contextual gestalt (e.g., the vicinity, the depths, the expanse, the interregnum, the surroundings, the perimeter, etc.)

    2. dynamic decrease in degree of dimensional property (e.g., shorten/ing)

    3. dynamic increase in degree of dimensional property (e.g., lengthen/ing)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems applied to spatial context

    same as above 3 stems applied to temporal context

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + THE PATTERN FOR THIS ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + T-B    ‘PROXIMITY/DISTANCE’
    + K-B    ‘LENGTH’
    + Ķ-B    ‘WIDTH (= “SLENDERNESS”)’
    + Q-B    ‘GIRTH (= 2-DIMENSIONAL X-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    + P-B    ‘AMPLITUDE (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Z-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    + C-B    ‘ “REACH” (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Y-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    + Č-B    ‘DEPTH’
    + Ċ-B    ‘INTERVAL/GAP’
    + Ç-B    ‘VOLUME (= 3-DIMENSIONAL SIZE)’
    + Ņ-B    ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF A POINT’
    + M-B    ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF AN EDGE’
    + ST-B    ‘SPEED/VELOCITY/ACCELERATION’
    + Ŗ-B    ‘HEIGHT (= “TALLNESS” – RELATTIVE TO GRAVITY)
    + H-B    ‘FLATNESS/LEVELNESS (RELATIVE TO GRAVITY)’
    + KS-B    ‘PERIPHERY/CIRCLE/RING’
    + PL-B    ‘CONVEXITY/ROTUNDITY’
    + KŢ-B    CONCAVITY/DEPRESSION
    + S-B     ‘PERPENDICULARITY/UPRIGHTNESS’
    + Š-B     ‘PLANARITY/FLATNESS RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
    + Ş-B    ‘STRAIGHTNESS/LINEARITY RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
    + x + cedilla-B    ‘SPHERICALNESS/ROUNDNESS’
    + KL-B    ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-SURFACED IN PLANAR CONTEXT)’
    + TL-B     ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-EDGED IN LINEAR CONTEXT)’
    + XL-B    ‘RECTILINEAR/POLYHEDRAL/STRAIGHT-ANGLED’
    + Ļ-B    ‘ELASTICITY / STRETCH CAPACITY’

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: big/large, small/little, shrink, expand, grow, diminish, huge, immense, tiny, enormous, shallow

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SX-B  ‘QUALITY OR PROPERTY OF MATTER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of quality/property of matter

    same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

    2. decrease in degree of quality/property of matter

    3. increase in degree of quality/property of matter

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + PS-B      ‘THICKNESS (= VISCOSITY/RUNNINESS)
    + KŠ-B      ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
    + SL-B      ‘SOLIDITY/HOLLOWNESS (= PERMEABILITY)’
    + SP-B      ‘DURABILITY/FRAGILITY’ (= CAPACITY FOR BEING DAMAGED)
    + SŢ-B&nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/sp;     ‘RESILIENCE/DELICATENESS’ (= CAPACITY FOR RECOVERY)
    + ŢL-B      ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
    + PŠ-B      ‘SMOOTHNESS/ROUGHNESS (= TACTILE COARSENESS)
    + FL-B      ‘FULLNESS/EMPTINESS’
    + Ţ-B    ‘FLEXIBILITY/RIGIDITY’
    + X-B    ‘HARD/SOFT (= MALLEABILITY)’
    + F-B    ‘TIGHTNESS/SLACK’ (= TAUTNESS)
    + R-B     ‘WEIGHT/MASS’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PL-D   ‘COLOR/HUE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something having a color plus the color

    same as INFORMAL stems but tinted/painted/stained, etc. to have other than its natural color

    2. something light-colored plus the color

    3. something dark-colored plus the color

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. something having a color

    1. a color

    2. something having a light color

    2. a light color

    3. something having a dark color

    3. a dark color

    +

    NOTE: This stem patterns for the above root are a template for all other roots donating a specific color. The following root K-D ‘RED’ provides an example.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-D   ‘RED’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something red plus the color red

    same as INFORMAL stems but referring to something tinted/painted/stained red

    2. something light-red plus the color light-red

    3. something dark-red plus the color light-red

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. something red

    1. red

    2. something light red

    2. light red

    3. something dark red

    3. dark red

    +

    SIMILARLY: T-D  ‘BLUE’, N-D   ‘GREEN’, H-D  ‘YELLOW’, Q-D   ‘ORANGE’, L-D  ‘SKY BLUE’, F-D  ‘PINK’, Ç-D  ‘PURPLE’, R-D   ‘OCHRE’, Ķ-D  ‘ECRU’, Ţ-D  ‘BEIGE/TAN’, Ņ-D   ‘PEACH’, Ļ-D   ‘MAUVE’, Ŗ-D  ‘LAVENDER’, C-D   ‘BURGUNDY’, Ş-D   ‘TEAL’, x + cedilla-D   ‘TURQUOISE’, Š-D   ‘AQUAMARINE’, Č-D  ‘BROWN’, X-D   ‘WHITE’, M-D  ‘BLACK’, S-D  ‘GRAY’, P-D    ‘YELLOW-GREEN’, Ċ-D   ‘MAROON’
    + The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions for all color-stems: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XL-D   ‘WATER AS SUBSTANCE AND TOOL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (some) water; (be/make) wet / moist(en)

    1. (some) water as component of life

    2. (some) water in context of usage [both substance and use]

    2. (some) water as nourishment; to consume/drink water

    3. ice

    3. (some) water as biological environment or medium

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. (some) water [substance itself]

    1. degree of moisture [from water]

    1. (some) water of one’s corporeal body

    1. hydration; hydrate

    2. water as “tool” (e.g., for washing, for powering a turbine, etc.)

    2. wash, clean [with water]

    2. act of drinking water; to drink water

    2. to water (e.g., plants)

    3. ice / freeze

    3. float

    3. (some) water from a natural environmental shttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/etting

    3. to inhabit water / live in water / water-dwelling

    +

    EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THIS STEM: bathe, lave, submerge, sink, dunk, immerse, dry, drench(ed), irrigate, swim, the sea (as environment); dehydrate; thirst; freeze

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KL-D   ‘WATER IN NATURAL MOTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a flow of water / to flow or run

    1. river / to flow as a river / to run as a river

    2. sprinkle / shower; to sprinkle or shower upon

    2. rain(fall); to rain

    3. cascade / pour [= free falling of water]

    3. waterfall

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. water component of a flow of water

    1. channel or course of a flow of water

    1. water component of a river

    1. channel or course of a river

    2. water component of a sprinkle/shower

    2. trajectory or course of a sprinkle/shower

    2. water component of rain

    2. “path” or course of a rain shower

    3. water component of a cascade or pouring of water

    3. trajectory or course of a pouring of water

    3. water component of a waterfall

    3. channel or “groove” of a waterfall

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: flood, downpour, to rain “cats and dogs”, brook, stream, rivulet, arroyo, floodplain

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TL-D   ‘WATER IN STATIC SETTING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. container of water

    1. (standing) body of water

    2. water/moisture located in confined space

    2. ambient/atmospheric water/moisture

    3. (something) imbued/drenched with water; waterlogged

    3. artificial body of water (e.g., reservoir)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. some water in/from a container

    1. holder/container which holds water

    1. water component of a body of water

    1. the basin or bed of a body of water

    2. degree of moisture contained

    2. the volume/space occupied by water/moisture

    2. water/moisture in the air or atmosphere

    2. volume of air(space) containing the water or moisture

    3. the water imbued within an object, substance, or substrate

    3. the object, substance or substrate imbued/soaked with water

    3. water within an artificial body of water

    3. the basis or bed of an artificial body of water, e.g., reservoir bed

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  lake, pool, pond, tern, tank, sink, canteen, cistern, puddle, sea, ocean, water vapor

    +

    NOTE:  The above three roots associated with water, XL-D, KL-D and TL-D, form the patterns for three parallel roots referring to any liquid other than water:   SL-D,  PŢ-D and  PS-D, respectively.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-G  ‘HORIZONTAL SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. “ground”/firmament

    1. floor

    2. table-like horizontal flat object / slab

    2. table

    3. shelf-like flat object

    3. shelf

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-G    ‘ARTICLE OF CLOTHING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. piece of clothing as covering or fashion; to wear such

    1. piece of clothing as part of uniform or costume; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker or indicator of station; to wear such

    2. part of uniform or costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as ornament or accessory; to wear such

    3. part of uniform or costume as ornament; to wear such

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. piece of clothing as covering; to wear such

    1. piece of clothing as fashion; to wear such

    1. part of uniform as covering; to wear such

    1. part of costume as covering; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as indicator of station; to wear such

    2. part of uniform as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    2. part of costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as ornament; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as accessory; to wear such

    3. part of uniform as ornament; to wear such

    3. part of costume as ornament; to wear such

    +

    THE STEM PATTERN OF THIS ROOT APPLIES TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + P-G    ‘SHIRT/BLOUSE’
    + T-G     ‘PANTS’
    + Č-G   ‘COAT/JACKET’
    + Ķ-G    ‘GLOVE’
    + Q-G    ‘SCARF’
    + S-G   ‘HAT’
    + Š-G    ‘FOOTWEAR’
    + K-G    ‘LEGGING/SOCK’
    + Ç-G   ‘BELT’
    + X-G   ‘APRON’
    + PL-G   ‘COLLAR’
    + TL-G   ‘NECKTIE/CRAVATTE
    + KL-G   ‘HELMET’
    + Ţ-G   ‘SKIRT/KILT’
    + F-G   ‘DRESS’
    + PS-G   ‘VEIL’
    + KS-G   ‘SARI’
    + Ċ-G   ‘TUNIC’
    + Č-G   ‘ROBE(S)/TOGA’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ļ-G   ‘PLANETARY BODY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. planet/planetary body

    1. The Earth/Terra

    2. moon/satellite of planetary body

    2. The Moon/Luna

    3. other spatial body

    3. artificial satellite

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

    Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

    Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  asteroid, comet, cosmic dust, cosmic gas, cosmic ray, component of Oort Cloud, cosmic string, quantum filament

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-Ġ ‘LIQUID/FLUID’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. drop of liquid/fluid + liquid/fluid itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or gaseous state

    2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance + the derived liquid subtance itself

    2. thing/object composed of liquid + its function/purpose

    3. source of a liquid/fluid

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a liquid/fluid state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. drop of liquid/fluid

    1. liquid/fluid subtance itself

    1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

    1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state (i.e., vapor)

    2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance

    2. the derived liquid/fluid subtance itself

    2. object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

    2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

    3.  natural source of a liquid/fluid

    3.  derived or artificially created source of a liquid or fluid

    3. liquid/fluid state

    3. viscous state (quasi-liquid but able to be deformed/shaped; semi-solid)

    +

    The stem pattern above also applies to the root P-Ġ  ‘liquid chemical’.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-G   ‘LIGHT / RADIANT ENERGY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ray of sunlight

    1. ray of radiant light or energy (non-solar)

    2. the Sun / Sol

    2. flame / “tongue” of fire

    3. star

    3. artificial source of light or energy

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. light from a ray of sunlight

    1. heat from a ray of sunlight

    1. ray of light (non-solar)

    1. ray of energy/heat (non-solar)

    2. the Sun as light source

    2. the Sun as energy/heat source

    2. ray of firelight

    2. flame as energy/heat source

    3. starlight

    3. energy of a star

    3. lamp light / light from artificial source

    3. energy/heat from artificial energy/heat source

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: fire, sunshine, illuminate, light a fire, flare (up), lamp, fireplace; galaxy, heater, to warm, warmth, to cook [= transform by heat], to melt, to smelt, to expose [via illumination], burn

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SP-G   ‘ROCK/MINERAL-BASED SOIL/GROUND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. stone [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    1. rock(y) [= specific natural embodiment of stone]

    2. sand [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    2. gravel

    3. clay [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    3. lava [w/ CPT = volcanic rock/lava-based rock]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

    Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

    Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Ġ   ‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + substance/compound itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal liquid or gaseous state

    2. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from a another subtance +  the derived substance itself

    2. thing/object composed of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + its function/purpose

    3. source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being (quasi-) solid

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a material substance

    1. substance/compound itself

    1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

    1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state

    2.  elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from refinement, distillation or processing of material substance or compound

    2. derived substance / compound itself

    2. object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

    2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

    3. natural source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

    3. derived or artificially created source of a (quasi-) solid material substance / compound

    3. solid (= hard to the touch)

    3. quasi-solid (= non-gaseous and non-liquid but not hard; able to be deformed by touch)

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 7 ROOTS: spatial concepts, form and motion

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ċ-Ļ   ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPHEROID SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sphere(oid) [rigid or solid]

    1. ball-like form [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    2. ovoid / elliptoid / round [rigid or solid]

    2. ovoid /elliptoid / round [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    3. torus / toroid (hoop/ring-like form with circular/elliptical/oval cross-section) [rigid or solid]

    3. torus / toroid [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-Ç   ‘COMPONENTIAL PART OF WHOLE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. component/part of something + its function/purpose

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to a separable/detachable component/part, as opposed to INFORMAL stems which refer to an inalienable or integrated component/part

    2. appearance/condition of component/part + its function/purpose

    3. component/part as seen in relation to the greater whole

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. component/part itself

    1. function/purpose of component/part

    2. phsycial appearance/condition of component/part

    2. impact/effect of component’s/part’s condition on its function/purpose

    3. component/part itself as seen in relation to the greater whole

    3. function/purpose of component/part itself in relation to the greater whole

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS
    + Ţ-Ç    ‘front [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
    + Ç-Ç   ‘rear, back part of [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
    + X-Ç   ‘side/flank, lateral area’
    + x + cedilla-Ç   ‘middle, center (as seen perpendicular to long axis of entity)
    + S-Ç   ‘middle, center (as seen parallel to long axis of entity)
    + Ş-Ç   ‘top, peak, summit’
    + SP-Ç   ‘bottom, lowest part of, foundation’
    + ST-Ç   ‘upper part or “half”’
    + SK-Ç   ‘lower part or “half”’
    + SF-Ç   ‘edge’
    + SŢ -Ç   ‘interior, inner/internal part of, insides, innards’
    + SX-Ç   ‘exterior, outer/external part of, outside, “skin”’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-Ļ   ‘VERTICAL ELEVATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. level [= relative vertical elevation]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but as applied to buildings and other architectural forms/constructs

    2. layer/stratum

    3. degree of size/expanse of level relative to adjacent or surrounding level

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. low spot in relative elevation

    1. high spot in relative elevation

    2. low-layered; deep

    2. upper-layered; shallow

    3. plateau-like level, abuttmant; loft-like

    3. ridge-like formation; crest-like formation

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-F   ‘PATH-ORIENTED TRANSLATIVE MOTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. move from one place to another; translative motion (i.e., motion from one place toward another)

    1. journey; to travel, traverse, to journey

    2. course/way/route/trajectory followed between two points

    2. route travelled/traversed on journey

    3. move between two points; motion along path from one point to another; to cross/go across from one side to another

    3. travel between two points / make a crossing / travel across

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. motion “outward”; go

    1. motion “inward”; come

    1. go travelling / be off

    1. journey toward

    2. movement away; go away (= increase distance between two objects)

    2. close in / get close(r) (= decrease distance between two objects)

    2. travel further away from

    2. reach vicinity of / close in on

    3. leave (= move away from one point toward some distant point)

    3. approach (= approach one point from direction of some distant point)

    3. departure; depart

    3. arrival; arrive / reach destination

    +

    Morphological derivations:  sojourn, set off / set out, set in motion; self-directed movement
    + THE PATTERN FOR THE ABOVE ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + P-Ţ   ‘VERTICAL MOTION / ASCENT & DESCENT / UP & DOWN’
    + S-Ţ    ‘OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION’
    + L-Ţ   ‘PLANAR RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional horizontal plane)
    + T-Ţ   ‘VERTICAL RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional vertical plane)
    + SK-Ţ   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE 3-DIMENSIONAL RANGE OF MOTION/3-DIMENSIONAL PERVASIVE MOVEMENT / MOVEMENT THROUGHOUT 3-D VOLUME’
    + N-Ţ     ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG Y-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
    + Č-Ţ     ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG X-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
    + KŢ-F   ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN HORIZONTAL PLANE’
    + FL-F   ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN VERTICAL PLANE’
    + ŠK-F   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE CIRCULAR MOTION’
    + ŞQ-F   ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG HORIZONTAL PLANE’
    + ŢL-F   ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG VERTICAL PLANE’
    + ŞK-F   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE SPIRAL MOTION’
    + KŢ-Ţ   ‘CIRCULAR VECTOR MOTION’ (i.e., “corkscrew” motion)
    + QŢ-Ţ   ‘SPIRAL VECTOR MOTION (i.e., corkscrew motion with increasing or decreasing amplitude)
    + X-Ţ     ‘ARC / PARABOLIC MOTION RELATIVE TO GRAVITY’
    + ST-Ţ   ‘CURVED MOTION / CURVE’
    + XL-F      ‘SWITCH BACK / VEER’
    + SL-F      ‘OBLIQUELY LINEAR  MOTION (relative to XYZ grid)
    + SP-F  ‘2-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR OUTSIDE EDGE’ encircle, surround
    + Q-Ţ   ‘2-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG BOUNDARY OR INSIDE EDGE’
    + KL-F  ‘3-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR SURFACE OF’
    + SL-Ţ   ‘3-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG INTERNAL 3-D BOUNDARY OF’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-Ļ   ‘LONGITUDE / EAST-WEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. east-west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    1. longitude

    2. west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    2. West longitude

    3. east axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    3. East longitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. east-west axial direction or orientation

    1. east-west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    1. meridian

    1. zero meridian (Greenwich meridian)

    2. west direction or orientation

    2. west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    2. time zone

    2. Western Hemisphere

    3. east direction or orientation

    3. east geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    3. International Date Line

    3. Eastern Hemisphere

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-Ļ   ‘LATITUDE / NORTH-SOUTH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. north-south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    1. latitude

    2. north axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    2. north latitude

    3. south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    3. south latitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. north-south axial direction or orientation

    1. north-south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    1. polar area

    1. parallel [= line of latitude]

    2. north direction or orientation

    2. north geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    2. north polar area (Arctic)

    2. Northern Hemisphere

    3. south direction or orientation

    3. south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    3. south polar area (Antarctic)

    3. Eastern Hemisphere

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-Ţ   ‘ANGULAR STRUCTURE / CORNER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (two-dimensional) angle

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

    2. (three-dimensional) vertex

    3. angle-based constraint on access or movement

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. interior angle of two-dimensional surface or analog

    1. exterior corner/vertex of two-dimensional surface or analog

    2. interior vertex/corner of three-dimensional space

    2. exterior corner/vertex of three dimensional space

    3. corner as constraint

    3. corner as opportunity for choice of movement

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KL-Ç   ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL BLOCK-LIKE SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cube [solid volume]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but as outline edges/frame only, not as solid volumes

    2. rectilinear block [solid volume]

    3. disc

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Ļ  ‘CURVATURE/BENDING/OPEN LINEAR FORMS OR SHAPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    1. obtuse angle [degree of size/openness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

    2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    2. acute angle [degree of size/narrownness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

    3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    3. mathematically determined form made of lines (e.g., polygon, quadrilateral, etc.) [pattern + object having the pattern]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

    1. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate

    1. obtuse angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of openness]

    1. obtuse angled object or bounded space

    2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

    2. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate

    2. acute angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of narrowness]

    2. acute angled object or bounded space

    3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself]

    3. object manifesting a linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic)

    3. mathematically determined form made of lines [the pattern]

    3. object manifesting a mathematically determined form made of lines

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  fold, bend, pleat, zig-zag/“sawtooth”/serrated pattern, undulate/undulation, S-curve, wave(s)/wavy, bent, crooked, jagged, serrated, curvature
    + The above root use PHASE and the iterative series of affixes to specify extent/number/pattern of folds.
    + SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 3:  parabola, hyperbola, exponential curve

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Ţ    ‘ACCESS/PASSAGE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. access point / passage; pass through, access

    1. doorway (= the access portal itself, not the door which opens/closes off access)

    2. passage or infiltration of one substance into another

    2. gateway / portal

    3. filter / screening [selective access]

    3. checkpoint

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. enter / go in / pass within / ingress

    1. exit / go out / egress

    1. enter (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

    1. exit (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

    2. infiltrate / imbue / immerse

    2. emit / dispense

    2. receive (= welcome) ; reception

    2. remove / dispel

    3. filter through

    3. filter out

    3. admittance; admit

    3. oust / eject

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: door, gate, let in, insert, introduce, take out, remove, penetrate, emanate, emerge

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-Ļ  ‘PRESSURE-BASED or REACTION-BASED
    + or GRAVITATION-BASED EQUILIBRIUM/MOTION/PROPULSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something hovering or floating; for something to hover, float, or be suspended upon (based on equilibrium, via pressure or volume-dispersion, against other medium such as air, water, gas, vapor, etc.) [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

    		The Formal stems for this root are identical + to the Informal roots in meaning, with the distinction of referring specifically to man-made, mechanical means/vehicles/vessels or contexts involving reaction-based (i.e., fuel-driven) propulsion, as opposed to the naturally occurring or non-mechanical contexts + implied by use of the Informal stems. +

     

    2. something hovering or floating; for something to hover, float, or be suspended upon (based on gravitational equilibrium or nullification, e.g. at the top of an arc of trajectory or at a La Grange point) [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

    3. something in orbit around another body; to orbit [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as the above 3 stems but with specific reference to the object which hovers, floats, or is suspendedSame as the above 3 stems but with specific reference to the act or state of hovering, floating, or suspension
    +
    + NOTE: this root was added to the lexicon on December 23, 2009 +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ç   ‘INVERSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. orientational inversion

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is formal/authorized/permanent/abstract as described in Sec. 3.7

    2. unidirectional topological inversion [= mirror-image]

    3. three-dimensional topological inversion [= inside-out]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. orientational inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

    1. mirror-image inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

    2. mirror-image inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

    2. orientational inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

    3. orientational inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

    3. mirror-image inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ļ    ‘RECLINE / PRONE POSITION OR ORIENTATION / HORIZONTALITY

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. recline(d) / prone position (relative to long axis of object) / lie (down) / lay (out)

    1. horizontal (relative to gravity or plane of the earth’s surface) / orientation perpendicular to direction of gravity

    2. recumbent position / position of relaxation relative to gravity --> sprawl, loll

    2. occupying position of maximum repose or having a positional or dynamic orientation based on the path of least resistance relative to gravity

    3. flush / flat against / position or orientation level with some flat or even firmament / lay flat

    3. flatten(ed); collapse(d) or configure(d) to minimum height perpendicular to background firmament

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SF-Ļ   ‘QUASI-TWO-DIMENSIONAL SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. strip [solid/rigid]

    1. ribbon-like shape [flexible]

    2. plane/planar [solid/rigid]

    2. sheet-like shape [flexible]

    3. tube/cylinder/cylindrical [solid/rigid]

    3. tube-like shape [flexible]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SK-F    ‘SPATIAL ORIENTATION / POSITION / DIRECTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. general spatial position [currently or within context of utterance]; be situated at

    1. specific spatial position at “end point”; be situated at “end point” of

    2. general orientation (along or relative to directional axes); to “face” [toward]

    2. specific orientation toward “end point” of; to “face” squarely

    3. general direction/axis of movement; direct/move along axis of

    3. specific direction/axis of movement toward “end point” of; to head straight for

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. general position toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    1. general position toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    1. specific position at “one end” of opposed spatial points

    1. specific position at “other side” of opposed spatial points

    2. general orientation toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    2. general orientation toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    2. specific orientation toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

    2. specific orientation toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

    3. general direction toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    3. general direction toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    3. specific direction toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

    3. specific direction toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN OF STEMS IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA:
    + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT
    + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD
    + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE
    + 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS
    + PL-F   ‘+X/+Y/+Z’
    + Ņ-F    ‘+X/+Y/-Z’
    + R-F    ‘+X/-Y/+Z’
    + Ŗ-F    ‘+  X/-Y/-Z’
    + Ļ-F    ‘-X/+Y/+Z’
    + PS-F    ‘-X/+Y/-Z’
    + KS-F    ‘-X/-Y/+Z’
    + PŢ- F    ‘-X/-Y/-Z’
    + Ķ-F   ‘+X/+Y/0’
    + K-F    ‘+X/-Y/0’
    + Q-F    ‘-X/+Y/0’
    + M-F    ‘-X/-Y/0’
    + F-F    ‘+X/0/+Z’
    + Ţ-F    ‘+X/0/-Z’
    + Ç-F    ‘-X/0/+Z’
    + x + cedilla-F    ‘-X/0/-Z’
    + S-F    ‘0/+Y/+Z’
    + Ş-F    ‘0/+Y/-Z’
    + C-F    ‘0/-Y/+Z’
    + Ċ-F    ‘0/-Y/-Z’
    + Č-F    ‘+X/0/0’
    + Š-F    ‘-X/0/0’
    + L-F     ‘0/+Y/0’
    + N-F    https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/; ‘0/-Y/0’
    + P-F     ‘0/0/+Z’
    + T-F     ‘0/0/-Z’
    + SK-F    ‘0/0/0’
    + SF-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [linear unidimensional context, e.g., between two others in a queue]
    + ŠL-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [planar 2-dimensional context, e.g., among others in a crowded room]
    + ŠP-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [volume-based 3-dimensional context, e.g., sky crowded with balloonists]
    + ŠT-F   ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components separable/extractable]
    + TL-F   ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components inseparable/mixed/permanently combined]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SL-Ç   ‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL (i.e., LINEAR) SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. point / dot [solid/fixed/rigid]

    1. point / dot [flexible/movable/fluid]

    2. line / linear [solid/fixed/rigid]

    2. line / linear [flexible/movable/fluid] / string-like

    3. hoop / ring [solid/fixed/rigid]

    3. hoop / ring [flexible/movable/fluid] / loop

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SP-Ţ   ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE SHAPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.   generic 2-D outline shape (e.g., the shape of a close-course race-track, the outline of the shore of a lake, a drawing of a national border on a map, etc.)

    1. 2-D outline shape generically distorted

    2. generic 2-D outline horizontally elongated

    2. 2-D outline shape obliquely elongated / skewed along one axis

    3. generic 2-D outline vertically elongated

    3. 2-D outline shape medially compressed, i.e., “squished/pinched in the middle”

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

    The above root’s stem pattern is applied to all of the following roots:
    + XL-Ţ  : ‘square/rectangle/rhombus’
    + R-Ļ  :  ‘circle/ellipse’
    + PS-Ç  : ‘oval’
    + ŠF-Ţ   :  ‘egg-shaped’
    + Š-Ç  : ‘half-circle/semi-circle’
    + K-Ç  :  ‘sliver-moon shaped’
    + SX-Ţ  :  ‘irregular/amorphous outline’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ST-F    ‘FIT/HOLD/CONTAIN AS INTERNAL-EXTERNAL PARTITION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. holding area / containment area; hold/keep/contain

    1. room, chamber

    2. fit; to fit, contain (= have sufficient room for)

    2. reside, situate; room as place of residence, quasi-permanent situation or default location

    3. volume or boundary of containment area

    3. room boundaries (i.e., walls, floor, ceiling)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the physical boundaries (“walls”) which define the containment area and prevent contents from leaking or escaping

    same as above 3 stems referring to the space (“room”) within the holding area and protection of contents from external environment

    same as above 3 stems referring to the room as a container separating inside from outside

    same as abvoe 3 stems referring to the space within the room as shelter or sanctuary

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  ceiling, wall, floor, dividing panel, piece of furniture serving to divide room space
    + EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: house, building, cell, booth, closet; snug, snugness, loose, looseness, baggy, bagginess

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ST-Ļ    ‘2-DIMENSIONAL CURVATURE/DISTORTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself + object manifesting such curvature]

    1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself + object manifesting the depression]

    2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself + object manifesting the distortion]

    3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself]

    1. object manifesting a curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

    1. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself]

    2. object manifesting a dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

    2. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself]

    3. object manifesting an undefined distortion, blurring or anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself]

    3. object manifesting a volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  crease, pleat, wrinkle(s), curl up, crumple(d), wad(ded), zig-zag, groove/furrow
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ş-Ţ   ‘EXTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION OUTSIDE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. position/orientation somewhere outside (of), i.e., beyond or on other side of surface or boundary layer

    1. the space beyond/outside/excluded from an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

    2. position/orientation somewhere outside of (2-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the area defined by a boundary line

    2. an external surface / functional planar area beyond/outside the boundaries of (e.g., the “out of bounds” area of a tennis court)

    3. position/orientation somewhere outside of (3-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

    3. the space beyond/outside an interior volume / functional space outside the boundaries of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    +

    compare to root SX-Ç 

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Š-Ţ    ‘PATH/WAY/COURSE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. course/way [taken]

    1. route [taken]

    2. [marked] path [taken]

    2. road [taken]

    3. trajectory; move(ment) along a trajectory / “sail” / arc

    3. channel [taken]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the course/way/path/trajectory itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to following or travelling along the course/path/trajectory

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the route/road/channel itself

    same as a stems with focus on following or travelling along the route/road/channel

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: walkway, sidewalk, highway, street, slide, tunnel, conduit

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Ļ   ‘UPRIGHT POSITION OR ORIENTATION/VERTICALITY/PERPENDICULAR/PROTRUSION

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. upright/erect position or orientation (relative to long axis of object) / stand (up)

    1. vertical (i.e., parallel to gravity or plane of earth’s surface)

    2.  stick up or out/ protrude

    2. occupying position of maximum contrast to a position of repose; position of maximum “alertness” or readiness or action

    3. perpendicular / position or orientation at right angles  to background firmament (relative to long axis of object); be or stand on end

    3. stretch(ed) outward; pull(ed) or configure(d) to maximum height perpendicular to background firmament

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-F   ‘AMBULATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ambulate (as natural to specific species, e.g., walk, slither, fly, crawl, etc.)

    1. “formal” ambulation, e.g., march, prance

    2. rapid ambulation (as per specific species, e.g., run, gallop, scamper, scurry, etc.)

    2. purposeful rapid ambulation, e.g., flee, race

    3. unnatural or affected ambulation

    3. deliberately unnatural or affected ambulation, e.g., swagger, saunter

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

    same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

    same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

    same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: skip, shuffle, slink; lead, follow
    + SSD Derivatives:  1) swim on surface  2) swim/glide underwater 3) slither 4) crawl 5) walk  6) hop 7) jump/leap  8) swing (e.g., through trees, from vines, etc.)  9) fly

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-Ļ     ‘TERRAIN-BASED/GEOGRAPHICAL ELEVATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. relative elevation in comparison to other geological feature/terrain

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is geo-political or in terms of formal property [geographic ownership]

    2. geological layer/stratum

    3. flatland area/plain

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. v alley / geographic depression relative to surrounding terrain

    1. hill / upland / raised geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

    2. deep underground

    2. near-surface / shallow [in terms of depth underground]

    3. plateau / raised flat-topped geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

    3. ridge / crest / flat-linear edge between different geographic/geologically-based elevations

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-Ţ   ‘INTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION INSIDE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. position/orientation somewhere inside (of), i.e., underneath or on other side of surface or boundary layer

    1. entirety of an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

    2. position/orientation somewhere inside of (2-D context), i.e., within the area defined by a boundary line

    2. entirety of an interior surface / functional planar area within the boundaries of

    3. position/orientation somewhere inside of (3-D context), i.e., within the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

    3. entirety of an interior volume / functional space within the boundaries of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    +

    compare to roots SŢ -Ç 

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 8 ROOTS: taxonomies of organic life

    +
    +

    The stem pattern of the following Class 8 Roots is identical to the pattern for the Class 4 Root N-N ‘FOOD PLANT’:
    + P-Paspiration   cabbage (plant/leaves of sp. Brassica oleracea capitata)
    + Ķ-Paspiration   lettuce (plant/leaves of genus Lactuca)
    + Ċ-Paspiration   spinach (plant/leaves of sp. Spinacia oleracea)
    + F-Paspiration     tea (plant/leavhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/es of sp. Camellia sinensis)
    + ŠL-Taspiration  kelp (seaweed of orders Laminahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/riales and Fucales)
    + QŢ-Taspiration    mustard (plant of https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/sp. Brassica hirta / B. nigra / B. juncea)
    + Ţ-Paspiration   https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/corn, maize (plant/seeds of sp. Zea mays)
    + KŢ-Taspiration    oat (plant/seed https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/of genus Avena)
    + Ç-Paspiration   wheat (plant/seed of sp. Trihttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ticum aestivum)
    + PŢ-Taspiration    tobacco (plant/leaves of sp. Nicotiana tabachttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/um)
    + SP-Taspiration    hemp, marijuana (plant/material of sp. Cahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nnabis sativa)
    + ŞP-Taspiration    sesame (plant/seedhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ of genus Sesamum)
    + M-Paspiration   pea (plant/seed of sp. Pisum sahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/tivum)
    + PS-Paspiration   bean (lima/snap/etc.: plant/seed of genus https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Phaseolus or similar)
    + ST-Taspiration    lentil (plant/seeds of sp. Lens culinarihttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/s)
    + ŞT-Taspiration    soya, soybean (plant/seed ofhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ sp. Glycine max)
    + PŞ -Paspiration   peanut (plant/https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/seed/pod of sp. Arachis hypogaea)
    + S-Paspiration   rice (plant/seed of sp. Oryza shttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ativa)
    + ŠT-Taspiration    pepper (hot/sweet/bell pepper -- phttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/lant/pod of genus Capsicum)
    + Ş-Paspiration   pepper (black -- plahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nt/seed of sp. Piper nigrum)
    + SK-Taspiration    millet
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ŞK-Taspiration    amaranth
    + ŠK-Taspiration    sorghum
    + SF-Taspiration    teff
    + ŞF-Taspiration    ginseng (planthttps://web.archive.org/root of genus Panax)
    + KŠ-Paspiration   potato (plant/tuber of sp. Solanum tuberosum)
    + PŠ -Paspiration   carrot (plant/root of sp. Daucus carota sativus)
    + ŠF-Thttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/aspiration    yam, sweet potato
    +https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ SX-Taspiration    garlic (herb of sp. Allium sativum)
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/42;-Paspiration   onion (plant/bulb of sp. Allium sepa)
    + L-Paspiration   grape (plant/fruit of genus Vitis)
    + SŢ-Taspiration    tomato (plant/berry of genus Lycopersicon)
    + Şhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/54;-Taspiration    squash, melon (plant/fruit of genus Cucurbita grhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/own for edible fruit)
    + ŠŢ-Taspiration    gohttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/urd (plant/hard-rinded fruit of genera Lagenaria & Cucurbita)
    + ŞX-Taspiration    date (tree/fruit of sp. Phoenix dactylifera)
    + ŠX-Taspiration    cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
    + Š-Qaspiration     bamboo (plahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nt/stem of genera Bambusa / Arundinaria / Dendrocalamus)
    + N-Qaspiration      cork (https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/tree/elastic tissue of sp. Quercus suber)
    + L-Qaspiration     https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/; cotton (plant/fibers of genus Gossypium)
    + H-Qaspiration https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/;     ginger (plant/rhizome of genus Zingiber)
    + Ņ-Qaspiration    &nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/sp; mint (plant of family Labiatae)
    + Ŗ-Qaspiration      safflowehttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/r (Carthamus tinctorius)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Taspiration        ‘BRANCHED AND/OR LEAVED PLANT&rsquohttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/;

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. genus of branched tree/bush and/or leaved plant

    1. wood product

    2. leaf

    2. leaf product

    3. bark

    3. bark product

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wood

    1. seed/fruit/nut

    1. wood as resource

    1. seed/fruit as food or resource

    2. root

    2. flower/blossom

    2. root as food or resource

    2. flower as food or resource

    3. branch

    3. sap

    3. branch as resource

    3. sap product/syrup

    +

    SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) meat of fruit, 2) seed within fruit, 3) rind, 4) juice, 5) flavor, 6) odor of fruit, 7) oil, 8) [unassigned/specific to individual root] 9) fermented juice, i.e., wine
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + C-Taspiration       ‘BIRCH’
    + T-Taspiration       ‘SPRUCE’
    + Ķ -Taspiration       ‘CEDAR’
    + X-Taspiration       ‘OAK’
    + K-Taspiration       ‘PINE’
    + Ċ-Taspiration       ‘PALM’
    + F-Taspiration       ‘CHERRY’
    + Č-Taspiration       ‘WALNUT’
    + Ţ-Thttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/aspiration       ‘MAPLE’
    + Çhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/;-Taspiration       ‘ASH’
    + x + cedilla-Taspiration       &https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/lsquo;CYPRESS’
    + S-Taspiration       &lsquohttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/;BEECH’
    + Ş-Taspiration       ‘MAHOGANY’
    + M-Taspiration       ‘COCONUT’
    + N-T       ‘EUCALYPTUS’
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/25;-Taspiration       ‘MAGNOLIA’
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Š-Taspiration       ‘REDWOOD’
    + H-Taspiration       ‘LARCH’
    +https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ L-Taspiration       ‘ELM’
    + Ļ-Thttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/aspiration       ‘FIG’
    + R-Taspiration       ‘BANANA’
    + Ŗ-Taspiration       ‘YEW’
    + PS-Taspiration       ‘ALMOND’
    + PŞ-Taspiration       ‘CHESTNUT’
    + P&Shttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/caron;-Taspiration       ‘ALDER’
    + Khttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/S-Taspiration       ‘OLIVE’
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ KŞ-Taspiration       ‘POPLAR’
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ TL-Taspiration       ‘PINEAPPLE’
    + K&Scahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ron;-Taspiration       ‘APPLE’
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ PL-Taspiration       ‘ORANGE’
    + KLhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/-Taspiration       ‘LEMON’
    + FL-https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Taspiration       ‘LIME’
    + ŢL-Taspiration       ‘PEAR’
    + XL-Taspiration       ‘PLUM’
    + SL-Taspiration       ‘PEACH’
    + ŞL-T       ‘TANGERINE’
    + Q-Taspiration       ‘COFFEE’
    + ŠP-Taspiration      FLAX     +

     

    + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + +

    2. male as resource

    +     + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

      Q-Paspiration   ‘INSECT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of genus

    1. membe r of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: larvae/grub, chrysalis, cocoon, adult, etc.
    + SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) wing, 3) oil/secretion, 4) silk/web, 5) skin/pellicle, 6) tail, 7) horn, 8) leg(s) 9) [open]
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + ŠT-Paspiration      ‘BUMBLEBEE’
    + ST-Paspiration      ‘HONEYBEE’
    + SL-Paspiration      ‘ANT’
    + ŞL-Paspiration      ‘COCKROACH’
    + SX-Paspiration     ‘BUTTERFLY’
    + ŠX-Paspiration     ‘MOTH’
    + ŞT-Paspiration      ‘HOUSEFLY’
    + SK-Paspiration     ‘WASP’
    + ŞK-Paspiration     ‘HORNET’
    + SŢ-Paspiration     ‘GNAT’
    + ŠK-Paspiration     ‘MOSQUITO’
    + ŞŢ-Paspiration      ‘APHID’
    + SF-Paspiration      ‘FIREFLY’
    + ŠŢ-Paspiratihttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/on      ‘FLEA’
    + ŠL-Paspiratiohttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/n      ‘BEETLE’
    + QŢ-Pasphttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/iration     ‘SPIDER’
    + ŠF-Paspiration      ‘TICK’
    + Ş-Paspiration       ‘TERMITE’
    + ŞF-Paspiration      ‘WATERBUG’
    + SP-Paspirationhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/      ‘GRASSHOPPER’
    + ŠP-Pindex.html      ‘LOCUST’
    + ŞX-Paspirahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/tion      ‘DRAGONFLY’
    + KŞ-Paspiration     ‘MANTIS’
    + PŢ-Paspirationhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/    BLẠ-  ‘GENERIC CRAWLING BUG’
    + KŢ-Paspiration    GLẠ-  ‘GENERIC FLYING BUG’

    +

     

    + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SK-Kaspiration     ‘GENERIC MAMMAL/AVIAN/REPTILE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of mammalian/avian/reptilian genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: e.g., foal, fawn, yearling, adult, etc.
    + SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) milk, 3) oil/secretion/venom, 4) fat, 5) skin/hide, 6) tail, 7) tusk/horn, 8) fur/feathers 9) flesh/meat
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + P-Kaspiration      ‘HORSE’
    + T-Kaspiration      ‘COW’
    + Ķ-Kaspiration       ‘PIG’
    + C-Kaspiration       ‘SHEEP’
    + F-Kaspiration       ‘GOAT’
    + Ċ-Kaspiration        ‘DEER’
    + K-Kaspirhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ation       ‘BISON/BUFFALO’
    + M-K       ‘CHICKEN’
    + Š-Kaspiration        ‘DUCK’
    + PL-Kaspiration         ‘GOOSE’
    + Ş-Kaspiration         ‘SWAN’
    + Q-Kaspiration        ‘TURKEY’
    + Ţ-Kaspiration         ‘OSTRICH’
    + Ç-Kaspiration         ‘DOLPHIN’
    + Č-Kaspiration         ‘MULE’
    + X-Kaspiration         ‘DONKEY’
    + x + cedilla-Kaspiration         ‘ZEBRA’
    + XL-Kaspiration         ‘LION’
    + L-Kaspirathttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ion       ‘TIGER’
    + R-Kaspiration        ‘BEAR’
    + S-K       ‘ELK’
    + Ņ-Kaspirahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/tion      ‘MOOSE’
    + Ļ-Kaspirathttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ion         ‘BOAR’
    + PS-Khttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/aspiration         ‘YAK’
    + KS-Kaspiration         ‘CAMEL’
    + PŞ -Kaspiration         ‘WALRUS’
    + Ŗ-Kaspiration        ‘ELEPHANT’
    + PŠ-Kaspiration         ‘GIRAFFE’
    + N-Kaspiration         ‘CAT’
    + H-Kaspiration         ‘DOG’
    + KŠ-Kaspiration        ‘RABBIT’
    + TL-Kaspiration        ‘CHIMPANZEE’
    + KŞ-Kaspiration        ‘GORILLA’
    + ŢL-Kaspiration        ‘LEMUR’
    + KL-Kaspiration        ‘ORANGUTAN’
    + FL-Kaspiration        ‘OTTER’
    + SL-Kaspiration       ‘WHALE’
    + ŠL-Kaspiration        ‘SEAL’
    + ŞX-Kaspiration        ‘SEA LION’
    + PŢ-Kaspiration        ‘ANTELOPE’
    + ŞL-Kaspiration       ‘GAZELLE’
    + KŢ-Kaspiration       ‘BABOON’
    + QŢ-Kaspiration        ‘FOX’
    + SP-Kaspiration       ‘WOLF’
    + ST-Kashttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/piration        ‘COYOTE’
    + ŠP-Kaspiration       ‘SKUNK’
    + SF-K         ‘PORCUPINE’
    + ŞP-Kaspiration       ‘POSSUM’
    + ŞT-Kaspiration         ‘KANGAROO’
    + SŢ-Kaspiration       ‘MOUSE’
    + SX-Kaspiration       ‘RAT’
    + SF-Kaspiration      ‘LEOPARD’
    + ŠK-Kaspirationhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/      ‘CHEETAH’
    + ŠX-Kaspirathttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ion        ‘PANTHER’
    + ŠF-Kaspiration         ‘JAGUAR’
    + ŞF-Kaspiration        ‘MOLE’
    + ŞK-Kaspiration        ‘SQUIRREL’
    + ŞŢ-Kaspiration        ‘VOLE’
    + ŠT-Kaspiration         ‘CHIPMUNK’
    + ŠŢ-Kaspiration        ‘SHREW’
    + P-Qaspiration        ‘ROBIN’
    + T-Qaspiration        ‘LARK’
    + F-Q        ‘SPARROW’
    + Ţ-Qaspiration        ‘OWL’
    + Ç-Qaspiration         ‘PIGEON’
    + Č-Qaspiration        ‘EAGLE’
    + Ċ-Qaspiration         ‘GULL’
    + Ķ-Qaspiration       ‘ALBATROSS’
    + C-Qaspiration        ‘HAWK’
    + Q-Qaspiration       ‘VULTURE’
    + K-Qasphttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/iration        ‘PHEASANT’
    + S-Q        ‘NIGHTINGALE’
    + R-Qaspiration         ‘SNAKE’
    + TL-Qaspiration        ‘VIPER’
    + KS-Qaspiration       ‘COBRA’
    + PS-Qaspiration         ‘RATTLESNAKE’
    + SX-Qaspiration       ‘PYTHON’
    + SF-Qaspiration        ‘ASP’
    + SK-Qaspiration       ‘ALLIGATOR’
    + ST-Qashttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/piration         ‘CROCODILE’
    + PL-Qaspiration        ‘LIZARD’
    + KŞ-Qaspiration       ‘GILA MONSTER’
    + PŞ-Qaspiration        ‘IGUANA’
    + KŠ-Qaspiration        ‘FROG’
    + PŠ-Qaspiration        ‘TOAD’
    + KL-Qaspiration       ‘TURTLE’

    +

     

    + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Paspiration  &nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/sp; ‘GENERIC WATERLIFE ’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genushttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) meat, 3) skin/shell, 4) fluid/ink, 5) smoked meat, 6) as bait, 7) as fodder, 8) as ingredient in food or as fishmeal 9) cooked meat
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + N-Paspiration      ‘OCTOPUS’
    + X-Paspiration      ‘SQUID’
    + R-Paspiration      ‘EEL’
    + Ş-Paspiration      ‘LAMPREY’
    + Ņ-Paspiration      ‘RAY’
    + K-Paspiration      ‘SHARK’
    + XL-Paspiration     ‘CLAM’
    + FL-Paspiration     ‘SCALLOP’
    + PL-Paspiration      ‘MUSSEL’
    + ŢL-Paspiration      ‘CRAB’
    + TL-Paspiration      ‘SHRIMP/PRAWN’
    + KL-Paspiration     ‘LOBSTER’
    + x +https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ cedilla-Paspiration       ‘TROUT’
    + H-Paspiration       ‘TUNA’
    + Ļ-Paspiration       ‘COD’
    + Ç-Paspirhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ation       ‘BASS’
    + C-Paspirahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/tion     ‘PIKE’

    +
    +

    +

    CLASS 9 ROOTS: taxonomies of physical substances

    + +

    The stem pattern of the following Class 9 roots is identical to that of the Class 6 root T-Ġ https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’:
    + P-P’ ‘brass’
    + P-T’  &lsquohttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/;chalk’
    + P-K’  ‘cloth/fabric’
    + P-Q’ ‘coal’
    + T-P’ ‘spice/herb/seasoning’
    + T-T’ ‘glass’
    + T-K’ ‘jade’
    + T-Q’ ‘metal/ore’
    + Ķ-P’ ‘mineral’
    + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ Ķ-T’ ‘oil (petroleum)’
    + Ķ-K’ ‘plastic’
    + Ķ-Q’ ‘quartz’
    + K-P’ ‘rubber’
    + K-T’ ‘salt’
    + K-K’ ‘steel’
    + K-Q’ ‘silk’
    + C-P’ ‘tar’
    + C-T’ - ‘wax’
    + C-K’ Aluminium
    + C-Q’ Antimony
    + Ċ-P’ Arsenic        
    + Ċ-T’ Beryllium     
    + Ċ-K’ Bismuth      
    + Ċ-Q’ Boron                      
    + Č-P’ Cadmium     
    + Č-T’  Calcium      
    + Č-K’ Carbon        
    + Č-Q’ Chromium   
    + Ç-P’ Cobalt          
    + Ç-T’ Copper
    + Ç-K’ Gallium       
    + Ç-Q’ Gold
    + F-P’ Iridium         
    + F-T’ Iron
    + F-K’ Lead
    + F-Q’ Lithium        
    + Ţ-P’ Magnesium  
    + Ţ-T’ Manganese   
    + Ţ-K’ Molybdenum           
    + Ţ-Q’ Nickel
    + X-P’ Palladium    
    + X-T’ Phosphorus  
    + X-K’ Platinum     
    + X-Q’ Plutonium   
    + S-P’ Potassium
    + S-T’ Radium        
    + S-K’ Rubidium    
    + S-Q’ Selenium      
    + Ş-P’ Silicon          
    + Ş-T’ Silver            
    + Ş-K’ Sulfur
    + Ş-Q’ Tin
    + Š-P’ Titanium
    + Š-T’ Uranium       
    + Š-K’Vanadium
    + Š-Q’ Tungsten
    + M-P’ Zinc
    + M-T’Zirconium
    +     KL-P’ Germanium
    + KL-T’ Krypton     
    + KL-K’ Osmium
    + M-K’   asbestos     magnesium silicate
    + M-Q’ aspirin          acetylsalicylic acid
    + N-P’ baking soda               
    + N-T’ bicarbonate of soda               
    + N-K’ graphite (carbon)
    + N-Q’ diamond       
    + Ņ-P’ marble            
    + Ņ-T’ emery powder           
    + Ņ-K’  epsom salts              
    + Ņ-Q’ fluorspar     
    + L-P’  gypsum       
    + L-T’ linoleum       
    + L-K’ lime             
    + L-Q’ magnesia     
    + H-P’ milk of magnesium 
    + H-T’ plaster of Paris           
    + H-K’  potash        
    + H-Q’ saltpeter      
    + R-P’ silica             
    + R-T’ sugar, table 
    + R-K’ talc or talcum          
    + R-Q’  washing soda         
    + Ŗ-P’  zinc white   
    +     PS-P’  NATURALLY OCCURRING ACTINIDE OR UNSTABLE/RADIOACTIVE HEAVY ELEMENT
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Actinium + 2) Thorium + 3) Protactinium + 4) Neptunium + 5) any radioactive isotope of an element + 6) Astatine + 7) Francium + 8) Polonium + 9) Technetium
    + PŠ-P’  SYNTHETIC ACTINIDE ELEMENT
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Americium + 2) Curium + 3) Berkelium 4) Californium + 5) Einsteinium + 6) Fermium + 7) Mendelevium + 8) Nobelium + 9) Lawrencium
    + PŞ-P’  NATURALLY OCCURRING ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Barium + 2) Caesium (Cesium)  + 3) Hafnium + 4) Niobium + 5) Rhenium + 6) Rhodium 
    + 7) Ruthenium + 8) Strontium + 9) Tellurium
    + x-cedilla-P’ RARE NATURAL ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Indium + 2) Scandium + 3) Yttrium + 4) Tantalum + 5) source compound for such elements + 6) + 7) + 8) + 9) primary source ore in which element is found
    + KS-T’  SYNTHETIC HEAVY ELEMENT
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Rutherfordium + 2) Dubnium + 3) Seaborgium + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/4) Bohrium + 5) Hassium + 6) Meitnerium   7) Darmstadtium + 8) Roentgenium + 9) trans-Roentgenium synthetic element (i.e., Ununbium, Ununtrium, etc.)
    + KŞ-T’   LANTHANIDE ELEMENT
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Lanthanum + 2) Cerium + 3) Praseodymium + 4) Neodymium + 5) Promethium + 6) Samarium + 7) Europium + 8) Gadolinium + 9) Terbium
    + KŠ-T’  HEAVIER LANTHANIDE ELEMENT
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Dysprosium + 2) Holmium + 3) Erbium + 4) Thulium + 5) Ytterbium + 6) Lutetium 7)
    + 8) + 9) lanthanide-based compound

    +

     

    +

    The stem pattern for the following Class 9 roots are identical to the pattern for the Class 6 root N-Ġ ‘LIQUID/FLUID’:
    + SK-P’ ‘paint’
    + Ŗ -T’ ‘oil (fatty liquid derived from plants/animals)’
    + Ŗ -K’‘honey’
    + Ŗ -Q’‘vinegar’
    + Ļ-P’ acetone           
    + Ļ-T’ alcohol, grain             
    + Ļ-K’ alcohol, wood
    + Ļ-Q’  ammonia
    + PL-P’ iodine         
    + PL-T’  mercury
    + PL-K’ brine       https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/    aqueous sodium chloride solution
    + PL-Q’ benzene
    + TL-P’  lye or soda lye       sodium hydroxide
    + TL-T’ formalin      aqueous formaldehyde solution
    + TL-K’ rubbing alcohol      isopropyl alcohol
    + TL-Q’ methanol    methyl alcohol

    +

     

    +

    The stem pattern of the following Class 9 roots is identical to the pattern of the Class 6 root H-Ġ ‘GAS / FLUME’:
    + SL-P’ ‘carbon dioxide’
    + SL-T’  ‘carbon monoxide’
    + SL-K’ Chlorine    
    + SL-Q’ Argon        
    + PŢ-P’ Helium       
    + PŢ-T’ Hydrogen  
    + PŢ-K’ Fluorine     
    + PŢ-Q’ Nitrogen    
    + SP-P’ Oxygen      
    + SP-T’  Neon         
    + SP-K’ Radon    &nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/sp;  
    + SP-Q’ Xenon
    + ST-P’ ozone
    + ST-T’ laughing gas             
    + ST-K’ air

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ST-P’   ‘STICKY/ADHESIVE MATERIAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sticky substance or material; to stick/be mired in

    1. adhesive substance material; adhere/stick (via adhesive)

    2. goo / ooze / slime

    2. glue / liquid adhesive

    3. sap / resin

    3. cement / mortar / grout

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    +

     

    +
    +

    CLASS 10 ROOTS: relational concepts, identity, associations

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-C’   ‘SIMILARITY/SAMENESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. similar(ity) to oneself (on another occasion)

    1. same (= selfsame)

    2. similar(ity) to (an)other entity/instance

    2. same (= identical to (an)other entity/instance)

    3. remind (one) of / reminder

    3. same (= copy/replacement)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on appearance or superficial impression

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on identity or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-C’   ‘VALUE/WORTH/PRICE/COST’
    + (Often used in conjunction with various Quantifying and Modulative affixes from Sections 7.7.6 and 7.7.7 to show relative degree of value within context)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of usefulness, convenience, efficacy, service, applicability]

    1. cost appraisal, assessment, estimate, quote

    2. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of personal desire or emotional attachment]

    2. cost, expense, expenditure [what is (to be) given up or released in exchange for something, either a commercial or non-commercial context]

    3. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of financial benefit or gain, profit, or remuneratively]

    3. rate (of payment); formula/terms for determining payment

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on intrinsic value

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on actual value (i.e., degree to which the intrinsic value can actually be utilized, consumed or manifested)

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to cost quoted or agreed to

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to actual payment

    +

    SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2: 1) fee/toll or service charge 2) tithe 3) duty/tariff/levy 4) ransom 5) tax 6) dues 7) wage(s) 8) fare  9) price/charge [in money or legal tender]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-C’ ‘POSSESSION / OWNERSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. have/possess; possession (temporary/circumstantial and alienable – e.g., a library book in one’s hand)

    1. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right and in one’s immediate possession-, e.g., a hat I bought and am wearing)

    2. have/possess; possession (circumstantial and affective + (quasi-) inalienable, either permanent or temporary – e.g., a medical condition, an office at work I occupy, a seat at a cinema showing)

    2. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right, not necessarily in one’s immediate possession -, e.g., a hat I bought/own but am not necessarily wearing)

    3. have/possess; possession (genetic, intrinsic and inalienable, but not considered property – e.g., a sibling, a child, a limb, a memory)

    3. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (quasi-permanent and legally inalienable except through formal/legal separation process – e.g., a house I own, a pet dog I registered

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing possessed

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession/ownership

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing owned; piece of property

    +

     

    +
    +

    CLASS 11 ROOTS: concepts relating to order, arrangement, configuration

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-Časpiration   ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS (ORNAMENTAL/SPECIALIZED)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tower

    1. window opening

    2. dome

    2. doorway

    3. spire/steeple

    3. balcony/terrace

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Časpiration   ‘CONTAIN / HOLD / CONTENTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. contain(ment) via gravity (e.g., basin) + contents

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in quasi-permanent context or by intrinsic nature as opposed to the INFORMAL stems which convey an incidental or circumstantial context

    2. contain(ment) via enclosure / surrounding conveyance + contents

    +

    3. contain(ment) via imbuement / as ingredient; to “carry” [as integrated component or ingredient] + contents

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to contents

    same as above 3 stems referring to the container

    +

    The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions: 1) bottle 2) jar/pot 3) barrel/cask 4) bin 5) vat / tub / basin [distinguished via SIZ affix] 6) can/tin 7) piece of furniture 8) purse/bag/satchel/pack 9) case/trunk

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Časpiration - ‘TEXTURE/TACTILE SENSATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. texture, tactile sensation (tactile sensation + physical-emotional reaction)

    1. act/process to render (an object/entity having) a particular texture (tactile sensation + physical-emotional reaction)

    2. material impact/benefit/effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that consistency

    2. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that consistency

    3. material impact/benefit/effect of having a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    3. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of having a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. object having a particular texture

    1. the texture itself

    1. act/process designed to render a certain texture

    1. actual results of an act or process to render a certain texture

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that texture

    2. actual material impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that texture

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the entity having that texture

    2. actual psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the entity having that texture

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact/benefit of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    3. actual material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    3. actual psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    +

    SSD suffix specifies reaction:  sensuous, delightful/fun, soothing, as-expected, surprising/positive, surprising/negative, annoying/irritating, painful

    +

    ROOTS BELOW ARE MODELED LIKE THE ABOVE; OFTEN USED WITH DEGREE/EXTENT AFFIX

    +

    P-Caspiration gummy
    + T-Ċaspiration chewy
    + PL-Časpiration slimy
    + T-Caspiration sticky
    +Ķ-Ċaspiration prickly
    +TL-Časpiration burning, heat conductive
    +Ķ-Caspiration tingly
    +K-Ċaspiration soft like fur
    +KL-Časpiration soft like a cushion
    + Q-Caspiration liquidy
    + Q-Ċaspiration lumpy
    + FL-Časpiration cartilaginous
    + F-Caspiration viscous
    + M-Ċaspiration rough (like sandpaper)
    +ŢL-Čashttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/piration coarse (like handling gravel)
    +Ţ-Caspiration powdery
    +N-Ċaspiration gritty (like fine sand)
    +XL-Časpiration grainy/granular
    +Ç-Caspiration mushy
    +L-Ċaspiration slushy
    +PS-Časpiration gooey
    + X-Casphttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/iration slippery
    +Ņ-Ċaspiratiohttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/n ice-cold, numbing cold
    +KS-Č numbing (= loss of sensation)
    + x-cedilla-Caspiration “pins & needles” sensation
    + H-Ċaspiration needle-like sharpness (e.g., a cactus)
    + P&Scahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ron;-Časpiration bristly
    + S-Caspiration feathery
    + PS-Ċaspiration wispy/wafting
    + KŠ-Časpiration “cobwebby”/like cotton-candy
    + M-C curvaceous/sensual (= sofhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/t/smooth/squeezable/rounded)
    + PŞ-Ċaspirationhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ rubbery
    + L-Časphttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/iration hard + semi-smooth (like wood)
    + N-Caspiration hard + natural mix of smooth/rough (like a rock)
    + PL-Ċaspiration complexly textured + hard/honeycombed (like handling a pihttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ne cone)
    + R-Časpiration metallic
    + L-Caspiration plastic-like
    +Ŗ-https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/68;aspiration papery
    +TL-Ċaspiration sponge-like
    +Ņ-Caspiration downy
    +KL-Ċaspiration woolly
    +Ļ-Časpihttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ration fluffy/puffy/airy
    + H-Caspiration hairy
    + FL-Ċaspiration dusty
    + XL-Časpiration soggy/waterlogged

    +

     

    + + +

    P-Ċaspiration   ‘CONSISTENCY/MALLEABILITY/FLEXIBILITY/PLASTICITY/RHEOLOGhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ICAL PHENOMENON’

    + + +

    INFORMAL Stems

    +

    FORMAL Stems

    + + +

    1. consistency, degree of malleability/flexibility/ plasticity

    +

    1. act/process to render (an object having) a certain consistency or degree of malleability / flexibilhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ity / plasticity

    + + +

    2. material impact/benhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/efit/effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

    +

    2. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of a particular consistency to thhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/e object/entity having that consistency

    + + +

    https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/3. material impact/benefit/effect of having a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/having that consistency

    +

    3. psychological or emotional https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ impact/benefit/effect of having a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    + + +

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    +

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    + + +

    1. object having a particular consistency

    +

    1. the consistency itself

    +

    1. act/process designed to render a certain consistency or degree of malleability/plasticity

    +

    1. actual results of an act or process to render a certain consistency or degree of malleability/plasticity

    + + +

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

    +

    2. actual material impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

    +

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the entity having that consistency

    +

    2. actual psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the entity having that consistency

    + + +

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    +

    3. actual material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    +

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    +

    3. actual psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    + + +

    THE STEMS OF THE ROOTS BELOW ARE MODELED ON THE SAME STRUCTURE AS THE ABOVE ROOT; THESE ROOTS USE THE EXTENT/DEGREE SUFFIX TO SPECIFY THE POINT ON A SPECTRUM BETWEEN TWO EXTREMES AS INDICATED
    +Ċ-Ċaspiration suppleness/pliancy/flexibility/ductility/bendability <--> stiffness/rigidity
    +T-Časpiration squeezability/compressability <--> stiffness/rigidity
    + R-Caspiration sponginess <--> stiffness/rigidity
    + X-Ċaspiration elasticity <--> stiffness/rigidity
    + K-Časpiration springiness/spring <--> inertness/immobility
    + XL-Caspiration jiggliness <--> inertness/immobility
    +Ç-Ċaspiration limpness/flaccidity <--> stiffness/rigidity
    +Ķ-Časpiration buoyancy
    + FL-Caspiration bounce/recoil <--> inertness/immobility
    +Ţ-Ċaspiration brittleness <--> resiliency
    +Š-Časpiration flimsiness/fragility <--> resiliency/strength
    + KL-Caspiration flabbiness <--> cohesiveness / compactness
    + F-Ċaspiration tendency to disintegrate/crumble/fall apart <--> coherence/cohesiveness/compositional integrity
    + S-Časpiration spreadability
    + PL-Caspiration deformability / “dentability”

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + +https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + +https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ +

    Q-Časpiration   ‘GEOGRAPHICAL/GEOPOLITICAL ELEMENTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. geographical fehttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ature or element

    1. geopolitical feature or element

    https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/

    2. geographical area / “land”

    2. geopolitical area / “land” or “country”

    3. natural piece of territory

    3. (piece of) property

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on geophysical feature or element

    Same as abohttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ve 3 stems w/ focus as natural habitat

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus as political entity

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on political boundaries/borders

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TL-Caspiration   ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ONENTS/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. column/pillar

    1. strut/buttress

    2. “side”/wall (external)

    2. partition

    3. floor [= base/ground]

    3. roof

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X- Časpiration   ‘MAKE/CONSTRUCT/INTEGRATE/FORM’
    + (NOTE:  This root does not refer to ‘make/create’ meaning ‘emit/secrete/produhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ce’as in ‘make noise’ or ‘make milk’, etc.)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. make/construct/create (non-mechanical) [= construct via integration of material resources]

    1. mechanically construct / build from a design

    2. to form/fashion/mix  (non-mechanical) [= combine ingredients/parts to form]

    2. integrate parts / integration of parts

    3. integrate/organize (non-mechanical)

    3. machine / mechanical device

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

    + index.html The above meanings represent these stems as used in conjunction with the COMPLETIVE (CPT) version.  Their default PROCESSUAL (PCT) counterparts would translate as ‘plan (to)’, ‘design’, etc.
    + Derivations:  cobble together, rig, system, conspire

    +
    +

     

    +


    + CLASS 12 ROOTS: socially or externally-induced affectations

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-q + hacek   ‘MUSIC’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. musical note or tone / produce [i.e., play] musical note or tone [sound + its playing]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except that they apply to the production of song, i.e., vocal music or for voice with musical accompaniment

    2. consciously select musical note [for purpose of composition] + sound of note

    3. a musical beat or measure [sound + its playing]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. sound of musical note or tone

    1. producing/playing of musical note or tone

    2. sound of selected musical note

    2. conscious selection of musical note [for purpose of composition]

    3. sound of a musical beat or measure

    3. production/playing of a musical beat or measure

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: piece of music, melody, music [abstract concept], composition, musical instrument, musician, composer, rhythm, band, orchestra, song

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-x + cedilla’  ‘GOODWILL/FRIENDLINESS&rsquhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/o;

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. being nice [= emotional/spiritual/physical support of another’s interests]

    1. good samaritanship, going out of the way to help

    2. goodwill, benevolent intent, kind(ness)

    2. peace / fellowship

    3. amicability / friendliness

    3. friendship (unidirectional)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

    +

    Derivations:  altruism, being friends, affable

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-X’   https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ ‘CELEBRATORY ACT/ CEREMONIAL RITE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act of jubilation (as manifestation of personal joy, contentment, freedom, self-indulgence, etc.) [both act + cause/reason]

    1. solemn act of commemoration/memorial

    2. act of celebration (in positive recognition of something) [both act + cause/reason]

    2. solemn act of recognition/acknowledgement

    3. joyful or celebratory symbolic/ceremonial rite [both act + cause/reason]

    3. solemn symbolic/ceremonial rite

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  party, celebration, fête, festivities, ceremony

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    q-q + hacek   ‘SALUTATION/GREETING/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. acknowledge/demonstrate awareness of

    1. greet(ings) / salutation(s)

    2. hail / get attention of / bring attention to

    2. formal welcome or farewell

    3. congratulate

    3. socially introduce / to socially present

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    +

    SSD affix for FORMAL Stem Nos. 1 and 2 by degree:  1) bow upon arrival/introduction 2) shake hands upon arrival/introduction  3) wave hand or arm upon arrival/introduction/seeing 4)verbal salutation only upon arrival/introduction/seeing 5) words used in greeting/salutation/farewell  6) sayhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ goodbye  7) wave goodbye 8) shake hands upon farewell/leavetaking 9) bow upon farewell/leavetaking

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-X’    ‘REPUTE/NOTORIETY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. repute/reputation

    1. distinction/mark

    2. public image/persona

    2. degree of eminence [= power or influence]

    3. notoriety [= degree of renown/recognition by others]

    3. degree of prestige/status

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

    +

    This root is usually used in conjunction with the NOTORIETY affix.

    +

     

    +
    +

    CLASS 13 ROOTS: personal affect, emotion, feelings, preferences

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Č-Ř   ‘DEGREE OF FUN/MERRIMENT/JOVIALITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fun/ merriment; feel/be merry, have fun (both cause/source + feeling derived)

    1. be jovial/jocular/jolly; express/manifest joviality, jollity

    2. frolic, skylark = aimless, innocent pursuit of fun and amusement (both cause/source + feeling derived)

    2. formal amusement (activity or cause + feeling derived), e.g., from/at party, fete, show, performance, etc.

    3. whim, impulsive moment for purpose of amusement

    3. revel; an instance of revelry

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of merriment derived

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of merriment/amusement derived

    +

    carouse, with wild abandon, spree, escapade, jaunt, romp, party, fete

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-Ř   ‘HUMOR/WIT/JEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something funny or humorous = comical

    1. a jest or prank; make a jest or pull a prank = act or situation designed to evoke humor

    2. something witty = subtlely and cleverly humorous

    2. a joke; make a joke  = communicated situation or message designed to evoke humor

    3. something farcical = something humorous based in irony

    3. something sardonic = double-edged humor based in sarcasm

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

    +

    SSD derivatives:  pun, riddle

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    h-d + cedilla   ‘LOVE/AFFECTION/EMOTIONAL BOND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act of affection / display of fondness or endearment

    1. like / value as source of emotional fulfillment

    2. familial/genetically-tied bond of love

    2. love of country, heritage, race, etc.

    3. romantic love

    3. love of or emotional allegiance to abstract idea (e.g., freedom, life, wealth)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

    +

    Morphological Derivations:  love, tenderness, infatuation, obsession, passion, passionate
    + SSD Derivatives from INFORMAL Stem 1:  kiss, embrace, hug, hold hand, cuhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ddle, caress, massage, pat, wink

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-Ř   ‘ “HEART” / “ESSENCE” / VALUES ’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. metaphorical/psychological seat of one’s personality and emotions, i.e., “heart”, “soul”, mind

    1. personal value(s)/ what one holds dearest or as most important

    2. degree/depth of one’s emotions / “feelings” / experience a certain depth of emotion

    2. personal virtues/ personality traits

    3. essence; essential subjective/intangible qualities of an entity

    3. personal principles

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

    +

    Derivations:  personality

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P- Ğ   ‘EXPERIENCE / UNDERGO A STATE OR FEELING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of a state/feeling/emotion; feel (an) emotion [state + content]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of the particular emotion.

    2. act or action caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling

    3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on process itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential state/feeling itself

    +

    The stem patterns of the above root are applied to all of the following roots:
    + P-d + cedilla    ‘excitement/thrill’
    + Č-Ğ    ‘agitation/disquietude’
    + ST-V    ‘awe / be or feel impressed / humbleness in face of something’
    + N-Ř    ‘depression / be or feel depressed’
    + T-d + cedilla   ‘eagerness / fervor / zeal’
    + Š-Ř    ‘cordiality/benevolence’
    + X-Ğ    ‘hysteria/loss of control’
    + SX-V    ‘commitment/loyalty’  Derivations:  ‘intransigence’, ‘stubbornness’
    + PŠ-Ř    ‘tenderness/nuturing/caring’
    + Ķ-d + cedilla   ‘feel hurt/offended’
    + Ķ-Ř   ‘spite’
    + K-d + cedilla  ‘stoicism/repression’
    + Ş-Ğ  ‘nonchalance/indifference’ Derivations:  ‘callousness’
    + Ţ-Ř  ‘torpor/lethargy’ Derivations: ‘stupor’, ‘catatonia’
    + R-Ğ   ‘numbness / emotional saturation’
    + Q-V    ‘wonder/enthrallment’
    + C-V   ‘inspiration / feeling of positive energy’
    + M-V  ‘fear/fright’ Derivation:  panic
    + H-V    ‘uplift/inspiration (e.g., by beauty, art, music, etc.)
    + FL-Ğ    ‘jollity/merrimehttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nt/gayness’
    + M-d + cedilla  ‘feeling carefree / frivolity / relaxed’
    + ŠX-Ř    ‘stress / feel pressured’
    + KŢ-Ř    ‘worry / feel preoccupied’
    + ŠK-d + cedilla    ‘grief / sadness from loss’
    + KS-d + cedilla  ‘angst / weltschmertz’
    +     P-V    ‘regret, repining, ruefulness’
    + T-Ř   ‘woe, despair, desolation’
    + SL-V    ‘sorrow, lamentation’
    + Q-Ř https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/  ‘wistfulness, bittersweetness’
    + X-d + cedilla    ‘bittersweet longing’ (Portuhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/guese “saudade”)
    + T-V    ‘anticipate (something positive); feeling of anticipation (for something positive)’
    + QŢ-V  ‘feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that achievement of long-awaited vengeance or vindication is hollow and meaningless due to personal maturation or present irrelevance of original circumstances’
    + XL-V    ‘mix of humor and shame felt upon pulling joke on someone or at their expense but the target doesn’t “get it” or remains ignorant of the joke’
    + K-V  serenity, peace of mind
    + T-Ğ schadenfreude; malicious glee at another’s (implicitly deserved) discomfort or inconvenience
    + KL-d + cedilla impatience due to feeling that time/resources being wasted
    +Ņ-Ř bother, annoyance (based on displeasure at or disagreement with external circumstances)
    +Ķ-V bother, annoyance at self due to one’s own actions/behavior
    +K-Ğ feeling of disappointment at being letdown by another
    + TL-d + cedilla feeling of disappointment/let-down at one’s own actions/behavior
    +Ċ -Ř  anticipate a negative; dread
    +Ċ-V https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ feeling of emotional maturity/superiority; feeling “above it all”
    +Ķ -Ğ  feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that one can get past, and need not succumb to, feelings of defensiveness or “victimhood” upon being criticized, maligned, slandered, or disrespected
    +Č-V  achievement of zen-like enlightenment through meditation
    +Q-Ğ  meditative bliss
    +Ņ-d + cedilla post-orgasmic/post-coital bliss; “afterglow”
    +C-Ř feeling of being “on edge”; at cusp of loss-of-control or loss of one’s actions/inhibitions
    + F-V being ultra-alert with senses heightened
    + M-Ğ ecstatic/euphoric feeling of joie-de-vivre
    + L-d + cedilla feeling of inherent “connection” to or oneness with the universe through space and time
    +Ç-Ř feeling of puzzlement and curiosity, a desire to solve a mystery
    +Ţ-V  feeling of piquancy, stimulated curiosity, a desire for a new experience
    +N-Ğ feeling of “devilishness” and spontaneous non-conformity
    +Ş-d + cedilla feeling flustered at nohttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/t knowing how to react or what to think
    +M-Ř embarrassment due to social faux pas, behavioral misstep, or others seeing through one’s façade or airs
    +Ç-V embarrassment at being unable to perform a task or activity as expected
    +L-Ğ humiliation
    + N-d + cedilla poignancy, “aaaaw” reaction to irreshttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/istable cuteness
    + R-Ř material lust, avarice, greed (for sexual lust see root H-Z   ŠŬ-)
    + S-V  shock, reeling (e.g., from bad news or an unexpected discovery)
    +Ņ-Ğ swooning, feeling of faintness due to emotional overload
    + S-d + cedilla repugnance, repellant feeling, disgust
    + H-Ř  discomfiture at having been socially snubbed or at being ill-prepared for a situation after believing that one was accepted or was well-prepared
    +Š-d + cedilla solace, comfort in the face of sadness/grief

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ř   ‘AFFECTIVE/NON-VOLITIONAL MENTAL STATE/PROCESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mood; be in a mood

    1. rationalization; rationalize

    2. instinct; act/behave on instinct [state + content]

    2. delusion; (be) delude(d)

    3. psychic phenomenon, altered state of consciousness

    3. dream [state + content]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Chttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/OMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 shttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/tems referring to content thereof

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Stem 3:  1) “high”, under-the-influence of a psycho-active substance  2) hallucination; hallucinate, (observe) apparition 3) trance 4) instance of telepathy 5) (experience) premonition/vision 6) synaesthetic experience 7) sensory illusion 8) out-of-body experience  9) state of https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/prescience/clairvoyance

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Q-d + cedilla   ‘DEGREE OF PLEASURE/FULFILLMENT/SATISFACTION/HAPPINESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of physical/sensual pleasure [both feeling and cause]

    1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented pleasure/contentment [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of emotional/psychological contentment/pleasure [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of happiness
    + (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of physical satisfaction/satiety [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of emotional/psychological satisfaction and fulfillment [both feeling and cause]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a pleasant visit’ or ‘a satisfying meal’

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a happy home’ or ‘a fulfilling job’

    +

    Derivations:  gratify/gratification, satiety, ecstasy, joy

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    S-Ř   ‘PRIDE/EGO/RESPECT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. feel proud (of oneself); feeling of pride (in oneself)

    1. self-esteem

    2. feel proud (of someone); feeling of pride (of someone)

    2. respect/admiration

    3. one’s feelings/sensibilities (e.g., to hurt one’s feelings)

    3. ego/sense of self-identity; to sense (some)one’s ego / to gain an impression of someone’s self-identity

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  arrogance/arrogant, haughtiness/haughty, pomposity/pompous, put on airs, vainglorious; magisterial/imperious

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-V    ‘DEGREE OF PAIN/LOSS/DISSATISFACTION/MISERY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of physical pain [both feeling and cause]

    1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented displeasure/discontent [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of emotional/psychological discontent/pain [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of unhappiness/misery
    + (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of physical dissatisfaction/lack [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of emotional/psychological dissatisfaction and loss/lack [both feeling and cause]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unpleasant visit’ or ‘a terrible meal’

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unhappy home’ or ‘a miserable job’

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 14 ROOTS: concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-Z     ‘ATTRACTION

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. feel/be attracted to (physical attraction to other person)

    1. feel/be attracted/drawn to (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

    2. feel/be attractive (physical attraction to other person)

    2. be attractive/seductive (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing, idea or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

    3. act/gesture indicating or hinting of attraction to; “(give) clue/hint” (physical attraction to other person)

    3. “selling point” / a “pro” (vs. “con”)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL Derivations:  seduce, seduction

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-Z    ‘ROMANTIC AND/OR SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.  state of sexual/romantic relationship

    1. significant other / boyfriend or girlfriend

    2.  erotic/sexual act; engage in a sexual/erotic activity

    2. lover / sex partner

    3.  to date / to court; pursue romantic relationship

    3. dating partner

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. sexual/romantic relationship itself

    1. emotional / hormonal basis underlying sexual relationship

    1. boyfriend

    1. girlfriend

    2. sexual/erotic act itself

    2. feeling of lust or other motive underlying sexual act

    2. male lover

    2. female lover

    3. particular act involved in dating or courtship

    3. feeling of hope or long-term goal of monogamous relationship or marriage underlying pursuit of romantic relationship

    3. male dating partner

    3. female dating partner

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL Derivations:  have sex, make love, cheat, monogamous relationship

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-Ž   ‘CONFLICT-BASED HOSTILITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hostility / anger / be angry [both emotion and display/actions]

    1. authoritative/official (i.e., police/military, etc.) use of force / act of aggression

    2. threat(en) [reason for plus act]

    2. threat of official/authoritative use of force

    3. defend oneself / defense [reason for plus act]

    3. official/authoritative defense

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. feeling of anger

    1. show/display of anger

    1. rationale/cause behind military agression

    1. official/authoritative act of force/agression

    2. cause/rationale for threat

    2. effect of threat or being threatened

    2. cause/rationale for official/authoritative/ military threat

    2. effect of official/authoritative/ military threat or being threatened

    3. situation/rationale for defensive act

    3. defend / take defensive action

    3. situation/rationale for official/authoritative/ military defensive act

    3. defend / take official/authoritative/ military defensive action

    +

    Derivations:  peeved, conflict, intimidate, fight, battle, skirmish, military operation or campaign, war

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-Z     ‘TRANSFER OF POSSESSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. temporary, circumstantial, incidental direct transfer of possession (i.e., give / take)

    1. quasi-permanent or official transfer of possession (i.e., rendering/reception; render, receive)

    2. temporary, circumstantial, incidental indirect transfer (i.e., to leave for someone / to take based on discernment of availability)

    2. quasi-permanent or official transfer (i.e., bestowal or bequest/acquisition; bestow/acquire)

    3. temporary, circumstantial, incidental transfer over distance (i.e., to bring something / to leave with something)

    3. deliver/take ownership of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. give, lend

    1. take, borrow

    1. donate; donation

    1. receive; reception

    2. leave (something for someone), make available

    2. get, obtain

    2. leave to heir

    2. inherit; inheritance

    3. thing given, gift (given)

    3. thing taken, gift (taken)

    3. bestow; bequest

    3. acquire; acquisition

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  procure(ment), requisition, accept (= willingly receive)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-Z     ‘MANAGE/GUIDANCE/COMPLIANCE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. guide / guideline + compliance

    1. rule, precept + obedience

    2. manage / direct + compliance

    2. preside over / mete out law / govern + abidance

    3. discipline + submission/obedience

    3. moral guideline + personal rectitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. guide / guideline

    1. follow guide / follow guideline

    1. rule, precept

    1. obey rule or precept

    2. manage / direct

    2. comply / follow direction(s)

    2. preside over / met out law / govern

    2. abide by law / obey law

    3. apply discipline

    3. submit to discipline

    3. moral guideline

    3. personal rectitude

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: guidance, management, morality, law, president, ruler; set of rules, steer, administer, order, drive; oversee, custom, “norm”, authority

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-Z - ‘SOCIAL INTERRELATION/INTERACTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act/state of social interaction/interrelation + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    1. expected/natural role of member of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    2. act/state of “dominant” or initiating partner in social interaction/relationship

    2. expected/natural role of “dominant” or initiating partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    3. act/state of “passive” or secondary/complementary partner in social interaction/relationship

    3. expected/natural role of “passive” or secondary or complementary partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems with focus on act/state of social interaction or interrelation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on benefits, consequences, or implications of act/state of social interaction or interrelation

    Same as above 3 stems with focus on act/state of social interaction or interrelation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on benefits, consequences, or implications of act/state of social interaction or interrelation

    +

    Note:  The above root (and those immediately below) are likely to be used in conjunction with the various Valence categories (see Section XXX) to specify the exact nature of the relationship between the parties involved.  Note also that, for relationships where the parties are acting in equivalent roles or positions of equal stature (i.e., no “dominant” vs. “passive” roles), use of Stems 2 and 3 above would be inapplicable.

    +

    THE STEMS OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS DESCRIBING SPECIFIC TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS ARE STRUCTURED IDENTICALLY WITH THE ROOT ABOVE:
    +Ķ-Ž   close loving friendship
    + x-cedilla-Z  business partnership
    + K-Ž   marriage
    + M-Z,  temporary or youthful romantic dalliance/lovers (with or without involving sex)
    + F-Ž   sexual partners
    + N-Z,  club members
    +Ţ-Ž   fellow hobbyists or enthusiasts
    +L-Z,  fan + celebrity
    +Ç-Ž   sage + disciples
    +Ņ -Z  “center of attention” + sycophants
    +X-Ž   master/servant
    +Ķ-Z  sibling relations
    +X,-Ž   fellowship, “band of brothers”, fraternity, sorority, etc.
    +Ţ-Z  members of secret society
    +S-Ž   members of stigmatized/isolated/oppressed societal group
    +Ç-Z  owner + pet
    +M-Ž   co-workers/associates
    +PL-Z  co-authors/creators of joint opus or artistic work
    +L-Ž   autocrat or autarch + subjects
    +TL-Z  official/agent of authority + supplicant/petitioner/applicant
    +Ņ-Ž   interviewer/interrogator + interviewee
    +KL-Z  seller + buyer
    +PL-Ž   members of same religion or belief system
    +FL-Z  members of holy order or spiritual fellowship
    +TL-Ž   members of business/executive management
    +ŢL-Z  strangers brought together by circumstances of the moment
    +KL-Ž   romantic love relationship
    +XL-Z  parent-child relationship
    +FL-Ž   relationship between business associates
    +Ŗ-Z  supervisor/boss + employee
    +ŢL-Ž   partners or team members in sporting match or sporting activity
    +Ļ-Z  adversaries or opposing team members in sporting match or sporting activity
    +XL-Ž   socially adversarial based on social one-upmanship/ego gratification
    + x-cedilla-Z,  socially adversarial based on enmity/hatred
    + PŢ-Ž   relationship based on compulsion/threat
    + X-Z,  adversarial based on a feud
    + KŢ -Ž   adversarial based on jealousy/coveting of one’s situation
    +Ç-Z,  adversarial based on material envy/coveting of one’s possessions
    +QŢ -Ž   enmity based on revenge
    +Ţ-Z,  adversarial based on anger/resentment
    +SL-Ž   allies
    +F-Z,  predator + prey
    +SP-Ž   invader + invadee
    +Q-Z,  co-participants in general activity
    +ST-Ž   matchmaker + parties being matched
    +Ņ-Z  member of couple being matched or “set up” with each other
    +SK-Ž   lender + borrower
    +Ķ-Z,  perpetrator + victim
    +SF-Ž   traders/barterers
    +K-Z,  lessor + lessee
    +SŢ-Ž   creditor + debtorhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/
    +T-Z,  advisor + party seeking advise
    +SX-Ž   warring parties
    +P-Z,  entertainer/emcee + audience
    +R-Ž   speaker/speechmaker/presenter + audience

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-Ž    ‘MARITAL/SPOUSAL RELATIONSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.  state of marriage / marital state / state of being married

    1. spouse

    2. act of infidelity / extramarital liaison / to be unfaithful / to betray spouse

    2. extramarital sex partner / mistress or gigolo

    3.  betrothal / engagement; be betrothed, be engaged

    3. fiancé(e) / being a fiancé(e)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1.  formal/legal state of marriage

    1. emotional bond of love/fidelity underlying marriage

    1. husband

    1. wife

    2. physical act of infidelity/betrayal

    2. breaking of emotional bond underlying marriage

    2. gigolo, kept man (male equivalent of mistress)

    2. mistress

    3. formal/legal status of being betrothed/engaged

    3. emotional bond of love/fealty underlying betrothal/engagement

    3. fiancé

    3. fiancée

    +

     

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  wed, wedded, marry, get married, marriage, wedding ceremony, cuckold (male or female)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Z     ‘EXCHANGE/PURCHASE’
    + Note: The stems below are generally used in conjunction with PROCESSUAL versus COMPLETIVE version (See Secs. 5.3.1 and 5.3.2) in order to distinguish an offer of exchange from a completed exchange. Alternately, the distinction between MONOACTIVE and COMPLEMENTARY valence (Sec. 5.2) can be used for the same purpose.

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exchange / swap

    1. act of trade / act of barter

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange

    2. purchase / commercial transaction; buy(ing) and sell(ing)

    3. change out / supplant / replace

    3. invest(ment)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. exchange (focus on entity given)

    1. exchange (focus on entity taken)

    1. to trade for / acquire through trade; act of acquiring via trade

    1. to trade away / give up through trade; act of given away via trade

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted into new function/place)

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted out of old function/place)

    2. buy; acquisition via purchase

    2. sell; act of selling

    3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity newly placed)

    3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity taken out of action)

    3. acquire via investment; act of acquisition via investment

    3. release interest in / sell one’s investment

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: commercial venture, a purchase, acquisition via trade, acquisition via investment; purvey, goods, thing sold, market, warehouse, buyer, seller, agent, business

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ž  - ‘MASTERY/AUTHORITY/SERVITUDE/OBEDIENCE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act/state of mastery/ownership/overlordship + servitude/subservience/subjugation to that mastery

    1. military command/office + obedience/following of orders

    2. act/state of supervision or formal oversight + following of orders/instructions

    2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight by noble right + recognition/submission to that rule

    3. take charge of; act/state of leadership + following that leadership

    3. formal authorization, appointed/elected authority / political authority; being official, being authorized + recognition/compliance with that authority

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. act/state of mastery, ownership, overlordship

    1. servitude, subservience, subjugation to mastery or overlordship

    1. military command/office

    1. obedience/following of military orders

    2. act/state of supervision or formal oversight

    2. following of orders or instructions from super-visor/overseer

    2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight by noble claim or “right”

    2. recognition/submission to claim of noble rule

    3. take charge of; act/state of leadership

    3. follow/obey a leader

    3. formal authorization, appointed/elected authority / political authority; being official, being authorized

    3. recognition/compliance with appointed, elected, official/political authority

    +

    Morphological derivatives: boss, supervisor, master, owner, lord, commander, leader, person-in-charge, officer
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  general, commodore, admiral, colonel, major, captain, lieutenant

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Q-Ž  - ‘PSYCHOLOGICAL or PSYCHO-LINGUISTIC MANIPULATION/TREATMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to fool someone (into doing/believing something); state of being fooled

    1. state of delusion (both state + content)

    2. to “play games” (with someone) = mentally manipulate via words/behavior/actions; state of being toyed with mentally

    2. means of psychiatric treatment; component of psychotherapy

    3. be mesmerized, entranced (by something)

    3. hypnotic state; be hypnotized

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    +

    Derivations:  to delude, to hypnotize, to “do a number” on someone mentally, to entrance

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-Z    ‘EFFORT/WORK’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exert / expend energy

    1. perform / operate / act / function

    2. work / labor / effort

    2. job task / employment-related task; perform job task

    3. handiwork / craftsmanship

    3. act of industry or enterprise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

    Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: strain, struggle, “fight”, toil, strenuous, persevere, operation, job, achievement, industry, enterprise, employment, employer, employee

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Z   ‘OCCUPANCY/RESIDENCY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. entity present + presence

    1. tenant + domicile

    2. occupant + place occupied

    2. resident + residence

    3. denizen + claimed property

    3. citizen + property

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. entity present

    1. presence of entity

    1. tenant

    1. domicile

    2. occupant

    2. place occupied

    2. resident

    2. residence

    3. denizen

    3. claimed property

    3. citizen

    3. property

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dwelling, quarters, population, community, town, village, city, hamlet, county, geopolitical area, state/province, nation, geopolitical bloc; nest, lair, den

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Ž   ‘MANNERS/DECORUM/DIGNITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. well-mannered, well-behaved; display a sense of manners

    1. decorum/cultural appropriateness; have/display a sense of decorum, politeness and civility

    2. dignified; have/display a sense of dignity

    2. courtly/stately/refined; stateliness

    3. noble, distinguished, cultivated; have/display a noble, distinguished or cultivated air

    3. aristocratic, well-bred; having/displaying a sense of aristocracy, nobility and breeding

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

    +

    Morphological derivatives:  polite(ness); courtesy/courteous

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-Z   ‘GRATITUDE/THANKFULNESS/PRAISE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to unexpected favor or convenience performed

    1. praise

    2. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to being relieved/rescued from negative situation

    2. gratefulness; feeling or manifestation of being beholden to someone or something [feeling is justified and an honor to be feeling]

    3. thank(s) / offer gratitude within ironic circumstances or merely as a courtesy, i.e., where expectation of thanks is for an unwanted, unnecessary, or purely symbolic act or required little or no effort on doer’s part

    3. feeling or manifestation of being beholden or obliged to someone or something [feeling is resented and unwanted]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on intent to convey gratitude

    same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of gratitude

    same as above 3 stems with focus on desire/intent to convey the feeling

    same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of the feeling

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  worship, indebted(ness)

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 15 ROOTS: concepts relating to existence, state, occurrence, subjectiveness

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-R  ‘APPEARANCE/SEMBLANCE/IMPRESSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. appear to be/seem/look as if/give (off) the impression of; appearance/semblance/impression

    1. ostensible/ostensibly

    2. on the face of it, on first blush

    2. resemble, look like

    3. on the surface/superficially/seemingly

    3. façade, veneer

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-J   ‘HAPPEN/OCCUR(ENCE)/MANIFEST/EVENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. happen / occur / take place / to “pass”

    1. step / act / action

    2. manifest / be or make real / reify

    2. phenomenon

    3. event (spacio-temporal context)

    3. incident

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

    +

    Various derivations from the above stems:  turn out, situation, chain of events, doings, process, phase, deed, result(s), consequence(s)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-J   ‘EXISTENCE/ONTOLOGY/METAPHYSICS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exist objectively; something that exists; be(ing) [both ontological and metaphysical]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except in reference to epistemological context [i.e., in relation to knowledge/awareness of ontological or metaphysical existence]

    2. law of nature / existential axiom

    3. natural/inherent

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontology / ontological aspect

    same as above 3 stems referring to metaphysics / metaphysical aspect

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K- z-bar    ‘TRANSCENDENCE / SPIRIT / RELIGION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. one’s spirit or soul / transcendent “connection” to the universe

    1. religious belief

    2. universal oneness / metaphysical interconnectedness between all things

    2. feeling of religious fervor or zeal

    3. striving/quest for ultimate destiny/purpose/”Omega point”

    3. striving/quest for salvation/redemption/enlightment (specific to particular religion)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

    same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

    same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-R  ‘APPEAR/MANIFEST/SHOW/EXHIBIT/DISPLAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. appear/manifest/show = be/make observable to the senses of others; manifestation, appearance

    1. exhibit; display

    2. expose; exposure

    2. show off, flaunt

    3. bring/call attention to = make others aware of the appearance/showing of something

    3. announce; advertise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of manifestation/showing

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing manifested or shown

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of exhibiting or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing exhibited or displayed

    +

    Morphological derivations:  demonstrate, flourish, show off, display, spectacle, parade, promenade, procession, ostentation, gaudy, garish, pomp, pompous

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SP-R   ‘MANNERCONDUCT/BEHAVIOR/DEMEANOR’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. manner (= the way something or someone acts or behaves)

    1. method, the way something happens, course of action; conduct

    2. guise, form; to take the form/guise of

    2. behave/comport/conduct onself = outward display of one’s personality/thoughts/emotions/motives; behavior/conduct/deportment

    3. practice/policy

    3. bearing/carriage/demeanor

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the manner/form/practice itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the method or behavior itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  process, procedure, regimen, strategy

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-J   ‘TEMPORARY ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence + manifestation/effect]

    1. zone of high or low barometric pressure relative to surrounding pressure

    2. flash of lightning + peal of thunder [electrical phenomenon + associated sound]

    2. cold or warm air front

    3. cloud [in the sky]

    3. eye of a storm

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence]

    1. manifestation/effect of momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon

    1. low pressure zone

    1. high pressure zone

    2. flash of lightning

    2. peal of thunder

    2. cold air front

    2. warm air front

    3. cloud [in the sky] – physical occurrence

    3. impact/effect of cloud [in the sky], e.g., its hiding of the sun, it causing zero visibility as a plane flies through it, etc.

    3. eye of storm [physical occurrence]

    3. short-lived calm/still conditions associated with the eye of a storm

    +

     

    +
    +

    CLASS 16 ROOTS: concepts relating to individual volition and choice

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    C-H     ‘PLAY/RECREATION/LEISURE’
    + (These stems are often used with the various Valence categories (Section 5.2) to specify the manner of participation)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. play/recreate/amuse oneself (activity + feeling of enjoyment derived) = self-involved activity, e.g., play w/ a toy, play hide-and-seek, etc.

    1. play/recreate (activity + feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived) = formal rule-oriented activity, e.g., a board game, a sport, etc.

    2. element of participitory or self-involved leisure activity (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived), e.g., a dance, a hike, fishing, camping

    2. attend/view a formal entertainment (activity + feeling of enjoyment/diversion derived), e.g., view a show, live performance, movie, a sporting event, etc.)

    3. practice hobby or pastime (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived)

    3. engage in (a) sport activity (activity + feeling of competitive spirit) for motive of formal competition, e.g., victory-oriented

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed, i.e., a toy, game or diversion

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

    +

    SSD Derivatives:
    + sports, toys, traditional board games, participitory outdoor games

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Č-H     ‘DEGREE OF WAKEFULNESS OR CONSCIOUSNESS’
    + Note: Stems from this root are used in conjunction with various degree indicator affixes such as the EXN, EXD and SUF affixes from Sec. 7.7.6 in order to distinguish which polarity (awake vs. asleep) is implied.

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of consciousness or unconsciousness

    1. degree of activity/vivaciousness/“energy”

    2. degree of wakefulness or sleepiness

    2. degree of dormancy or hibernation

    3. degree of alertness/focus/attention/awareness or lack thereof

    3. degree of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. capacity for or faculty of consciousness

    1. object/entity/thought of which one is conscious

    1. state of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

    1. object of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

    2. capacity for or faculty of wakefulness/sleepiness

    2. that which stimulates awakening or lulls into sleep

    2. state of dormancy/hibernation

    2. object of dormancy/hibernation

    3. capacity for or faculty of alertness/attention/awareness

    3. that to or of which one is alert/attentive/aware

    3. state of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

    3. object of one’s intent/diligence/enterprise

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sleepy, listless(ness), grogginess, “fresh”, unconscious, dull, inattentive, vigilant, to “stir”, frisky, ardent, eager, persevere, bustling, zeal

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-H   ‘SEEK/SEARCH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. search, seek, look for something unknown [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

    1. hunt, hunt for [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

    2. search, seek, look for something lost [i.e., something known to exist which is missing]

    2. pursue, track down [i.e., existence certain, location surmisable]

    3. inspect

    3. quest / seek to accomplish/achieve something

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

    +

    Morphological Derivations: find, scan, reconnoiter, ransack, pry, ferret out, winnow through, fulfill a quest

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-X     ‘WANT/DESIRE/REQUEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) want/desire [emotion + object of desire]

    1. request [desire + thing requested]

    2. conscious desire based on need/lack/goal

    2. need/lack/necessity + thing needed or lacking

    3. hope/wish [feeling + thing wished/hoped for]

    3. ambition/goal/aspiration; aspire

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire

    same as above 3 stems referring to the thing desired

    same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire/need

    same as above 3 stems referring to the thing requested/needed

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: whim, fancy, inclination, appetite, “hunger”, greed, covet, propensity, aptness, eagerness, longing, crave, urge, passion, attract, tempt, persuade, allure, popularity, demand

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Q-H - ‘HUNTING & GATHERING/PLANTING & HARVESTING/SUBSISTENCE FROM THE LAND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. searching for and gathering/collection of plants, vegetable matter for purposes of sustenance

    1. plant/sow and harvest an annual crop

    2. nomadic hunting/harvesting, subsistance-style nomadic sustenance [practices + products]

    2. plant/sow and harvest a permanent seasonal crop (e.g., vines, trees, bushes, etc.)

    3. live off the land [hunting/gathering practice + product(s) derived]

    3. manage crop(s) and practice animal husbandry [sowing/raising + reaping/product(s) derived]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the hunting or gathering process

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the products hunted or gathered

    1. till/plow & plant seeds or seedlings

    1.  harvest/reap an annual crop

    2. raise/grow a permanent seasonal crop

    2. harvest/reap a permanent seasonal crop

    3. raise/grow crop(s) & manage domesticated food-producing animal(s)

    3. harvest/reap crop products and process/collect animal products

    +

    Morphological Derivations:  to farm, a farm, practice agriculture

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-H   ‘CHOICE/ALTERNTIVE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. choose/choice [from open selection]

    1. select/pick [from limited selection]

    2. prefer(ence)

    2. alternative/option

    3. settle (for)

    3. vote [w/ CPT = elect]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

    +

     

    +
    +

    CLASS 17 ROOTS: temporal concepts

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    k-j + hacek    ‘DAY/NIGHT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. day [= 24-hour period]

    same as for INFORMAL stems except applied to a particular date or scheduled day as in “my first day at work” or “Independence Day”

    2. sky

    3. degree of sunlight [use with EXN, EXD, SUF affixes, etc. from Sec. 7.7.6]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. daytime

    1. nighttime

    2. daytime sky

    2. nighttime sky

    3. daylight

    3. natural darkness

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dawn, sunrise, daybreak, evening, sunset, twilight, morning, evening, afternoon, mid-day, noontime, midnight, the “wee” hours [= Spanish ‘madrugada’]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Ķ   ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION LESS THAN ONE DAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. moment/instant

    1. ‘second’ [= basic unit of cyclic time, based on clapping of hands once together then once with back of hands together]

    2. a ‘while’

    2. ‘minute’ = 100 seconds

    3. portion of a day

    3. ‘hour’ = 100 minutes

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    +

    SSD affix used with FORMAL stems by degree:  1) 1/100 of time period 2) 1/10 3) ¼ 4) ½  5) exactly/precisely 6) twice the duration 7) 4 times 8) 10 times 9) 100 times

    +

    SSD affix used with INFORMAL Stem No. 3 by degree:  1) midnight to dawn period [Spanish ‘madrugada’] 2) dawn [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunrise’] 3) early morning 4) morning 5) midday 6) afternoon [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunset’] 7) twilight 8) evening 9) late night, from darkness till midnight

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-Ķ   ‘WAIT/AWAIT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. wait (for), await; waiting, a wait

    1. vigil/a watch; be vigilant/watchful

    2. expect; expectation; expected/impending

    2. foresee; foresight; prospective/foreseeable

    3. predict; prediction

    3. prognosticate, forecast

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ķ   ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION MORE THAN ONE DAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. expanse of time/period/duration more than 1 day

    1. subjective long-term period/era

    2. lunar period / month

    2. geologic era

    3. solar year

    3. ‘lifetime’; timespan from beginning to end of something

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    +

    Use of SSD affix give equivalents to ‘decade’, ‘century,’ ‘millenium’, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Ķ   ‘SEASON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. season, time of year

    1.  social behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., celebration, recreation, vacation, etc.)

    2. weather associated w/ particular season / seasonal weather

    2. weather-determined practice/behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., migration, mating, nesting, hibernation, etc.)

    3. cyclic state/condition of flora/fauna associated with a particular season

    3. practice/behavior/custom relating to maintenance/upkeep of crops, game and other material resources associated with a particular season (e.g., foraging, hunting, planting, harvest, storage, etc.)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + R-Ķ    ‘SPRING’
    + L-Ķ    ‘SUMMER’
    + S-Ķ    ‘AUTUMN/FALL’
    + C -Ķ    ‘WINTER’
    + PS-Ķ    ‘TROPICAL RAINY SEASON’
    + TL-Ķ    ‘TROPICAL DRY SEASON’

    +
    +

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + Adjuncts
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    +

     

    + + +/home/uakci/ithkuil.place/www/mirror/2004-en/>      Q§â5V‰§â5V™§â5Vi»https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/="4" height="17" />     &nbshttps//web.archive.orgweb/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/="4" height="17" />     &nbs/home/uakci/ithkuil.place/www/mirror/2004-en/> &nbsQx©â5Vé©â5Vù©â5Vi»https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/height="17" />  &nbhttps//web.archive.orgweb/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/height="17" />  &nb/home/uahttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/kci/ithkuil.place/www/mirror/2004-en/>  &nbindex.htmlQØ«â5VI¬â5VY¬â5Vi»https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/eight="17" />  &nbshttps//web.archive.orgweb/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/eight="17" />  &nbs/home/uakci/ithkuil.place/www/mirror/2004-en/>  &nbsindex.htmlindex.htmlQ8®â5V©®â5V¹®â5Vi»https://web.archive.org/webhttps://web.archive.org/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/17" />    https//web.archive.orgweb/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/17" />    !Эâ5V@¯â5V/home/uakci/ithkuil.place/www/mirror/2004-en/> https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/;   index.html1Эâ5V ¯â5VðóË5V$ }êQè°â5VY±â5Vi±â5Vi»https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/="17" />   &nbhttps//web.archive.orgweb/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/="17" />   &nbindex.htmlâ5V/home/uakci/ithkuil.place/www/mirror/2004-en/>   &nbindex.html1€°â5Vбâ5VÀSÚ5V8¦|`Q˜³â5V ´â5V´â5Vi»https://web.archivehttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/7" />    https//web.archive.orgweb/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/7" />    !0³â5V ´â5Vindex.html/www/mirror/2004-en/>    index.html10³â5V€´â5VÞ¶QH¶â5V¹¶â5Vɶâ5Vindex.html»https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/on" width="4" height="17" />&https//web.archive.orgweb/20090608022319id_/http:/wwwhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/.ithkuil.net/on" width="4" height="17" />&!àµâ5VP·â5V/home/uakci/ithkuil.place/www/mirror/2https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/004-en/>&index.html1àµâ5V0·â5VMÈVQø¸â5Vi¹â5Vy¹â5Vi»https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022319id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/n" width="4" height="17" />&nhttps//web.archive.orgweb/20 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-lexicon.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-lexicon.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f5d166 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-lexicon.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,7615 @@ + + + +Untitled Document + + + + +
    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    + +
    +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + Adjuncts
    +

     

    +

    The Lexicon

    +

    Currently, the lexicon lists 16200 stems as derived from 900 roots (see + Sections 2.2, 2.3, + and 10.1.1 for an explanation + of the structure of individual roots and their 18 stems). This represents only + a random sampling from the 17 different morpho-semantic classes of Ithkuil roots + (see Sec. 10.2 for an explanation + of these classes). Additional roots and their stems will be periodically added +to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most recently added roots (August 2008) are marked in blue-colored font.

    +

    The reader should be aware that the glosses (i.e., the English translations + or definitions) for each of the stems below are at times somewhat arbitrary, + as Ithkuil roots and their stems have been conceptualized from the cognitive + level up, without regard as to whether they correspond necessarily to an existing + word or phrase in English or other languages. As a result, some of the English + glosses chosen as representations for the Ithkuil stems are approximations at + best. This is especially true for verbal glosses, since the translation of an + Ithkuil verbal formative is usually dependent on the specific Conflation, Format + or Derivation (see Sec. 5.4). +

    +

    Ideally, the best way to represent the meanings of Ithkuil stems would be to + use a semantic “meta-language” comprised of a closed set of semantically + universal (or near-universal) “primitives” to create semantic “formulas” + which define the use of a particular stem. (The design and use of such a meta-language + to translate the meanings of words from one language to another can be found + in the writings of linguist Anna Wierzbicka.) However, the author has chosen + not to pursue such an effort for the sake of time, as such an analysis for all + of the 3600 roots and their 64,800 stems would likely take decades to complete.

    +

    In regard to the list below, note that in some cases both a nominal (i.e., + noun) and verbal gloss have been provided, while in others only one or the other + is present. Nevertheless, the reader should keep in mind at all times that Ithkuil + stems always convey both a nominal and verbal meaning, as explained in detail + in Section 2.6.1.

    +

     

    +

    CLASS 1 ROOTS: numerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics +

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-Š ‘WHOLE NUMBER/INTEGER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a (whole) number, numeral, digit, integer

    Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to formal, authoritative, permanent context as per Section 3.7

    2. having more than one aspect; multifaceted

    3. numerical series/sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. multiply (by)

    1. divide (by)

    2. consisting of more than instance; multiple instance(s) of

    2. having more than one part; consisting of parts; non-unitary; non-unified

    3. exponential/logarithmic progression

    3. negative exponential/logarithmic progression

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-S   ‘ONE/UNITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. one

    1. single entity / single / singular

    2. (something) alone/lone/sole

    2. (something) isolated / apart / separate

    3. (something) unique

    3. 9something) independent / self-reliant / self-sufficient

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. unit (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    1. unify/unite; unit (in terms of being indivisible)

    Same as above 3 stems in terms of there being no other instance/example thereof

    Same as above 3 stems in terms of entity being indivisible

    2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being indivisible)

    3. unique (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    3. unique (in terms of being indivisible)

    +

    EXAMPLES OF MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  individual(ity), solitude, lonely, loneliness

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-S   ‘TWO/DUALITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set of two / a duo; to be two in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make dual / having 2 uses or aspects / bi- / twofold

    3. second one in a sequence; be/make second in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. twice the number of something; to double / multiply by two

    1. half; halve / divide by or into two

    2. two times [= iterations] / twice; to be/make/do twice

    2. be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)

    3. to the second power / squared; to square / raise to the second power

    3. to the negative second power / inverse square; to divide by the square of

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-S   ‘SEVEN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 7 / a septet; to be 7 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make seven-faceted / having 7 uses or aspects / septi- / sevenfold

    3. seventh one in a sequence; be/make seventh in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 7 times the number of something; to septuple / multiply by 7

    1. a seventh / divide by 7 or into 7 parts

    2. 7 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 7 times

    2. be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts

    3. to the 7th power; raise to the 7th power

    3. to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN FOR ‘TWO’ AND ‘SEVEN’ APPLIES TO THE REMAINING NUMBER ROOTS AS FOLLOWS:
    + Š-S     ‘3’
    + P-S    ‘4’
    + Ţ-S    ‘5’
    + T-S    ‘6’
    + X-S    ‘8’
    + F-S    ‘9’
    + M-S   ‘10’
    + R-S    ‘100’
    + Q-S    ‘10,000’
    + Ç-S   ‘100,000,000’
    + Ċ-S    ‘10 QUADRILLION’
    +

    +
    +


    + CLASS 2 ROOTS: intellectual concepts, thought, ideation

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-P   ‘FACT/KNOW/LEARN/UNDERSTAND/EXPERTISE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ontological fact;  observe/notice an ontological fact

    1. study/practice [= formal process to acquire skill or knowledge]

    2. epistemological/conventionalized fact; know fact

    2. realize/understand/comprehension via act of insight

    3. experience/proficiency [= know via familiarity]

    3. understand [= know via sharing/communication of knowledge]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of knowing

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing known

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of study/understanding

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing studied or understood

    +

    INFORMAL Stem Derivations:  find out, discover, determine, wisdom
    + FORMAL Stem Derivations:  learn, insight, enlightenment, education, school, scholar, student

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-T  - ‘(CRIMINAL) LAW/ADJUDICATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. statute, a particular law

    1. act of official law enforcement (enforcement authority + manifested act of enforcement/administration)

    2. applicability of a statute, law to a particular situation or geopolitical area, rule of law

    2. jurisdiction/applicability of enforcement powers to particular situation or geopolitical area

    3. investigate an alleged violation of law; act of criminal investigation

    3. try/adjudicate a criminal complaint, go to trial

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. statement (the wording) of a law or statute

    1. application of, or compliance with a law or statute

    1. authority to enforce law or statute

    1. act/manifestion of enforcing/administering law or statute

    2. applicability of a statute or law

    2. state of being subject to, or required to obey/ comply w/ a statute or law

    2. jurisdiction of law enforcement powers

    2. state of being subject to the jurisdiction of a law enforcement entity

    3. gather material evidence as part of criminal investigation, e.g., questioning of witnesses, viewing of records, inspecting clues and material evidence

    3. act by law enforcement for purposes of criminal identification or apprehension, e.g., interrogation or component of sting-type operation, or legal “trap” set up

    3. presentation of evidence in support of alleged crime; prosecution

    3. formal weighing of evidence by judge or jury

    +

    Morphological Derivations: code of law, rule of law, rule on an adjudicatory matter, verdict, justice
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  obtaining of warrant/authorization to detain, seizure/detention of suspect, interrogation of suspect, gathering of evidence, arrest, detention in jail cell, indictment, preparation of prosecution, incarceration

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  stake-out/surveillance, reconnaisance, infiltration of mole, component of sting operation, identification of suspect

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-P   ‘GOOD/BENEFICIAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. good [= beneficial to context]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to concrete, range-of-moment tangible contexts, whereas INFORMAL stems are applied to general, metaphysical contexts.

    2. good [= morally right; beneficial metaphysically]

    3. good [= advantageous/effective]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act, event or situation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on desired outcome/reward/benefit

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-T   ‘QUESTION/INQUIRY/ANSWER/RESPONSE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. question & answer [statement requesting information + the answer/reply/response thereto]

    1. inquire/inquiry + answer

    2. query/investigate [investigative act + discovery made]

    2. research + findings

    3. ponder/introspect [self-questioning + conclusion]

    3. analyze + results of analysis

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. question [statement requesting information]

    1. response/reply/answer [information desired or given]

    1. inquire/inquiry

    1. answer [i.e., result of inquiry]

    2. query

    2. answer (to query) [i.e., cause/reason for what is being looked into or investigated]

    2. research

    2. finding(s)/discovery made via research

    3. ponder/introspect; to question oneself mentally

    3. conclusion [(desired) result of self-analysis]

    3. analyze

    3. conclusion/results of analysis

    +

    Morphological derivations:  problem; solution; solve; resolution; resolve; elucidate

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-T   ‘DEITY / SPIRITUAL ENTITY / SUPERNATURAL ENTITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (a) spirit / supernatural entity

    1. angel

    2. deity / god / “overseer” spirit

    2. God / Supreme Being / Creator deity

    3. demon

    3. the Devil / Satan

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Q    ‘REMEMBER/RECALL/MEMORY/RECORD’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. memory; remember (= recall) [whether unwilled/affective or self -willed/voluntary]

    1. trace/track/vestige

    2. retain / retention of something past into present

    2. memorial (object/action formally recognizing or acknowledging something/someone past)

    3. remember [= commit to memory] / memorize

    3. to record / a record

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. a memory itself (i.e., the content thereof)

    1. faculty of memory/recall (i.e., the process of using one’s memory)

    same as above 3 stems with focus on that which the physical manifestation memorializes or gives evidence/remembrance of

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the object/event/physical manifestation itself which conveys the memory or record

    2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the content thereof)

    2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the process thereof)

    3. thing remembered or memorized [=event/act/situation/state, etc. committed to memory]

    3. process of committing something to memory

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  recollect(ion), remind, memorize, memento, monument, archive, commemorate, commemoration, souvenir/keepsake, relic, to bear in mind, ponder/relish a memory, sear into one’s memory

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PŠ-K     ‘FANTASTIC OR IMAGINARY CREATURE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fantastic or imaginary creature/beast

    1. mythological/symbolic creature/beast

    2. winged fantastic creature/beast

    2. legendary being/creature/beast, allegedly real

    3. reptilian/saurian fantastic creature/beast

    3. alien/extraterrestrial being

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 1: 
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  5) dragon
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  centaur, sphinx, satyr, unicorn, chimera, Phoenix, Scylla, Pegasus
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  vampyre, werewolf, yeti,

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-K   ‘THOUGHT/IDEA/REASON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. think / cogitate + thought or idea cogitated

    1. to reason / use logic + content of reasoning

    2. consider + idea considered

    2. analyze + object of analysis

    3. propose + argument or idea proposed

    3. abstract (= to mentally construct) + concept

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. think / cogitate; an act of thinking

    1. a thought / an idea

    1. to reason / use logic; act of reasoning

    1. object of reasoning

    2. consider; an act of consideration

    2. a thought or idea considered

    2. analyze; act of analysis

    2. object of analysis

    3. propose / posit

    3. a proposition or argument

    3. to abstract / conceive / conceptualize; act of abstraction or conception

    3. concept

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: ponder, deliberate/deliberation, plan, contemplate, theory, hypothesis, deduce/deduction, postulate, infer(ence), judge, conclude/conclusion

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    S-T  ‘MIND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mind / mental (faculty + use)

    1. sentience / capacity for self awareness and self-identity + act of self-reflection

    2. perception / awareness (faculty + use)

    2. conscious + subconscious mind

    3. instinct (faculty + practice)

    3. intellect / wits /mind as efficacious tool

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. mental faculty / mind

    1. application of mental faculty; act of mentation / use one’s mind

    1. feeling of sentience

    1. act of self-reflection

    2. faculty of perception or awareness

    2. use of perception or awareness; to perceive / be aware of

    2. conscious mind

    2. subconscious mind

    3. instinct

    3. instinctual act; to act instinctively

    3. intellect; use one’s intellect

    3. product of one’s intellect / intellectual feat

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: philosophy, metaphysics

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ST-K   ‘COMPARISON/MEASUREMENT/WEIGH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. compare/contrast

    1. measure

    2. discriminate/distinguish

    2. discern

    3. “weigh”/ponder choice/pro-con analysis

    3. relate/collate/determine relationships between

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or outcome

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 3 ROOTS: concepts relating to change and causation

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-C      ‘WEATHER CONDITION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (current) weather condition

    1. adverse weather condition

    2. amenable weather condition (warm seasons)

    2. adverse weather condition (warm seasons)

    3. amenable weather condition (cold seasons)

    3. adverse weather condition (cold seasons)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: climate, the weather, clime
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  mild, balmy, sunny, warm, still/calm, gently breezy
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  brisk, cool, clear, still/calm, crisp, light snowfall, drizzle
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2: mugginess, heat, drought, summer rainstorm, summer flood, mud, hurricane/    cyclone/typhoon, smog, hot wind
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  fog/mist, cloudy/overcast, wind, rain, snow, blizzard, rainstorm, tornado/twister, flood

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-C  - ‘BAKE/SOMETHING BAKED’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. bake (something); something baked [method + result]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except that context is that of a commercial venture, i.e., food for sale, as in a restaurant or grocery store

    2. oven [= environment or primary infrastructure used for baking]

    3. baking pan [= primary supporting interface for manipulating the food being baked]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bake; baking (as a cooking method)

    1. food cooked by baking; something baked

    2. oven (as primary baking environment)

    2. oven (as functional heating/cooking means)

    3. baking pan (as supporting interface within the oven)

    3. baking pan (as primary accessory/tool needed for manipulating, removing, shaping the baked food)

    +

    Derivatives:  baked goods, bakery, baker
    + The following roots follow the same model as the above:
    + T-C  roast
    + P-Ċ  toast
    +Š-Č  fry
    +F-C  griddle
    +T-Ċ  smoke
    +Ķ-Č  sun-dry
    +X-C  sautee
    +TL-Ċ  simmer
    +T-Č  boil
    +S-C  steam
    +ŢL-Ċ  parboil
    +Č-Č  stew
    +R-C  brew
    +KL-Ċ  marinade
    +Ţ-Č  broil
    +L-C  grill
    +PL-Ċ  barbecue
    +H-Č  poach
    +N-C  pressure-cook
    +XL-Ċ  slow-cook (e.g., in crockpot, Dutch oven, claypot, Tandoori pot, etc.)
    +N-Č  flash-fry
    +Ļ-C  sear
    +FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing sushi, making a peanut butter sandwich, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L- Č ‘BINARY REVERSAL / POLARITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. switch to opposing or complementary value

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Sec. 3.7.

    2. switch or reverse [linear] direction

    3. toggle between active/positive or inactive/negative state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. set to positive, primary, or initial value

    1. set to negative, secondary, or complementary value

    2. change current course or direction

    2. reverse course or direction

    3. active / activate / turn on / render active / on / positive state

    3. inactive / deactivate / turn off / render inactive / off / negative state

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-C  TOOL/INSTRUMENT

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tool, instrument, implement as extension of bodily appendage(s) (e.g., as per force, strength, precision, reach, pressure, instrument as labor-saving or efficiency-increasing means etc.)

    1. utensil, specialized implement for assisting in refined task

    2. tool, instrument as means of “defying nature” (e.g., wheel, wedge, fulcrum, etc.

    2. mechanical/motorized/electric/electronic implement/device

    3. supply-like resource/implement used by itself or in  association with specific tool (e.g., nail, tack, clothespin, hook)

    3. supply-like resource/implement used as fuel or input for mechanical/electrical/electronic implement/device

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  equipment, gear (collection of associated tools/supplies), apparatus, appliance, paraphernalia, machine
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1: awl, pliers, screwdriver, wrench, pick, shovel/spade, chisel, file, stick/pole/bar
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  wheel, jack, wedge, fulcrum, pulley, sling, lever, gear, spool
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3: nail, tack, clip/fastener, hook, screw, bolt, nut, piece of wire, screwdriver bit/head
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  anvil, fork, spoon, scissors, vice/clamp, plane, saw, tweezers, puncher
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  drill, power saw, engine/motor
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  drill bit,

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Č   ‘SWITCH/ALTERATION BETWEEN MULTI-VALUED SETTINGS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. switch to a different value or setting

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

    2. veer, change course

    3. change to a less active or more active setting; increase or decrease intensity or setting

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. switch to higher/greater value or setting

    1. switch to lower/lesser value or setting

    2. change to more difficult, dangerous, or unpredictable course

    2. change to easier, safer, or more predictable course

    3. increase to higher/stronger intensity

    3. decrease to lower/weaker intensity

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-C   ‘GROWTH/CULTIVATION/HUSBANDRY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. grow; stage of growth

    1. stage of plant growth; grow (plant)

    2. raise; look after; foster; function as guardian

    2. till/cultivate/raise crop; stage of cultivation (e.g., etc.)

    3. nurture / provide requirements for growth; husbandry

    3. to garden/specialized act of plant nurturage (e.g., prune, graft, weed, etc.)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

    +

    Stems of this root are often used with the MAT suffix
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2:  plow, sow, irrigate, fertilize; hoe, reap, pick, dry, store
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 3:  prune, graft, weed, transplant, thin out
    + Morphological Derivatives:  shepherd, garden, gardener, field (of crop), crop, harvest, plow/plough, hoe, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Č ‘LARGE IMPLEMENT FOR COUNTERING GRAVITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ladder [object itself + use]

    1. winch/windlass

    2. stair

    2. expandable boom

    3. bridge; span

    3. derrick

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  staircase, stairway

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Q-Č ‘PHYSICAL CONTACT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. physical contact between 2 or more objects [contact + effect]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that the context is specific to physical contact by one’s “default” appendage(s) for volitional physical contact, i.e., hands/fingers, beak, snout, tongue, pseudopod, tendril, tentacle, etc.

    2. application of physical pressure/force + effect

    3. move or set in motion via physical contact + resulting motion

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on physical act of contact

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on resulting effect/movement

    +

    EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THESE STEMS: feel, push, stroke, caress, tap, nudge, hit, strike, slap, punch, shove, press, rub, knock over, fall [due to being pushed], injure [via striking], etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-Č   - WEAPON

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hand-held or hand-thrown bladed weapon for cutting or stabbing [object + use]

    1. ballistically launched projectile [projectile + use]

    2. pointed-tipped handheld or propelled weapon for piercing [object + use]

    2. explosive/incendiary substance/device [substance/device + use]

    3. blunt force-driven hand-held or propelled weapon [object + use]

    3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon [substance + use]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bladed weapon itself

    1. use/function of bladed weapon

    1. ballistically launched projectile

    1. use/function of ballistically launched projectile

    2. pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon itself

    2. use/function of pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon

    2. explosive/incendiary substance/device

    2. use/function of explosive/incendiary substance/device

    3. blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon itself

    3. use/function of blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon

    3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon

    3. use/function of gaseous/chemical/other weapon

    +

    SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1:  1) dagger  2) switchblade  3) axe  4) bayonet  5) sword  6) scimitar
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  arrow, lance, spear, javelin, harpoon
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  mace, club, hammer, catapult fodder, shot from slingshot. cudgel
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  bullet, shell, shrapnel, cannonball, shot, rocket, self-propelled missile
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  bomb, grenade, plastic explosive, firecracker, dynamite stick
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  gas irritant/poison, poison chemical vapor, liquid irritant/poison, radioactive compound used as weapon

    +

    NOTE:  In Ithkuil, guns, catapults, slings and all other firearms or devices for shooting/hurling projectiles utilize Degree 1 of the UTE suffix ('tool/implement for doing X'), as it is not the firearm/shooting device that kills but the projectile shot/fired from it. Thus a gun is a "bullet-implementer".  Care must be taken in assigning appropriate noun Cases or verbal Formats to stems associated with ballistic aerial weapons to distinguish the fact that it is the projectile that is the actual "weapon" and not the object it was fired/projected from. This is the good old "shoot bullets" vs. "shoot guns" vs. "shoot bullets from a gun" vs. "shoot him with a gun" vs. "shoot him with bullets from a gun" problem . This which would translate into Ithkuil/Ilaksh as "I bulleted him due to/enabled by a gun" or incorparatively as "I gun-bulleted him" using either the RESULTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him as a result of concurrently gun-activating") or the INSTRUMENTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him by the enabling means of gun-activating").

    +
    +


    + CLASS 4 ROOTS: concepts relating to the physical attributes of organic + matter

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    C-M  ‘SENSE OF TASTE / THE TASTE OF SOMETHING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to taste a taste (taste faculty + flavor tasted)

    1. to taste for an anticipated/expected flavor

    2. tongue/palate (tissue containing taste buds + taste buds themselves)

    2. instrument/device for detecting flavor + flavor detected

    3. imagine a taste (act + the flavor imagined)

    3. create/manufacture a flavor + flavor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to taste; faculty of taste

    1. flavor

    1. to taste

    1.

    2. tongue/palate  (as sensory organs of tasting)

    2. taste bud

    2. instrument for detecting flavor

    2. flavor detected via instrument

    3. imagine a taste in one’s mind

    3. an imagined taste

    3. create/manufacture a flavor

    3. flavor created

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  tasty, savory, flavorful
    + SSD Derivatives:  1) bitter 2) chemical-like taste 3)  salty  4) foul/rancid taste 5) sweet  6) sweet & sour  7) sour 8)  hot (= spicy)  9) umami

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    C-Ņ   ‘SPECIALIZED VOLITIONAL BODILY SOUNDS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-linguistic sound made by mouth (i.e., tongue, teeth, lips)

    1.  consonant

    2. non-linguistic sound made from throat or vocal chords

    2. vowel

    3. sound made by non-oral, non-vocal part of the body

    3. phoneme

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

    +

    SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 1:  1) whistle 2) hum 3) “raspberry” 4) hoot/whoop 5) non-avian animal call 6) bird call 7) scream 8) click-sound (i.e., w/ ingressive airstream) 9) non-phonemic consonantal gibberish sound

    +

    SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 3:  1) slap 2) rubbing sound 3) footfall (--> stomp) 4) snap of fingers 5) finger tap 6) toe/foot tap 7) suction-based sound (e.g., “armpit fart”) 8) knuckle crack  9) other joint cracking

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ċ-N   ‘IN-LAW/FOSTER RELATIONS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of parent/child in-law relationship

    1. member of foster family

    2. male member of parent/child in-law relationship

    2. male member of foster family

    3. female member of parent/child in-law relationship

    3. female member of foster family

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. parent in-law

    1. child in-law

    1. foster parent

    1. foster child

    2. father in-law

    2. son in-law

    2. foster father

    2. foster son

    3. mother in-law

    3. daughter in-law

    3. foster mother

    3. foster daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ç-M   ‘LOWER ORDER LIFE FORM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. lower-order life form (i.e. non-vertebrate)

    same as INFORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

    2. microbe

    3. non-microbial animal

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bacterium

    1. soft-bodied animal (e.g., jellyfish, sponge, slime mold)

    2. virus

    2. exoskeletal animal (e.g., insect, arthropod, crustacean)

    3. protist

    3. endoskeletal animal

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ç-Ņ    ‘HEAR(ING)/SOUND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hear a sound; aural faculty + sound heard

    1. listen to a (specific) sound / discern aurally a (specific) sound

    2. ear (aural organ + physical part of body, i.e., Spanish oído + oreja)

    2. aural instrument / device for detecting sound waves + sound detected

    3. imagine a sound (act + sound)

    3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to hear; aural faculty

    1. sound

    1. listen

    1. (selected) sound

    2. ear (aural organ)

    2. ear (body part)

    2. aural instrument

    2. sound detected via aural instrument

    3. imagine a sound / hear in one’s mind

    3. imagined sound

    3. create or manufacture a sound

    3. sound created

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: speaker, megaphone, telephone, stereo, microphone, hearing aid

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-N  ‘COUSIN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cousin [male or female]

    1. step-cousin [male or female]

    2. male cousin

    2. male step-cousin

    3. female cousin

    3. female step-cousin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s mother]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s father]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepmother]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepfather]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s mother]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s father]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s mother]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s father]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    FL-Ņ    ‘TYPES OF HARD OR NON-LIVING BODILY TISSUES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tooth

    1. head hair

    2. fingernail/toenail/claw

    2. whisker / facial hair

    3. hard growth of skin (e.g., wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar)

    3. pubic/armpit hair

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

    +

    mustache, beard, sideburn, bald
    + incisor/fang, bicuspid, molar
    + wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-N   ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. nuclear family member

    1. non-sanguine family member

    2. male family member

    2. non-sanguine male family member

    3. female family member

    3. non-sanguine female family member

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. parent

    1. child/offspring

    1. step-parent

    1. step-child

    2. father

    2. boy child / son

    2. step-father

    2. step-son

    3. mother

    3. girl child / daughter

    3. step-mother

    3. step-daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KS-Ņ    ‘COMPONENT OF BODY’S RESPIRATORY/CARDIO-VASCULATORY SYSTEM

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. heart

    1. lung

    2. vascular component

    2. component of respiratory system

    3. (an amount of) blood

    3. oxygen

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  ventricle, atrium, vein, coronary artery, capillary,
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 2:  blood vessel, vein, artery, capillary, aorta, vena cava
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1: bronchus, bronchiolus, alveolar sac
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 21:  nasal cavity, trachea

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ķ-Ņ   ‘ABDOMEN/THORAX/TORSO/CHEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. thorax/torso [both body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “mid-section” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. abdomen/midsection (lower front half of torso) [both body part and function]

    3. chest (upper front of torso) [both  body part and function)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Ņ  ‘CLASSES OF ANIMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. animal of land or air (i.e., “terroid”)

    Same as INFORMAL holistic stems but domesticated, tamed, captive, or bred

    2. waterlife (i.e., “aquoid”)

    3. amphibian

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems but domesticable

    same as above 3 stems but undomesticable

    same as above FORMAL stems but as pets or tamed

    same as above FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, breeding stock, etc.)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-N   ‘GENDER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. gender

    1. psycho-sexual identity

    2. neuter

    2. asexual / psychologically neuter

    3. androgynous

    3. sexual preference/orientation

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male (anatomically)

    1. female (anatomically)

    1. masculine (psycho-behaviorally)

    1. feminine (psycho-behaviorally)

    2. sterile (incapable of procreation)

    2. genderless (neither male nor female anatomically)

    2. celibate/chaste

    2. asexual; devoid of sexual desire

    3. androgyne / androgynous (difficultyfor others to determine gender)

    3. hermophrodite / hermophroditic (anatomically both male & female)

    3. sexual preference or orientation psychologically

    3. sexual orientation in actuality (as manifested)

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  homosexual, bisexual, heterosexual, bisexual with preference for heterosexuality, bisexual with preference for homosexuality, homosexual with preference for functioning in male role, homosexual with preference for functioning in female role

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KL-Ņ    ‘BODILY JOINT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. bodily joint (physical joint + function); to flex joint

    1. specialized bodily joint/juncture

    2. ball & socket-type bodily joint

    2. vertebra

    3. standard-type joint

    3. wrist/ankle/waist (lateral circular joint type)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to external hard or knob-like external body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to internal joint and its function/process

    Same as above 3 stems referring to external hard or knob-like external body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to internal joint and its function/process

    +

    hip/flex hip, shoulder, flex shoulder
    + finger joint, toe joint, knee, elbow
    + spinal column; flex spine
    + wrist, ankle waist

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŞ-Ņ    ‘NECK’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. neck (as gestalt entity) [body part + function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “neck” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

    2. neck (as bodily support/swivel point for head) [body part + function

    3. neck (as narrowest, most vulnerable body part) [body part + function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. neck as physical body part

    1. neck as functional body part

    2. neck as bodily support/swivel point for head

    2. neck as functional support/swivel point for head

    3. neck as physically narrowest, most vulnerable body part)

    3. neck as functionally narrowest, most vulnerable body part

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  nape, throat (i.e., front part of neck)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-M  ‘SIBLING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sibling

    1. step-sibling

    2. brother

    2. step-brother

    3. sister

    3. step-sister

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. half-sibling [shared mother]

    1. half-sibling [shared father]

    1. step-sibling [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    1. step-sibling [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    2. half-brother [shared mother]

    2. half-brother [shared father]

    2. step-brother [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    2. step-brother [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    3. half-sister [shared mother]

    3. half-sister [shared father]

    3. step-sister [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    3. step-sister [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-N   ‘CLASSES OF WATERLIFE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. skeletal/vertebral waterlife form

    Same as INFORMAL holistic stems referring to tamed, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

    2. exoskeletal/arthropod form

    3. soft-bodied waterlife form

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. jellyfish-like lifeform

    1. gilled/finned fish

    Same INFORMAL complementary stems referring to tamed, pet, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

    2. crustacean

    2. “non-standard”-shaped fish (e.g., ray, eel, squid, octopus, etc.)

    3. shellfish

    3. sea mammal (e.g., whale, seal, walrus, etc.)

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  fisherman, whale hunter, aquarium, fishery, fish hatchery

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ļ-Ņ     ‘CLASSES OF LAND/AIR ANIMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mammal

    Same as INFORMAL stems referring to domesticated, tamed, bred, pet, etc. individual

    2. non-mammalian, non-avian, non-reptilian animal, i.e.,  insect/arthropod/arachnid/worm/mollusk

    3. avian or reptilian lifeform

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. insect

    1. mollusc

    2. worm

    2. bird

    3. arthropod/arachnid

    3. reptile

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-L   ‘TRAGICOMIC-BASED VOCAL/FACIAL GESTURE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mouth gesture

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) gestures/vocalizations (INFORMAL stems are affective/non-volitional)

    2. vocalization

    3. facial expression

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. smile

    1. frown

    2. laugh

    2. whine, moan

    3. “light up” (referring to one’s face’)

    3. crestfallen look, look of dejection

    +

    SSD DERIVATIONS:  scowl

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-N   ‘FOOD PLANT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. plant grown/harvested/cultured as food source

    1. food dish/serving derived from plant

    2. vegetable

    2. food dish/serving derived from vegetable

    3. fruit

    3. food dish/serving derived from fruit

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to plant itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to edible part of plant or plant in edible condition following any necessary processing

    Same as above 3 stems referring to serving/dish itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to consumption/ingestion  of the dish

    +

    SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL stems:  stem, leaf, seed/nut, pod/fruit, flower, juice, sap, rhizome, root/tuber
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL stems:  soup, stew, salad, sauteed, deep-fried, boiled, steamed, baked, fancy/other style of preparation

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-M   ‘SMELL/ODOR’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to smell (= use olfactory sense) + odor smelled

    1. examine or inspect via smelling + odor smelled

    2. nose (olfactory organ + facial proboscis)

    2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument + odor detected

    3. imagine a smell (act + imagined odor)

    3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to smell (= use olfactory sense)

    1. an odor, a smell; to give off an odor

    1. examine or inspect via smelling

    1. odor detected via inspection or examination

    2. nose (= olfactory organ)

    2. nose (= facial proboscis)

    2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument

    2. odor detected via olfactory instrument

    3. imagine an odor

    3. an imagined odor

    3. create or manufacture an odor

    3. manufactured odor

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sniff, aroma, “bouquet”, perfume, stench

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ņ   ‘STATE OF HEALTH/ILLNESS/WELL-BEING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. state of physical health / physical well-being

    1. state of mental health / mental well-being

    2. physical illness; sick(ness)

    2. mental illness

    3. physical injury/wound/lesion/trauma

    3. mental trauma

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

    +

    SSD affix used with Stem 2 of both INFORMAL and FORMAL stem in conjunction w/ the AGC2/7 affix give:  1) nurse 2) emergency technician 3) therapist 4) caregiver 5) doctor 6) surgeon 7) healer 8) “medicine man” 9) medical assistant
    + Derivations:  madness, craziness, insanity

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PL-Ņ    ‘THROAT (interior tract of neck)/GULLET’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. throat (= interior respiratory/digestive tract of neck)

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “throat/gullet” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

    2. gullet (= tube- or trumpet-shaped digestive conduit from oral cavity)

    3. interior chamber of throat (containing pharynx, larynx, plus epiglottal and glottal structures)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    SSD derivatives:  pharynx, larynx, syrinx, epiglottis, glottis, trachea/windpipe, vocal fold/chord, hyoid bone / “Adam’s apple”

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PS-Ņ    ‘GASTRO-INTESTINAL/UROLOGICAL COMPONENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. gastrointestinal component (body part + function)

    1. urological component (body part + function)

    2. gastrointestinal process / digestive process / digest(ion) (physical process + nutritive function

    2. urological process (physical process + waste elimination function)

    3. (amount/piece of) feces, dung, excrement

    3. (an amount of) urine, piss, pee

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part/process  itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  gastrointestinal tract
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  esophagus, stomach, guts/viscera/intestine, jejenum, ilium, colon, rectum, small intestine/bowel, anus
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  kidney, ureter, adrenal gland, bladder, urethra

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PŞ-Ņ    ‘PREGNANCY/GESTATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. pregnancy/gestation

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring exclusively to human pregnancy/gestation

    2. manifestation of morning sickness

    3. contraction during labor

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical condition/state
    +  

    Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  conception, labor, birth/delivery

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Q-M   ‘HIGHER ORDER ANIMAL LIFE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. higher order being (i.e., large bilateral vertebrate with discrete organs)

    1. authorized or officially designated person or animal/beast

    2. human, person

    2. official, authorized person

    3. non-human higher order being or animal, beast

    3. pet or zoo animal/beast

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male higher order being

    1. female higher order being

    1. authorized male animal/ or officially designated man or beast

    1. authorized or officially designated woman or female animal/ beast

    2. human male, man

    2. human female, woman

    2. official, authorized man

    2. official, authorized woman

    3. male higher order animal or beast

    3. female higher order animal or beast

    3. male pet or zoo animal/beast

    3. female pet or zoo animal/beast

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: boy, girl, child [developmentally, not as offspring], population, group of people, crowd, mob, assembly, people, masses, elder, crone, adult, youth, adulthood, fetus, adolescent, zoo
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-N  DÈ-  ‘HAND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hand (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “hand” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. hand (as holder, grasper, striker) [both physical body part and function]; to grasp-->hold

    3. leg (as manipulator, handler, feeler) [both physical body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. hand as physical body part

    1. function of hand as “feeler”- focuser of body’s tactile sense

    2. hand as main tool of body

    2. function of hand as holder/grasper

    3. hand as limb/extension

    3. function of hand as manipulator/handler

    +

    SSD derivatives:  1) fist 2) palm 3) knuckle 4) hand as flat “blade”, e.g., for karate chop 5) finger 6) thumb 7) “butt” of hand [=lower part of palm] 8) fingernail  9) bottom side of fist [as when pounding fist onto table; for individual fingers, use following affixes + SSD/5 for ‘finger’:  index = “main finger” or “first finger”, middle finger = “mid-finger” or “long finger” or “2nd finger”, ring finger = “3rd finger”, pinkie = 4th finger or small(est) finger

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-Ņ    ‘COLLATERAL FAMILY MEMBER/RELATIVE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. paternal collateral relative

    1. maternal collateral relative

    2. paternal male collateral relative

    2. maternal male collateral relative

    3. paternal female collateral relative

    3. maternal female collateral relative

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. paternal aunt/uncle

    1. paternal aunt/uncle

    1. maternal nephew/neice

    1. maternal aunt/uncle

    2. paternal uncle

    2. paternal uncle

    2. maternal nephew

    2. maternal uncle

    3. paternal aunt

    3. paternal aunt

    3. maternal neice

    3. maternal aunt

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-M  ‘NUTRITION / NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. food and drink; to eat and drink

    1. eat a serving of food or drink; to dine

    2. food; to eat

    2. prepared/cooked food; to eat prepared food

    3. drink (i.e., substance drunk); to drink

    3. processed drink or spirits; to drink processed drink or spirits

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. eat and drink as biological process

    1. food and drink (substances consumed)

    same as abvoe 3 stems but with focus on the process of consumption

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on the items consumed

    2. eat/ingest/consume

    2. item of solid food

    3. drink/imbibe

    3. liquid (to be) drunk

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: cooking, meal, repast, feast, become drunk, gorge(d); chef, cook, brewer

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ŗ-N    ‘CLASSES OF MAMMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. marsupial

    Same as INFORMAL stems referring to tamed, domesticated, pet, bred, etc. individual

    2. egg-laying mammal, ovoviviparous mammal

    3. placental mammal

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to male

    Same as above 3 stems referring to female

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    Ŗ-Ņ   - ‘INFIRMITY/PHYSICAL DISABILITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. general weakness/infirmity (e.g., age-related or illness-related)

    1. acute infirmity, attack, flare-up

    2. specific physical disability or abnormality; disabled

    2. injury; injure(d)

    3. lame, crippled, handicapped, impaired (permanently or chronically)

    3. impaired; decreased mobility (temporary)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    S-M    ‘LEG’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. leg (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. leg (as support) [both physical body part and function]

    3. leg (as ambulator, extension, limb) [both physical body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. leg as physical body part

    1. leg as manipulating body part (e.g., for kicking, stomping)

    2. leg as or balancing appendage for body

    2. leg as support against gravity

    3. leg as limb/extension

    3. leg as ambulatory organ

    +

    SIMILAR PATTERNS EXIST FOR:
    + Ņ-N  ‘TAIL’
    + K-Ņ   ‘FOOT’ -->   SSD Derivatives:  heel, ball of foot, upper side of foot, arch, plantar fascia, achilles tendon

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    S-N  ‘PLANT TYPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. branched/leaved plant including its fruit or flower

    same as FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

    2. grass-like or stalked plant including its seed or grain

    3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold including its spore or cyst

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. branched/leaved plant

    1. flower, fruit, or blossom of branched/leaved plant

    2. grass-like or stalked plant

    2. seed, grain, or kernel of grass-like or stalked plant

    3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold

    3. spore or cyst of moss-like or fungal plant or mold

    +

    SSD for Stem 2:  1) grass  2) ground-covering plant 3) clover  4) weed 5) wildgrass
    + SSD for Stem 3:  1) lichen  2)  mushroom  3)  mold  4)  slime mold 5) moss  6) non-mushroom fungus

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    S-Ņ     ‘RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act + sound]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act + sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act + sound]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act]

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [sound]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [sound]

    +

    Morphological derivations:  clear throat, harrumph, hacking cough, cough up

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SX-M   ‘MOUTH/ORAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mouth [= oral orifice]

    Same as INFORMAL Stems but for non-animal entity or figuratively

    2. lip [use of DPX = lips]

    3. interior of mouth/oral cavity

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on bodily location/physical aspect

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose, use, function

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ş-Ņ    ‘BODY PART’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. body part/component  (e.g., appendage, section, organ, gland, tissue, fluid, etc.)

    1. bodily tissue/flesh/sinew

    2. bodily organ

    2. secondary organ/gland

    3. bone

    3. bodily fluid/secretion

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  body, corpse
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 3:  1) spine 2) rib 3) skull 4) limb bone (tibia, femur, ulna, etc.) 5) bone of hand/foot  6) “shield” bone (e.g., patella, shoulder blade) 7) hipbone
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  1) membrane 2) tendon 3) ligament 4) nerve 5) muscle 6) skin/integument 7) sphincter/valve 8)  marrow 9) fat/gristle
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 2:  1) gonad 2) esophagus 3) adrenal gland 4) bowel/intestine 5) brain 6) lung 7) kidne    y 8) pancreas 9) liver
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 3:  1) tear  2) bile 3) semen 4) pus 5) blood 6) mucus/mucal secretion 7) saliva 8) lymph  9) sweat/perspiration

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Š-N   ‘NON-SANGUINE RELATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of godparent-godchild relationship

    1. adoptive family member

    2. male member of godparent-godchild relationship

    2. male adoptive family member

    3. female member of godparent-godchild relationship

    3. female adoptive family member

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. godparent

    1. godchild

    1. adoptive parent

    1. adopted child

    2. godfather

    2. godson

    2. adoptive father

    2. adopted son

    3. godmother

    3. goddaughter

    3. adoptive mother

    3. adopted daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Š-Ņ    ‘SOIL/GROUND/DIRT (MIXED ORGANIC + MINERAL)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. dirt/ground/soil [=substance + function as substrate/firmament]

    1. peat

    2. mud

    2. dirt(y)/filth(y) [= soiled, unclean]

    3. ground cover [organic-based, e.g., carpet of leaves]

    3. mulch/compost/fertilizer

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

    same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-M  ‘BREATHE/RESPIRATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. respire/inhale or exhale; a breath

    1. inflate (w/ air)

    2. yawn

    2. blow (passage of air under pressure through narrow opening)

    3. pump (by air)

    3. suck/suckle/siphon

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to gaseous compound itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  breathe, pant, gasp, suffocate, suffocation, asphyxiate, asphyxiation, drown

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-N   ‘ALIVE/LIVING THING/LIVING BEING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. living thing; be alive / to live

    1. domesticated or civilized being

    2. [wild] animal (all orders)

    2. domesticated animal

    3. [wild] plant (all orders)

    3. cultivated plant

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male being

    1. female being

    1. domesticated or civilized male being

    1. domesticated or civilized female being

    2. male [wild] animal

    2. female [wild] animal

    2. male [domesticated] animal

    2. female [domesticated] animal

    3. male [wild] plant

    3. female [wild] plant

    3. male [cultivated] plant

    3. female [cultivated] plant

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: life, vegetation, flora, fauna, wildlife; farm, farmer, breeder, livestock

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Ņ    ‘PLEASURE- or PAIN-BASED VOCALIZATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sigh (affective/non-volitional)

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) vocalizations

    2. squeal/groan/moan (affective/non-volitional)

    3. gasp (affective/non-volitional)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental  pleasure or satisfaction

    Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental distress, pain, torment, or dissatisfaction

    +

    SSD DERIVATIONS:  cry, sob, howl, whimper, murmur
    + OTHER MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  weep

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TL-Ņ    ‘COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. component of CNS

    1. brain

    2. CNS- eurological process

    2. spinal cord

    3. component of peripheral nervous system

    3. nerve

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    sympathetic nerve, parasympathetic nerve, vegus nerve
    + neuron, neuron firing, synapse, synaptic uptake, axon, dendrite, glial cell, blood-brain barrier

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ţ-N   ‘HEAD’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. head (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. head (as seat of brain/mind) [both body part and function]

    3. head (as entity’s primary “interface” area of body)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. head as physical body part

    1. head as functional body part

    2. head as physical seat of brain/mind

    2. head as functional seat of brain/mind

    3. head as “top” or “forward” part or “access” point

    3. head as vital seat of identity

    +

    SSD Derivatives = parts of head 1) cheek  2) chin  3) upper lip [plane between mouth and nose] 4) forehead 5) temple 6) crown of head 6) occipital area [back of head] 7) socket area around eye 8) upper part of back of head 9) cheekbone

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ŢL-Ņ    ‘MISCELLANEOUS BODY PARTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. buttock

    1. haunch

    2. breast/teat

    2. snout/proboscis

    3. navel

    3. fin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-M   ‘ARM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. arm (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. arm (as holder, support, carrier) [both body part and function]

    3. arm (as protective extension of body) [both body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. arm as single body part

    1. arm as reacher or manipulator

    2. arm as limb (focus on part/whole relation to body)

    2. arm as holder/carrier

    3. arm as extension of body

    3. arm as natural protective/defensive implement of body

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-N   ‘VISION/SIGHT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to sight (see + thing seen); sight

    1. observe / visually examine + thing seen

    2. eye (functional organ + visible facial feature)

    2. optical instrument + image

    3. visualize / imagine / picture a visual image in one’s mind + image

    3. create image / render an image

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. see

    1. a sight / image; to project an image

    1. visually examine / observe

    1. thing observed / visual evidence

    2. eye (functional organ)

    2. eye (visible facial feature)

    2. optical instrument

    2. thing observed via optical instrument

    3. visualize / envision; act of visualization

    3. an image / a vision (in one’s mind)

    3. create image

    3. image created

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: look (at), view, glimpse, glance, ogle, gawk, stare, spy, espy, peep, voyeur, panorama, scrutinize (visually), camera, telescope, microscope, binoculars, magnifying glass, lens, glasses

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-Ņ    ‘BACK/DORSAL AREA OF BODY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to the dorsal area of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. lower back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

    3. upper back & shoulder blade area

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XL-M   ‘SENSE/SENSATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sense/sensation, “feel” / “feeling” [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]

    1. examine via the senses [both act and result/outcome]

    2. sensor / sensory organ [function + sensor itself]

    2. sensor(y) device/instrument [both use and device itself]

    3. imagine a sensation or feeling / imagined sensation or feeling [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]

    3. create/induce a sensory experience [both act and result/outcome]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to sense / act of sensing

    1. a sensation, a feeling

    1. examine via the senses [the act thereof]

    1. resulting evidence of senses

    2. sense faculty/ability

    2. sensor(y) organ

    2. sensor(y) device/instrument [the use thereof]

    2. sensor(y) device or instrument [the device/instrument itself]

    3. imagine a sensation/feeling

    3. a mentally imagined sensation

    3. create a sensory experience or feeling [the act thereof]

    3. sensation/feeling as externally created/induced

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XL-Ņ    ‘DEGREE OF BODILY SLENDERNESS/FATNESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of slenderness/fatness

    same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

    2. decrease in degree of slenderness/fatness; lose weight; become thin(ner); slenderize

    3. increase in degree of slenderness/fatness; gain weight; become fat(ter); fatten up

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring specifically to physical size/girth/volume

    Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  skinny, rail-thin, obese, plump

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    x + cedilla-M  - ‘DISEASE/DISORDER/MALADY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. chronic systemic illness/condition/ailment; to suffer from

    1. acute abnormal/unhealthy condition/illness/malady/ailment; “come down with”

    2. chronic illness/condition/ailment – infectious in origin; to suffer from a chronic infectious illness

    2. infection; infect(ed), to “catch” a disease

    3.  chronic illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

    3. acute illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    +

    The following roots follow the same pattern as the above:
    + PS-M  neurological
    + PL-M  neuro-muscular/myalgic disorder 
    + PŞ-M  cardio-vascular disorder 
    + KL-M peripheral nervous system disorder
    + KŠ-M  pulmonary disorder
    + KŞ-M  non-malignant tumorous/neoplastic disorder; non-cancerous growth 
    +ŠL-N  malignant tumorous /neoplastic disorder; cancer  SSD derivatives:
    +TL-M  genetic disorder 
    +ŢL-M  musculo-skeletal disorder 
    +ŠL-M  lower gastro-intestinal disorder; bowel problem 
    +PŠ-M  upper gastric disorder; throat/mouth disorder 
    +SL-N  mid gastric disorder; stomach/esophagal disorder 
    +KS-N  ocular/eye disorder 
    +PS-N  nasal disorder 
    +PŠ-N  mid/inner ear disorder; hearing problem 
    +PŞ-N  topical skin disorder 
    +KL-N invasive skin disorder 
    +KŠ-N auto-immune condition 
    +KŞ-N blood/hematological disorder 
    +PL-N  glandular/endocrine disorder 
    +TL-N  liver disorder  — SSD derivatives:
    +ŢL-N  cellular/metabolic disorder — SSD derivative: 1) diabetes (Type 2 only)
    +XL-N  inflammatory disorder
    + SL-M degenerative tissue disorder
    + FL-N physical brain disorder (i.e., discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives:  general dementia, multi-infarct dementia, stroke
    +ŞL- M  mental disorder (i.e., no discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives:  1) schizo-affective 2) sociopathic condition 3) schizophrenia 4) personality disorder 5) depression 6) dissociative disorder 7) manic condition, mania 8) unknown disorder 9) bipolar condition
    +ŞL- N  spinal condition or disorder
    +FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    x + cedilla-Ņ    ‘GASTRONOMIC PAROXYSM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act + sound]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act + sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act + sound]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act]

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [sound]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [sound]

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 5 ROOTS: concepts relating to communication, learning and language

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-L   ‘SPEAK/VOICE/ORAL SOUND/INTERPRETATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. vocal utterance / oral sound; utter

    1. meaning or interpretation of vocal utterance; to mean or signify

    2. talk / speak / spoken utterance [parole]

    2. meaning or interpretation of word; to mean or signify

    3. rhetorical utterance / express [langue]

    3. meaning or interpretation of sentence or phrase; to mean or signify

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical production of sound

    same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

    same as above 3 stems referring to objective meaning, signification or denotation

    same as above 3 stems referring to subjective interpretation, connotation or “impact”

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: voice, (a) language, linguistic(s), yell, shout, cry, bark/meow/bleat/neigh, etc., [vocal] message, account, recount, story, tell, eloquence, glib(ness), smooth-talk, rhetoric, speech, dialect, slang

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KŠ-L   ‘FOOL/CLOWN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fool(ish); dupe

    1. town fool, village idiot

    2. buffoon, laughingstock

    2. clown

    3. nerd, dweeb

    3. jester

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems in non-serious context of “in fun” or “for laughs”

    Same as above 3 stems in poignant, sorrowful, pathetic context

    Same as above 3 stems in context of entertainment

    Same as above 3 stems in context of parody or as a foil for society

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ķ-R  - ‘DESCRIPTION/ACCOUNT/STORY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. description/account; to describe, to informally communicate an account of something [process + contents]

    1. narrative story; communicate a story [process + contents]

    2. relate/report/recount = communication from memory or observations [process + contents]

    2. recitation; recite (=communicate/describe from record or based on memorization) [process + contents]

    3. historical narrative / historical account [work itself + contents]

    3. fictional narrative / fictional story [work itself + contents]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the process of describing/communi-cating

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to the process of describing/communi-cating

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-L  - ‘SIGN/MARK/SYMBOL/VISUAL MEANS OF INDICATION/REPRESENTATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sign, signal, gesture, indication (= general indication, not 2-D planar surface bearing graphic/written communication)

    1. mark, token, single graphic representation

    2. track, print, trail (=naturally produced bodily trace)

    2. symbol, emblem, device, insignia

    3. identifying characteristic or trait

    3. formal representation

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the indicator/sign itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content/meaning thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to the indicator/sign itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content/meaning thereof

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-L   ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/DOCUMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. inscribe [= make written symbol]; written symbol

    1. written record / thing containing writing

    2. write message; written content

    2. document

    3. “write” [= compose via writing] / to author

    3. a writing / a written work

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical act of inscription

    same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

    ame as above 3 stems referring to the physical document

    same as above 3 stems referring to the content

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: book, treatise, manuscript, author, archive

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-R   ‘NAME/DESIGNATION/TITLE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. name + referent; to be named, to be called

    1. title + referent

    2. designation/reference + referent; refer to as

    2. formal designation + referent

    3. label / nickname + referent; to go by

    3. role

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 6 ROOTS: concepts relating to the physical attributes of matter + in general

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-Ġ ‘GAS / FLUME’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cloud/flume of gas/vapor + gas/vapor itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or liquid state

    2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance + the derived gas itself

    2. thing/object composed of gas + its function/purpose

    3. source of a gas

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a gaseous state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. cloud/flume of a gas or vapor

    1. gas/vapor itself

    1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

    1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

    2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance

    2. the derived gas itself

    2. thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

    2. function/purpose of thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

    3.  natural source of a gas

    3.  derived or artificially created source of gas

    3. gaseous/vapor state

    3. semi-gaseous state (combination or gaseous + non-gaseous state, e.g., as w/ CO2 vapor rising from dry ice)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-B  DIMENSIONAL/SPATIO-TEMPORAL RELATIONS

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of (static) dimensional property (e.g., short/long)

    same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to an applied contextual gestalt (e.g., the vicinity, the depths, the expanse, the interregnum, the surroundings, the perimeter, etc.)

    2. dynamic decrease in degree of dimensional property (e.g., shorten/ing)

    3. dynamic increase in degree of dimensional property (e.g., lengthen/ing)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems applied to spatial context

    same as above 3 stems applied to temporal context

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + THE PATTERN FOR THIS ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + T-B    ‘PROXIMITY/DISTANCE’
    + K-B    ‘LENGTH’
    + Ķ-B    ‘WIDTH (= “SLENDERNESS”)’
    + Q-B    ‘GIRTH (= 2-DIMENSIONAL X-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    + P-B    ‘AMPLITUDE (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Z-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    + C-B    ‘ “REACH” (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Y-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
    + Č-B    ‘DEPTH’
    + Ċ-B    ‘INTERVAL/GAP’
    + Ç-B    ‘VOLUME (= 3-DIMENSIONAL SIZE)’
    + Ņ-B    ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF A POINT’
    + M-B    ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF AN EDGE’
    + ST-B    ‘SPEED/VELOCITY/ACCELERATION’
    + Ŗ-B    ‘HEIGHT (= “TALLNESS” – RELATTIVE TO GRAVITY)
    + H-B    ‘FLATNESS/LEVELNESS (RELATIVE TO GRAVITY)’
    + KS-B    ‘PERIPHERY/CIRCLE/RING’
    + PL-B    ‘CONVEXITY/ROTUNDITY’
    + KŢ-B    CONCAVITY/DEPRESSION
    + S-B     ‘PERPENDICULARITY/UPRIGHTNESS’
    + Š-B     ‘PLANARITY/FLATNESS RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
    + Ş-B    ‘STRAIGHTNESS/LINEARITY RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
    + x + cedilla-B    ‘SPHERICALNESS/ROUNDNESS’
    + KL-B    ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-SURFACED IN PLANAR CONTEXT)’
    + TL-B     ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-EDGED IN LINEAR CONTEXT)’
    + XL-B    ‘RECTILINEAR/POLYHEDRAL/STRAIGHT-ANGLED’
    + Ļ-B    ‘ELASTICITY / STRETCH CAPACITY’

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: big/large, small/little, shrink, expand, grow, diminish, huge, immense, tiny, enormous, shallow

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SX-B  ‘QUALITY OR PROPERTY OF MATTER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of quality/property of matter

    same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

    2. decrease in degree of quality/property of matter

    3. increase in degree of quality/property of matter

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + PS-B      ‘THICKNESS (= VISCOSITY/RUNNINESS)
    + KŠ-B      ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
    + SL-B      ‘SOLIDITY/HOLLOWNESS (= PERMEABILITY)’
    + SP-B      ‘DURABILITY/FRAGILITY’ (= CAPACITY FOR BEING DAMAGED)
    + SŢ-B      ‘RESILIENCE/DELICATENESS’ (= CAPACITY FOR RECOVERY)
    + ŢL-B      ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
    + PŠ-B      ‘SMOOTHNESS/ROUGHNESS (= TACTILE COARSENESS)
    + FL-B      ‘FULLNESS/EMPTINESS’
    + Ţ-B    ‘FLEXIBILITY/RIGIDITY’
    + X-B    ‘HARD/SOFT (= MALLEABILITY)’
    + F-B    ‘TIGHTNESS/SLACK’ (= TAUTNESS)
    + R-B     ‘WEIGHT/MASS’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    PL-D   ‘COLOR/HUE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something having a color plus the color

    same as INFORMAL stems but tinted/painted/stained, etc. to have other than its natural color

    2. something light-colored plus the color

    3. something dark-colored plus the color

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. something having a color

    1. a color

    2. something having a light color

    2. a light color

    3. something having a dark color

    3. a dark color

    +

    NOTE: This stem patterns for the above root are a template for all other roots donating a specific color. The following root K-D ‘RED’ provides an example.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-D   ‘RED’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something red plus the color red

    same as INFORMAL stems but referring to something tinted/painted/stained red

    2. something light-red plus the color light-red

    3. something dark-red plus the color light-red

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. something red

    1. red

    2. something light red

    2. light red

    3. something dark red

    3. dark red

    +

    SIMILARLY: T-D  ‘BLUE’, N-D   ‘GREEN’, H-D  ‘YELLOW’, Q-D   ‘ORANGE’, L-D  ‘SKY BLUE’, F-D  ‘PINK’, Ç-D  ‘PURPLE’, R-D   ‘OCHRE’, Ķ-D  ‘ECRU’, Ţ-D  ‘BEIGE/TAN’, Ņ-D   ‘PEACH’, Ļ-D   ‘MAUVE’, Ŗ-D  ‘LAVENDER’, C-D   ‘BURGUNDY’, Ş-D   ‘TEAL’, x + cedilla-D   ‘TURQUOISE’, Š-D   ‘AQUAMARINE’, Č-D  ‘BROWN’, X-D   ‘WHITE’, M-D  ‘BLACK’, S-D  ‘GRAY’, P-D    ‘YELLOW-GREEN’, Ċ-D   ‘MAROON’
    + The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions for all color-stems: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    XL-D   ‘WATER AS SUBSTANCE AND TOOL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (some) water; (be/make) wet / moist(en)

    1. (some) water as component of life

    2. (some) water in context of usage [both substance and use]

    2. (some) water as nourishment; to consume/drink water

    3. ice

    3. (some) water as biological environment or medium

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. (some) water [substance itself]

    1. degree of moisture [from water]

    1. (some) water of one’s corporeal body

    1. hydration; hydrate

    2. water as “tool” (e.g., for washing, for powering a turbine, etc.)

    2. wash, clean [with water]

    2. act of drinking water; to drink water

    2. to water (e.g., plants)

    3. ice / freeze

    3. float

    3. (some) water from a natural environmental setting

    3. to inhabit water / live in water / water-dwelling

    +

    EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THIS STEM: bathe, lave, submerge, sink, dunk, immerse, dry, drench(ed), irrigate, swim, the sea (as environment); dehydrate; thirst; freeze

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KL-D   ‘WATER IN NATURAL MOTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a flow of water / to flow or run

    1. river / to flow as a river / to run as a river

    2. sprinkle / shower; to sprinkle or shower upon

    2. rain(fall); to rain

    3. cascade / pour [= free falling of water]

    3. waterfall

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. water component of a flow of water

    1. channel or course of a flow of water

    1. water component of a river

    1. channel or course of a river

    2. water component of a sprinkle/shower

    2. trajectory or course of a sprinkle/shower

    2. water component of rain

    2. “path” or course of a rain shower

    3. water component of a cascade or pouring of water

    3. trajectory or course of a pouring of water

    3. water component of a waterfall

    3. channel or “groove” of a waterfall

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: flood, downpour, to rain “cats and dogs”, brook, stream, rivulet, arroyo, floodplain

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TL-D   ‘WATER IN STATIC SETTING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. container of water

    1. (standing) body of water

    2. water/moisture located in confined space

    2. ambient/atmospheric water/moisture

    3. (something) imbued/drenched with water; waterlogged

    3. artificial body of water (e.g., reservoir)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. some water in/from a container

    1. holder/container which holds water

    1. water component of a body of water

    1. the basin or bed of a body of water

    2. degree of moisture contained

    2. the volume/space occupied by water/moisture

    2. water/moisture in the air or atmosphere

    2. volume of air(space) containing the water or moisture

    3. the water imbued within an object, substance, or substrate

    3. the object, substance or substrate imbued/soaked with water

    3. water within an artificial body of water

    3. the basis or bed of an artificial body of water, e.g., reservoir bed

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  lake, pool, pond, tern, tank, sink, canteen, cistern, puddle, sea, ocean, water vapor

    +

    NOTE:  The above three roots associated with water, XL-D, KL-D and TL-D, form the patterns for three parallel roots referring to any liquid other than water:   SL-D,  PŢ-D and  PS-D, respectively.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-G  ‘HORIZONTAL SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. “ground”/firmament

    1. floor

    2. table-like horizontal flat object / slab

    2. table

    3. shelf-like flat object

    3. shelf

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-G    ‘ARTICLE OF CLOTHING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. piece of clothing as covering or fashion; to wear such

    1. piece of clothing as part of uniform or costume; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker or indicator of station; to wear such

    2. part of uniform or costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as ornament or accessory; to wear such

    3. part of uniform or costume as ornament; to wear such

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. piece of clothing as covering; to wear such

    1. piece of clothing as fashion; to wear such

    1. part of uniform as covering; to wear such

    1. part of costume as covering; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as indicator of station; to wear such

    2. part of uniform as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    2. part of costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as ornament; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as accessory; to wear such

    3. part of uniform as ornament; to wear such

    3. part of costume as ornament; to wear such

    +

    THE STEM PATTERN OF THIS ROOT APPLIES TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + P-G    ‘SHIRT/BLOUSE’
    + T-G     ‘PANTS’
    + Č-G   ‘COAT/JACKET’
    + Ķ-G    ‘GLOVE’
    + Q-G    ‘SCARF’
    + S-G   ‘HAT’
    + Š-G    ‘FOOTWEAR’
    + K-G    ‘LEGGING/SOCK’
    + Ç-G   ‘BELT’
    + X-G   ‘APRON’
    + PL-G   ‘COLLAR’
    + TL-G   ‘NECKTIE/CRAVATTE
    + KL-G   ‘HELMET’
    + Ţ-G   ‘SKIRT/KILT’
    + F-G   ‘DRESS’
    + PS-G   ‘VEIL’
    + KS-G   ‘SARI’
    + Ċ-G   ‘TUNIC’
    + Č-G   ‘ROBE(S)/TOGA’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ļ-G   ‘PLANETARY BODY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. planet/planetary body

    1. The Earth/Terra

    2. moon/satellite of planetary body

    2. The Moon/Luna

    3. other spatial body

    3. artificial satellite

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

    Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

    Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  asteroid, comet, cosmic dust, cosmic gas, cosmic ray, component of Oort Cloud, cosmic string, quantum filament

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-Ġ ‘LIQUID/FLUID’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. drop of liquid/fluid + liquid/fluid itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or gaseous state

    2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance + the derived liquid subtance itself

    2. thing/object composed of liquid + its function/purpose

    3. source of a liquid/fluid

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a liquid/fluid state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. drop of liquid/fluid

    1. liquid/fluid subtance itself

    1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

    1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state (i.e., vapor)

    2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance

    2. the derived liquid/fluid subtance itself

    2. object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

    2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

    3.  natural source of a liquid/fluid

    3.  derived or artificially created source of a liquid or fluid

    3. liquid/fluid state

    3. viscous state (quasi-liquid but able to be deformed/shaped; semi-solid)

    +

    The stem pattern above also applies to the root P-Ġ  ‘liquid chemical’.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-G   ‘LIGHT / RADIANT ENERGY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ray of sunlight

    1. ray of radiant light or energy (non-solar)

    2. the Sun / Sol

    2. flame / “tongue” of fire

    3. star

    3. artificial source of light or energy

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. light from a ray of sunlight

    1. heat from a ray of sunlight

    1. ray of light (non-solar)

    1. ray of energy/heat (non-solar)

    2. the Sun as light source

    2. the Sun as energy/heat source

    2. ray of firelight

    2. flame as energy/heat source

    3. starlight

    3. energy of a star

    3. lamp light / light from artificial source

    3. energy/heat from artificial energy/heat source

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: fire, sunshine, illuminate, light a fire, flare (up), lamp, fireplace; galaxy, heater, to warm, warmth, to cook [= transform by heat], to melt, to smelt, to expose [via illumination], burn

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SP-G   ‘ROCK/MINERAL-BASED SOIL/GROUND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. stone [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    1. rock(y) [= specific natural embodiment of stone]

    2. sand [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    2. gravel

    3. clay [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    3. lava [w/ CPT = volcanic rock/lava-based rock]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

    Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

    Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Ġ   ‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + substance/compound itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal liquid or gaseous state

    2. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from a another subtance +  the derived substance itself

    2. thing/object composed of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + its function/purpose

    3. source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being (quasi-) solid

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a material substance

    1. substance/compound itself

    1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

    1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state

    2.  elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from refinement, distillation or processing of material substance or compound

    2. derived substance / compound itself

    2. object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

    2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

    3. natural source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

    3. derived or artificially created source of a (quasi-) solid material substance / compound

    3. solid (= hard to the touch)

    3. quasi-solid (= non-gaseous and non-liquid but not hard; able to be deformed by touch)

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 7 ROOTS: spatial concepts, form and motion

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ċ-Ļ   ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPHEROID SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sphere(oid) [rigid or solid]

    1. ball-like form [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    2. ovoid / elliptoid / round [rigid or solid]

    2. ovoid /elliptoid / round [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    3. torus / toroid (hoop/ring-like form with circular/elliptical/oval cross-section) [rigid or solid]

    3. torus / toroid [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-Ç   ‘COMPONENTIAL PART OF WHOLE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. component/part of something + its function/purpose

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to a separable/detachable component/part, as opposed to INFORMAL stems which refer to an inalienable or integrated component/part

    2. appearance/condition of component/part + its function/purpose

    3. component/part as seen in relation to the greater whole

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. component/part itself

    1. function/purpose of component/part

    2. phsycial appearance/condition of component/part

    2. impact/effect of component’s/part’s condition on its function/purpose

    3. component/part itself as seen in relation to the greater whole

    3. function/purpose of component/part itself in relation to the greater whole

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS
    + Ţ-Ç    ‘front [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
    + Ç-Ç   ‘rear, back part of [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
    + X-Ç   ‘side/flank, lateral area’
    + x + cedilla-Ç   ‘middle, center (as seen perpendicular to long axis of entity)
    + S-Ç   ‘middle, center (as seen parallel to long axis of entity)
    + Ş-Ç   ‘top, peak, summit’
    + SP-Ç   ‘bottom, lowest part of, foundation’
    + ST-Ç   ‘upper part or “half”’
    + SK-Ç   ‘lower part or “half”’
    + SF-Ç   ‘edge’
    + SŢ -Ç   ‘interior, inner/internal part of, insides, innards’
    + SX-Ç   ‘exterior, outer/external part of, outside, “skin”’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-Ļ   ‘VERTICAL ELEVATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. level [= relative vertical elevation]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but as applied to buildings and other architectural forms/constructs

    2. layer/stratum

    3. degree of size/expanse of level relative to adjacent or surrounding level

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. low spot in relative elevation

    1. high spot in relative elevation

    2. low-layered; deep

    2. upper-layered; shallow

    3. plateau-like level, abuttmant; loft-like

    3. ridge-like formation; crest-like formation

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-F   ‘PATH-ORIENTED TRANSLATIVE MOTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. move from one place to another; translative motion (i.e., motion from one place toward another)

    1. journey; to travel, traverse, to journey

    2. course/way/route/trajectory followed between two points

    2. route travelled/traversed on journey

    3. move between two points; motion along path from one point to another; to cross/go across from one side to another

    3. travel between two points / make a crossing / travel across

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. motion “outward”; go

    1. motion “inward”; come

    1. go travelling / be off

    1. journey toward

    2. movement away; go away (= increase distance between two objects)

    2. close in / get close(r) (= decrease distance between two objects)

    2. travel further away from

    2. reach vicinity of / close in on

    3. leave (= move away from one point toward some distant point)

    3. approach (= approach one point from direction of some distant point)

    3. departure; depart

    3. arrival; arrive / reach destination

    +

    Morphological derivations:  sojourn, set off / set out, set in motion; self-directed movement
    + THE PATTERN FOR THE ABOVE ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + P-Ţ   ‘VERTICAL MOTION / ASCENT & DESCENT / UP & DOWN’
    + S-Ţ    ‘OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION’
    + L-Ţ   ‘PLANAR RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional horizontal plane)
    + T-Ţ   ‘VERTICAL RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional vertical plane)
    + SK-Ţ   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE 3-DIMENSIONAL RANGE OF MOTION/3-DIMENSIONAL PERVASIVE MOVEMENT / MOVEMENT THROUGHOUT 3-D VOLUME’
    + N-Ţ     ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG Y-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
    + Č-Ţ     ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG X-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
    + KŢ-F   ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN HORIZONTAL PLANE’
    + FL-F   ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN VERTICAL PLANE’
    + ŠK-F   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE CIRCULAR MOTION’
    + ŞQ-F   ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG HORIZONTAL PLANE’
    + ŢL-F   ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG VERTICAL PLANE’
    + ŞK-F   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE SPIRAL MOTION’
    + KŢ-Ţ   ‘CIRCULAR VECTOR MOTION’ (i.e., “corkscrew” motion)
    + QŢ-Ţ   ‘SPIRAL VECTOR MOTION (i.e., corkscrew motion with increasing or decreasing amplitude)
    + X-Ţ     ‘ARC / PARABOLIC MOTION RELATIVE TO GRAVITY’
    + ST-Ţ   ‘CURVED MOTION / CURVE’
    + XL-F      ‘SWITCH BACK / VEER’
    + SL-F      ‘OBLIQUELY LINEAR  MOTION (relative to XYZ grid)
    + SP-F  ‘2-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR OUTSIDE EDGE’ encircle, surround
    + Q-Ţ   ‘2-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG BOUNDARY OR INSIDE EDGE’
    + KL-F  ‘3-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR SURFACE OF’
    + SL-Ţ   ‘3-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG INTERNAL 3-D BOUNDARY OF’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-Ļ   ‘LONGITUDE / EAST-WEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. east-west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    1. longitude

    2. west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    2. West longitude

    3. east axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    3. East longitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. east-west axial direction or orientation

    1. east-west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    1. meridian

    1. zero meridian (Greenwich meridian)

    2. west direction or orientation

    2. west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    2. time zone

    2. Western Hemisphere

    3. east direction or orientation

    3. east geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    3. International Date Line

    3. Eastern Hemisphere

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-Ļ   ‘LATITUDE / NORTH-SOUTH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. north-south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    1. latitude

    2. north axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    2. north latitude

    3. south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    3. south latitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. north-south axial direction or orientation

    1. north-south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    1. polar area

    1. parallel [= line of latitude]

    2. north direction or orientation

    2. north geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    2. north polar area (Arctic)

    2. Northern Hemisphere

    3. south direction or orientation

    3. south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    3. south polar area (Antarctic)

    3. Eastern Hemisphere

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-Ţ   ‘ANGULAR STRUCTURE / CORNER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (two-dimensional) angle

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

    2. (three-dimensional) vertex

    3. angle-based constraint on access or movement

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. interior angle of two-dimensional surface or analog

    1. exterior corner/vertex of two-dimensional surface or analog

    2. interior vertex/corner of three-dimensional space

    2. exterior corner/vertex of three dimensional space

    3. corner as constraint

    3. corner as opportunity for choice of movement

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KL-Ç   ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL BLOCK-LIKE SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cube [solid volume]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but as outline edges/frame only, not as solid volumes

    2. rectilinear block [solid volume]

    3. disc

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Ļ  ‘CURVATURE/BENDING/OPEN LINEAR FORMS OR SHAPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    1. obtuse angle [degree of size/openness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

    2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    2. acute angle [degree of size/narrownness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

    3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    3. mathematically determined form made of lines (e.g., polygon, quadrilateral, etc.) [pattern + object having the pattern]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

    1. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate

    1. obtuse angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of openness]

    1. obtuse angled object or bounded space

    2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

    2. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate

    2. acute angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of narrowness]

    2. acute angled object or bounded space

    3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself]

    3. object manifesting a linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic)

    3. mathematically determined form made of lines [the pattern]

    3. object manifesting a mathematically determined form made of lines

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  fold, bend, pleat, zig-zag/“sawtooth”/serrated pattern, undulate/undulation, S-curve, wave(s)/wavy, bent, crooked, jagged, serrated, curvature
    + The above root use PHASE and the iterative series of affixes to specify extent/number/pattern of folds.
    + SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 3:  parabola, hyperbola, exponential curve

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Ţ    ‘ACCESS/PASSAGE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. access point / passage; pass through, access

    1. doorway (= the access portal itself, not the door which opens/closes off access)

    2. passage or infiltration of one substance into another

    2. gateway / portal

    3. filter / screening [selective access]

    3. checkpoint

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. enter / go in / pass within / ingress

    1. exit / go out / egress

    1. enter (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

    1. exit (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

    2. infiltrate / imbue / immerse

    2. emit / dispense

    2. receive (= welcome) ; reception

    2. remove / dispel

    3. filter through

    3. filter out

    3. admittance; admit

    3. oust / eject

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: door, gate, let in, insert, introduce, take out, remove, penetrate, emanate, emerge

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-Ļ  ‘PRESSURE-BASED or REACTION-BASED
    + or GRAVITATION-BASED EQUILIBRIUM/MOTION/PROPULSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something hovering or floating; for something to hover, float, or be suspended upon (based on equilibrium, via pressure or volume-dispersion, against other medium such as air, water, gas, vapor, etc.) [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

    		The Formal stems for this root are identical + to the Informal roots in meaning, with the distinction of referring specifically to man-made, mechanical means/vehicles/vessels or contexts involving reaction-based (i.e., fuel-driven) propulsion, as opposed to the naturally occurring or non-mechanical contexts + implied by use of the Informal stems. +

     

    2. something hovering or floating; for something to hover, float, or be suspended upon (based on gravitational equilibrium or nullification, e.g. at the top of an arc of trajectory or at a La Grange point) [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

    3. something in orbit around another body; to orbit [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as the above 3 stems but with specific reference to the object which hovers, floats, or is suspendedSame as the above 3 stems but with specific reference to the act or state of hovering, floating, or suspension
    +
    + NOTE: this root was added to the lexicon on December 23, 2009 +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ç   ‘INVERSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. orientational inversion

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is formal/authorized/permanent/abstract as described in Sec. 3.7

    2. unidirectional topological inversion [= mirror-image]

    3. three-dimensional topological inversion [= inside-out]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. orientational inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

    1. mirror-image inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

    2. mirror-image inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

    2. orientational inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

    3. orientational inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

    3. mirror-image inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ļ    ‘RECLINE / PRONE POSITION OR ORIENTATION / HORIZONTALITY

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. recline(d) / prone position (relative to long axis of object) / lie (down) / lay (out)

    1. horizontal (relative to gravity or plane of the earth’s surface) / orientation perpendicular to direction of gravity

    2. recumbent position / position of relaxation relative to gravity --> sprawl, loll

    2. occupying position of maximum repose or having a positional or dynamic orientation based on the path of least resistance relative to gravity

    3. flush / flat against / position or orientation level with some flat or even firmament / lay flat

    3. flatten(ed); collapse(d) or configure(d) to minimum height perpendicular to background firmament

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SF-Ļ   ‘QUASI-TWO-DIMENSIONAL SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. strip [solid/rigid]

    1. ribbon-like shape [flexible]

    2. plane/planar [solid/rigid]

    2. sheet-like shape [flexible]

    3. tube/cylinder/cylindrical [solid/rigid]

    3. tube-like shape [flexible]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SK-F    ‘SPATIAL ORIENTATION / POSITION / DIRECTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. general spatial position [currently or within context of utterance]; be situated at

    1. specific spatial position at “end point”; be situated at “end point” of

    2. general orientation (along or relative to directional axes); to “face” [toward]

    2. specific orientation toward “end point” of; to “face” squarely

    3. general direction/axis of movement; direct/move along axis of

    3. specific direction/axis of movement toward “end point” of; to head straight for

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. general position toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    1. general position toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    1. specific position at “one end” of opposed spatial points

    1. specific position at “other side” of opposed spatial points

    2. general orientation toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    2. general orientation toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    2. specific orientation toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

    2. specific orientation toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

    3. general direction toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    3. general direction toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    3. specific direction toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

    3. specific direction toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN OF STEMS IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA:
    + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT
    + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD
    + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE
    + 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS
    + PL-F   ‘+X/+Y/+Z’
    + Ņ-F    ‘+X/+Y/-Z’
    + R-F    ‘+X/-Y/+Z’
    + Ŗ-F    ‘+  X/-Y/-Z’
    + Ļ-F    ‘-X/+Y/+Z’
    + PS-F    ‘-X/+Y/-Z’
    + KS-F    ‘-X/-Y/+Z’
    + PŢ- F    ‘-X/-Y/-Z’
    + Ķ-F   ‘+X/+Y/0’
    + K-F    ‘+X/-Y/0’
    + Q-F    ‘-X/+Y/0’
    + M-F    ‘-X/-Y/0’
    + F-F    ‘+X/0/+Z’
    + Ţ-F    ‘+X/0/-Z’
    + Ç-F    ‘-X/0/+Z’
    + x + cedilla-F    ‘-X/0/-Z’
    + S-F    ‘0/+Y/+Z’
    + Ş-F    ‘0/+Y/-Z’
    + C-F    ‘0/-Y/+Z’
    + Ċ-F    ‘0/-Y/-Z’
    + Č-F    ‘+X/0/0’
    + Š-F    ‘-X/0/0’
    + L-F     ‘0/+Y/0’
    + N-F     ‘0/-Y/0’
    + P-F     ‘0/0/+Z’
    + T-F     ‘0/0/-Z’
    + SK-F    ‘0/0/0’
    + SF-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [linear unidimensional context, e.g., between two others in a queue]
    + ŠL-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [planar 2-dimensional context, e.g., among others in a crowded room]
    + ŠP-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [volume-based 3-dimensional context, e.g., sky crowded with balloonists]
    + ŠT-F   ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components separable/extractable]
    + TL-F   ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components inseparable/mixed/permanently combined]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SL-Ç   ‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL (i.e., LINEAR) SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. point / dot [solid/fixed/rigid]

    1. point / dot [flexible/movable/fluid]

    2. line / linear [solid/fixed/rigid]

    2. line / linear [flexible/movable/fluid] / string-like

    3. hoop / ring [solid/fixed/rigid]

    3. hoop / ring [flexible/movable/fluid] / loop

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SP-Ţ   ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE SHAPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.   generic 2-D outline shape (e.g., the shape of a close-course race-track, the outline of the shore of a lake, a drawing of a national border on a map, etc.)

    1. 2-D outline shape generically distorted

    2. generic 2-D outline horizontally elongated

    2. 2-D outline shape obliquely elongated / skewed along one axis

    3. generic 2-D outline vertically elongated

    3. 2-D outline shape medially compressed, i.e., “squished/pinched in the middle”

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

    The above root’s stem pattern is applied to all of the following roots:
    + XL-Ţ  : ‘square/rectangle/rhombus’
    + R-Ļ  :  ‘circle/ellipse’
    + PS-Ç  : ‘oval’
    + ŠF-Ţ   :  ‘egg-shaped’
    + Š-Ç  : ‘half-circle/semi-circle’
    + K-Ç  :  ‘sliver-moon shaped’
    + SX-Ţ  :  ‘irregular/amorphous outline’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ST-F    ‘FIT/HOLD/CONTAIN AS INTERNAL-EXTERNAL PARTITION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. holding area / containment area; hold/keep/contain

    1. room, chamber

    2. fit; to fit, contain (= have sufficient room for)

    2. reside, situate; room as place of residence, quasi-permanent situation or default location

    3. volume or boundary of containment area

    3. room boundaries (i.e., walls, floor, ceiling)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the physical boundaries (“walls”) which define the containment area and prevent contents from leaking or escaping

    same as above 3 stems referring to the space (“room”) within the holding area and protection of contents from external environment

    same as above 3 stems referring to the room as a container separating inside from outside

    same as abvoe 3 stems referring to the space within the room as shelter or sanctuary

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  ceiling, wall, floor, dividing panel, piece of furniture serving to divide room space
    + EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: house, building, cell, booth, closet; snug, snugness, loose, looseness, baggy, bagginess

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ST-Ļ    ‘2-DIMENSIONAL CURVATURE/DISTORTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself + object manifesting such curvature]

    1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself + object manifesting the depression]

    2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself + object manifesting the distortion]

    3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself]

    1. object manifesting a curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

    1. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself]

    2. object manifesting a dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

    2. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself]

    3. object manifesting an undefined distortion, blurring or anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself]

    3. object manifesting a volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  crease, pleat, wrinkle(s), curl up, crumple(d), wad(ded), zig-zag, groove/furrow
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Ş-Ţ   ‘EXTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION OUTSIDE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. position/orientation somewhere outside (of), i.e., beyond or on other side of surface or boundary layer

    1. the space beyond/outside/excluded from an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

    2. position/orientation somewhere outside of (2-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the area defined by a boundary line

    2. an external surface / functional planar area beyond/outside the boundaries of (e.g., the “out of bounds” area of a tennis court)

    3. position/orientation somewhere outside of (3-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

    3. the space beyond/outside an interior volume / functional space outside the boundaries of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    +

    compare to root SX-Ç 

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Š-Ţ    ‘PATH/WAY/COURSE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. course/way [taken]

    1. route [taken]

    2. [marked] path [taken]

    2. road [taken]

    3. trajectory; move(ment) along a trajectory / “sail” / arc

    3. channel [taken]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the course/way/path/trajectory itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to following or travelling along the course/path/trajectory

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the route/road/channel itself

    same as a stems with focus on following or travelling along the route/road/channel

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: walkway, sidewalk, highway, street, slide, tunnel, conduit

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Ļ   ‘UPRIGHT POSITION OR ORIENTATION/VERTICALITY/PERPENDICULAR/PROTRUSION

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. upright/erect position or orientation (relative to long axis of object) / stand (up)

    1. vertical (i.e., parallel to gravity or plane of earth’s surface)

    2.  stick up or out/ protrude

    2. occupying position of maximum contrast to a position of repose; position of maximum “alertness” or readiness or action

    3. perpendicular / position or orientation at right angles  to background firmament (relative to long axis of object); be or stand on end

    3. stretch(ed) outward; pull(ed) or configure(d) to maximum height perpendicular to background firmament

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-F   ‘AMBULATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ambulate (as natural to specific species, e.g., walk, slither, fly, crawl, etc.)

    1. “formal” ambulation, e.g., march, prance

    2. rapid ambulation (as per specific species, e.g., run, gallop, scamper, scurry, etc.)

    2. purposeful rapid ambulation, e.g., flee, race

    3. unnatural or affected ambulation

    3. deliberately unnatural or affected ambulation, e.g., swagger, saunter

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

    same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

    same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

    same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: skip, shuffle, slink; lead, follow
    + SSD Derivatives:  1) swim on surface  2) swim/glide underwater 3) slither 4) crawl 5) walk  6) hop 7) jump/leap  8) swing (e.g., through trees, from vines, etc.)  9) fly

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-Ļ     ‘TERRAIN-BASED/GEOGRAPHICAL ELEVATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. relative elevation in comparison to other geological feature/terrain

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is geo-political or in terms of formal property [geographic ownership]

    2. geological layer/stratum

    3. flatland area/plain

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. v alley / geographic depression relative to surrounding terrain

    1. hill / upland / raised geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

    2. deep underground

    2. near-surface / shallow [in terms of depth underground]

    3. plateau / raised flat-topped geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

    3. ridge / crest / flat-linear edge between different geographic/geologically-based elevations

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-Ţ   ‘INTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION INSIDE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. position/orientation somewhere inside (of), i.e., underneath or on other side of surface or boundary layer

    1. entirety of an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

    2. position/orientation somewhere inside of (2-D context), i.e., within the area defined by a boundary line

    2. entirety of an interior surface / functional planar area within the boundaries of

    3. position/orientation somewhere inside of (3-D context), i.e., within the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

    3. entirety of an interior volume / functional space within the boundaries of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    +

    compare to roots SŢ -Ç 

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 8 ROOTS: taxonomies of organic life

    +
    +

    The stem pattern of the following Class 8 Roots is identical to the pattern for the Class 4 Root N-N ‘FOOD PLANT’:
    + P-Paspiration   cabbage (plant/leaves of sp. Brassica oleracea capitata)
    + Ķ-Paspiration   lettuce (plant/leaves of genus Lactuca)
    + Ċ-Paspiration   spinach (plant/leaves of sp. Spinacia oleracea)
    + F-Paspiration     tea (plant/leaves of sp. Camellia sinensis)
    + ŠL-Taspiration  kelp (seaweed of orders Laminariales and Fucales)
    + QŢ-Taspiration    mustard (plant of sp. Brassica hirta / B. nigra / B. juncea)
    + Ţ-Paspiration   corn, maize (plant/seeds of sp. Zea mays)
    + KŢ-Taspiration    oat (plant/seed of genus Avena)
    + Ç-Paspiration   wheat (plant/seed of sp. Triticum aestivum)
    + PŢ-Taspiration    tobacco (plant/leaves of sp. Nicotiana tabacum)
    + SP-Taspiration    hemp, marijuana (plant/material of sp. Cannabis sativa)
    + ŞP-Taspiration    sesame (plant/seed of genus Sesamum)
    + M-Paspiration   pea (plant/seed of sp. Pisum sativum)
    + PS-Paspiration   bean (lima/snap/etc.: plant/seed of genus Phaseolus or similar)
    + ST-Taspiration    lentil (plant/seeds of sp. Lens culinaris)
    + ŞT-Taspiration    soya, soybean (plant/seed of sp. Glycine max)
    + PŞ -Paspiration   peanut (plant/seed/pod of sp. Arachis hypogaea)
    + S-Paspiration   rice (plant/seed of sp. Oryza sativa)
    + ŠT-Taspiration    pepper (hot/sweet/bell pepper -- plant/pod of genus Capsicum)
    + Ş-Paspiration   pepper (black -- plant/seed of sp. Piper nigrum)
    + SK-Taspiration    millet
    + ŞK-Taspiration    amaranth
    + ŠK-Taspiration    sorghum
    + SF-Taspiration    teff
    + ŞF-Taspiration    ginseng (plant/root of genus Panax)
    + KŠ-Paspiration   potato (plant/tuber of sp. Solanum tuberosum)
    + PŠ -Paspiration   carrot (plant/root of sp. Daucus carota sativus)
    + ŠF-Taspiration    yam, sweet potato
    + SX-Taspiration    garlic (herb of sp. Allium sativum)
    + Ŗ-Paspiration   onion (plant/bulb of sp. Allium sepa)
    + L-Paspiration   grape (plant/fruit of genus Vitis)
    + SŢ-Taspiration    tomato (plant/berry of genus Lycopersicon)
    + ŞŢ-Taspiration    squash, melon (plant/fruit of genus Cucurbita grown for edible fruit)
    + ŠŢ-Taspiration    gourd (plant/hard-rinded fruit of genera Lagenaria & Cucurbita)
    + ŞX-Taspiration    date (tree/fruit of sp. Phoenix dactylifera)
    + ŠX-Taspiration    cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
    + Š-Qaspiration     bamboo (plant/stem of genera Bambusa / Arundinaria / Dendrocalamus)
    + N-Qaspiration      cork (tree/elastic tissue of sp. Quercus suber)
    + L-Qaspiration      cotton (plant/fibers of genus Gossypium)
    + H-Qaspiration      ginger (plant/rhizome of genus Zingiber)
    + Ņ-Qaspiration      mint (plant of family Labiatae)
    + Ŗ-Qaspiration      safflower (Carthamus tinctorius)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Taspiration        ‘BRANCHED AND/OR LEAVED PLANT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. genus of branched tree/bush and/or leaved plant

    1. wood product

    2. leaf

    2. leaf product

    3. bark

    3. bark product

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wood

    1. seed/fruit/nut

    1. wood as resource

    1. seed/fruit as food or resource

    2. root

    2. flower/blossom

    2. root as food or resource

    2. flower as food or resource

    3. branch

    3. sap

    3. branch as resource

    3. sap product/syrup

    +

    SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) meat of fruit, 2) seed within fruit, 3) rind, 4) juice, 5) flavor, 6) odor of fruit, 7) oil, 8) [unassigned/specific to individual root] 9) fermented juice, i.e., wine
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + C-Taspiration       ‘BIRCH’
    + T-Taspiration       ‘SPRUCE’
    + Ķ -Taspiration       ‘CEDAR’
    + X-Taspiration       ‘OAK’
    + K-Taspiration       ‘PINE’
    + Ċ-Taspiration       ‘PALM’
    + F-Taspiration       ‘CHERRY’
    + Č-Taspiration       ‘WALNUT’
    + Ţ-Taspiration       ‘MAPLE’
    + Ç-Taspiration       ‘ASH’
    + x + cedilla-Taspiration       ‘CYPRESS’
    + S-Taspiration       ‘BEECH’
    + Ş-Taspiration       ‘MAHOGANY’
    + M-Taspiration       ‘COCONUT’
    + N-Taspiration       ‘EUCALYPTUS’
    + Ņ-Taspiration       ‘MAGNOLIA’
    + Š-Taspiration       ‘REDWOOD’
    + H-Taspiration       ‘LARCH’
    + L-Taspiration       ‘ELM’
    + Ļ-Taspiration       ‘FIG’
    + R-Taspiration       ‘BANANA’
    + Ŗ-Taspiration       ‘YEW’
    + PS-Taspiration       ‘ALMOND’
    + PŞ-Taspiration       ‘CHESTNUT’
    + PŠ-Taspiration       ‘ALDER’
    + KS-Taspiration       ‘OLIVE’
    + KŞ-Taspiration       ‘POPLAR’
    + TL-Taspiration       ‘PINEAPPLE’
    + KŠ-Taspiration       ‘APPLE’
    + PL-Taspiration       ‘ORANGE’
    + KL-Taspiration       ‘LEMON’
    + FL-Taspiration       ‘LIME’
    + ŢL-Taspiration       ‘PEAR’
    + XL-Taspiration       ‘PLUM’
    + SL-Taspiration       ‘PEACH’
    + ŞL-Taspiration       ‘TANGERINE’
    + Q-Taspiration       ‘COFFEE’
    + ŠP-Taspiration      FLAX

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

      Q-Paspiration   ‘INSECT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of genus

    1. membe r of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: larvae/grub, chrysalis, cocoon, adult, etc.
    + SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) wing, 3) oil/secretion, 4) silk/web, 5) skin/pellicle, 6) tail, 7) horn, 8) leg(s) 9) [open]
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + ŠT-Paspiration      ‘BUMBLEBEE’
    + ST-Paspiration      ‘HONEYBEE’
    + SL-Paspiration      ‘ANT’
    + ŞL-Paspiration      ‘COCKROACH’
    + SX-Paspiration     ‘BUTTERFLY’
    + ŠX-Paspiration     ‘MOTH’
    + ŞT-Paspiration      ‘HOUSEFLY’
    + SK-Paspiration     ‘WASP’
    + ŞK-Paspiration     ‘HORNET’
    + SŢ-Paspiration     ‘GNAT’
    + ŠK-Paspiration     ‘MOSQUITO’
    + ŞŢ-Paspiration      ‘APHID’
    + SF-Paspiration      ‘FIREFLY’
    + ŠŢ-Paspiration      ‘FLEA’
    + ŠL-Paspiration      ‘BEETLE’
    + QŢ-Paspiration     ‘SPIDER’
    + ŠF-Paspiration      ‘TICK’
    + Ş-Paspiration       ‘TERMITE’
    + ŞF-Paspiration      ‘WATERBUG’
    + SP-Paspiration      ‘GRASSHOPPER’
    + ŠP-Paspiration      ‘LOCUST’
    + ŞX-Paspiration      ‘DRAGONFLY’
    + KŞ-Paspiration     ‘MANTIS’
    + PŢ-Paspiration    BLẠ-  ‘GENERIC CRAWLING BUG’
    + KŢ-Paspiration    GLẠ-  ‘GENERIC FLYING BUG’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SK-Kaspiration     ‘GENERIC MAMMAL/AVIAN/REPTILE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of mammalian/avian/reptilian genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: e.g., foal, fawn, yearling, adult, etc.
    + SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) milk, 3) oil/secretion/venom, 4) fat, 5) skin/hide, 6) tail, 7) tusk/horn, 8) fur/feathers 9) flesh/meat
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + P-Kaspiration      ‘HORSE’
    + T-Kaspiration      ‘COW’
    + Ķ-Kaspiration       ‘PIG’
    + C-Kaspiration       ‘SHEEP’
    + F-Kaspiration       ‘GOAT’
    + Ċ-Kaspiration        ‘DEER’
    + K-Kaspiration       ‘BISON/BUFFALO’
    + M-Kaspiration       ‘CHICKEN’
    + Š-Kaspiration        ‘DUCK’
    + PL-Kaspiration         ‘GOOSE’
    + Ş-Kaspiration         ‘SWAN’
    + Q-Kaspiration        ‘TURKEY’
    + Ţ-Kaspiration         ‘OSTRICH’
    + Ç-Kaspiration         ‘DOLPHIN’
    + Č-Kaspiration         ‘MULE’
    + X-Kaspiration         ‘DONKEY’
    + x + cedilla-Kaspiration         ‘ZEBRA’
    + XL-Kaspiration         ‘LION’
    + L-Kaspiration       ‘TIGER’
    + R-Kaspiration        ‘BEAR’
    + S-Kaspiration       ‘ELK’
    + Ņ-Kaspiration      ‘MOOSE’
    + Ļ-Kaspiration         ‘BOAR’
    + PS-Kaspiration         ‘YAK’
    + KS-Kaspiration         ‘CAMEL’
    + PŞ -Kaspiration         ‘WALRUS’
    + Ŗ-Kaspiration        ‘ELEPHANT’
    + PŠ-Kaspiration         ‘GIRAFFE’
    + N-Kaspiration         ‘CAT’
    + H-Kaspiration         ‘DOG’
    + KŠ-Kaspiration        ‘RABBIT’
    + TL-Kaspiration        ‘CHIMPANZEE’
    + KŞ-Kaspiration        ‘GORILLA’
    + ŢL-Kaspiration        ‘LEMUR’
    + KL-Kaspiration        ‘ORANGUTAN’
    + FL-Kaspiration        ‘OTTER’
    + SL-Kaspiration       ‘WHALE’
    + ŠL-Kaspiration        ‘SEAL’
    + ŞX-Kaspiration        ‘SEA LION’
    + PŢ-Kaspiration        ‘ANTELOPE’
    + ŞL-Kaspiration       ‘GAZELLE’
    + KŢ-Kaspiration       ‘BABOON’
    + QŢ-Kaspiration        ‘FOX’
    + SP-Kaspiration       ‘WOLF’
    + ST-Kaspiration        ‘COYOTE’
    + ŠP-Kaspiration       ‘SKUNK’
    + SF-Kaspiration         ‘PORCUPINE’
    + ŞP-Kaspiration       ‘POSSUM’
    + ŞT-Kaspiration         ‘KANGAROO’
    + SŢ-Kaspiration       ‘MOUSE’
    + SX-Kaspiration       ‘RAT’
    + SF-Kaspiration      ‘LEOPARD’
    + ŠK-Kaspiration      ‘CHEETAH’
    + ŠX-Kaspiration        ‘PANTHER’
    + ŠF-Kaspiration         ‘JAGUAR’
    + ŞF-Kaspiration        ‘MOLE’
    + ŞK-Kaspiration        ‘SQUIRREL’
    + ŞŢ-Kaspiration        ‘VOLE’
    + ŠT-Kaspiration         ‘CHIPMUNK’
    + ŠŢ-Kaspiration        ‘SHREW’
    + P-Qaspiration        ‘ROBIN’
    + T-Qaspiration        ‘LARK’
    + F-Qaspiration        ‘SPARROW’
    + Ţ-Qaspiration        ‘OWL’
    + Ç-Qaspiration         ‘PIGEON’
    + Č-Qaspiration        ‘EAGLE’
    + Ċ-Qaspiration         ‘GULL’
    + Ķ-Qaspiration       ‘ALBATROSS’
    + C-Qaspiration        ‘HAWK’
    + Q-Qaspiration       ‘VULTURE’
    + K-Qaspiration        ‘PHEASANT’
    + S-Qaspiration        ‘NIGHTINGALE’
    + R-Qaspiration         ‘SNAKE’
    + TL-Qaspiration        ‘VIPER’
    + KS-Qaspiration       ‘COBRA’
    + PS-Qaspiration         ‘RATTLESNAKE’
    + SX-Qaspiration       ‘PYTHON’
    + SF-Qaspiration        ‘ASP’
    + SK-Qaspiration       ‘ALLIGATOR’
    + ST-Qaspiration         ‘CROCODILE’
    + PL-Qaspiration        ‘LIZARD’
    + KŞ-Qaspiration       ‘GILA MONSTER’
    + PŞ-Qaspiration        ‘IGUANA’
    + KŠ-Qaspiration        ‘FROG’
    + PŠ-Qaspiration        ‘TOAD’
    + KL-Qaspiration       ‘TURTLE’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Paspiration    ‘GENERIC WATERLIFE ’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) meat, 3) skin/shell, 4) fluid/ink, 5) smoked meat, 6) as bait, 7) as fodder, 8) as ingredient in food or as fishmeal 9) cooked meat
    + THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + N-Paspiration      ‘OCTOPUS’
    + X-Paspiration      ‘SQUID’
    + R-Paspiration      ‘EEL’
    + Ş-Paspiration      ‘LAMPREY’
    + Ņ-Paspiration      ‘RAY’
    + K-Paspiration      ‘SHARK’
    + XL-Paspiration     ‘CLAM’
    + FL-Paspiration     ‘SCALLOP’
    + PL-Paspiration      ‘MUSSEL’
    + ŢL-Paspiration      ‘CRAB’
    + TL-Paspiration      ‘SHRIMP/PRAWN’
    + KL-Paspiration     ‘LOBSTER’
    + x + cedilla-Paspiration       ‘TROUT’
    + H-Paspiration       ‘TUNA’
    + Ļ-Paspiration       ‘COD’
    + Ç-Paspiration       ‘BASS’
    + C-Paspiration     ‘PIKE’

    +
    +

    +

    CLASS 9 ROOTS: taxonomies of physical substances

    +
    +

    The stem pattern of the following Class 9 roots is identical to that of the Class 6 root T-Ġ ‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’:
    + P-P’ ‘brass’
    + P-T’  ‘chalk’
    + P-K’  ‘cloth/fabric’
    + P-Q’ ‘coal’
    + T-P’ ‘spice/herb/seasoning’
    + T-T’ ‘glass’
    + T-K’ ‘jade’
    + T-Q’ ‘metal/ore’
    + Ķ-P’ ‘mineral’
    + Ķ-T’ ‘oil (petroleum)’
    + Ķ-K’ ‘plastic’
    + Ķ-Q’ ‘quartz’
    + K-P’ ‘rubber’
    + K-T’ ‘salt’
    + K-K’ ‘steel’
    + K-Q’ ‘silk’
    + C-P’ ‘tar’
    + C-T’ - ‘wax’
    + C-K’ Aluminium
    + C-Q’ Antimony
    + Ċ-P’ Arsenic        
    + Ċ-T’ Beryllium     
    + Ċ-K’ Bismuth      
    + Ċ-Q’ Boron                      
    + Č-P’ Cadmium     
    + Č-T’  Calcium      
    + Č-K’ Carbon        
    + Č-Q’ Chromium   
    + Ç-P’ Cobalt          
    + Ç-T’ Copper
    + Ç-K’ Gallium       
    + Ç-Q’ Gold
    + F-P’ Iridium         
    + F-T’ Iron
    + F-K’ Lead
    + F-Q’ Lithium        
    + Ţ-P’ Magnesium  
    + Ţ-T’ Manganese   
    + Ţ-K’ Molybdenum           
    + Ţ-Q’ Nickel
    + X-P’ Palladium    
    + X-T’ Phosphorus  
    + X-K’ Platinum     
    + X-Q’ Plutonium   
    + S-P’ Potassium
    + S-T’ Radium        
    + S-K’ Rubidium    
    + S-Q’ Selenium      
    + Ş-P’ Silicon          
    + Ş-T’ Silver            
    + Ş-K’ Sulfur
    + Ş-Q’ Tin
    + Š-P’ Titanium
    + Š-T’ Uranium       
    + Š-K’Vanadium
    + Š-Q’ Tungsten
    + M-P’ Zinc
    + M-T’Zirconium
    +     KL-P’ Germanium
    + KL-T’ Krypton     
    + KL-K’ Osmium
    + M-K’   asbestos     magnesium silicate
    + M-Q’ aspirin          acetylsalicylic acid
    + N-P’ baking soda               
    + N-T’ bicarbonate of soda               
    + N-K’ graphite (carbon)
    + N-Q’ diamond       
    + Ņ-P’ marble            
    + Ņ-T’ emery powder           
    + Ņ-K’  epsom salts              
    + Ņ-Q’ fluorspar     
    + L-P’  gypsum       
    + L-T’ linoleum       
    + L-K’ lime             
    + L-Q’ magnesia     
    + H-P’ milk of magnesium 
    + H-T’ plaster of Paris           
    + H-K’  potash        
    + H-Q’ saltpeter      
    + R-P’ silica             
    + R-T’ sugar, table 
    + R-K’ talc or talcum          
    + R-Q’  washing soda         
    + Ŗ-P’  zinc white   
    +     PS-P’  NATURALLY OCCURRING ACTINIDE OR UNSTABLE/RADIOACTIVE HEAVY ELEMENT
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Actinium + 2) Thorium + 3) Protactinium + 4) Neptunium + 5) any radioactive isotope of an element + 6) Astatine + 7) Francium + 8) Polonium + 9) Technetium
    + PŠ-P’  SYNTHETIC ACTINIDE ELEMENT
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Americium + 2) Curium + 3) Berkelium 4) Californium + 5) Einsteinium + 6) Fermium + 7) Mendelevium + 8) Nobelium + 9) Lawrencium
    + PŞ-P’  NATURALLY OCCURRING ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Barium + 2) Caesium (Cesium)  + 3) Hafnium + 4) Niobium + 5) Rhenium + 6) Rhodium 
    + 7) Ruthenium + 8) Strontium + 9) Tellurium
    + x-cedilla-P’ RARE NATURAL ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Indium + 2) Scandium + 3) Yttrium + 4) Tantalum + 5) source compound for such elements + 6) + 7) + 8) + 9) primary source ore in which element is found
    + KS-T’  SYNTHETIC HEAVY ELEMENT
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Rutherfordium + 2) Dubnium + 3) Seaborgium + 4) Bohrium + 5) Hassium + 6) Meitnerium   7) Darmstadtium + 8) Roentgenium + 9) trans-Roentgenium synthetic element (i.e., Ununbium, Ununtrium, etc.)
    + KŞ-T’   LANTHANIDE ELEMENT
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Lanthanum + 2) Cerium + 3) Praseodymium + 4) Neodymium + 5) Promethium + 6) Samarium + 7) Europium + 8) Gadolinium + 9) Terbium
    + KŠ-T’  HEAVIER LANTHANIDE ELEMENT
    + SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Dysprosium + 2) Holmium + 3) Erbium + 4) Thulium + 5) Ytterbium + 6) Lutetium 7)
    + 8) + 9) lanthanide-based compound

    +

     

    +

    The stem pattern for the following Class 9 roots are identical to the pattern for the Class 6 root N-Ġ ‘LIQUID/FLUID’:
    + SK-P’ ‘paint’
    + Ŗ -T’ ‘oil (fatty liquid derived from plants/animals)’
    + Ŗ -K’‘honey’
    + Ŗ -Q’‘vinegar’
    + Ļ-P’ acetone           
    + Ļ-T’ alcohol, grain             
    + Ļ-K’ alcohol, wood
    + Ļ-Q’  ammonia
    + PL-P’ iodine         
    + PL-T’  mercury
    + PL-K’ brine           aqueous sodium chloride solution
    + PL-Q’ benzene
    + TL-P’  lye or soda lye       sodium hydroxide
    + TL-T’ formalin      aqueous formaldehyde solution
    + TL-K’ rubbing alcohol      isopropyl alcohol
    + TL-Q’ methanol    methyl alcohol

    +

     

    +

    The stem pattern of the following Class 9 roots is identical to the pattern of the Class 6 root H-Ġ ‘GAS / FLUME’:
    + SL-P’ ‘carbon dioxide’
    + SL-T’  ‘carbon monoxide’
    + SL-K’ Chlorine    
    + SL-Q’ Argon        
    + PŢ-P’ Helium       
    + PŢ-T’ Hydrogen  
    + PŢ-K’ Fluorine     
    + PŢ-Q’ Nitrogen    
    + SP-P’ Oxygen      
    + SP-T’  Neon         
    + SP-K’ Radon       
    + SP-Q’ Xenon
    + ST-P’ ozone
    + ST-T’ laughing gas             
    + ST-K’ air

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ST-P’   ‘STICKY/ADHESIVE MATERIAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sticky substance or material; to stick/be mired in

    1. adhesive substance material; adhere/stick (via adhesive)

    2. goo / ooze / slime

    2. glue / liquid adhesive

    3. sap / resin

    3. cement / mortar / grout

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    +

     

    +
    +

    CLASS 10 ROOTS: relational concepts, identity, associations

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-C’   ‘SIMILARITY/SAMENESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. similar(ity) to oneself (on another occasion)

    1. same (= selfsame)

    2. similar(ity) to (an)other entity/instance

    2. same (= identical to (an)other entity/instance)

    3. remind (one) of / reminder

    3. same (= copy/replacement)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on appearance or superficial impression

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on identity or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-C’   ‘VALUE/WORTH/PRICE/COST’
    + (Often used in conjunction with various Quantifying and Modulative affixes from Sections 7.7.6 and 7.7.7 to show relative degree of value within context)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of usefulness, convenience, efficacy, service, applicability]

    1. cost appraisal, assessment, estimate, quote

    2. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of personal desire or emotional attachment]

    2. cost, expense, expenditure [what is (to be) given up or released in exchange for something, either a commercial or non-commercial context]

    3. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of financial benefit or gain, profit, or remuneratively]

    3. rate (of payment); formula/terms for determining payment

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on intrinsic value

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on actual value (i.e., degree to which the intrinsic value can actually be utilized, consumed or manifested)

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to cost quoted or agreed to

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to actual payment

    +

    SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2: 1) fee/toll or service charge 2) tithe 3) duty/tariff/levy 4) ransom 5) tax 6) dues 7) wage(s) 8) fare  9) price/charge [in money or legal tender]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-C’ ‘POSSESSION / OWNERSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. have/possess; possession (temporary/circumstantial and alienable – e.g., a library book in one’s hand)

    1. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right and in one’s immediate possession-, e.g., a hat I bought and am wearing)

    2. have/possess; possession (circumstantial and affective + (quasi-) inalienable, either permanent or temporary – e.g., a medical condition, an office at work I occupy, a seat at a cinema showing)

    2. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right, not necessarily in one’s immediate possession -, e.g., a hat I bought/own but am not necessarily wearing)

    3. have/possess; possession (genetic, intrinsic and inalienable, but not considered property – e.g., a sibling, a child, a limb, a memory)

    3. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (quasi-permanent and legally inalienable except through formal/legal separation process – e.g., a house I own, a pet dog I registered

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing possessed

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession/ownership

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing owned; piece of property

    +

     

    +
    +

    CLASS 11 ROOTS: concepts relating to order, arrangement, configuration

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-Časpiration   ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS (ORNAMENTAL/SPECIALIZED)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tower

    1. window opening

    2. dome

    2. doorway

    3. spire/steeple

    3. balcony/terrace

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Časpiration   ‘CONTAIN / HOLD / CONTENTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. contain(ment) via gravity (e.g., basin) + contents

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in quasi-permanent context or by intrinsic nature as opposed to the INFORMAL stems which convey an incidental or circumstantial context

    2. contain(ment) via enclosure / surrounding conveyance + contents

    3. contain(ment) via imbuement / as ingredient; to “carry” [as integrated component or ingredient] + contents

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to contents

    same as above 3 stems referring to the container

    +

    The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions: 1) bottle 2) jar/pot 3) barrel/cask 4) bin 5) vat / tub / basin [distinguished via SIZ affix] 6) can/tin 7) piece of furniture 8) purse/bag/satchel/pack 9) case/trunk

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Časpiration - ‘TEXTURE/TACTILE SENSATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. texture, tactile sensation (tactile sensation + physical-emotional reaction)

    1. act/process to render (an object/entity having) a particular texture (tactile sensation + physical-emotional reaction)

    2. material impact/benefit/effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that consistency

    2. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that consistency

    3. material impact/benefit/effect of having a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    3. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of having a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. object having a particular texture

    1. the texture itself

    1. act/process designed to render a certain texture

    1. actual results of an act or process to render a certain texture

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that texture

    2. actual material impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that texture

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the entity having that texture

    2. actual psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the entity having that texture

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact/benefit of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    3. actual material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    3. actual psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    +

    SSD suffix specifies reaction:  sensuous, delightful/fun, soothing, as-expected, surprising/positive, surprising/negative, annoying/irritating, painful

    +

    ROOTS BELOW ARE MODELED LIKE THE ABOVE; OFTEN USED WITH DEGREE/EXTENT AFFIX

    +

    P-Caspiration gummy
    + T-Ċaspiration chewy
    + PL-Časpiration slimy
    + T-Caspiration sticky
    +Ķ-Ċaspiration prickly
    +TL-Časpiration burning, heat conductive
    +Ķ-Caspiration tingly
    +K-Ċaspiration soft like fur
    +KL-Časpiration soft like a cushion
    + Q-Caspiration liquidy
    + Q-Ċaspiration lumpy
    + FL-Časpiration cartilaginous
    + F-Caspiration viscous
    + M-Ċaspiration rough (like sandpaper)
    +ŢL-Časpiration coarse (like handling gravel)
    +Ţ-Caspiration powdery
    +N-Ċaspiration gritty (like fine sand)
    +XL-Časpiration grainy/granular
    +Ç-Caspiration mushy
    +L-Ċaspiration slushy
    +PS-Časpiration gooey
    + X-Caspiration slippery
    +Ņ-Ċaspiration ice-cold, numbing cold
    +KS-Časpiration numbing (= loss of sensation)
    + x-cedilla-Caspiration “pins & needles” sensation
    + H-Ċaspiration needle-like sharpness (e.g., a cactus)
    + PŠ-Časpiration bristly
    + S-Caspiration feathery
    + PS-Ċaspiration wispy/wafting
    + KŠ-Časpiration “cobwebby”/like cotton-candy
    + M-Caspiration curvaceous/sensual (= soft/smooth/squeezable/rounded)
    + PŞ-Ċaspiration rubbery
    + L-Časpiration hard + semi-smooth (like wood)
    + N-Caspiration hard + natural mix of smooth/rough (like a rock)
    + PL-Ċaspiration complexly textured + hard/honeycombed (like handling a pine cone)
    + R-Časpiration metallic
    + L-Caspiration plastic-like
    +Ŗ-Časpiration papery
    +TL-Ċaspiration sponge-like
    +Ņ-Caspiration downy
    +KL-Ċaspiration woolly
    +Ļ-Časpiration fluffy/puffy/airy
    + H-Caspiration hairy
    + FL-Ċaspiration dusty
    + XL-Časpiration soggy/waterlogged

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ċaspiration   ‘CONSISTENCY/MALLEABILITY/FLEXIBILITY/PLASTICITY/RHEOLOGICAL PHENOMENON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. consistency, degree of malleability/flexibility/ plasticity

    1. act/process to render (an object having) a certain consistency or degree of malleability / flexibility / plasticity

    2. material impact/benefit/effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

    2. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

    3. material impact/benefit/effect of having a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    3. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of having a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. object having a particular consistency

    1. the consistency itself

    1. act/process designed to render a certain consistency or degree of malleability/plasticity

    1. actual results of an act or process to render a certain consistency or degree of malleability/plasticity

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

    2. actual material impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the entity having that consistency

    2. actual psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the entity having that consistency

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    3. actual material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    3. actual psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    +

    THE STEMS OF THE ROOTS BELOW ARE MODELED ON THE SAME STRUCTURE AS THE ABOVE ROOT; THESE ROOTS USE THE EXTENT/DEGREE SUFFIX TO SPECIFY THE POINT ON A SPECTRUM BETWEEN TWO EXTREMES AS INDICATED
    +Ċ-Ċaspiration suppleness/pliancy/flexibility/ductility/bendability <--> stiffness/rigidity
    +T-Časpiration squeezability/compressability <--> stiffness/rigidity
    + R-Caspiration sponginess <--> stiffness/rigidity
    + X-Ċaspiration elasticity <--> stiffness/rigidity
    + K-Časpiration springiness/spring <--> inertness/immobility
    + XL-Caspiration jiggliness <--> inertness/immobility
    +Ç-Ċaspiration limpness/flaccidity <--> stiffness/rigidity
    +Ķ-Časpiration buoyancy
    + FL-Caspiration bounce/recoil <--> inertness/immobility
    +Ţ-Ċaspiration brittleness <--> resiliency
    +Š-Časpiration flimsiness/fragility <--> resiliency/strength
    + KL-Caspiration flabbiness <--> cohesiveness / compactness
    + F-Ċaspiration tendency to disintegrate/crumble/fall apart <--> coherence/cohesiveness/compositional integrity
    + S-Časpiration spreadability
    + PL-Caspiration deformability / “dentability”

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Q-Časpiration   ‘GEOGRAPHICAL/GEOPOLITICAL ELEMENTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. geographical feature or element

    1. geopolitical feature or element

    2. geographical area / “land”

    2. geopolitical area / “land” or “country”

    3. natural piece of territory

    3. (piece of) property

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on geophysical feature or element

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus as natural habitat

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus as political entity

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on political boundaries/borders

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    TL-Caspiration   ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. column/pillar

    1. strut/buttress

    2. “side”/wall (external)

    2. partition

    3. floor [= base/ground]

    3. roof

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X- Časpiration   ‘MAKE/CONSTRUCT/INTEGRATE/FORM’
    + (NOTE:  This root does not refer to ‘make/create’ meaning ‘emit/secrete/produce’as in ‘make noise’ or ‘make milk’, etc.)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. make/construct/create (non-mechanical) [= construct via integration of material resources]

    1. mechanically construct / build from a design

    2. to form/fashion/mix  (non-mechanical) [= combine ingredients/parts to form]

    2. integrate parts / integration of parts

    3. integrate/organize (non-mechanical)

    3. machine / mechanical device

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

    +

    NOTE:  The above meanings represent these stems as used in conjunction with the COMPLETIVE (CPT) version.  Their default PROCESSUAL (PCT) counterparts would translate as ‘plan (to)’, ‘design’, etc.
    + Derivations:  cobble together, rig, system, conspire

    +
    +

     

    +


    + CLASS 12 ROOTS: socially or externally-induced affectations

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-q + hacek   ‘MUSIC’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. musical note or tone / produce [i.e., play] musical note or tone [sound + its playing]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except that they apply to the production of song, i.e., vocal music or for voice with musical accompaniment

    2. consciously select musical note [for purpose of composition] + sound of note

    3. a musical beat or measure [sound + its playing]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. sound of musical note or tone

    1. producing/playing of musical note or tone

    2. sound of selected musical note

    2. conscious selection of musical note [for purpose of composition]

    3. sound of a musical beat or measure

    3. production/playing of a musical beat or measure

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: piece of music, melody, music [abstract concept], composition, musical instrument, musician, composer, rhythm, band, orchestra, song

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-x + cedilla’  ‘GOODWILL/FRIENDLINESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. being nice [= emotional/spiritual/physical support of another’s interests]

    1. good samaritanship, going out of the way to help

    2. goodwill, benevolent intent, kind(ness)

    2. peace / fellowship

    3. amicability / friendliness

    3. friendship (unidirectional)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

    +

    Derivations:  altruism, being friends, affable

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-X’    ‘CELEBRATORY ACT/ CEREMONIAL RITE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act of jubilation (as manifestation of personal joy, contentment, freedom, self-indulgence, etc.) [both act + cause/reason]

    1. solemn act of commemoration/memorial

    2. act of celebration (in positive recognition of something) [both act + cause/reason]

    2. solemn act of recognition/acknowledgement

    3. joyful or celebratory symbolic/ceremonial rite [both act + cause/reason]

    3. solemn symbolic/ceremonial rite

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  party, celebration, fête, festivities, ceremony

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    q-q + hacek   ‘SALUTATION/GREETING/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. acknowledge/demonstrate awareness of

    1. greet(ings) / salutation(s)

    2. hail / get attention of / bring attention to

    2. formal welcome or farewell

    3. congratulate

    3. socially introduce / to socially present

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    +

    SSD affix for FORMAL Stem Nos. 1 and 2 by degree:  1) bow upon arrival/introduction 2) shake hands upon arrival/introduction  3) wave hand or arm upon arrival/introduction/seeing 4)verbal salutation only upon arrival/introduction/seeing 5) words used in greeting/salutation/farewell  6) say goodbye  7) wave goodbye 8) shake hands upon farewell/leavetaking 9) bow upon farewell/leavetaking

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-X’    ‘REPUTE/NOTORIETY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. repute/reputation

    1. distinction/mark

    2. public image/persona

    2. degree of eminence [= power or influence]

    3. notoriety [= degree of renown/recognition by others]

    3. degree of prestige/status

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

    +

    This root is usually used in conjunction with the NOTORIETY affix.

    +

     

    +
    +

    CLASS 13 ROOTS: personal affect, emotion, feelings, preferences

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Č-Ř   ‘DEGREE OF FUN/MERRIMENT/JOVIALITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fun/ merriment; feel/be merry, have fun (both cause/source + feeling derived)

    1. be jovial/jocular/jolly; express/manifest joviality, jollity

    2. frolic, skylark = aimless, innocent pursuit of fun and amusement (both cause/source + feeling derived)

    2. formal amusement (activity or cause + feeling derived), e.g., from/at party, fete, show, performance, etc.

    3. whim, impulsive moment for purpose of amusement

    3. revel; an instance of revelry

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of merriment derived

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of merriment/amusement derived

    +

    carouse, with wild abandon, spree, escapade, jaunt, romp, party, fete

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-Ř   ‘HUMOR/WIT/JEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something funny or humorous = comical

    1. a jest or prank; make a jest or pull a prank = act or situation designed to evoke humor

    2. something witty = subtlely and cleverly humorous

    2. a joke; make a joke  = communicated situation or message designed to evoke humor

    3. something farcical = something humorous based in irony

    3. something sardonic = double-edged humor based in sarcasm

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

    +

    SSD derivatives:  pun, riddle

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    h-d + cedilla   ‘LOVE/AFFECTION/EMOTIONAL BOND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act of affection / display of fondness or endearment

    1. like / value as source of emotional fulfillment

    2. familial/genetically-tied bond of love

    2. love of country, heritage, race, etc.

    3. romantic love

    3. love of or emotional allegiance to abstract idea (e.g., freedom, life, wealth)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

    +

    Morphological Derivations:  love, tenderness, infatuation, obsession, passion, passionate
    + SSD Derivatives from INFORMAL Stem 1:  kiss, embrace, hug, hold hand, cuddle, caress, massage, pat, wink

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-Ř   ‘ “HEART” / “ESSENCE” / VALUES ’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. metaphorical/psychological seat of one’s personality and emotions, i.e., “heart”, “soul”, mind

    1. personal value(s)/ what one holds dearest or as most important

    2. degree/depth of one’s emotions / “feelings” / experience a certain depth of emotion

    2. personal virtues/ personality traits

    3. essence; essential subjective/intangible qualities of an entity

    3. personal principles

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

    +

    Derivations:  personality

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P- Ğ   ‘EXPERIENCE / UNDERGO A STATE OR FEELING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of a state/feeling/emotion; feel (an) emotion [state + content]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of the particular emotion.

    2. act or action caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling

    3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on process itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential state/feeling itself

    +

    The stem patterns of the above root are applied to all of the following roots:
    + P-d + cedilla    ‘excitement/thrill’
    + Č-Ğ    ‘agitation/disquietude’
    + ST-V    ‘awe / be or feel impressed / humbleness in face of something’
    + N-Ř    ‘depression / be or feel depressed’
    + T-d + cedilla   ‘eagerness / fervor / zeal’
    + Š-Ř    ‘cordiality/benevolence’
    + X-Ğ    ‘hysteria/loss of control’
    + SX-V    ‘commitment/loyalty’  Derivations:  ‘intransigence’, ‘stubbornness’
    + PŠ-Ř    ‘tenderness/nuturing/caring’
    + Ķ-d + cedilla   ‘feel hurt/offended’
    + Ķ-Ř   ‘spite’
    + K-d + cedilla  ‘stoicism/repression’
    + Ş-Ğ  ‘nonchalance/indifference’ Derivations:  ‘callousness’
    + Ţ-Ř  ‘torpor/lethargy’ Derivations: ‘stupor’, ‘catatonia’
    + R-Ğ   ‘numbness / emotional saturation’
    + Q-V    ‘wonder/enthrallment’
    + C-V   ‘inspiration / feeling of positive energy’
    + M-V  ‘fear/fright’ Derivation:  panic
    + H-V    ‘uplift/inspiration (e.g., by beauty, art, music, etc.)
    + FL-Ğ    ‘jollity/merriment/gayness’
    + M-d + cedilla  ‘feeling carefree / frivolity / relaxed’
    + ŠX-Ř    ‘stress / feel pressured’
    + KŢ-Ř    ‘worry / feel preoccupied’
    + ŠK-d + cedilla    ‘grief / sadness from loss’
    + KS-d + cedilla  ‘angst / weltschmertz’
    +     P-V    ‘regret, repining, ruefulness’
    + T-Ř   ‘woe, despair, desolation’
    + SL-V    ‘sorrow, lamentation’
    + Q-Ř   ‘wistfulness, bittersweetness’
    + X-d + cedilla    ‘bittersweet longing’ (Portuguese “saudade”)
    + T-V    ‘anticipate (something positive); feeling of anticipation (for something positive)’
    + QŢ-V  ‘feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that achievement of long-awaited vengeance or vindication is hollow and meaningless due to personal maturation or present irrelevance of original circumstances’
    + XL-V    ‘mix of humor and shame felt upon pulling joke on someone or at their expense but the target doesn’t “get it” or remains ignorant of the joke’
    + K-V  serenity, peace of mind
    + T-Ğ schadenfreude; malicious glee at another’s (implicitly deserved) discomfort or inconvenience
    + KL-d + cedilla impatience due to feeling that time/resources being wasted
    +Ņ-Ř bother, annoyance (based on displeasure at or disagreement with external circumstances)
    +Ķ-V bother, annoyance at self due to one’s own actions/behavior
    +K-Ğ feeling of disappointment at being letdown by another
    + TL-d + cedilla feeling of disappointment/let-down at one’s own actions/behavior
    +Ċ -Ř  anticipate a negative; dread
    +Ċ-V  feeling of emotional maturity/superiority; feeling “above it all”
    +Ķ -Ğ  feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that one can get past, and need not succumb to, feelings of defensiveness or “victimhood” upon being criticized, maligned, slandered, or disrespected
    +Č-V  achievement of zen-like enlightenment through meditation
    +Q-Ğ  meditative bliss
    +Ņ-d + cedilla post-orgasmic/post-coital bliss; “afterglow”
    +C-Ř feeling of being “on edge”; at cusp of loss-of-control or loss of one’s actions/inhibitions
    + F-V being ultra-alert with senses heightened
    + M-Ğ ecstatic/euphoric feeling of joie-de-vivre
    + L-d + cedilla feeling of inherent “connection” to or oneness with the universe through space and time
    +Ç-Ř feeling of puzzlement and curiosity, a desire to solve a mystery
    +Ţ-V  feeling of piquancy, stimulated curiosity, a desire for a new experience
    +N-Ğ feeling of “devilishness” and spontaneous non-conformity
    +Ş-d + cedilla feeling flustered at not knowing how to react or what to think
    +M-Ř embarrassment due to social faux pas, behavioral misstep, or others seeing through one’s façade or airs
    +Ç-V embarrassment at being unable to perform a task or activity as expected
    +L-Ğ humiliation
    + N-d + cedilla poignancy, “aaaaw” reaction to irresistable cuteness
    + R-Ř material lust, avarice, greed (for sexual lust see root H-Z   ŠŬ-)
    + S-V  shock, reeling (e.g., from bad news or an unexpected discovery)
    +Ņ-Ğ swooning, feeling of faintness due to emotional overload
    + S-d + cedilla repugnance, repellant feeling, disgust
    + H-Ř  discomfiture at having been socially snubbed or at being ill-prepared for a situation after believing that one was accepted or was well-prepared
    +Š-d + cedilla solace, comfort in the face of sadness/grief

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ř   ‘AFFECTIVE/NON-VOLITIONAL MENTAL STATE/PROCESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mood; be in a mood

    1. rationalization; rationalize

    2. instinct; act/behave on instinct [state + content]

    2. delusion; (be) delude(d)

    3. psychic phenomenon, altered state of consciousness

    3. dream [state + content]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Stem 3:  1) “high”, under-the-influence of a psycho-active substance  2) hallucination; hallucinate, (observe) apparition 3) trance 4) instance of telepathy 5) (experience) premonition/vision 6) synaesthetic experience 7) sensory illusion 8) out-of-body experience  9) state of prescience/clairvoyance

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Q-d + cedilla   ‘DEGREE OF PLEASURE/FULFILLMENT/SATISFACTION/HAPPINESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of physical/sensual pleasure [both feeling and cause]

    1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented pleasure/contentment [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of emotional/psychological contentment/pleasure [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of happiness
    + (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of physical satisfaction/satiety [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of emotional/psychological satisfaction and fulfillment [both feeling and cause]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a pleasant visit’ or ‘a satisfying meal’

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a happy home’ or ‘a fulfilling job’

    +

    Derivations:  gratify/gratification, satiety, ecstasy, joy

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    S-Ř   ‘PRIDE/EGO/RESPECT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. feel proud (of oneself); feeling of pride (in oneself)

    1. self-esteem

    2. feel proud (of someone); feeling of pride (of someone)

    2. respect/admiration

    3. one’s feelings/sensibilities (e.g., to hurt one’s feelings)

    3. ego/sense of self-identity; to sense (some)one’s ego / to gain an impression of someone’s self-identity

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  arrogance/arrogant, haughtiness/haughty, pomposity/pompous, put on airs, vainglorious; magisterial/imperious

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-V    ‘DEGREE OF PAIN/LOSS/DISSATISFACTION/MISERY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of physical pain [both feeling and cause]

    1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented displeasure/discontent [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of emotional/psychological discontent/pain [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of unhappiness/misery
    + (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of physical dissatisfaction/lack [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of emotional/psychological dissatisfaction and loss/lack [both feeling and cause]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unpleasant visit’ or ‘a terrible meal’

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unhappy home’ or ‘a miserable job’

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 14 ROOTS: concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    F-Z     ‘ATTRACTION

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. feel/be attracted to (physical attraction to other person)

    1. feel/be attracted/drawn to (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

    2. feel/be attractive (physical attraction to other person)

    2. be attractive/seductive (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing, idea or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

    3. act/gesture indicating or hinting of attraction to; “(give) clue/hint” (physical attraction to other person)

    3. “selling point” / a “pro” (vs. “con”)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL Derivations:  seduce, seduction

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-Z    ‘ROMANTIC AND/OR SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.  state of sexual/romantic relationship

    1. significant other / boyfriend or girlfriend

    2.  erotic/sexual act; engage in a sexual/erotic activity

    2. lover / sex partner

    3.  to date / to court; pursue romantic relationship

    3. dating partner

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. sexual/romantic relationship itself

    1. emotional / hormonal basis underlying sexual relationship

    1. boyfriend

    1. girlfriend

    2. sexual/erotic act itself

    2. feeling of lust or other motive underlying sexual act

    2. male lover

    2. female lover

    3. particular act involved in dating or courtship

    3. feeling of hope or long-term goal of monogamous relationship or marriage underlying pursuit of romantic relationship

    3. male dating partner

    3. female dating partner

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL Derivations:  have sex, make love, cheat, monogamous relationship

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    H-Ž   ‘CONFLICT-BASED HOSTILITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hostility / anger / be angry [both emotion and display/actions]

    1. authoritative/official (i.e., police/military, etc.) use of force / act of aggression

    2. threat(en) [reason for plus act]

    2. threat of official/authoritative use of force

    3. defend oneself / defense [reason for plus act]

    3. official/authoritative defense

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. feeling of anger

    1. show/display of anger

    1. rationale/cause behind military agression

    1. official/authoritative act of force/agression

    2. cause/rationale for threat

    2. effect of threat or being threatened

    2. cause/rationale for official/authoritative/ military threat

    2. effect of official/authoritative/ military threat or being threatened

    3. situation/rationale for defensive act

    3. defend / take defensive action

    3. situation/rationale for official/authoritative/ military defensive act

    3. defend / take official/authoritative/ military defensive action

    +

    Derivations:  peeved, conflict, intimidate, fight, battle, skirmish, military operation or campaign, war

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-Z     ‘TRANSFER OF POSSESSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. temporary, circumstantial, incidental direct transfer of possession (i.e., give / take)

    1. quasi-permanent or official transfer of possession (i.e., rendering/reception; render, receive)

    2. temporary, circumstantial, incidental indirect transfer (i.e., to leave for someone / to take based on discernment of availability)

    2. quasi-permanent or official transfer (i.e., bestowal or bequest/acquisition; bestow/acquire)

    3. temporary, circumstantial, incidental transfer over distance (i.e., to bring something / to leave with something)

    3. deliver/take ownership of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. give, lend

    1. take, borrow

    1. donate; donation

    1. receive; reception

    2. leave (something for someone), make available

    2. get, obtain

    2. leave to heir

    2. inherit; inheritance

    3. thing given, gift (given)

    3. thing taken, gift (taken)

    3. bestow; bequest

    3. acquire; acquisition

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  procure(ment), requisition, accept (= willingly receive)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    L-Z     ‘MANAGE/GUIDANCE/COMPLIANCE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. guide / guideline + compliance

    1. rule, precept + obedience

    2. manage / direct + compliance

    2. preside over / mete out law / govern + abidance

    3. discipline + submission/obedience

    3. moral guideline + personal rectitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. guide / guideline

    1. follow guide / follow guideline

    1. rule, precept

    1. obey rule or precept

    2. manage / direct

    2. comply / follow direction(s)

    2. preside over / met out law / govern

    2. abide by law / obey law

    3. apply discipline

    3. submit to discipline

    3. moral guideline

    3. personal rectitude

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: guidance, management, morality, law, president, ruler; set of rules, steer, administer, order, drive; oversee, custom, “norm”, authority

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-Z - ‘SOCIAL INTERRELATION/INTERACTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act/state of social interaction/interrelation + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    1. expected/natural role of member of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    2. act/state of “dominant” or initiating partner in social interaction/relationship

    2. expected/natural role of “dominant” or initiating partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    3. act/state of “passive” or secondary/complementary partner in social interaction/relationship

    3. expected/natural role of “passive” or secondary or complementary partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems with focus on act/state of social interaction or interrelation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on benefits, consequences, or implications of act/state of social interaction or interrelation

    Same as above 3 stems with focus on act/state of social interaction or interrelation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on benefits, consequences, or implications of act/state of social interaction or interrelation

    +

    Note:  The above root (and those immediately below) are likely to be used in conjunction with the various Valence categories (see Section XXX) to specify the exact nature of the relationship between the parties involved.  Note also that, for relationships where the parties are acting in equivalent roles or positions of equal stature (i.e., no “dominant” vs. “passive” roles), use of Stems 2 and 3 above would be inapplicable.

    +

    THE STEMS OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS DESCRIBING SPECIFIC TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS ARE STRUCTURED IDENTICALLY WITH THE ROOT ABOVE:
    +Ķ-Ž   close loving friendship
    + x-cedilla-Z  business partnership
    + K-Ž   marriage
    + M-Z,  temporary or youthful romantic dalliance/lovers (with or without involving sex)
    + F-Ž   sexual partners
    + N-Z,  club members
    +Ţ-Ž   fellow hobbyists or enthusiasts
    +L-Z,  fan + celebrity
    +Ç-Ž   sage + disciples
    +Ņ -Z  “center of attention” + sycophants
    +X-Ž   master/servant
    +Ķ-Z  sibling relations
    +X,-Ž   fellowship, “band of brothers”, fraternity, sorority, etc.
    +Ţ-Z  members of secret society
    +S-Ž   members of stigmatized/isolated/oppressed societal group
    +Ç-Z  owner + pet
    +M-Ž   co-workers/associates
    +PL-Z  co-authors/creators of joint opus or artistic work
    +L-Ž   autocrat or autarch + subjects
    +TL-Z  official/agent of authority + supplicant/petitioner/applicant
    +Ņ-Ž   interviewer/interrogator + interviewee
    +KL-Z  seller + buyer
    +PL-Ž   members of same religion or belief system
    +FL-Z  members of holy order or spiritual fellowship
    +TL-Ž   members of business/executive management
    +ŢL-Z  strangers brought together by circumstances of the moment
    +KL-Ž   romantic love relationship
    +XL-Z  parent-child relationship
    +FL-Ž   relationship between business associates
    +Ŗ-Z  supervisor/boss + employee
    +ŢL-Ž   partners or team members in sporting match or sporting activity
    +Ļ-Z  adversaries or opposing team members in sporting match or sporting activity
    +XL-Ž   socially adversarial based on social one-upmanship/ego gratification
    + x-cedilla-Z,  socially adversarial based on enmity/hatred
    + PŢ-Ž   relationship based on compulsion/threat
    + X-Z,  adversarial based on a feud
    + KŢ -Ž   adversarial based on jealousy/coveting of one’s situation
    +Ç-Z,  adversarial based on material envy/coveting of one’s possessions
    +QŢ -Ž   enmity based on revenge
    +Ţ-Z,  adversarial based on anger/resentment
    +SL-Ž   allies
    +F-Z,  predator + prey
    +SP-Ž   invader + invadee
    +Q-Z,  co-participants in general activity
    +ST-Ž   matchmaker + parties being matched
    +Ņ-Z  member of couple being matched or “set up” with each other
    +SK-Ž   lender + borrower
    +Ķ-Z,  perpetrator + victim
    +SF-Ž   traders/barterers
    +K-Z,  lessor + lessee
    +SŢ-Ž   creditor + debtor
    +T-Z,  advisor + party seeking advise
    +SX-Ž   warring parties
    +P-Z,  entertainer/emcee + audience
    +R-Ž   speaker/speechmaker/presenter + audience

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-Ž    ‘MARITAL/SPOUSAL RELATIONSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.  state of marriage / marital state / state of being married

    1. spouse

    2. act of infidelity / extramarital liaison / to be unfaithful / to betray spouse

    2. extramarital sex partner / mistress or gigolo

    3.  betrothal / engagement; be betrothed, be engaged

    3. fiancé(e) / being a fiancé(e)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1.  formal/legal state of marriage

    1. emotional bond of love/fidelity underlying marriage

    1. husband

    1. wife

    2. physical act of infidelity/betrayal

    2. breaking of emotional bond underlying marriage

    2. gigolo, kept man (male equivalent of mistress)

    2. mistress

    3. formal/legal status of being betrothed/engaged

    3. emotional bond of love/fealty underlying betrothal/engagement

    3. fiancé

    3. fiancée

    +

     

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  wed, wedded, marry, get married, marriage, wedding ceremony, cuckold (male or female)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Z     ‘EXCHANGE/PURCHASE’
    + Note: The stems below are generally used in conjunction with PROCESSUAL versus COMPLETIVE version (See Secs. 5.3.1 and 5.3.2) in order to distinguish an offer of exchange from a completed exchange. Alternately, the distinction between MONOACTIVE and COMPLEMENTARY valence (Sec. 5.2) can be used for the same purpose.

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exchange / swap

    1. act of trade / act of barter

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange

    2. purchase / commercial transaction; buy(ing) and sell(ing)

    3. change out / supplant / replace

    3. invest(ment)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. exchange (focus on entity given)

    1. exchange (focus on entity taken)

    1. to trade for / acquire through trade; act of acquiring via trade

    1. to trade away / give up through trade; act of given away via trade

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted into new function/place)

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted out of old function/place)

    2. buy; acquisition via purchase

    2. sell; act of selling

    3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity newly placed)

    3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity taken out of action)

    3. acquire via investment; act of acquisition via investment

    3. release interest in / sell one’s investment

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: commercial venture, a purchase, acquisition via trade, acquisition via investment; purvey, goods, thing sold, market, warehouse, buyer, seller, agent, business

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ž  - ‘MASTERY/AUTHORITY/SERVITUDE/OBEDIENCE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act/state of mastery/ownership/overlordship + servitude/subservience/subjugation to that mastery

    1. military command/office + obedience/following of orders

    2. act/state of supervision or formal oversight + following of orders/instructions

    2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight by noble right + recognition/submission to that rule

    3. take charge of; act/state of leadership + following that leadership

    3. formal authorization, appointed/elected authority / political authority; being official, being authorized + recognition/compliance with that authority

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. act/state of mastery, ownership, overlordship

    1. servitude, subservience, subjugation to mastery or overlordship

    1. military command/office

    1. obedience/following of military orders

    2. act/state of supervision or formal oversight

    2. following of orders or instructions from super-visor/overseer

    2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight by noble claim or “right”

    2. recognition/submission to claim of noble rule

    3. take charge of; act/state of leadership

    3. follow/obey a leader

    3. formal authorization, appointed/elected authority / political authority; being official, being authorized

    3. recognition/compliance with appointed, elected, official/political authority

    +

    Morphological derivatives: boss, supervisor, master, owner, lord, commander, leader, person-in-charge, officer
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  general, commodore, admiral, colonel, major, captain, lieutenant

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Q-Ž  - ‘PSYCHOLOGICAL or PSYCHO-LINGUISTIC MANIPULATION/TREATMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to fool someone (into doing/believing something); state of being fooled

    1. state of delusion (both state + content)

    2. to “play games” (with someone) = mentally manipulate via words/behavior/actions; state of being toyed with mentally

    2. means of psychiatric treatment; component of psychotherapy

    3. be mesmerized, entranced (by something)

    3. hypnotic state; be hypnotized

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    +

    Derivations:  to delude, to hypnotize, to “do a number” on someone mentally, to entrance

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    R-Z    ‘EFFORT/WORK’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exert / expend energy

    1. perform / operate / act / function

    2. work / labor / effort

    2. job task / employment-related task; perform job task

    3. handiwork / craftsmanship

    3. act of industry or enterprise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

    Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: strain, struggle, “fight”, toil, strenuous, persevere, operation, job, achievement, industry, enterprise, employment, employer, employee

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Z   ‘OCCUPANCY/RESIDENCY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. entity present + presence

    1. tenant + domicile

    2. occupant + place occupied

    2. resident + residence

    3. denizen + claimed property

    3. citizen + property

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. entity present

    1. presence of entity

    1. tenant

    1. domicile

    2. occupant

    2. place occupied

    2. resident

    2. residence

    3. denizen

    3. claimed property

    3. citizen

    3. property

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dwelling, quarters, population, community, town, village, city, hamlet, county, geopolitical area, state/province, nation, geopolitical bloc; nest, lair, den

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Ž   ‘MANNERS/DECORUM/DIGNITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. well-mannered, well-behaved; display a sense of manners

    1. decorum/cultural appropriateness; have/display a sense of decorum, politeness and civility

    2. dignified; have/display a sense of dignity

    2. courtly/stately/refined; stateliness

    3. noble, distinguished, cultivated; have/display a noble, distinguished or cultivated air

    3. aristocratic, well-bred; having/displaying a sense of aristocracy, nobility and breeding

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

    +

    Morphological derivatives:  polite(ness); courtesy/courteous

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-Z   ‘GRATITUDE/THANKFULNESS/PRAISE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to unexpected favor or convenience performed

    1. praise

    2. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to being relieved/rescued from negative situation

    2. gratefulness; feeling or manifestation of being beholden to someone or something [feeling is justified and an honor to be feeling]

    3. thank(s) / offer gratitude within ironic circumstances or merely as a courtesy, i.e., where expectation of thanks is for an unwanted, unnecessary, or purely symbolic act or required little or no effort on doer’s part

    3. feeling or manifestation of being beholden or obliged to someone or something [feeling is resented and unwanted]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on intent to convey gratitude

    same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of gratitude

    same as above 3 stems with focus on desire/intent to convey the feeling

    same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of the feeling

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  worship, indebted(ness)

    +

     

    +
    +


    + CLASS 15 ROOTS: concepts relating to existence, state, occurrence, subjectiveness

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K-R  ‘APPEARANCE/SEMBLANCE/IMPRESSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. appear to be/seem/look as if/give (off) the impression of; appearance/semblance/impression

    1. ostensible/ostensibly

    2. on the face of it, on first blush

    2. resemble, look like

    3. on the surface/superficially/seemingly

    3. façade, veneer

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-J   ‘HAPPEN/OCCUR(ENCE)/MANIFEST/EVENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. happen / occur / take place / to “pass”

    1. step / act / action

    2. manifest / be or make real / reify

    2. phenomenon

    3. event (spacio-temporal context)

    3. incident

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

    +

    Various derivations from the above stems:  turn out, situation, chain of events, doings, process, phase, deed, result(s), consequence(s)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-J   ‘EXISTENCE/ONTOLOGY/METAPHYSICS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exist objectively; something that exists; be(ing) [both ontological and metaphysical]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except in reference to epistemological context [i.e., in relation to knowledge/awareness of ontological or metaphysical existence]

    2. law of nature / existential axiom

    3. natural/inherent

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontology / ontological aspect

    same as above 3 stems referring to metaphysics / metaphysical aspect

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    K- z-bar    ‘TRANSCENDENCE / SPIRIT / RELIGION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. one’s spirit or soul / transcendent “connection” to the universe

    1. religious belief

    2. universal oneness / metaphysical interconnectedness between all things

    2. feeling of religious fervor or zeal

    3. striving/quest for ultimate destiny/purpose/”Omega point”

    3. striving/quest for salvation/redemption/enlightment (specific to particular religion)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

    same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

    same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-R  ‘APPEAR/MANIFEST/SHOW/EXHIBIT/DISPLAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. appear/manifest/show = be/make observable to the senses of others; manifestation, appearance

    1. exhibit; display

    2. expose; exposure

    2. show off, flaunt

    3. bring/call attention to = make others aware of the appearance/showing of something

    3. announce; advertise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of manifestation/showing

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing manifested or shown

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of exhibiting or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing exhibited or displayed

    +

    Morphological derivations:  demonstrate, flourish, show off, display, spectacle, parade, promenade, procession, ostentation, gaudy, garish, pomp, pompous

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    SP-R   ‘MANNERCONDUCT/BEHAVIOR/DEMEANOR’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. manner (= the way something or someone acts or behaves)

    1. method, the way something happens, course of action; conduct

    2. guise, form; to take the form/guise of

    2. behave/comport/conduct onself = outward display of one’s personality/thoughts/emotions/motives; behavior/conduct/deportment

    3. practice/policy

    3. bearing/carriage/demeanor

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the manner/form/practice itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the method or behavior itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  process, procedure, regimen, strategy

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    X-J   ‘TEMPORARY ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence + manifestation/effect]

    1. zone of high or low barometric pressure relative to surrounding pressure

    2. flash of lightning + peal of thunder [electrical phenomenon + associated sound]

    2. cold or warm air front

    3. cloud [in the sky]

    3. eye of a storm

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence]

    1. manifestation/effect of momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon

    1. low pressure zone

    1. high pressure zone

    2. flash of lightning

    2. peal of thunder

    2. cold air front

    2. warm air front

    3. cloud [in the sky] – physical occurrence

    3. impact/effect of cloud [in the sky], e.g., its hiding of the sun, it causing zero visibility as a plane flies through it, etc.

    3. eye of storm [physical occurrence]

    3. short-lived calm/still conditions associated with the eye of a storm

    +

     

    +
    +

    CLASS 16 ROOTS: concepts relating to individual volition and choice

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    C-H     ‘PLAY/RECREATION/LEISURE’
    + (These stems are often used with the various Valence categories (Section 5.2) to specify the manner of participation)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. play/recreate/amuse oneself (activity + feeling of enjoyment derived) = self-involved activity, e.g., play w/ a toy, play hide-and-seek, etc.

    1. play/recreate (activity + feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived) = formal rule-oriented activity, e.g., a board game, a sport, etc.

    2. element of participitory or self-involved leisure activity (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived), e.g., a dance, a hike, fishing, camping

    2. attend/view a formal entertainment (activity + feeling of enjoyment/diversion derived), e.g., view a show, live performance, movie, a sporting event, etc.)

    3. practice hobby or pastime (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived)

    3. engage in (a) sport activity (activity + feeling of competitive spirit) for motive of formal competition, e.g., victory-oriented

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed, i.e., a toy, game or diversion

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

    +

    SSD Derivatives:
    + sports, toys, traditional board games, participitory outdoor games

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Č-H     ‘DEGREE OF WAKEFULNESS OR CONSCIOUSNESS’
    + Note: Stems from this root are used in conjunction with various degree indicator affixes such as the EXN, EXD and SUF affixes from Sec. 7.7.6 in order to distinguish which polarity (awake vs. asleep) is implied.

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of consciousness or unconsciousness

    1. degree of activity/vivaciousness/“energy”

    2. degree of wakefulness or sleepiness

    2. degree of dormancy or hibernation

    3. degree of alertness/focus/attention/awareness or lack thereof

    3. degree of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. capacity for or faculty of consciousness

    1. object/entity/thought of which one is conscious

    1. state of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

    1. object of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

    2. capacity for or faculty of wakefulness/sleepiness

    2. that which stimulates awakening or lulls into sleep

    2. state of dormancy/hibernation

    2. object of dormancy/hibernation

    3. capacity for or faculty of alertness/attention/awareness

    3. that to or of which one is alert/attentive/aware

    3. state of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

    3. object of one’s intent/diligence/enterprise

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sleepy, listless(ness), grogginess, “fresh”, unconscious, dull, inattentive, vigilant, to “stir”, frisky, ardent, eager, persevere, bustling, zeal

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-H   ‘SEEK/SEARCH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. search, seek, look for something unknown [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

    1. hunt, hunt for [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

    2. search, seek, look for something lost [i.e., something known to exist which is missing]

    2. pursue, track down [i.e., existence certain, location surmisable]

    3. inspect

    3. quest / seek to accomplish/achieve something

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

    +

    Morphological Derivations: find, scan, reconnoiter, ransack, pry, ferret out, winnow through, fulfill a quest

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-X     ‘WANT/DESIRE/REQUEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) want/desire [emotion + object of desire]

    1. request [desire + thing requested]

    2. conscious desire based on need/lack/goal

    2. need/lack/necessity + thing needed or lacking

    3. hope/wish [feeling + thing wished/hoped for]

    3. ambition/goal/aspiration; aspire

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire

    same as above 3 stems referring to the thing desired

    same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire/need

    same as above 3 stems referring to the thing requested/needed

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: whim, fancy, inclination, appetite, “hunger”, greed, covet, propensity, aptness, eagerness, longing, crave, urge, passion, attract, tempt, persuade, allure, popularity, demand

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    Q-H - ‘HUNTING & GATHERING/PLANTING & HARVESTING/SUBSISTENCE FROM THE LAND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. searching for and gathering/collection of plants, vegetable matter for purposes of sustenance

    1. plant/sow and harvest an annual crop

    2. nomadic hunting/harvesting, subsistance-style nomadic sustenance [practices + products]

    2. plant/sow and harvest a permanent seasonal crop (e.g., vines, trees, bushes, etc.)

    3. live off the land [hunting/gathering practice + product(s) derived]

    3. manage crop(s) and practice animal husbandry [sowing/raising + reaping/product(s) derived]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the hunting or gathering process

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the products hunted or gathered

    1. till/plow & plant seeds or seedlings

    1.  harvest/reap an annual crop

    2. raise/grow a permanent seasonal crop

    2. harvest/reap a permanent seasonal crop

    3. raise/grow crop(s) & manage domesticated food-producing animal(s)

    3. harvest/reap crop products and process/collect animal products

    +

    Morphological Derivations:  to farm, a farm, practice agriculture

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-H   ‘CHOICE/ALTERNTIVE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. choose/choice [from open selection]

    1. select/pick [from limited selection]

    2. prefer(ence)

    2. alternative/option

    3. settle (for)

    3. vote [w/ CPT = elect]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

    +

     

    +
    +

    CLASS 17 ROOTS: temporal concepts

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    k-j + hacek    ‘DAY/NIGHT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. day [= 24-hour period]

    same as for INFORMAL stems except applied to a particular date or scheduled day as in “my first day at work” or “Independence Day”

    2. sky

    3. degree of sunlight [use with EXN, EXD, SUF affixes, etc. from Sec. 7.7.6]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. daytime

    1. nighttime

    2. daytime sky

    2. nighttime sky

    3. daylight

    3. natural darkness

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dawn, sunrise, daybreak, evening, sunset, twilight, morning, evening, afternoon, mid-day, noontime, midnight, the “wee” hours [= Spanish ‘madrugada’]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    M-Ķ   ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION LESS THAN ONE DAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. moment/instant

    1. ‘second’ [= basic unit of cyclic time, based on clapping of hands once together then once with back of hands together]

    2. a ‘while’

    2. ‘minute’ = 100 seconds

    3. portion of a day

    3. ‘hour’ = 100 minutes

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    +

    SSD affix used with FORMAL stems by degree:  1) 1/100 of time period 2) 1/10 3) ¼ 4) ½  5) exactly/precisely 6) twice the duration 7) 4 times 8) 10 times 9) 100 times

    +

    SSD affix used with INFORMAL Stem No. 3 by degree:  1) midnight to dawn period [Spanish ‘madrugada’] 2) dawn [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunrise’] 3) early morning 4) morning 5) midday 6) afternoon [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunset’] 7) twilight 8) evening 9) late night, from darkness till midnight

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    N-Ķ   ‘WAIT/AWAIT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. wait (for), await; waiting, a wait

    1. vigil/a watch; be vigilant/watchful

    2. expect; expectation; expected/impending

    2. foresee; foresight; prospective/foreseeable

    3. predict; prediction

    3. prognosticate, forecast

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    P-Ķ   ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION MORE THAN ONE DAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. expanse of time/period/duration more than 1 day

    1. subjective long-term period/era

    2. lunar period / month

    2. geologic era

    3. solar year

    3. ‘lifetime’; timespan from beginning to end of something

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    +

    Use of SSD affix give equivalents to ‘decade’, ‘century,’ ‘millenium’, etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    T-Ķ   ‘SEASON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. season, time of year

    1.  social behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., celebration, recreation, vacation, etc.)

    2. weather associated w/ particular season / seasonal weather

    2. weather-determined practice/behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., migration, mating, nesting, hibernation, etc.)

    3. cyclic state/condition of flora/fauna associated with a particular season

    3. practice/behavior/custom relating to maintenance/upkeep of crops, game and other material resources associated with a particular season (e.g., foraging, hunting, planting, harvest, storage, etc.)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

    +

    THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS:
    + R-Ķ    ‘SPRING’
    + L-Ķ    ‘SUMMER’
    + S-Ķ    ‘AUTUMN/FALL’
    + C -Ķ    ‘WINTER’
    + PS-Ķ    ‘TROPICAL RAINY SEASON’
    + TL-Ķ    ‘TROPICAL DRY SEASON’

    +
    +

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + Adjuncts
    +

    ©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-logo.gif b/2004-en/ithkuil-logo.gif new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9fe0f01 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/ithkuil-logo.gif differ diff --git a/2004-en/kalmykia_forum.html b/2004-en/kalmykia_forum.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..189fb70 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/kalmykia_forum.html @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ + + + + +Untitled Document + + + +

    My Trip to the Russian Republic of Kalmykia

    +

     

    +

    In early July, 2010, I spent a week in Russia as a guest of the Russian Republic of Kalmykia, where I was invited to attend a conference in the city of Elista, Kalmykia, entitled "Creative Technology: Perspectives and Means of Development." I had been asked to speak on using Ithkuil to model creative thinking.

    +

    At the conference, I presented a paper entitled "Conceptualizing an Ideal Language for the Expression of Creative Thought" (certainly a presumptuous title, but what the hell...) which offered my ideas on what such a language must be able to accomplish, accompanied by a slideshow presentation analyzing an Ithkuil sentence purporting to describe an "indescribable" work of art, specifically Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2. The presentation appeared to be well-received and several of the various Russian scientists and the many students in attendance approached me afterward during the course of the conference to discuss my work on Ithkuil.

    +

    I had a wonderful time at the conference and also enjoyed playing tourist in Moscow. Meeting many Russian scientists, students, and the local Kalmyk people was exhilarating. I was humbled to discover so many people interested in my work, and whose work in turn I found quite fascinating (to the extent I was able to understand it through my interpreters). I now have several new friends halfway around the world.

    +

    Below are photographs from the conference:

    +

    City-Chess City-Chess street

    +

    The "City-Chess" compound built for the 1998 World Chess Championships, where participants in the Conference were housed. It reminds me of a California townhouse community.

    +

     

    +

    Group Picture at Buddhist Temple in Elista

    +

    Some of the attendees at the conference in front of the Buddhist temple in Elista, with the President of the Republic of Kalmykia. From left to right:
    +John Quijada, Dr. Elena Pereslegin, Dr. Vladimir Kizima , Dr. Vyacheslav Moiseyev, Kalmykian President Kirsan Ilyumzhinov, Dr. Mikhail Tyurenkov, Dr. Oleg Bakhtiyarov, Galina Bakhtiyarova, Dr. Sergei Pavlov.

    +

     

    +

    Group Pic 2

    +

    Left to right: Dr. Oleg Bakhtiyarov, John Quijada, Dr. Anatoliy Levenchuk.

    +

     

    +

    Various pictures of the conference sessions:

    +

    Forum Pic 1

    +

    Forum Pic 2

    +

    Forum Pic 3

    +

    Group Pic

    +

    A group photo of various attendees at the conference, including many of Dr. Bakhtiyarov's students and colleagues from his "psychonetics" program.

    +

     

    +

    Return to Homepage

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/kalmykia_forum.html.orig b/2004-en/kalmykia_forum.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..477abfb --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/kalmykia_forum.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ + + + + +Untitled Document + + + +

    My Trip to the Russian Republic of Kalmykia

    +

     

    +

    In early July, 2010, I spent a week in Russia as a guest of the Russian Republic of Kalmykia, where I was invited to attend a conference in the city of Elista, Kalmykia, entitled "Creative Technology: Perspectives and Means of Development." I had been asked to speak on using Ithkuil to model creative thinking.

    +

    At the conference, I presented a paper entitled "Conceptualizing an Ideal Language for the Expression of Creative Thought" (certainly a presumptuous title, but what the hell...) which offered my ideas on what such a language must be able to accomplish, accompanied by a slideshow presentation analyzing an Ithkuil sentence purporting to describe an "indescribable" work of art, specifically Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2. The presentation appeared to be well-received and several of the various Russian scientists and the many students in attendance approached me afterward during the course of the conference to discuss my work on Ithkuil.

    +

    I had a wonderful time at the conference and also enjoyed playing tourist in Moscow. Meeting many Russian scientists, students, and the local Kalmyk people was exhilarating. I was humbled to discover so many people interested in my work, and whose work in turn I found quite fascinating (to the extent I was able to understand it through my interpreters). I now have several new friends halfway around the world.

    +

    Below are photographs from the conference:

    +

    City-Chess City-Chess street

    +

    The "City-Chess" compound built for the 1998 World Chess Championships, where participants in the Conference were housed. It reminds me of a California townhouse community.

    +

     

    +

    Group Picture at Buddhist Temple in Elista

    +

    Some of the attendees at the conference in front of the Buddhist temple in Elista, with the President of the Republic of Kalmykia. From left to right:
    +John Quijada, Dr. Elena Pereslegin, Dr. Vladimir Kizima , Dr. Vyacheslav Moiseyev, Kalmykian President Kirsan Ilyumzhinov, Dr. Mikhail Tyurenkov, Dr. Oleg Bakhtiyarov, Galina Bakhtiyarova, Dr. Sergei Pavlov.

    +

     

    +

    Group Pic 2

    +

    Left to right: Dr. Oleg Bakhtiyarov, John Quijada, Dr. Anatoliy Levenchuk.

    +

     

    +

    Various pictures of the conference sessions:

    +

    Forum Pic 1

    +

    Forum Pic 2

    +

    Forum Pic 3

    +

    Group Pic

    +

    A group photo of various attendees at the conference, including many of Dr. Bakhtiyarov's students and colleagues from his "psychonetics" program.

    +

     

    +

    Return to Homepage

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/lexicon.htm b/2004-en/lexicon.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5f39e44 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/lexicon.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9499 @@ + + + +Lexicon + + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +
    +

     

    +

    The Lexicon

    +

     

    +

    Supplement to Lexicon (updated August 25, 2014)

    +

     

    +

    Currently, the lexicon below lists over 900 roots, each of which contains 18 stems, for a total of 16200 stems (see + Sections 2.2, 2.3, + and 10.1.1 for an explanation + of the structure of individual roots and their 18 stems). This represents approximately one-fourth of the roots in the language. Additional roots and their stems will be periodically added +to this list as time permits.

    +

    (NOTE: The above "Supplement to Lexicon" link presents a PDF file of approximately 85 additional lexical roots and their associated stems.)

    +

    The reader should be aware that the glosses (i.e., the English translations + or definitions) for each of the stems below are at times somewhat arbitrary, + as Ithkuil roots and their stems have been conceptualized from the cognitive + level up, without regard as to whether they correspond necessarily to an existing + word or phrase in English or other languages. As a result, some of the English + glosses chosen as representations for the Ithkuil stems are approximations at + best.

    +

    Ideally, the best way to represent the meanings of Ithkuil stems would be to + use a semantic “meta-language” comprised of a closed set of semantically + universal (or near-universal) “primitives” to create semantic “formulas” + which define the use of a particular stem. (The design and use of such a meta-language + to translate the meanings of words from one language to another can be found + in the writings of linguist Anna Wierzbicka.) However, the author has chosen + not to pursue such an effort for the sake of time, as such an analysis would likely take decades to complete.

    +

    In regard to the list below, note that in some cases both a nominal (i.e., + noun) and verbal gloss have been provided, while in others only one or the other + is present. Nevertheless, the reader should keep in mind at all times that Ithkuil + stems always convey both a nominal and verbal meaning, as explained in detail + in Section 2.4.1.

    +

    The lexicon is arranged in the following alphabetical order:

    +
    +

    B C C’ Ch Ç Č Č’ Čh D Dh F G J K K’ Kh L Ļ M N Ň P P’ Ph Q Q’ Qh R Ř S Š T T’ Th Ţ V X Xh Z Ż Ž

    +
    +

    +

    It should also be noted that in previous versions of the language, formative roots were divided into lexico-semantic “classes” designated by the phonological patterning of the root (there were 17 such classes in the original version of Ithkuil, ten such classes in Ilaksh). In the current version of the language, these lexico-semantic classes have been eliminated, as the author has realized that the establishment of such classes does not serve any functional purpose in “real-world” spoken/written contexts; the ability to identify the semantic class of a stem does not sufficiently aid in understanding the stem’s specific meaning. Therefore, the assignment of phoneme patterns to roots in Ithkuil is now arbitrary. While the astute reader will note that many roots pertaining to a specific semantic notion (e.g., animals, plant and substance taxonomies, spatial position, etc.) still have similar phonological patterning, such patterning is nevertheless merely incidental and is without formal significance.

    +

     

    +

    Note on Ithkuil's Implicit “Theory of Meaning”

    +

    For those readers who may be trained in linguistics, particulary cognitive linguistics, it should be noted that at this point in the author’s development of the language, a traditional Enlightenment-based theory of meaning, assuming a one-to-one correspondence between a lexeme and its external “in-the-world” referent, has been implicitly assumed for convenience and/or expediency’s sake. A more careful and rigourous construction for Ithkuil’s lexico-semantics, given the author’s stated design goals (as described in the Introduction section), would not assume such a theory of meaning, but would rather incorporate more recent findings of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to reflect embodied meaning and metaphor-based conceptualization. However, pursuing such a foundation for the lexico-semantics of the language would, in the author’s opinion, be extremely time-consuming (on the order of many additional years, perhaps decades, to construct). Rather than withdraw the language from public availability for such reasons, the author has chosen instead to adopt a traditional/formalist foundation for its lexico-semantics essentially out of convenience, in order to be able to showcase the language's morphology.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    The Lexicon:
    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -B-  ‘WANT/DESIRE/REQUEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) want/desire [emotion + object of desire]

    1. request [desire + thing requested]

    2. conscious desire based on need/lack/goal

    2. need/lack/necessity + thing needed or lacking

    3. hope/wish [feeling + thing wished/hoped for]

    3. ambition/goal/aspiration; aspire

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire

    same as above 3 stems referring to the thing desired

    same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire/need

    same as above 3 stems referring to the thing requested/needed

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: whim, fancy, inclination, appetite, “hunger”, greed, covet, propensity, aptness, eagerness, longing, crave, urge, passion, attract, tempt, persuade, allure, popularity, demand

    +

     

    +

    +

    -BB-  ‘COAT/JACKET’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-
    +

    +

    -BD-   ‘NECKTIE/CRAVATTE The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV
    +

    +

    -BDh- ‘OCTOPUS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BG- ‘SQUID’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BJ- ‘EEL’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BK- ‘LAMPREY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BKW-  ‘PIKE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BK’- ‘RAY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BKh- ‘SHARK’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-

    +


    + -BL- ‘middle, center (as seen parallel to long axis of entity) The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.
    +

    +

    -BLW- ‘AQUAMARINE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +


    +

    +

    -BM- ‘SCALLOP’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BN- ‘MUSSEL’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BQ- ‘CRAB’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BQW-  ‘BASS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BQ’- ‘SHRIMP/PRAWN’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BQh- ‘LOBSTER’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-

    +

    -BR- ‘YELLOW’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

    -BŘ- ‘CLAM’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BT-  ‘TROUT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BT’-  ‘TUNA’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-

    +

    -BTh-  ‘SALMON’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-
    +

    +

    -BTW-  ‘COD’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -BV- ‘APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE / TECHNOLOGY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. application of knowledge / apply knowledge to practical purpose [both application and result]

    1. piece of technology; tool/product resulting from the application of science

    2. theorize / theory - observational knowledge utilized and integrated to create coherent explanation

    2.prototype; piece of technology used to test theory

    3. brainstorm; inspiration and insight into the application of knowledge to solve a problem

    3. specific technological discovery; breakthrough solution

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on the process of applying knowledge

    		same as above 3 stems but with focus on the resultsame as above 3 stems but with focus on the tool/device/piece of technology itselfsame as above 3 stems but with focus on the function/purpose of the technology
    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -BW- ‘MOUTH/ORAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mouth [= oral orifice]

    Same as INFORMAL Stems but for non-animal entity or figuratively

    2. lip [use of DPX = lips]

    3. interior of mouth/oral cavity

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on bodily location/physical aspect

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose, use, function

    +

     

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -BY-  ‘DOG’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. dog

    1. dog as resource

    2. male dog

    2. male dog as resource

    3. female dog, bitch

    3. female dog as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild/feral dog

    1. domesticated/pet dog

    1. dog as food/prey

    1. dog as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild/feral male dog

    2. domesticated/pet male dog

    2. male dog as food/prey

    2. male dog as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild/feral female dog

    3. domesticated/pet female dog

    3. female dog as food/prey

    3. female dog as derived resource or processed product

    +

     

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -BZ- ‘DESCRIPTION/ACCOUNT/STORY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. description/account; to describe, to informally communicate an account of something [process + contents]

    1. narrative story; communicate a story [process + contents]

    2. relate/report/recount = communication from memory or observations [process + contents]

    2. recitation; recite (=communicate/describe from record or based on memorization) [process + contents]

    3. historical narrative / historical account [work itself + contents]

    3. fictional narrative / fictional story [work itself + contents]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the process of describing/communi-cating

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to the process of describing/communi-cating

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    +

     

    +

    +

    -BZD-   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [planar 2-dimensional context, e.g., among others in a crowded room] PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-;

    +


    +

    +

    -BZDW-   ‘PYTHON’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

     

    +

    -BZG-   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [linear unidimensional context, e.g., between two others in a queue] PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-;

    +

     

    +

    -BZGR-   ‘VIPER’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -C- ‘EXISTENCE/ONTOLOGY/METAPHYSICS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exist objectively; something that exists; be(ing) [both ontological and metaphysical]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except in reference to epistemological context [i.e., in relation to knowledge/awareness of ontological or metaphysical existence]

    2. law of nature / existential axiom

    3. natural/inherent

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontology / ontological aspect

    same as above 3 stems referring to metaphysics / metaphysical aspect

    +

     

    +

    +

    -CK-  ‘HAT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-
    +

    +

     

    +

    -CKh- ‘LIQUID (OTHER THAN WATER) AS SUBSTANCE AND TOOL’ -- The stems of this root are patterned after those of the root -DH-.

    +

    +

    -CL- ‘0/-Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, +-Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -CM- ‘LONGITUDE / EAST-WEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. east-west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    1. longitude

    2. west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    2. West longitude

    3. east axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    3. East longitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. east-west axial direction or orientation

    1. east-west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    1. meridian

    1. zero meridian (Greenwich meridian)

    2. west direction or orientation

    2. west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    2. time zone

    2. Western Hemisphere

    3. east direction or orientation

    3. east geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    3. International Date Line

    3. Eastern Hemisphere

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -CN-  ‘PLANT TYPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. branched/leaved plant including its fruit or flower

    same as FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

    2. grass-like or stalked plant including its seed or grain

    3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold including its spore or cyst

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. branched/leaved plant

    1. flower, fruit, or blossom of branched/leaved plant

    2. grass-like or stalked plant

    2. seed, grain, or kernel of grass-like or stalked plant

    3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold

    3. spore or cyst of moss-like or fungal plant or mold

    +

    SSD for Stem 2:  1) grass  2) ground-covering plant 3) clover  4) weed 5) wildgrass
    + SSD for Stem 3:  1) lichen  2)  mushroom  3)  mold  4)  slime mold 5) moss  6) non-mushroom fungus

    +

     

    +

    +

    +

    -CP-  ‘-X/+Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -CP’- ‘BODILY JOINT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. bodily joint (physical joint + function); flex joint

    1. specialized bodily joint/juncture

    2. ball & socket-type bodily joint

    2. vertebra

    3. standard-type joint

    3. wrist/ankle/waist (lateral circular joint type)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to external hard or knob-like external body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to internal joint and its function/process

    Same as above 3 stems

    Same as above 3 stems

    +

    hip/flex hip, shoulder, flex shoulder
    + finger joint, toe joint, knee, elbow
    + spinal column; flex spine
    + wrist, ankle waist

    +

     

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -CQ-   ‘SIX’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 6 / a sextet; to be 6 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make six-faceted / having 6 uses or aspects / sexa-  / hexa- / sixfold

    3. sixth one in a sequence; be/make sixth in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 6 times the number of something; to sextuple / multiply by 6

    1. a sixth / divide by 6 or into 6 parts

    2. 6 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 6 times

    2. be of or make into 6 parts; separate(d) into 6 parts

    3. to the 6th power; raise to the 6th power

    3. to the negative 6th power; to divide by the 6th power of

    +

     

    +

    -CR-  ‘0/-Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’
    +

    +


    +-CT-  ‘+X/+Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: +-X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, +-Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, +-Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -CT’- ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL BLOCK-LIKE SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cube [solid volume]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but as outline edges/frame only, not as solid volumes

    2. rectilinear block [solid volume]

    3. disc

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    +

    +

    -CW- ‘-X/0/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

     

    +

    -CY-   ‘MOUSE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +


    +

    +

    -C’-   ‘tenderness/nuturing/caring’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Ch-   ‘GRIEF / SADNESS FROM LOSS / MOURNING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of a grief/sadness due to loss; feel grief [state + content]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expression of grief, i.e., mourning.

    2. act or action caused by non-volitional experience of grief

    3. cause or causal circumstance for one’s grief

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on process/behavior itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential state/feeling of grief itself

    +

     

    +

    -Ç-   ‘excitement/thrill’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +


    +-ÇC-  ‘DRESS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-
    +

    +

     

    +

    -ÇCW-   ‘SHREW’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +
    +-ÇÇ-  ‘self-induced trance or self-induced state of altered consciousness, e.g., through meditation’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -ÇČ-  ‘feeling of emotional maturity/superiority; feeling “above it all”’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +


    +

    +

    -ÇČW-   ‘VOLE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +


    +
    +-ÇF-  ‘feeling of piquancy, stimulated curiosity, a desire for a new experience’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +


    +

    +

    -ÇFL- member of couple being matched or “set up” with each other — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    +


    +

    +

    -ÇK- ‘eagerness / fervor / zeal’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +


    +

    +

    -ÇKÇ- socially adversarial based on social one-upmanship/ego gratification — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇKF- interviewer/interrogator + interviewee — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇKL- partners or team members in sporting match or sporting activity — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇKR- socially adversarial based on enmity/hatred — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇKŢ- co-participants in general activity — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇKV- co-workers/associates — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇKW- sibling relations — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇKY- members of stigmatized/isolated/oppressed societal group — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇK’- ‘LIQUID (OTHER THAN WATER) IN NATURAL MOTION’ -- The stems of this root are patterned after those of the root -KL-.

    +


    +-ÇKh-  ‘post-orgasmic/post-coital bliss; “afterglow”’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    ÇKhW-    ‘PORCUPINE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of mammalian/avian/reptilian genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +


    +

    +

    -ÇL- ‘feeling carefree / frivolity / relaxed’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -ÇM-    ‘jollity/merriment/gayness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -ÇMW- adversarial based on anger/resentment — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-

    +

    -ÇN-  ‘feeling of inherent “connection” to or oneness with the universe through space and time’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -ÇNW- creditor + debtor — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇP- ‘inspiration / feeling of positive energy’  ‘uplift/inspiration (e.g., by beauty, art, music, etc.) The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -ÇPÇ- lessor + lessee — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇPF- adversaries or opposing team members in sporting match or sporting activity — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇPL- official/agent of authority + supplicant/petitioner/applicant — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇPR- strangers brought together by circumstances of the moment — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇPŘ- members of same religion or belief system — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇPŢ- relationship based on compulsion/threat — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇPW- members of holy order or spiritual fellowship — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇPh-    ‘SQUIRREL’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -ÇPhW-   ‘POSSUM’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -ÇQ- ‘SKIRT/KILT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

    +

    -ÇQF- adversarial based on jealousy/coveting of one’s situation — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇQL- co-authors/creators of joint opus or artistic work — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇQR- adversarial based on a feud — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇQŢ- adversarial based on material envy/coveting of one’s possessions — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇQ’-    ‘CHIPMUNK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -ÇQh-  ‘feeling "high" - drug- or chemically-induced euphoria/state of altered consciousness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -ÇQhW-    ‘MOLE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

     -ÇR- ‘poignancy, “aaaaw” reaction to irresistable cuteness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ÇT-    ‘FIT/HOLD/CONTAIN AS INTERNAL-EXTERNAL PARTITION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. holding area / containment area; hold/keep/contain

    1. room, chamber

    2. fit; to fit, contain (= have sufficient room for)

    2. reside, situate; room as place of residence, quasi-permanent situation or default location

    3. volume or boundary of containment area

    3. room boundaries (i.e., walls, floor, ceiling)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the physical boundaries (“walls”) which define the containment area and prevent contents from leaking or escaping

    same as above 3 stems referring to the space (“room”) within the holding area and protection of contents from external environment

    same as above 3 stems referring to the room as a container separating inside from outside

    same as above 3 stems referring to the space within the room as shelter or sanctuary

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  ceiling, wall, floor, dividing panel, piece of furniture serving to divide room space
    + EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: house, building, cell, booth, closet; snug, snugness, loose, looseness, baggy, bagginess

    +

    -ÇTL-  traders/barterers — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇTR- speaker/speechmaker/presenter + audience — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇTŘ- enmity based on revenge — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ÇTW- autocrat or autarch + subjects — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -ÇT’-   ‘RAT’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +
    +-ÇTh-  ‘ ecstatic/euphoric feeling of joie-de-vivre’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -ÇThW-   ‘SKUNK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +


    +

    +

    -ÇV-  ‘anticipate (something positive); feeling of anticipation (for something positive)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -ÇW-  ‘serenity, peace of mind’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Č- ‘PHYSICAL CONTACT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. physical contact between 2 or more objects [contact + effect]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that the context is specific to physical contact by one’s “default” appendage(s) for volitional physical contact, i.e., hands/fingers, beak, snout, tongue, pseudopod, tendril, tentacle, etc.

    2. application of physical pressure/force + effect

    3. move or set in motion via physical contact + resulting motion

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on physical act of contact

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on resulting effect/movement

    +

    EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THESE STEMS: feel, push, stroke, caress, tap, nudge, hit, strike, slap, punch, shove, press, rub, knock over, fall [due to being pushed], injure [via striking], etc.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ČK- ‘SWITCH/ALTERATION BETWEEN MULTI-VALUED SETTINGS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. switch to a different value or setting

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

    2. veer, change course

    3. change to a less active or more active setting; increase or decrease intensity or setting

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. switch to higher/greater value or setting

    1. switch to lower/lesser value or setting

    2. change to more difficult, dangerous, or unpredictable course

    2. change to easier, safer, or more predictable course

    3. increase to higher/stronger intensity

    3. decrease to lower/weaker intensity

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ČKh-   ‘TEN QUADRILLION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of ten quadrillion; to be 10 quadrillion in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make 10 quadrillion-faceted / having 10 quadrillion uses or aspects / 10 quadrillion-fold

    3. 10 quadrillionth in a sequence; be/make quadrillionth in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 10 quadrillion times the number of something; to multiply by 10 quadrillion

    1. a ten quadrillionth / divide by 10 quadrillion or into 10 quadrillion parts

    2. 10 quadrillion times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 10 quadrillion times

    2. be of or make into 10 quadrillion parts; separate(d) into 10 quadrillion  parts

    3. to the 10 quadrillionth power; raise to the 10 quadrillionth power

    3. to the negative 10 quadrillionth power; to divide by the 10 quadrillionth power of

    +


    +

    +

    -ČL- ‘+X/0/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +


    +

    +

    -ČM- non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing sushi, making a peanut butter sandwich, etc. -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ČN-   ‘DEGREE OF WAKEFULNESS OR CONSCIOUSNESS’
    + Note: Stems from this root are used in conjunction with various degree indicator affixes such as the EXN, EXD and SUF affixes from Sec. 7.7.6 in order to distinguish which polarity (awake vs. asleep) is implied.

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of consciousness or unconsciousness

    1. degree of activity/vivaciousness/“energy”

    2. degree of wakefulness or sleepiness

    2. degree of dormancy or hibernation

    3. degree of alertness/focus/attention/awareness or lack thereof

    3. degree of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. capacity for or faculty of consciousness

    1. object/entity/thought of which one is conscious

    1. state of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

    1. object of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

    2. capacity for or faculty of wakefulness/sleepiness

    2. that which stimulates awakening or lulls into sleep

    2. state of dormancy/hibernation

    2. object of dormancy/hibernation

    3. capacity for or faculty of alertness/attention/awareness

    3. that to or of which one is alert/attentive/aware

    3. state of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

    3. object of one’s intent/diligence/enterprise

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sleepy, listless(ness), grogginess, “fresh”, unconscious, dull, inattentive, vigilant, to “stir”, frisky, ardent, eager, persevere, bustling, zeal

    +

     

    +

    -ČP-   ‘-X/-Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’
    +

    +


    +-ČP'- ‘glass (material)’ Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ČQ- ‘0/0/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’
    +

    +

    -ČR-   ‘VULTURE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +


    + -ČT-  ‘+X/-Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, +-Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

    -ČThW-  gourd — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -ČV-   ‘COLLAR’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

    +

    -ČW- ‘0/+Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Č’- ‘ACCESS/PASSAGE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. access point / passage; pass through, access

    1. doorway (= the access portal itself, not the door which opens/closes off access)

    2. passage or infiltration of one substance into another

    2. gateway / portal

    3. filter / screening [selective access]

    3. checkpoint

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. enter / go in / pass within / ingress

    1. exit / go out / egress

    1. enter (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

    1. exit (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

    2. infiltrate / imbue / immerse

    2. emit / dispense

    2. receive (= welcome) ; reception

    2. remove / dispel

    3. filter through

    3. filter out

    3. admittance; admit; let in

    3. oust, put out / eject; ejection

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: door, gate, let in, insert, introduce, take out, remove, penetrate, emanate, emerge

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Čh-  ‘MAKE/CONSTRUCT/INTEGRATE/FORM’
    + (NOTE:  This root does not refer to ‘make/create’ meaning ‘emit/secrete/produce’as in ‘make noise’ or ‘make milk’, etc.)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. make/construct/create (non-mechanical) [= construct via integration of material resources]

    1. mechanically construct / build from a design

    2. to form/fashion/mix  (non-mechanical) [= combine ingredients/parts to form]

    2. integrate parts / integration of parts

    3. integrate/organize (non-mechanical)

    3. machine / mechanical device

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

    +

    NOTE:  The above meanings represent these stems as used in conjunction with the COMPLETIVE (CPT) version.  Their default PROCESSUAL (PCT) counterparts would translate as ‘plan (to)’, ‘design’, etc.
    + Derivations:  cobble together, rig, system, conspire

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -D-   ‘NAME/DESIGNATION/TITLE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. name + referent; to be named, to be called

    1. title + referent

    2. designation/reference + referent; refer to as

    2. formal designation + referent

    3. label / nickname + referent; to go by

    3. role

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

    Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

    +


    +-DBR- inflammatory disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.

    +

    -DBY- pulmonary disorder   — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.

    +

    -DD-   ‘PANTS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-
    +

    +

    -DDL- degenerative tissue disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DDR- mental disorder (i.e., no discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives:  1) schizo-affective 2) sociopathic condition 3) schizophrenia 4) personality disorder 5) depression 6) dissociative disorder 7) manic condition, mania 8) unknown mental disorder 9) bipolar condition
    +

    +

    -DDW- topical skin disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DDY- neuro-muscular/myalgic disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DDŘ- peripheral nervous system disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DG-  ‘APRON’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

    +

    -DGL- cellular/metabolic disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DGR- malignant tumorous /neoplastic disorder; cancer  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-..
    +

    +

    -DGV- cardio-vascular disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DGW- ocular/eye disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DGY- back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal) — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -DK- ‘MISCELLANEOUS BODY PARTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. buttock

    1. haunch

    2. breast/teat

    2. snout/proboscis

    3. navel

    3. fin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -DL-  ‘HAND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hand (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “hand” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. hand (as holder, grasper, striker) [both physical body part and function]; to grasp-->hold

    3. leg (as manipulator, handler, feeler) [both physical body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. hand as physical body part

    1. function of hand as “feeler”- focuser of body’s tactile sense

    2. hand as main tool of body

    2. function of hand as holder/grasper

    3. hand as limb/extension

    3. function of hand as manipulator/handler

    +

    SSD derivatives:  1) fist 2) palm 3) knuckle 4) hand as flat “blade”, e.g., for karate chop 5) finger 6) thumb 7) “butt” of hand [=lower part of palm] 8) fingernail  9) bottom side of fist [as when pounding fist onto table; for individual fingers, use following affixes + SSD/5 for ‘finger’:  index = “main finger” or “first finger”, middle finger = “mid-finger” or “long finger” or “2nd finger”, ring finger = “3rd finger”, pinkie = 4th finger or small(est) finger

    +

     

    +

    -DLW- nasal disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DLY- mid/inner ear disorder; hearing problem  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.

    +

    +

    -DM-  ‘ROBE(S)/TOGA’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

    +

    -DMY- neurological disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -DN- ‘GOODWILL/FRIENDLINESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. being nice [= emotional/spiritual/physical support of another’s interests]

    1. good samaritanship, going out of the way to help

    2. goodwill, benevolent intent, kindness

    2. peace / fellowship

    3. amicability / friendliness

    3. friendship (unidirectional)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

    +

    Derivations:  altruism, being friends, affable

    +


    +

    +

    -DNW- liver disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -DR-     ‘MANAGE/GUIDANCE/COMPLIANCE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. guide / guideline + compliance

    1. rule, precept + obedience

    2. manage / direct + compliance

    2. preside over / mete out law / govern + abidance

    3. discipline + submission/obedience

    3. moral guideline + personal rectitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. guide / guideline

    1. follow guide / follow guideline

    1. rule, precept

    1. obey rule or precept

    2. manage / direct

    2. comply / follow direction(s)

    2. preside over / met out law / govern

    2. abide by law / obey law

    3. apply discipline

    3. submit to discipline

    3. moral guideline

    3. personal rectitude

    +


    +

    +

    -DŘ- ‘ORANGE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +


    +
    +-DV-   ‘SMOOTHNESS/ROUGHNESS (= TACTILE COARSENESS) The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-.

    +

    -DW- seller + buyer — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -DY- ‘SENSE/SENSATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sense/sensation, “feel” / “feeling” [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]; an act of sensing something

    1. examine via the senses [both act and result/outcome]

    2. sensor / sensory organ [function + sensor itself]

    2. sensor(y) device/instrument [both use and device itself]

    3. imagine a sensation or feeling / imagined sensation or feeling [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]

    3. create/induce a sensory experience [both act and result/outcome]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to sense / act of sensing

    1. a sensation, a feeling

    1. examine via the senses [the act thereof]

    1. resulting evidence of senses

    2. sense faculty/ability

    2. sensor(y) organ

    2. sensor(y) device/instrument [the use thereof]

    2. sensor(y) device or instrument [the device/instrument itself]

    3. imagine a sensation/feeling

    3. a mentally imagined sensation

    3. create a sensory experience or feeling [the act thereof]

    3. sensation/feeling as externally created/induced

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  perceive, detect, perception

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Dh- ‘WATER AS SUBSTANCE AND TOOL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (some) water; (be/make) wet / moist(en)

    1. (some) water as component of life

    2. (some) water in context of usage [both substance and use]

    2. (some) water as nourishment; to consume/drink water

    3. ice

    3. (some) water as biological environment or medium

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. (some) water [substance itself]

    1. degree of moisture [from water]

    1. (some) water of one’s corporeal body

    1. hydration; hydrate

    2. water as “tool” (e.g., for washing, for powering a turbine, etc.)

    2. wash, clean [with water]

    2. act of drinking water; to drink water

    2. to water (e.g., plants)

    3. ice / freeze

    3. float

    3. (some) water from a natural environmental setting

    3. to inhabit water / live in water / water-dwelling

    +

    EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THIS STEM: bathe, lave, submerge, sink, dunk, immerse, dry, drench(ed), irrigate, swim, the sea (as environment); dehydrate; thirst

    +


    +-DhBL- genetic disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DhBW- musculo-skeletal disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DhBV- glandular/endocrine disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DhBZ- upper gastric disorder; throat/mouth disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DhGL- blood/hematological disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DhGR- invasive skin disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DhGV- spinal condition or disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DhGW- microbial infection — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DhGY- physical brain disorder (i.e., discernible lesion) — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. SSD Derivatives:  general dementia, multi-infarct dementia, stroke,
    +

    +

    -DhGZ- lower gastro-intestinal disorder; bowel problem  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.

    +

    -DhL- ‘MAROON’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

    -DhM- the common cold — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DhMW- non-malignant tumorous/neoplastic disorder; non-cancerous growth  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DhMY- auto-immune condition  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.
    +

    +

    -DhN-  ‘subjective feeling of safety/security, relaxation, and peace-of-mind one feels by being at or returning home; “home-sweet-home”feeling.’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-. Derivations: hospitality; make one feel at home, make oneself at home

    +

    -DhNW- mid gastric disorder; stomach/esophagal disorder  — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-

    +

    -DhŘ- alcohol, wood    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -DhW- alcohol, grain     —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -DhY- ‘TAIL’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PR-

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -F-    ‘SPATIAL ORIENTATION / POSITION / DIRECTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. general spatial position [currently or within context of utterance]; be situated at

    1. specific spatial position at “end point”; be situated at “end point” of

    2. general orientation (along or relative to directional axes); to “face” [toward]

    2. specific orientation toward “end point” of; to “face” squarely

    3. general direction/axis of movement; direct/move along axis of

    3. specific direction/axis of movement toward “end point” of; to head straight for

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. general position toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    1. general position toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    1. specific position at “one end” of opposed spatial points

    1. specific position at “other side” of opposed spatial points

    2. general orientation toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    2. general orientation toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    2. specific orientation toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

    2. specific orientation toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

    3. general direction toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

    3. general direction toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

    3. specific direction toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

    3. specific direction toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

    +


    +

    +


    +-FC-  ‘GENERIC FLYING BUG’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -FF-    ‘PLEASURE- or PAIN-BASED VOCALIZATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sigh (affective/non-volitional)

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) vocalizations

    2. squeal/groan/moan (affective/non-volitional)

    3. gasp (affective/non-volitional)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental  pleasure or satisfaction

    Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental distress, pain, torment, or dissatisfaction

    +

    SSD DERIVATIONS:  cry, sob, howl, whimper, murmur
    + OTHER MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  weep

    +


    +

    +

    -FFR- allies — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -FFM- predator + prey — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +


    +-FFY-  ‘GNAT’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’

    +

    -FKÇ-  ‘APHID’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -FKL- matchmaker + parties being matched — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -FKR-  ‘MOSQUITO’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -FKŘ- warring parties — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -FKŢ- lender + borrower — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -FKW- entertainer/emcee + audience — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -FKY- invader + invadee — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +


    +

    +

    -FK’- Sulfur  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -FKh- Lead    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -FKhW-  safflower — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -FL- ‘BLACK’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

    -FLY-  ‘HOUSEFLY’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -FN-  ‘COUSIN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cousin [male or female]

    1. step-cousin [male or female]

    2. male cousin

    2. male step-cousin

    3. female cousin

    3. female step-cousin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s mother]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s father]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepmother]

    1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepfather]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s mother]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s father]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

    2. male cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s mother]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s father]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

    3. female cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

    +

     

    +


    +-FPÇ-  ‘BUTTERFLY’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -FPL- perpetrator + victim — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -FPŢ-  ‘FIREFLY’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -FQL- advisor + party seeking advise — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -FQR- fellowship, “band of brothers”, fraternity, sorority, etc. — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -FQŢ- fellow hobbyists or enthusiasts — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -FQh-  ‘bother, annoyance (based on displeasure at or disagreement with external circumstances)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -FR- ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION LESS THAN ONE DAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. moment/instant

    1. ‘second’ [= basic unit of cyclic time, based on clapping of hands once together then once with back of hands together]

    2. a ‘while’

    2. ‘minute’ = 100 seconds

    3. portion of a day

    3. ‘hour’ = 100 minutes

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    +

    SSD affix used with FORMAL stems by degree:  1) 1/100 of time period 2) 1/10 3) ¼ 4) ½  5) exactly/precisely 6) twice the duration 7) 4 times 8) 10 times 9) 100 times

    +

    SSD affix used with INFORMAL Stem No. 3 by degree:  1) midnight to dawn period [Spanish ‘madrugada’] 2) dawn [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunrise’] 3) early morning 4) morning 5) midday 6) afternoon [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunset’] 7) twilight 8) evening 9) late night, from darkness till midnight

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -FŘ- ‘INFIRMITY/PHYSICAL DISABILITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. general weakness/infirmity (e.g., age-related or illness-related)

    1. acute infirmity, attack, flare-up

    2. specific physical disability or abnormality; disabled

    2. injury; injure(d)

    3. lame, crippled, handicapped, impaired (permanently or chronically)

    3. impaired; decreased mobility (temporary)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    +


    +

    +

    -FS- ‘side/flank, lateral area’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.

    +

    -FSK- club members — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -FSK’- owner + pet — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -FSKh-  ‘DRAGONFLY’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -FSM-  ‘WASP’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -FSN- members of business/executive management — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -FSP- relationship between business associates — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -FSP’-  ‘GRASSHOPPER’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’

    +

    -FSQ- members of secret society — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -FSQW-    ‘PHEASANT’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -FSQ’- “center of attention” + sycophants — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -FSQh- sage + disciples — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +
    +-FST-  ‘MOTH’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -FSY-  ‘FLEA’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -FŠ- ‘ABDOMEN/THORAX/TORSO/CHEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. thorax/torso [both body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “mid-section” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. abdomen/midsection (lower front half of torso) [both body part and function]

    3. chest (upper front of torso) [both  body part and function)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

    +


    +

    +

    -FŠK-  ‘BUMBLEBEE’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’

    +

    -FŠKh- fan + celebrity — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -FŠK’- supervisor/boss + employee — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -FŠP-  ‘HONEYBEE’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -FŠP’-  ‘HORNET’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -FŠQh-  ‘MANTIS’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -FŠTh-  ‘LOCUST’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’

    +

    -FT-   ‘FULLNESS/EMPTINESS’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-.

    +

    -FTh-  ‘LEGGING/SOCK’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of particular genus of insect

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    MAT Suffix used to indicate life stage: larvae/grub, chrysalis, cocoon, adult, etc.
    +SSD Suffix used as follows: 1) egg, 2) wing, 3) oil/secretion, 4) silk/web, 5) skin/pellicle, 6) tail, 7) horn, 8) leg(s) 9) [open]

    +


    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -FY-   ‘EIGHT

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 8 / an octet; to be 8 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make eight-faceted / having 8 uses or aspects / octo- / eightfold

    3. eighth one in a sequence; be/make eighth in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 8 times the number of something; to octtuple / multiply by 8

    1. an eighth / divide by 8 or into 8 parts

    2. 8 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 8 times

    2. be of or make into 8 parts; separate(d) into 8 parts

    3. to the 8th power; raise to the 8th power

    3. to the negative 8th power; to divide by the 8th power of

    +

    ̀

    +


    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -G-  ‘COMPONENTIAL PART OF WHOLE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. component/part of something + its function/purpose

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to a separable/detachable component/part, as opposed to INFORMAL stems which refer to an inalienable or integrated component/part

    2. appearance/condition of component/part + its function/purpose

    3. component/part as seen in relation to the greater whole

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. component/part itself

    1. function/purpose of component/part

    2. phsycial appearance/condition of component/part

    2. impact/effect of component’s/part’s condition on its function/purpose

    3. component/part itself as seen in relation to the greater whole

    3. function/purpose of component/part itself in relation to the greater whole

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -GB-  ‘FANTASTIC OR IMAGINARY CREATURE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fantastic or imaginary creature/beast

    1. mythological/symbolic creature/beast

    2. winged fantastic creature/beast

    2. legendary being/creature/beast, allegedly real

    3. reptilian/saurian fantastic creature/beast

    3. alien/extraterrestrial being

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 1: 
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  dragon
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  centaur, sphinx, satyr, unicorn, chimera
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  vampyre, werewolf, yeti

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -GD- ‘NECK’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. neck (as gestalt entity) [body part + function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “neck” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

    2. neck (as bodily support/swivel point for head) [body part + function

    3. neck (as narrowest, most vulnerable body part) [body part + function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. neck as physical body part

    1. neck as functional body part

    2. neck as bodily support/swivel point for head

    2. neck as functional support/swivel point for head

    3. neck as physically narrowest, most vulnerable body part)

    3. neck as functionally narrowest, most vulnerable body part

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  nape, throat (i.e., front part of neck)

    +

    +

    +

    -GDR-    ‘ALBATROSS’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -GDh- ‘cloth/fabric’Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

     -GG-  ‘VEIL’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -GL-   ‘STATE OF HEALTH/ILLNESS/WELL-BEING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. state of physical health / physical well-being

    1. state of mental health / mental well-being

    2. physical illness; sick(ness)

    2. mental illness

    3. physical injury/wound/lesion/trauma

    3. mental trauma

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

    +

    SSD affix used with Stem 2 of both INFORMAL and FORMAL stem in conjunction w/ the AGC2/7 affix give:  1) nurse 2) emergency technician 3) therapist 4) caregiver 5) doctor 6) surgeon 7) healer 8) “medicine man” 9) medical assistant
    + Derivations:  madness, craziness, insanity

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -GM- ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE SHAPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.   generic 2-D outline shape (e.g., the shape of a close-course race-track, the outline of the shore of a lake, a drawing of a national border on a map, etc.)

    1. 2-D outline shape generically distorted

    2. generic 2-D outline horizontally elongated

    2. 2-D outline shape obliquely elongated / skewed along one axis

    3. generic 2-D outline vertically elongated

    3. 2-D outline shape medially compressed, i.e., “squished/pinched in the middle”

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +


    +

    +

    -GN- ‘wax’Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -GR-  ‘NUTRITION / NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. food and drink; to eat and drink

    1. eat a serving of food or drink; to dine

    2. food; to eat

    2. prepared/cooked food; to eat prepared/cooked food

    3. drink (i.e., substance drunk); to drink

    3. processed drink or spirits; to drink processed drink or spirits

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. eat and drink as biological process

    1. food and drink (substances consumed)

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on the process of consumption

    same as above 3 stems but with focus on the items consumed

    2. eat/ingest/consume

    2. item of solid food

    3. drink/imbibe

    3. liquid (to be) drunk

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: cooking, meal, repast, feast, become drunk, gorge(d); chef, cook, brewer

    +

     

    +

    -GŘ- ‘SKY BLUE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -GV-    ‘ARTICLE OF CLOTHING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. piece of clothing as covering or fashion; to wear such

    1. piece of clothing as part of uniform or costume; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker or indicator of station; to wear such

    2. part of uniform or costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as ornament or accessory; to wear such

    3. part of uniform or costume as ornament; to wear such

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. piece of clothing as covering; to wear such

    1. piece of clothing as fashion; to wear such

    1. part of uniform as covering; to wear such

    1. part of costume as covering; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker; to wear such

    2. piece of clothing as indicator of station; to wear such

    2. part of uniform as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    2. part of costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as ornament; to wear such

    3. piece of clothing as accessory; to wear such

    3. part of uniform as ornament; to wear such

    3. part of costume as ornament; to wear such

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -GW-   ‘AMBULATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ambulate (as natural to specific species, e.g., walk, slither, fly, crawl, etc.)

    1. “formal” ambulation, e.g., march, prance

    2. rapid ambulation (as per specific species, e.g., run, gallop, scamper, scurry, etc.)

    2. purposeful rapid ambulation, e.g., flee, race

    3. unnatural or affected ambulation

    3. deliberately unnatural or affected ambulation, e.g., swagger, saunter

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

    same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

    same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

    same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: skip, shuffle, slink; lead, follow
    + SSD Derivatives:  1) swim on surface  2) swim/glide underwater 3) slither 4) crawl 5) walk  6) hop 7) jump/leap  8) swing (e.g., through trees, from vines, etc.)  9) fly

    +


    +

    +

    -GY- ‘WHITE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

    -GZ-   ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-.
    +

    +

    -GZB-   ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components separable/extractable] PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-;

    +

    -GZBL-   ‘COBRA’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -GZD- ‘+X/0/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’
    +

    +

    -GZDR-    ‘RATTLESNAKE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -GZDW-    ‘ASP’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -GZL-   ‘0/0/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

    -GZV- ‘+X/0/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +


    +
    +-J- ‘VERTICAL MOTION / ASCENT & DESCENT / UP & DOWN’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -JGW-    ‘HAWK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +
    +-JK-: ‘oval’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -JM- ‘IN-LAW/FOSTER RELATIONS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of parent/child in-law relationship

    1. member of foster family

    2. male member of parent/child in-law relationship

    2. male member of foster family

    3. female member of parent/child in-law relationship

    3. female member of foster family

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. parent in-law

    1. child in-law

    1. foster parent

    1. foster child

    2. father in-law

    2. son in-law

    2. foster father

    2. foster son

    3. mother in-law

    3. daughter in-law

    3. foster mother

    3. foster daughter

    +


    +

    +

    -JPh-:  ‘egg-shaped’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-.

    +

    -JQ’- Platinum         — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-     
    +

    +

    -JTh-: ‘half-circle/semi-circle’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-.

    +

    -JW-  ‘SCARF’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -K-  ‘PATH-ORIENTED TRANSLATIVE MOTION’ (QUASI-LINEAR)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. move from one place to another; translative motion (i.e., motion from one place toward another)

    1. journey; to travel, traverse, to journey

    2. course/way/route/trajectory followed between two points

    2. route travelled/traversed on journey

    3. move between two points; motion along path from one point to another; to cross/go across from one side to another

    3. travel between two points / make a crossing / travel across

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. motion “outward”; go

    1. motion “inward”; come

    1. go travelling / be off

    1. journey toward

    2. movement away; go away (= increase distance between two objects)

    2. close in / get close(r) (= decrease distance between two objects)

    2. travel further away from

    2. reach vicinity of / close in on

    3. leave (= move away from one point toward some distant point)

    3. approach (= approach one point from direction of some distant point)

    3. departure; depart

    3. arrival; arrive / reach destination

    +

    Morphological derivations:  sojourn, set off / set out, set in motion; self-directed movement
    +
    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KC- ‘LOWER ORDER LIFE FORM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. lower-order life form (i.e. non-vertebrate)

    same as INFORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

    2. microbe

    3. non-microbial animal

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bacterium

    1. soft-bodied animal (e.g., jellyfish, sponge, slime mold)

    2. virus

    2. exoskeletal animal (e.g., insect, arthropod, crustacean)

    3. protist

    3. endoskeletal animal

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KÇ-     ‘AFFECTIVE BODILY SENSATIONS (SURFACE-TACTILE)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.   itch

    1.    “creeps”/crawling sensation

    2.   tingle

    2.   tickle

    3.   sting/prick

    3.   “chill” feeling / feeling of hairs standing on end

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above three stems w/ focus on effect/sensation itself

    same w/ focus on causal act or source, e.g., the stinging itself, the interaction b/w irritant and skin giving rise to the itch, etc.

    same as above three stems w/ focus on effect/sensation itself

    same w/ focus on causal act or source

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KČ-  EXCUSE / FOREGIVENESS / ABSOLUTION / AMNESTY

    act of seeking and granting excuse, of seeking to be condoned and being condoned

    seeking of and granting of propitiation/ appeasement/placation

    the craving of pardon/forgiveness plus the granting of pardon/forgiveness

    the seeking of and granting of absolution

    atonement/make amends/do penance plus the act of redemption/recognition of one’s amends

    the seeking of and granting of amnesty or indemnification

    ask to be excused for one’s conduct/traits/presence, etc. / seek to be condoned or to have one’s conduct or presence overlooked or allowed for

    to excuse, condone, allow for; act of excusing or condoning someone’s conduct/traits/presence, etc.

    seek to be appeased or placated; state of seeking appeasement or placation

    propitiate, appease, placate; act of appeasement or placation

    crave pardon, beg forgiveness

    pardon/forgive; act of pardoning or forgiveness

    seek absolution, seek to be absolved

    absolve

    atone, make amends, do penance, seek redemption

    redeem, accept one’s penance or amends

    seek/try for amnesty or indemnification

    grant amnesty, indemnify; act of granting amnesty or indemnification

    +

    Note that this root, like the root -SP- ‘exchange’ refers to a naturally two-sided (i.e., complementary) process involving the acts or states of mind of two different parties:  the party doing the excusing, pardoning, forgiving, absolution, etc., and the party seeking to be excused, pardoned, forgiven, absolved, etc. The holistic stems refer to this complementary process, while the complementary stems reference each “side” of the situation.

    +

    Note also that the speaker should take care to utilize Version categories carefully with these stems (especially when using the holistic stems), in order to distinguish whether or not the person seeking pardon, forgiveness, etc., is, in fact, pardoned, forgiven, etc.  Likewise, the speaker should consider whether it is appropriate to utilize a Valence category when using these stems, given that their semantics naturally entail the actions/states of two parties

    +


    +-KČhW-  ginger — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KF-  ‘TYPES OF HARD OR NON-LIVING BODILY TISSUES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tooth

    1. head hair

    2. fingernail/toenail/claw

    2. whisker / facial hair

    3. hard growth of skin (e.g., wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar)

    3. pubic/armpit hair

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

    +

    Morphological derivative from FORMAL Stem 1:  bald
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2:  mustache, beard, sideburn
    + SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 1:  incisor, fang, bicuspid, molar
    + SSD Derivatives for INFORMSL Stem 3;:  wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar

    +


    +-KK-   ‘SOLIDITY/HOLLOWNESS (= PERMEABILITY)’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-.

    +

    +

    -KKR- ‘OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-

    +

    -KK’- business partnership — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KL-   ‘WATER IN NATURAL MOTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a flow of water / to flow or run

    1. river / to flow as a river / to run as a river

    2. sprinkle / shower; to sprinkle or shower upon

    2. rain(fall); to rain

    3. cascade / pour [= free falling of water]

    3. waterfall

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. water component of a flow of water

    1. channel or course of a flow of water

    1. water component of a river

    1. channel or course of a river

    2. water component of a sprinkle/shower

    2. trajectory or course of a sprinkle/shower

    2. water component of rain

    2. “path” or course of a rain shower

    3. water component of a cascade or pouring of water

    3. trajectory or course of a pouring of water

    3. water component of a waterfall

    3. channel or “groove” of a waterfall

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: flood, downpour, to rain “cats and dogs”, brook, stream, rivulet, arroyo, floodplain

    +

     

    +

    -KLW- ‘TURQUOISE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

    -KM-  ‘WEIGHT/MASS’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KN-    ‘SNAKE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of mammalian/avian/reptilian genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    KP-  ‘LENGTH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of (static) dimensional property (e.g., short/long)

    same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to an applied contextual gestalt (e.g., the vicinity, the depths, the expanse, the interregnum, the surroundings, the perimeter, etc.)

    2. dynamic decrease in degree of dimensional property (e.g., shorten/ing)

    3. dynamic increase in degree of dimensional property (e.g., lengthen/ing)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems applied to spatial context

    same as above 3 stems applied to temporal context

    +

      

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -KR-  TOOL/INSTRUMENT

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tool, instrument, implement as extension of bodily appendage(s) (e.g., as per force, strength, precision, reach, pressure, instrument as labor-saving or efficiency-increasing means etc.)

    1. utensil, specialized implement for assisting in refined task

    2. tool, instrument as means of “defying nature” (e.g., wheel, wedge, fulcrum, etc.

    2. mechanical/motorized/electric/electronic implement/device

    3. supply-like resource/implement used by itself or in  association with specific tool (e.g., nail, tack, clothespin, hook)

    3. supply-like resource/implement used as fuel or input for mechanical/electrical/electronic implement/device

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  equipment, gear (collection of associated tools/supplies), apparatus, appliance, paraphernalia, machine
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1: awl, pliers, screwdriver, wrench, pick, shovel/spade, chisel, file, stick/pole/bar
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  wheel, jack, wedge, fulcrum, pulley, sling, lever, gear, spool
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3: nail, tack, clip/fastener, hook, screw, bolt, nut, piece of wire, screwdriver bit/head
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  anvil, fork, spoon, scissors, vice/clamp, plane, saw, tweezers, puncher
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  drill, power saw, engine/motor
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  drill bit,

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KS-   ‘TWO/DUALITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set of two / a duo; to be two in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make dual / having 2 uses or aspects / bi- / twofold

    3. second one in a sequence; be/make second in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. twice the number of something; to double / multiply by two

    1. half; halve / divide by or into two

    2. two times [= iterations] / twice; to be/make/do twice

    2. be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)

    3. to the second power / squared; to square / raise to the second power

    3. to the negative second power / inverse square; to divide by the square of

    +

     

    +

    -KSF-   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [volume-based 3-dimensional context, e.g., sky crowded with balloonists] PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-;
    +

    +

    -KSL-  ‘-X/0/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’
    +

    +

    -KSP ‘-X/+Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’ 

    +

    -KSR- ‘0/0/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KSS-   HADRONS (COMPOSITE FERMIONS OR COMPOSITE BOSONS)

    INFORMAL

    FORMAL

    baryon (including nucleons, hyperons, and charmed particles)

    meson

    nucleon

    light unflavored meson / effect (i.e., nuclear interaction [strong and weak nuclear force]

    hyperon or charmed particle

    high-energy flavored meson / effect

    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS

    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS

    ordinary (positive) baryon

    anti-baryon

    vector meson

    pseudoscalar meson

    proton

    neutron

    light unflavored meson

    effect of light unflavored meson (i.e., nuclear interaction [strong and weak nuclear force]

    hyperon

    charmed particle

    high-energy flavored meson

    effect of high-energy flavored meson

    +

    The PLV1/1 suffix is used for these stems where applicable to convey the corresponding antiparticle. The PLV1/5 suffix is used for these stems where applicable to convey the corresponding neurtral (non-charged) particle.

    +

    SSD1 suffix forms applied to Informal stem P1/S3 to indicate particular types of hyperons and charmed particles:
    + 1) lambda particle
    + 2)
    + 3) sigma particle
    + 4)
    + 5) xi particle
    + 6)
    + 7) delta particle
    + 8)
    +9) omega particle

    +

    SSD1 suffix forms applied to Formal stem P1/S1 to indicate particular types of mesons:
    + 1) pion
    + 2) rho meson
    + 3) omega meson
    + 4) phi meson
    + 5) J/psi meson
    + 6) upsilon meson
    + 7) D meson
    + 8) B meson
    +9) kaon

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    -KST-  ‘+X/+Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

    -KSW- ‘-X/0/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KŠ-   ‘FOOL/CLOWN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fool(ish); dupe

    1. town fool, village idiot

    2. buffoon, laughingstock

    2. clown

    3. nerd, dweeb

    3. jester

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems in non-serious context of “in fun” or “for laughs”

    Same as above 3 stems in poignant, sorrowful, pathetic context

    Same as above 3 stems in context of entertainment

    Same as above 3 stems in context of parody or as a foil for society

    +

     

    +


    + -KŠP-   ‘-X/-Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +


    + -KŠT-  ‘+X/-Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KT-   ‘ROCK/MINERAL-BASED SOIL/GROUND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. stone [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    1. rock(y) [= specific natural embodiment of stone]

    2. sand [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    2. gravel

    3. clay [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

    3. lava [w/ CPT = volcanic rock/lava-based rock]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

    Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

    Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KT’-  ‘PRESSURE-BASED or REACTION-BASED
    + or GRAVITATION-BASED EQUILIBRIUM/MOTION/PROPULSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something hovering or floating; for something to hover, float, or be suspended upon (based on equilibrium, via pressure or volume-dispersion, against other medium such as air, water, gas, vapor, etc.) [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

    		The Formal stems for this root are identical to the Informal roots in meaning, with the distinction of referring specifically to man-made, mechanical means/vehicles/vessels or contexts involving reaction-based (i.e., fuel-driven) propulsion, as opposed to the naturally occurring or non-mechanical contexts implied by use of the Informal stems. +

     

    2. something hovering or floating; for something to hover, float, or be suspended upon (based on gravitational equilibrium or nullification, e.g. at the top of an arc of trajectory or at a La Grange point) [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

    3. something in orbit around another body; to orbit [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as the above 3 stems but with specific reference to the object which hovers, floats, or is suspendedSame as the above 3 stems but with specific reference to the act or state of hovering, floating, or suspension
    +
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KTh-  ATOM / NUCLEUS / ELECTRON CLOUD

    INFORMAL

    FORMAL

    atom

    instance of chemical element

    atomic nucleus

    nuclide (i.e., specific configuration of Z-value, N-value, and energy state for a particular atomic nucleus)

    atomic electron cloud

    orbital state (i.e., state and behavior of an electron based on its orbital probability distribution)

    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS

    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS

    physical atom itself

    behavioral state/effect of physical atom

    physical instance of chemical element

    effect of physical instance of chemical element

    atomic nucleus itself

    behavioral state/effect of atomic nucleus

    specific nuclide configuration

    effect of specific nuclide configuration

    atomic electron cloud itself

    behavioral state/effect of atomic electron cloud, i.e., photon-mediated attractive force (Coulomb force)

    orbital state

    effect of orbital state

    +

    The following important notes apply to use of the above stems:

    +

    SSD1 suffix derivatives for Formal P1/S2:
    + 1) isotone
    + 2) isobar
    + 3) nuclear isomer / nuclear energy state
    + 4) stable nuclide
    + 5) isotope
    + 6) ground state of nuclide
    + 7) excited state or nuclide
    + 8) mirror nucleus
    +9) unstable/radioactive/radionuclide

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KŢ- ‘SIMILARITY/SAMENESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. similar(ity) to oneself (on another occasion)

    1. same (= selfsame)

    2. similar(ity) to (an)other entity/instance

    2. same (= identical to (an)other entity/instance)

    3. remind (one) of / reminder

    3. same (= copy/replacement)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on appearance or superficial impression

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on identity or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KŢR-    ‘EAGLE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of mammalian/avian/reptilian genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KV- ‘QUALITY OR PROPERTY OF MATTER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of quality/property of matter

    same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

    2. decrease in degree of quality/property of matter

    3. increase in degree of quality/property of matter

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 

    +


    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -KW- ‘COLOR/HUE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something having a color plus the color

    same as INFORMAL stems but tinted/painted/stained, etc. to have other than its natural color

    2. something light-colored plus the color

    3. something dark-colored plus the color

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. something having a color

    1. a color

    2. something having a light color

    2. a light color

    3. something having a dark color

    3. a dark color

    +

    NOTE: This stem patterns for the above root are a template for all other roots donating a specific color.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

       -KY- ‘COFFEE PLANT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. genus of branched tree/bush and/or leaved plant

    1. wood product

    2. leaf

    2. leaf product

    3. bark

    3. bark product

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wood

    1. seed/fruit/nut

    1. wood as resource

    1. seed/fruit as food or resource

    2. root

    2. flower/blossom

    2. root as food or resource

    2. flower as food or resource

    3. branch

    3. sap

    3. branch as resource

    3. sap product/syrup

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -K’-   ‘LIGHT / RADIANT ENERGY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ray of sunlight

    1. ray of radiant light or energy (non-solar)

    2. the Sun / Sol

    2. flame / “tongue” of fire

    3. star

    3. artificial source of light or energy

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. light from a ray of sunlight

    1. heat from a ray of sunlight

    1. ray of light (non-solar)

    1. ray of energy/heat (non-solar)

    2. the Sun as light source

    2. the Sun as energy/heat source

    2. ray of firelight

    2. flame as energy/heat source

    3. starlight

    3. energy of a star

    3. lamp light / light from artificial source

    3. energy/heat from artificial energy/heat source

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: fire, sunshine, illuminate, light a fire, flare (up), lamp, fireplace; galaxy, heater, to warm, warmth, to melt, to smelt, to expose [via illumination], burn

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Kh- ‘SOCIAL INTERRELATION/INTERACTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act/state of social interaction/interrelation + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    1. expected/natural role of member of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    2. act/state of “dominant” or initiating partner in social interaction/relationship

    2. expected/natural role of “dominant” or initiating partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    3. act/state of “passive” or secondary/complementary partner in social interaction/relationship

    3. expected/natural role of “passive” or secondary or complementary partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems with focus on act/state of social interaction or interrelation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on benefits, consequences, or implications of act/state of social interaction or interrelation

    Same as above 3 stems with focus on act/state of social interaction or interrelation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on benefits, consequences, or implications of act/state of social interaction or interrelation

    +

    Note:  The above root (and those roots which follow the same pattern of stems) are likely to be used in conjunction with the various Valence categories (see Section 6.2) to specify the exact nature of the relationship between the parties involved.  Note also that, for relationships where the parties are acting in equivalent roles or positions of equal stature (i.e., no “dominant” vs. “passive” roles), use of Stems 2 and 3 above would be inapplicable.

    +

    +


    +

    +

    -KhW- ‘PURPLE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -L-   ‘SPEAK/VOICE/ORAL SOUND/INTERPRETATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. vocal utterance / oral sound; utter

    1. meaning or interpretation of vocal utterance; to mean or signify

    2. talk / speak / spoken utterance [parole]

    2. meaning or interpretation of word; to mean or signify

    3. rhetorical utterance / express [langue]

    3. meaning or interpretation of sentence or phrase; to mean or signify

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical production of sound

    same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

    same as above 3 stems referring to objective meaning, signification or denotation

    same as above 3 stems referring to subjective interpretation, connotation or “impact”

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: voice, (a) language, linguistic(s), yell, shout, cry, bark/meow/bleat/neigh, etc., [vocal] message, account, recount, story, tell, eloquence, glib(ness), smooth-talk, rhetoric, speech, dialect, slang

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -LB-  DIMENSIONAL/SPATIO-TEMPORAL RELATIONS

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of (static) dimensional property (e.g., short/long)

    same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to an applied contextual gestalt (e.g., the vicinity, the depths, the expanse, the interregnum, the surroundings, the perimeter, etc.)

    2. dynamic decrease in degree of dimensional property (e.g., shorten/ing)

    3. dynamic increase in degree of dimensional property (e.g., lengthen/ing)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems applied to spatial context

    same as above 3 stems applied to temporal context

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    +EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: big/large, small/little, shrink, expand, grow, diminish, huge, immense, tiny, enormous, shallow

    +

     

    +

    -LBW-   ‘WHALE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +
    +-LC- ‘PROXIMITY/DISTANCE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -LCh- ‘UPRIGHT POSITION OR ORIENTATION/VERTICALITY/PERPENDICULAR/PROTRUSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. upright/erect position or orientation (relative to long axis of object) / stand (up)

    1. vertical (i.e., parallel to gravity or plane of earth’s surface)

    2.  stick up or out/ protrude

    2. occupying position of maximum contrast to a position of repose; position of maximum “alertness” or readiness or action

    3. perpendicular / position or orientation at right angles  to background firmament (relative to long axis of object); be or stand on end

    3. stretch(ed) outward; pull(ed) or configure(d) to maximum height perpendicular to background firmament

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    +

     

    +

    LC’-  ‘PLANARITY/FLATNESS RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +


    + -LÇ-  ‘WIDTH (= “SLENDERNESS”)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-
    +

    +

    -LČ-  ‘GIRTH (= 2-DIMENSIONAL X-PLANAR DIMENSION)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-
    +
    + -LČ’-   ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF AN EDGE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

    -LD- ‘AMPLITUDE (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Z-PLANAR DIMENSION)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-
    +

    +

    -LDh-  ‘ “REACH” (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Y-PLANAR DIMENSION)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

    -LDR-    ‘BOAR’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -LDW-  ‘CHEETAH’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -LF-  ‘DEPTH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-
    +

    +

    -LFW-    ‘FROG’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -LG-  ‘INTERVAL/GAP’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-
    +

    +

    -LGW-    ‘OTTER’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -LK- ‘HEIGHT (= “TALLNESS” – RELATIVE TO GRAVITY) The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-
    +
    +-LK’- ‘STRAIGHTNESS/LINEARITY RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

    -LKh- master/servant — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -LKhW-  mint — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -LL- ‘ONE/UNITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. one

    1. single entity / single / singular

    2. (something) alone/lone/sole

    2. (something) isolated

    3. (something) unique

    3. 9something) independent / self-reliant / self-sufficient

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. unit (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    1. unify/unite; unit (in terms of being indivisible)

    Same as above 3 stems in terms of there being no other instance/example thereof

    Same as above 3 stems in terms of entity being indivisible

    2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being indivisible)

    3. unique (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

    3. unique (in terms of being indivisible)

    +

    EXAMPLES OF MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  individual(ity), solitude, lonely, loneliness

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     -LM-  ‘MUSIC’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. musical note or tone / produce [i.e., play] musical note or tone [sound + its playing]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except that they apply to the production of song, i.e., vocal music or for voice with musical accompaniment

    2. consciously select musical note [for purpose of composition] + sound of note

    3. a musical beat or measure [sound + its playing]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. sound of musical note or tone

    1. producing/playing of musical note or tone

    2. sound of selected musical note

    2. conscious selection of musical note [for purpose of composition]

    3. sound of a musical beat or measure

    3. production/playing of a musical beat or measure

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: piece of music, melody, music [abstract concept], composition, musical instrument, musician, composer, rhythm, band, orchestra, song

    +

     

    +

    -LMZ-    ‘DOLPHIN’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -LN-  ‘front [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.
    +

    +

    -LNTW-    ‘NIGHTINGALE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -LP-    ‘SPEED/VELOCITY/ACCELERATION’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

    -LP’-  ‘VOLUME (= 3-DIMENSIONAL SIZE)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

    -LPhW-    ‘WALRUS’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -LQ-  ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF A POINT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-
    +
    + -LQ’-    ‘RECTILINEAR/POLYHEDRAL/STRAIGHT-ANGLED’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -LQh- ‘CLASSES OF WATERLIFE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. skeletal/vertebral waterlife form

    Same as INFORMAL holistic stems referring to tamed, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

    2. exoskeletal/arthropod form

    3. soft-bodied waterlife form

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. jellyfish-like lifeform

    1. gilled/finned fish

    Same INFORMAL complementary stems referring to tamed, pet, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

    2. crustacean

    2. “non-standard”-shaped fish (e.g., ray, eel, squid, octopus, etc.)

    3. shellfish

    3. sea mammal (e.g., whale, seal, walrus, etc.)

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  fisherman, whale hunter, aquarium, fishery, fish hatchery

    +

     

    +

    -LR- ‘SPHERICALNESS/ROUNDNESS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -LŘ-  ‘CLASSES OF MAMMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. marsupial

    Same as INFORMAL stems referring to tamed, domesticated, pet, bred, etc. individual

    2. egg-laying mammal, ovoviviparous mammal

    3. placental mammal

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to male

    Same as above 3 stems referring to female

    +
    +
    +-LS-  ‘FLATNESS/LEVELNESS (RELATIVE TO GRAVITY)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- +

    -LSKW-    ‘ANTELOPE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -LŠ-    ‘PERIPHERY/CIRCLE/RING’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -LT-   ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/DOCUMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. inscribe [= make written symbol]; written symbol

    1. written record / thing containing writing

    2. write message; written content

    2. document

    3. “write” [= compose via writing] / to author

    3.  “page” of writing / “page” of a written work [“page” = visible interface]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical act of inscription

    same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

    same as above 3 stems referring to the physical document

    same as above 3 stems referring to the content

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: book, treatise, manuscript, author, archive

    +

     

    +

    -LTW-  ‘GOAT’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -LT’-  ‘PERPENDICULARITY/UPRIGHTNESS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -LTh- ‘DEITY / SPIRITUAL ENTITY / SUPERNATURAL ENTITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (a) spirit / supernatural entity

    1. angel

    2. deity / god / “overseer” spirit

    2. God / Supreme Being / Creator deity

    3. demon

    3. the Devil / Satan

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

    same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

    +


    +

    +

    -LŢ-    ‘CONCAVITY/DEPRESSION’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-
    +

    +

    -LŢR-    ‘TURTLE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -LV-    ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-SURFACED IN PLANAR CONTEXT)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

    -LX-    ‘CONVEXITY/ROTUNDITY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

    -LXW-    ‘RABBIT’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -LXh- ‘BROWN’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

    -LZ-     ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-EDGED IN LINEAR CONTEXT)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +

    -LZW-    ‘GOOSE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -LŻ- ‘SPECIALIZED VOLITIONAL BODILY SOUNDS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-linguistic sound made by mouth (i.e., tongue, teeth, lips)

    1.  consonant

    2. non-linguistic sound made from throat or vocal chords

    2. vowel

    3. sound made by non-oral, non-vocal part of the body

    3. phoneme

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

    +

    SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 1:  1) whistle 2) hum 3) “raspberry” 4) hoot/whoop 5) non-avian animal call 6) bird call 7) scream 8) click-sound (i.e., w/ ingressive airstream) 9) non-phonemic consonantal gibberish sound

    +

    SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 3:  1) slap 2) rubbing sound 3) footfall (--> stomp) 4) snap of fingers 5) finger tap 6) toe/foot tap 7) suction-based sound (e.g., “armpit fart”) 8) knuckle crack  9) other joint cracking

    +

    +

    -LŻW-    ‘GILA MONSTER’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -LŽ- ‘ELASTICITY / STRETCH CAPACITY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Ļ- ‘BREATHE/RESPIRATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. respire/inhale or exhale; a breath

    1. inflate (w/ air)

    2. yawn

    2. blow (passage of air under pressure through narrow opening)

    3. pump (by air)

    3. suck/suckle/siphon

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on external/internal transfer of air/gas

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physiological action or motion involved

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on external/internal transfer of air/gas

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physiological action or motion involved

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  breathe, pant, gasp, suffocate, suffocation, asphyxiate, asphyxiation, drown
    +

    +

    +

    -ĻKh- ‘ECRU [color]’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

    -ĻĻ- flabbiness <--> cohesiveness / compactness — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum
    +

    +

    -ĻM- springiness/spring <--> inertness/immobility — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ĻN-     ‘CLASSES OF LAND/AIR ANIMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mammal

    Same as INFORMAL stems referring to domesticated, tamed, bred, pet, etc. individual

    2. non-mammalian, non-avian, non-reptilian animal, i.e.,  insect/arthropod/arachnid/worm/mollusk

    3. avian or reptilian lifeform

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. insect

    1. mollusc

    2. worm

    2. bird

    3. arthropod/arachnid

    3. reptile

    +


    +

    +

    -ĻP- sponginess <--> stiffness/rigidity — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.
    +

    +

    -ĻP’- buoyancy — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.between the two extremes indicated.

    +

    -ĻPh- ‘OCHRE [color]’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

    -ĻQ- Tin  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-  
    +

    +

    -ĻQ’- spreadability — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.
    +

    +

    -ĻQh- deformability / “dentability” — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.
    +

    +

    -ĻW- elasticity <--> stiffness/rigidity — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -M- ‘APPEARANCE/SEMBLANCE/IMPRESSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. appear to be/seem/look as if/give (off) the impression of; appearance/semblance/impression

    1. ostensible/ostensibly

    2. on the face of it, on first blush

    2. resemble, look like

    3. on the surface/superficially/seemingly

    3. façade, veneer

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MB- ‘GEOGRAPHICAL/GEOPOLITICAL ELEMENTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. geographical feature or element

    1. geopolitical feature or element

    2. geographical area / “land”

    2. geopolitical area / “land” or “country”

    3. natural piece of territory

    3. (piece of) property

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on geophysical feature or element

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus as natural habitat

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus as political entity

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on political boundaries/borders

    +


    +-MÇ-   ‘DURABILITY/FRAGILITY’ (= CAPACITY FOR BEING DAMAGED) The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-.follows that of the root -KV-.

    +

    +

    -MF-  ‘GLOVE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

    +

    -MG- ‘PEACH’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark
    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MK-     ‘ASPECTS/METHODS OF INGESTION/FEEDING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.   bite/bite down; a bite

    1.    place in mouth

    2.   masticate/ruminate/chew (on); act of chewing [naturally iterative root]

    2.   swallow

    3.   suck (on); act of sucking

    3.    taste = roll around in mouth/on palate

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same w/ focus on phys process/mouth movement

    same w/ focus on the morsel, bit, or amount of liquid being consumed

    same w/ focus on phys process/mouth movement

    same w/ focus on the morsel, bit, or amount of liquid being consumed

    +

    Derivations:  gnaw, snap w/ jaws at, sip, nip, gulp, devour, nibble, graze, munch, bolt, shovel in, savor

    +


    +-MK’- Silicon    —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -MKh- ‘BEIGE/TAN’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark
    +

    +

    -MKhW- ‘MAUVE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark
    +

    +

    -ML-  ‘FOOT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PR-. -->   SSD Derivatives:  heel, ball of foot, upper side of foot, arch, plantar fascia, achilles tendon

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MM-   ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. nuclear family member

    1. non-sanguine family member

    2. male family member

    2. non-sanguine male family member

    3. female family member

    3. non-sanguine female family member

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. parent

    1. child/offspring

    1. step-parent

    1. step-child

    2. father

    2. boy child / son

    2. step-father

    2. step-son

    3. mother

    3. girl child / daughter

    3. step-mother

    3. step-daughter

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MN-   ‘AWE / BE OR FEEL IMPRESSED / HUMBLENESS IN FACE OF SOMETHING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of awe; feel awe [state + content]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of awe, i.e., feeling of worship(fulness).

    2. humbleness caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling of awe

    3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling or awe

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on process itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential state/feeling itself

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MP-   ‘SMELL/ODOR’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to smell (= use olfactory sense) + odor smelled

    1. examine or inspect via smelling + odor smelled

    2. nose (olfactory organ + facial proboscis)

    2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument + odor detected

    3. imagine a smell (act + imagined odor)

    3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to smell (= use olfactory sense)

    1. whiff of odor, a smell; to give off a whiff of odor

    1. examine or inspect via smelling

    1. odor detected via inspection or examination

    2. nose (= olfactory organ)

    2. nose (= facial proboscis)

    2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument

    2. odor detected via olfactory instrument

    3. imagine an odor

    3. an imagined odor

    3. create or manufacture an odor

    3. manufactured odor

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sniff, aroma, “bouquet”, perfume, stench

    +


    +-MPY-  squash — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MP’- ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. column/pillar

    1. strut/buttress

    2. “side”/wall (external)

    2. partition

    3. floor [= base/ground]

    3. roof

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    +

     

    +

    -MQ- romantic love relationship — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -MQhW-  date (fruit) — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MR-  ‘TRANSFER OF POSSESSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. temporary, circumstantial, incidental direct transfer of possession (i.e., give / take)

    1. quasi-permanent or official transfer of possession (i.e., rendering/reception; render, receive)

    2. temporary, circumstantial, incidental indirect transfer (i.e., to leave for someone / to take based on discernment of availability)

    2. quasi-permanent or official transfer (i.e., bestowal or bequest/acquisition; bestow/acquire)

    3. temporary, circumstantial, incidental transfer over distance (i.e., to bring something / to leave with something)

    3. deliver/take ownership of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. give, lend

    1. take, borrow

    1. donate; donation

    1. receive; reception

    2. leave (something for someone), make available

    2. get, obtain

    2. leave to heir

    2. inherit; inheritance

    3. thing given, gift (given)

    3. thing taken, gift (taken)

    3. bestow; bequest

    3. acquire; acquisition

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  procure(ment), requisition, accept (= willingly receive)

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MŘ-   ‘TEN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 10; to be 10 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make ten-faceted / having 10 uses or aspects / deci- / deca- / tenfold

    3. tenth one in a sequence; be/make tenth in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 10 times the number of something; multiply by 10

    1. atenth / divide by 10 or into 10 parts

    2. 10 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 10 times

    2. be of or make into 10 parts; separate(d) into 10 parts

    3. to the 10th power; raise to the 10th power

    3. to the negative 10th power; to divide by the 10th power of

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MS-   ‘VALUE/WORTH/PRICE/COST’
    + (Often used in conjunction with various Quantifying and Modulative affixes from Sections 5.5.6 and 5.5.5 to show relative degree of value within context)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of usefulness, convenience, efficacy, service, applicability]

    1. cost appraisal, assessment, estimate, quote

    2. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of personal desire or emotional attachment]

    2. cost, expense, expenditure [what is (to be) given up or released in exchange for something, either a commercial or non-commercial context]

    3. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of financial benefit or gain, profit, or remuneratively]

    3. rate (of payment); formula/terms for determining payment

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on intrinsic value

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on actual value (i.e., degree to which the intrinsic value can actually be utilized, consumed or manifested)

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to cost quoted or agreed to

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to actual payment

    +

    SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2: 1) fee/toll or service charge 2) tithe 3) duty/tariff/levy 4) ransom 5) tax 6) dues 5) wage(s) 8) fare  9) price/charge [in money or legal tender]

    +


    +

    +

    -MŠ-:  ‘irregular/amorphous outline’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-.
    +

    +

    -MT- parent-child relationship — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MT’-‘CLASSES OF ANIMAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. animal of land or air (i.e., “terroid”)

    Same as INFORMAL holistic stems but domesticated, tamed, captive, or bred

    2. waterlife (i.e., “aquoid”)

    3. amphibian

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems but domesticable

    same as above 3 stems but undomesticable

    same as above FORMAL stems but as pets or tamed

    same as above FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, breeding stock, etc.)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MTh- ‘SOIL/GROUND/DIRT (MIXED ORGANIC + MINERAL)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. dirt/ground/soil [=substance + function as substrate/firmament]

    1. peat

    2. mud

    2. dirt(y)/filth(y) [= soiled, unclean]

    3. ground cover [organic-based, e.g., carpet of leaves]

    3. mulch/compost/fertilizer

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

    same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

    +

     

    +

    -MŢ-  ‘AUTUMN/FALL’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-.
    +

    +

    -MV- ‘middle, center (as seen perpendicular to long axis of entity) The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.

    +

    -MW-   ‘TIGHTNESS/SLACK’ (= TAUTNESS) The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MX- ‘SEASON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. season, time of year

    1.  social behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., celebration, recreation, vacation, etc.)

    2. weather associated w/ particular season / seasonal weather

    2. weather-determined practice/behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., migration, mating, nesting, hibernation, etc.)

    3. cyclic state/condition of flora/fauna associated with a particular season

    3. practice/behavior/custom relating to maintenance/upkeep of crops, game and other material resources associated with a particular season (e.g., foraging, hunting, planting, harvest, storage, etc.)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

    +


    +

    +

    -MXW-  cucumber — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MXh- ‘HORIZONTAL SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. “ground”/firmament

    1. floor

    2. table-like horizontal flat object / slab

    2. table

    3. shelf-like flat object

    3. shelf

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MY-   ‘GRATITUDE/THANKFULNESS/PRAISE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to unexpected favor or convenience performed

    1. praise

    2. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to being relieved/rescued from negative situation

    2. gratefulness; feeling or manifestation of being beholden to someone or something [feeling is justified and an honor to be feeling]

    3. thank(s) / offer gratitude within ironic circumstances or merely as a courtesy, i.e., where expectation of thanks is for an unwanted, unnecessary, or purely symbolic act or required little or no effort on doer’s part

    3. feeling or manifestation of being beholden or obliged to someone or something [feeling is resented and unwanted]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on intent to convey gratitude

    same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of gratitude

    same as above 3 stems with focus on desire/intent to convey the feeling

    same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of the feeling

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  worship, indebted(ness)

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MZ- ‘REMEMBER/RECALL/MEMORY/RECORD’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. memory; remember (= recall) [whether unwilled/affective or self -willed/voluntary]

    1. trace/track/vestige

    2. retain / retention of something past into present

    2. memorial (object/action formally recognizing or acknowledging something/someone past)

    3. remember [= commit to memory] / memorize

    3. to record / a record

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. a memory itself (i.e., the content thereof)

    1. faculty of memory/recall (i.e., the process of using one’s memory)

    same as above 3 stems with focus on that which the physical manifestation memorializes or gives evidence/remembrance of

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the object/event/physical manifestation itself which conveys the memory or record

    2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the content thereof)

    2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the process thereof)

    3. thing remembered or memorized [=event/act/situation/state, etc. committed to memory]

    3. process of committing something to memory

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  recollect(ion), remind, memorize, memento, monument, archive, commemorate, commemoration, souvenir/keepsake, relic, to bear in mind, ponder/relish a memory, sear into one’s memory

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -MŽ- ‘GENDER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. gender

    1. psycho-sexual identity

    2. neuter

    2. asexual / psychologically neuter

    3. androgynous

    3. sexual preference/orientation

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male (anatomically)

    1. female (anatomically)

    1. masculine (psycho-behaviorally)

    1. feminine (psycho-behaviorally)

    2. sterile (incapable of procreation)

    2. genderless (neither male nor female anatomically)

    2. celibate/chaste

    2. asexual; devoid of sexual desire

    3. androgyne / androgynous (difficultyfor others to determine gender)

    3. hermophrodite / hermophroditic (anatomically both male & female)

    3. sexual preference or orientation psychologically

    3. sexual orientation in actuality (as manifested)

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  homosexual, bisexual, heterosexual, bisexual with preference for heterosexuality, bisexual with preference for homosexuality, homosexual with preference for functioning in male role, homosexual with preference for functioning in female role

    +

     

    +


    +

    +

    -N- ‘exterior, outer/external part of, outside, “skin”’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.

    +

    -NC’-   ‘BANANA’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +

    -NCh-   ‘FIG’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +

    -NChW-   ‘DUCK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -NÇ-  ‘CHERRY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +

    -NÇW-  ‘SWAN’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -NČ’-    ‘COCONUT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -NČh-     ‘TANGERINE’    The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ND- ‘QUESTION/INQUIRY/ANSWER/RESPONSE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. question & answer [statement requesting information + the answer/reply/response thereto]

    1. inquire/inquiry + answer

    2. query/investigate [investigative act + discovery made]

    2. research + findings

    3. ponder/introspect [self-questioning + conclusion]

    3. analyze + results of analysis

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. question [statement requesting information]

    1. response/reply/answer [information desired or given]

    1. inquire/inquiry

    1. answer [i.e., result of inquiry]

    2. query

    2. answer (to query) [i.e., cause/reason for what is being looked into or investigated]

    2. research

    2. finding(s)/discovery made via research

    3. ponder/introspect; to question oneself mentally

    3. conclusion [(desired) result of self-analysis]

    3. analyze

    3. conclusion/results of analysis

    +

    Morphological derivations:  problem; solution; solve; resolution; resolve; elucidate

    +


    +

    +

    -NDR-    ‘FOX’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -NDW-  ‘MOOSE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -NDh-     ‘PINEAPPLE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +

    -NL-  ‘HARD/SOFT (= MALLEABILITY)’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-.
    +

    +

    -NĻ-      ‘PLUM’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -NM-     ‘OLIVE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -NN-     ‘ORANGE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +

    -NR-:  ‘circle/ellipse’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-.

    +

    -NŘ-  ‘SPIDER’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -NT’-      ‘LEMON’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

     -NS-   ‘SEVEN’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 7 / a septet; to be 7 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make seven-faceted / having 7 uses or aspects / septi- / sevenfold

    3. seventh one in a sequence; be/make seventh in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 7 times the number of something; to septuple / multiply by 7

    1. a seventh / divide by 7 or into 7 parts

    2. 7 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 7 times

    2. be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts

    3. to the 7th power; raise to the 7th power

    3. to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -NST- ‘RECLINE / PRONE POSITION OR ORIENTATION / HORIZONTALITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. recline(d) / prone position (relative to long axis of object) / lie (down) / lay (out)

    1. horizontal (relative to gravity or plane of the earth’s surface) / orientation perpendicular to direction of gravity

    2. recumbent position / position of relaxation relative to gravity --> sprawl, loll

    2. occupying position of maximum repose or having a positional or dynamic orientation based on the path of least resistance relative to gravity

    3. flush / flat against / position or orientation level with some flat or even firmament / lay flat

    3. flatten(ed); collapse(d) or configure(d) to minimum height perpendicular to background firmament

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

    same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

    +

     

    +

    +

    -NSW-   ‘CHICKEN’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -NŠ- ‘rear, back part of [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -NT-    ‘HEAR(ING)/SOUND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hear a sound; aural faculty + sound heard

    1. listen to a (specific) sound / discern aurally a (specific) sound

    2. ear (aural organ + physical part of body, i.e., Spanish oído + oreja)

    2. aural instrument / device for detecting sound waves + sound detected

    3. imagine a sound (act + sound)

    3. create or manufacture a sound + sound created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to hear; aural faculty

    1. sound

    1. listen

    1. (selected) sound

    2. ear (aural organ)

    2. ear (body part)

    2. aural instrument

    2. sound detected via aural instrument

    3. imagine a sound / hear in one’s mind

    3. imagined sound

    3. create or manufacture a sound

    3. sound created

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: speaker, megaphone, telephone, stereo, microphone, hearing aid

    +


    +

    +

    -NTh-     ‘PEAR’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +

    -NŢ- close loving friendship — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -NV-     ‘PEACH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -NW-     ‘APPLE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -NY-   ‘CHOICE/ALTERNATIVE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. choose/choice [from open selection]

    1. select/pick [from limited selection]

    2. prefer(ence)

    2. alternative/option

    3. settle (for)

    3. vote [w/ CPT = elect]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

    +


    +

    +

    -NZ- marriage — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -NŽ-     ‘LIME’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Ň-   ‘(ONE) HUNDRED’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 100; to be a hundred in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make 100-faceted / having 100 uses or aspects / hundredfold

    3. hundredth in a sequence; be/make hundredth in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 100 times the number of something; to multiply by 100

    1. a hundredth / divide by 100 or into 100 parts

    2. 100 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 100 times

    2. be of or make into 100 parts; separate(d) into 100 parts

    3. to the 100th power; raise to the 100th power

    3. to the negative 100th power; to divide by the 100th power of

    +

    +

    -ŇC-  ‘TICK’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -ŇÇ-  ‘WATERBUG’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŇČ- ‘NON-SANGUINE RELATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of godparent-godchild relationship

    1. adoptive family member

    2. male member of godparent-godchild relationship

    2. male adoptive family member

    3. female member of godparent-godchild relationship

    3. female adoptive family member

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. godparent

    1. godchild

    1. adoptive parent

    1. adopted child

    2. godfather

    2. godson

    2. adoptive father

    2. adopted son

    3. godmother

    3. goddaughter

    3. adoptive mother

    3. adopted daughter

    +


    +-ŇČhW-  bamboo — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +


    +

    +

    -ŇF-:  ‘sliver-moon shaped’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŇG- ‘TEMPORARY ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence + manifestation/effect]

    1. zone of high or low barometric pressure relative to surrounding pressure

    2. flash of lightning + peal of thunder [electrical phenomenon + associated sound]

    2. cold or warm air front

    3. cloud [in the sky]

    3. eye of a storm

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence]

    1. manifestation/effect of momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon

    1. low pressure zone

    1. high pressure zone

    2. flash of lightning

    2. peal of thunder

    2. cold air front

    2. warm air front

    3. cloud [in the sky] – physical occurrence

    3. impact/effect of cloud [in the sky], e.g., its hiding of the sun, it causing zero visibility as a plane flies through it, etc.

    3. eye of storm [physical occurrence]

    3. short-lived calm/still conditions associated with the eye of a storm

    +

     

    +

    +

    -ŇGR-   ‘BABOON’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -ŇGW-    ‘CHIMPANZEE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŇGY- ‘STICKY/ADHESIVE MATERIAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sticky substance or material; to stick / to be mired in

    1. adhesive substance material; adhere/stick (via adhesive)

    2. goo / ooze / slime

    2. glue / liquid adhesive

    3. sap / resin

    3. cement / mortar / grout

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

    Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŇK- ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS (ORNAMENTAL/SPECIALIZED)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. tower

    1. window opening

    2. dome

    2. doorway

    3. spire/steeple

    3. balcony/terrace

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

    same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    +

     

    +

    +

    -ŇKR-    ‘LION’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -ŇKW-  ‘COW’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŇKY-   ELEMENTARY PARTICLES/FORCES OF PHYSICS (FERMIONS & BOSONS)

    INFORMAL

    FORMAL

    1. fermion (+ anti-fermion)

    1. boson + its fundamental interaction or associated “force”

    2. quark (+ anti-quark)

    2. “string” (from string theory) + its associated vibration

    3. lepton (+ anti-lepton)

    3. acceleron (from dark energy theory) + dark energy

    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS

    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS

    1. fermion

    1. anti-fermion

    1. boson

    1. fundamental “force” (e.g., electromagnetism, strong, weak, gravity, dark energy)

    2. quark

    2. anti-quark

    2. “string” (from string theory)

    2. vibration of “string” (from string theory)

    3. lepton

    3. anti-lepton

    3. acceleron (hypothetical particle associated with theories of dark energy)

    3. dark energy (i.e., counter-gravitational “force” that is accelerating the expansion of the universe

    +

    The following important notes apply to use of the above stems:

    +

    P1/S2, P2/S2, and P3/S2 all have the following derivatives using the SSD1 suffix indicating a quark’s “flavor” and “color”:
    + 1) up
    + 2) charm
    + 3) top
    + 4) red
    + 5) green
    + 6) blue
    + 7) bottom
    + 8) strange
    +9) down

    +

    Informal stems P1/S3, P2/S3, and P3/S3 all have the following derivatives using the SSD1 suffix identifying the particular type of lepton (or anti-lepton):
    + 1) muon
    + 2) charged lepton (i.e., non-neutrino lepton)
    + 3) tau lepton, tauon
    + 4)
    + 5) electron
    + 6) electron neutrino
    + 7) muon neutrino
    + 8) tau neutrino
    +9) neutrino (i.e., any of the three types)

    +

    Formal stems P1/S1, P2/S1, and P3/S1 all have the following derivatives using the SSD1 suffix identifying the particular type of boson and/or its associated interaction or “force” :
    + 1) graviton/gravity
    + 2) weak gauge boson (i.e., either the W+, the W-, or the Z) / the weak interaction or force
    + 3) photon [as associated with electrical phenomenon] / electricity
    + 4) W+ boson / the weak interaction or force as mediated by the W+ boson (use PLV1/1 suffix to indicate the W- boson)
    + 5) photon / electromagnetism
    + 6) Z-zero boson / the weak interaction or force as mediated by the Z-zero boson
    + 7) photon [as associated with magnetic phenomenon] / magnetism
    + 8) Higgs boson / Higgs mechanism
    +9) gluon / the strong interaction or color force

    +

    Use of the SSD2/5 suffix with the above stems identifies the supersymetrical partner of the particular particle (i.e., its “sparticle” counterpart), e.g., photino, gluino, gravitino, slepton, squark, sneutrino, etc.

    +

    It should be noted that when using the above stems to refer to forces (e.g., gravity or electromagnetism), one must realize that the individual stems refer to a particular instance of force/interaction from a single (i.e., particular) particle.  One must inflect the stem appropriately as for Configuration, Association, Perspective, etc., when speaking of “the force of gravity” or “electricity” as a generic concept.

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŇKh- ‘WHOLE NUMBER/INTEGER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a (whole) number, numeral, digit, integer

    Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to formal, authoritative, permanent context as per Section 3.7

    2. having more than one aspect; multifaceted

    3. numerical series/sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. multiply (by)

    1. divide (by)

    2. consisting of more than instance; multiple instance(s) of

    2. having more than one part; consisting of parts; non-unitary; non-unified

    3. exponential/logarithmic progression

    3. negative exponential/logarithmic progression

    +

     

    +

    -ŇN-  ‘ANT’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -ŇQh-  ‘COCKROACH’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -ŇŘ-  ‘TERMITE’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’
    +

    +

    -ŇS-: ‘square/rectangle/rhombus’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-.

    +

    -ŇŠW-    ‘GORILLA’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -ŇTh-  ‘TROPICAL RAINY SEASON’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-.
    +

    +

    -ŇV-  ‘GENERIC CRAWLING BUG’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’

    +

    -ŇW-  ‘FLEXIBILITY/RIGIDITY’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-.

    +

    -ŇX- temporary or youthful romantic dalliance/lovers (with or without involving sex) — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

    +

    -ŇXh-  ‘SPRING’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-.

    +

    -ŇZ- ‘oil (fatty liquid derived from plants/animals)’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -ŇŽ-  ‘BEETLE’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ-  ‘INSECT’

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -P-    [The CARRIER Root – see Section 9.3]

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. [carrier stem representing animate being]

     

     

     

    2. [carrier stem representing inanimate entity]

    3. [carrier stem representing abstract referent]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. [carrier:  human]

    1. [carrier:  non-human animate being]

    2. [carrier: tangible/physical entity]

    2. [carrier:  intangible/subjective entity, e.g., thought, emotion, sensation, etc.]

    3. [carrier:  place name]

    3. [carrier:  abstract concept]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -PC-    ‘MARITAL/SPOUSAL RELATIONSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.  state of marriage / marital state / state of being married

    1. spouse

    2. act of infidelity / extramarital liaison / to be unfaithful / to betray spouse

    2. extramarital sex partner / mistress or gigolo

    3.  betrothal / engagement; be betrothed, be engaged

    3. fiancé(e) / being a fiancé(e)

     

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1.  formal/legal state of marriage

    1. emotional bond of love/fidelity underlying marriage

    1. husband

    1. wife

    2. physical act of infidelity/betrayal

    2. breaking of emotional bond underlying marriage

    2. gigolo, kept man (male equivalent of mistress)

    2. mistress

    3. formal/legal status of being betrothed/engaged

    3. emotional bond of love/fealty underlying betrothal/engagement

    3. fiancé

    3. fiancée

    +

     

    +

    -PC’-  ‘embarrassment at being unable to perform a task or activity as expected’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -PCh-  ‘feeling flustered at not knowing how to react or what to think’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -PÇ- ‘generic or oblique 3-dimensional range of motion / 3-dimensional pervasive movement / movement throughout or within 3-D volume.’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-

    +

    -PÇT-  cotton The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    -PÇW- melon The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -PČ-  ‘repugnance, repellant feeling, disgust’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -PČ’-  ‘feeling of disappointment/let-down at one’s own actions/behavior’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

    +

    -PČh-  ‘frustration; feeling of angry helplessness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +


    +-PČhW-  cork The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    -PF-  ‘depression / be or feel depressed’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +
    + -PG-  ‘swooning, feeling of faintness due to emotional overload’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -PJ-  ‘feeling of disappointment at being letdown by another’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +


    +  
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
    -PK-   ‘EXPERIENCE / UNDERGO A STATE OR FEELING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of a state/feeling/emotion; feel (an) emotion [state + content]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of the particular emotion.

    2. act or action caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling

    3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on process itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential state/feeling itself

    +

     

    +

    -PK’-  ‘bother, annoyance at self due to one’s own actions/behavior’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +
    + -PKh-  ‘humiliation’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -PL-  ‘regret, repining, ruefulness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -PLW- ‘BURGUNDY [color]’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

    -PĻ- ‘SHIRT/BLOUSE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

    +

    -PM-  ‘agitation/disquietude’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -PN- ‘woe, despair, desolation’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -PNY-  grape The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    -PP-  ‘hysteria/loss of control’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -PP’- sexual partners — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.
    +

    +

    -PPh-  ‘WINTER’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-.

    +

    -PQ-    ‘worry / feel preoccupied’    The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -PQ’-  ‘shock, reeling (e.g., from bad news or an unexpected discovery)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +
    +-PQh-  ‘embarrassment due to social faux pas, behavioral misstep, or others seeing through one’s façade or airs’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -PR-    ‘LEG’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. leg (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. leg (as support) [both physical body part and function]

    3. leg (as ambulator, extension, limb) [both physical body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. leg as physical body part

    1. leg as manipulating body part (e.g., for kicking, stomping)

    2. leg as or balancing appendage for body

    2. leg as support against gravity

    3. leg as limb/extension

    3. leg as ambulatory organ

    +


    +

    +


    +-PŘ- ‘BLUE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark
    +

    +

    -PS-    ‘sorrow, lamentation’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -PSB- Aluminum/aluminium  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -PSF-    ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components inseparable/mixed/permanently combined] PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-;

    +

    -PSK ‘-X/+Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, +-Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

    -PSL-  ‘0/-Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, +-Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’
    +

    +

    -PSQ’- Carbon  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

    +

    -PŠQh- Calcium —   Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -PSR- ‘0/+Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, +-Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

    -PST- ‘+X/+Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, +-Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

    +

    -PSW- ‘0/+Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’
    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -PSTW-   ‘100 MILLION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 100 million; to be 100 million in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make 100 million-faceted / having 100 million uses or aspects / 100 million-fold

    3. 100 millionth in a sequence; be/make quadrillionth in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 100 million times the number of something; to multiply by 100 million

    1. a ten quadrillionth / divide by 100 million or into 100 million parts

    2. 100 million times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 100 million times

    2. be of or make into 100 million parts; separate(d) into 100 million  parts

    3. to the 100 millionth power; raise to the 100 millionth power

    3. to the negative 100 millionth power; to divide by the 100 millionth power of

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -PŠ-   ‘HAPPEN/OCCUR(ENCE)/MANIFEST/EVENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. happen / occur / take place / to “pass”

    1. step / act / action

    2. manifest / be or make real / reify

    2. phenomenon

    3. event (spacio-temporal context)

    3. incident

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

    +

    Various derivations from the above stems:  turn out, situation, chain of events, doings, process, phase, deed, result(s), consequence(s)

    +


    +-PŠK-    ‘-X/-Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’
    +

    +

    -PŠKh- Titanium    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -PSP’- Selenium      —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-    
    +

    +

    -PŠQ’-Zirconium  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -PŠT-   ‘+X/-Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: + -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, + -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, + -Z = BELOW, +Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’
    +

    +

    -PT- ‘feel hurt/offended’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -PT’-  ‘angst / weltschmertz’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -PTh-  ‘stoicism/repression’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -PŢ- ‘ANGULAR STRUCTURE / CORNER’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (two-dimensional) angle

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

    2. (three-dimensional) vertex

    3. angle-based constraint on access or movement

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. interior angle of two-dimensional surface or analog

    1. exterior corner/vertex of two-dimensional surface or analog

    2. interior vertex/corner of three-dimensional space

    2. exterior corner/vertex of three dimensional space

    3. corner as constraint

    3. corner as opportunity for choice of movement

    +


    +

    +

    -PW-  ‘material lust, avarice, greed (not sexual lust)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -PX-   ‘FOUR’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 4 / a quartet; to be 4 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.4

    2. be/make four-faceted / having 4 uses or aspects / quadri- / tetra- / fourfold

    3. fourth one in a sequence; be/make fourth in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 4 times the number of something; to quadruple / multiply by 4

    1. a fourth / divide by 4 or into 4 parts / quarter

    2. 4 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 4 times

    2. be of or make into 4 parts; separate(d) into 4 parts

    3. to the 4th power; raise to the 4th power

    3. to the negative 4th power; to divide by the 4th power of

    +


    +

    +

    -PXh-    ‘stress / feel pressured’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -PY-  ‘bittersweet longing’ (Portuguese “saudade”) The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -P’- ‘SEEK/SEARCH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. search, seek, look for something unknown [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

    1. hunt, hunt for [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

    2. search, seek, look for something lost [i.e., something known to exist which is missing]

    2. pursue, track down [i.e., existence certain, location surmisable]

    3. inspect

    3. quest / seek to accomplish/achieve something

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

    +

    Morphological Derivations: find, scan, reconnoiter, ransack, pry, ferret out, winnow through, fulfill a quest

    +

     

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Ph-     ‘BRANCHED AND/OR LEAVED PLANT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. genus of branched tree/bush and/or leaved plant

    1. wood product

    2. leaf

    2. leaf product

    3. bark

    3. bark product

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wood

    1. seed/fruit/nut

    1. wood as resource

    1. seed/fruit as food or resource

    2. root

    2. flower/blossom

    2. root as food or resource

    2. flower as food or resource

    3. branch

    3. sap

    3. branch as resource

    3. sap product/syrup

    +

    SSD Suffix used as follows: 1) meat of fruit, 2) seed within fruit, 3) rind, 4) juice, 5) flavor, 6) odor of fruit, 5) oil, 8) [unassigned/specific to individual root] 9) fermented juice, i.e., wine
    +

    +

     

    +

    -PhW- ‘PINK’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Q-   ‘HIGHER ORDER ANIMAL LIFE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. higher order being (i.e., large bilateral vertebrate with discrete organs)

    1. authorized or officially designated person or animal/beast

    2. human, person

    2. official, authorized person

    3. non-human higher order being or animal, beast

    3. pet or zoo animal/beast

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male higher order being

    1. female higher order being

    1. authorized male animal/ or officially designated man or beast

    1. authorized or officially designated woman or female animal/ beast

    2. human male, man

    2. human female, woman

    2. official, authorized man

    2. official, authorized woman

    3. male higher order animal or beast

    3. female higher order animal or beast

    3. male pet or zoo animal/beast

    3. female pet or zoo animal/beast

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: boy, girl, child [developmentally, not as offspring], population, group of people, crowd, mob, assembly, people, masses, elder, crone, adult, youth, adulthood, fetus, adolescent, zoo

    +

    -QC- ‘spice/herb/seasoning’ —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -QCh- ‘chalk’ —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -QČ-  ‘RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act + sound]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act + sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act + sound]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act]

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [sound]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [sound]

    +

    Morphological derivations:  clear throat, harrumph, hacking cough, cough up

    +

     

    +

    -QF-  ‘FOOTWEAR’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-
    +

    +

    -QFR- Radium    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -QFŘ- Molybdenum      —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -QFW- Bismuth  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -QL- ‘LIQUID/FLUID’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. drop of liquid/fluid + liquid/fluid itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or gaseous state

    2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance + the derived liquid subtance itself

    2. thing/object composed of liquid + its function/purpose

    3. source of a liquid/fluid

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a liquid/fluid state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. drop of liquid/fluid

    1. liquid/fluid subtance itself

    1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

    1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state (i.e., vapor)

    2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance

    2. the derived liquid/fluid subtance itself

    2. object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

    2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

    3.  natural source of a liquid/fluid

    3.  derived or artificially created source of a liquid or fluid

    3. liquid/fluid state

    3. viscous state (quasi-liquid but able to be deformed/shaped; semi-solid)

    +

    The stem pattern of this root also applies to the root FÒ- ‘liquid chemical’

    +


    +

    +

    -QLY- Manganese      — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-   

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -QM- ‘COMPONENT OF BODY’S RESPIRATORY/CARDIO-VASCULATORY SYSTEM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. heart

    1. lung

    2. vascular component

    2. component of respiratory system

    3. (an amount of) blood

    3. oxygen

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the physical component(s) or tissue

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the function/purpose

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the physical component(s)/tissue

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the function/purpose

    +

    SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  ventricle, atrium, vein, coronary artery, capillary,
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 2:  blood vessel, vein, artery, capillary, aorta, vena cava
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1: bronchus, bronchiolus, alveolar sac
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 21:  nasal cavity, trachea

    +

     

    +

    -QN- ‘honey’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-          
    +

    +

    -QQ- ‘interior, inner/internal part of, insides, innards’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -QR- ‘CELEBRATORY ACT/ CEREMONIAL RITE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act of jubilation (as manifestation of personal joy, contentment, freedom, self-indulgence, etc.) [both act + cause/reason]

    1. solemn act of commemoration/memorial

    2. act of celebration (in positive recognition of something) [both act + cause/reason]

    2. solemn act of recognition/acknowledgement

    3. joyful or celebratory symbolic/ceremonial rite [both act + cause/reason]

    3. solemn symbolic/ceremonial rite

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  party, celebration, fête, festivities, ceremony

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -QT-   ‘DEGREE OF PLEASURE/FULFILLMENT/SATISFACTION/HAPPINESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of physical/sensual pleasure [both feeling and cause]

    1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented pleasure/contentment [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of emotional/psychological contentment/pleasure [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of happiness
    + (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of physical satisfaction/satiety [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of emotional/psychological satisfaction and fulfillment [both feeling and cause]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a pleasant visit’ or ‘a satisfying meal’

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a happy home’ or ‘a fulfilling job’

    +

    Derivations:  gratify/gratification, satiety, ecstasy, joy

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -QŢ-  ‘SIBLING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sibling

    1. step-sibling

    2. brother

    2. step-brother

    3. sister

    3. step-sister

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. half-sibling [shared mother]

    1. half-sibling [shared father]

    1. step-sibling [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    1. step-sibling [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    2. half-brother [shared mother]

    2. half-brother [shared father]

    2. step-brother [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    2. step-brother [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    3. half-sister [shared mother]

    3. half-sister [shared father]

    3. step-sister [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

    3. step-sister [stepfather is father of other sibling]

    +

      
    +-QŢL- Lithium    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -QŢŘ- Germanium          — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -QV-   ‘RESILIENCE/DELICATENESS’ (= CAPACITY FOR RECOVERY) The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-.

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -QW- ‘FOOD PLANT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. plant grown/harvested/cultured as food source

    1. food dish/serving derived from plant

    2. vegetable

    2. food dish/serving derived from vegetable

    3. fruit

    3. food dish/serving derived from fruit

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to plant itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to edible part of plant or plant in edible condition following any necessary processing

    Same as above 3 stems referring to serving/dish itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to consumption/ingestion  of the dish

    +

    SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL stems:  stem, leaf, seed/nut, pod/fruit, flower, juice, sap, rhizome, root/tuber
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL stems:  soup, stew, salad, sauteed, deep-fried, boiled, steamed, baked, fancy/other style of preparation

    +

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Q’- ‘INTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION INSIDE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. position/orientation somewhere inside (of), i.e., underneath or on other side of surface or boundary layer

    1. entirety of an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

    2. position/orientation somewhere inside of (2-D context), i.e., within the area defined by a boundary line

    2. entirety of an interior surface / functional planar area within the boundaries of

    3. position/orientation somewhere inside of (3-D context), i.e., within the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

    3. entirety of an interior volume / functional space within the boundaries of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Qh- ‘TRANSCENDENCE / SPIRIT / RELIGION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. one’s spirit or soul / transcendent “connection” to the universe

    1. religious belief

    2. universal oneness / metaphysical interconnectedness between all things

    2. feeling of religious fervor or zeal

    3. striving/quest for ultimate destiny/purpose/”Omega point”

    3. striving/quest for salvation/redemption/enlightment (specific to particular religion)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

    same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

    same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

    same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -R- ‘THOUGHT/IDEA/REASON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. think / cogitate + thought or idea cogitated

    1. to reason / use logic + content of reasoning

    2. consider + idea considered

    2. analyze + object of analysis

    3. propose + argument or idea proposed

    3. abstract (= to mentally construct) + concept

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. think / cogitate; an act of thinking

    1. a thought / an idea

    1. to reason / use logic; act of reasoning

    1. object of reasoning

    2. consider; an act of consideration

    2. a thought or idea considered

    2. analyze; act of analysis

    2. object of analysis

    3. propose / posit

    3. a proposition or argument

    3. to abstract / conceive / conceptualize; act of abstraction or conception

    3. concept

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: ponder, deliberate/deliberation, plan, contemplate, theory, hypothesis, deduce/deduction, postulate, infer(ence), judge, conclude/conclusion

    +


    +

    +

    -RB- ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG VERTICAL PLANE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -RBW-   ‘LEOPARD’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -RC- ‘ARC / PARABOLIC MOTION RELATIVE TO GRAVITY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -RÇ-  ‘SWITCH BACK / VEER’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -RČ- ‘CURVED MOTION / CURVE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -RČP’- Cadmium     —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-           
    +

    +

    -RČT’- Boron    —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-     
    +

    +

    -RD- ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE SPIRAL MOTION’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -RDh-  ‘BELT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-
    +

    +

    -RDhŘ- Magnesium     —    Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-   
    +

    +

    -RDhV- Cobalt     —   Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-     
    +

    +

    -RDhW    ‘GULL’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -RF- ‘CIRCULAR VECTOR MOTION’ (i.e., “corkscrew” motion) The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-

    +

    -RFQ- griddle -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.

    +

    -RFŽ- Antimony —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -RG- ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG HORIZONTAL PLANE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-

    +

    -RGY- Chromium          —    Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 
    +

    +

    -RGZD-    ‘IGUANA’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -RGZW-    ‘CROCODILE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -RJ- ‘paint’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -RK- ‘PLANAR RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional horizontal plane) The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -RKR-   ‘TIGER’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -RL- ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG Y-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -RĻ- ‘SPIRAL VECTOR MOTION (i.e., corkscrew motion with increasing or decreasing amplitude) The stems of this root are patterned after the root
    +

    +

    -RM- ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG X-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -RMKh- Palladium        — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-      
    +

    +

    -RMQ’- Zinc          —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

    +

    -RMST-    ‘SEA LION’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -RMXh- Beryllium    —   Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-   
    +
    -RN-‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE CIRCULAR MOTION’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-

    +

    -RNR- Arsenic —   Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -RNTR-    ‘SEAL’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -RP- ‘VERTICAL RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional vertical plane) The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-

    +

    -RPC’-Vanadium    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -RPČ’-Tungsten    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -RPTh- simmer -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RPŢ- sautee -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RPV- sun-dry -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RPX- slow-cook (e.g., in crockpot, Dutch oven, claypot, Tandoori pot, etc.) -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -RP’- ‘BODY PART’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. body part/component  (e.g., appendage, section, organ, gland, tissue, fluid, etc.)

    1. bodily tissue/flesh/sinew

    2. bodily organ

    2. secondary organ/gland

    3. bone

    3. bodily fluid/secretion

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  body, corpse
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 3:  1) spine 2) rib 3) skull 4) limb bone (tibia, femur, ulna, etc.) 5) bone of hand/foot  6) “shield” bone (e.g., patella, shoulder blade) 7) hipbone
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  1) membrane 2) tendon 3) ligament 4) nerve 5) muscle 6) skin/integument 7) sphincter/valve 8)  marrow 9) fat/gristle
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 2:  1) gonad 2) esophagus 3) adrenal gland 4) bowel/intestine 5) brain 6) lung 7) kidney 8) pancreas 9) liver
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 3:  1) tear  2) bile 3) semen 4) pus 5) blood 6) mucus/mucal secretion 7) saliva 8) lymph  9) sweat/perspiratioin

    +

     

    +

    -RPh-  ‘TROPICAL DRY SEASON’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-.

    +

    -RQ- Silver     —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-  
    +

    +

    -RQ’- ‘mineral’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -RQhW-    ‘CAMEL’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -RR-  ‘CAT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of mammalian/avian/reptilian genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +


    +

    +

    -RS- ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN HORIZONTAL PLANE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -RSČ-   ‘MAPLE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RSF-   ‘ASH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RSK-  ‘CYPRESS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RSL-  ‘BEECH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RSM-  ‘MAHOGANY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +

    -RSN-      FLAX The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RSP-   ‘EUCALYPTUS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +

    -RSPh- barbecue -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RSQ-   ‘MAGNOLIA’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RSQh- Nickel  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-  

    +

    -RST-  ‘REDWOOD’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RSTR-   ‘GAZELLE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -RST’- flash-fry -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RSV-   ‘LARCH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RSX- pressure-cook -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RŠ- ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN VERTICAL PLANE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -RŠČ-   ‘ELM’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RŠF-     ‘POPLAR’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RŠK-     ‘ALDER’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RŠL-   ‘YEW’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RŠM-     ‘ALMOND’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RŠN-     ‘CHESTNUT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RŠP-   ‘SPRUCE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +

    -RŠQ- broil -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RŠQh- stew -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RŠT- parboil -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RŠT’- grill -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RŠTh- steam -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RŠŢ- poach -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RŠV- toast -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RT-‘2-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR OUTSIDE EDGE’ encircle, surround The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-
    +

    +

    -RTK- sear -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.

    +

    -RTĻ-    ‘ORANGUTAN’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -RTN- brew -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -RTP- smoke -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-

    +

    -RTW- ‘HORSE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -RT’-  ‘SUMMER’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-.

    +

    -RThW- iridium    —   Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -RŢ-‘2-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG BOUNDARY OR INSIDE EDGE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-

    +

    -RŢK-   ‘BIRCH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RŢL-    ‘TOAD’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -RŢM-    ‘CEDAR’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RŢN-   ‘OAK’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RŢQ-   ‘PINE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RŢQ’- Gallium    —   Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -RŢT’- Phosphorus     —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-    
    +

    +

    -RŢV-   ‘PALM’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-
    +

    +

    -RŢW-   ‘WALNUT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -Ph-

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -RV- ‘PREGNANCY/GESTATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. pregnancy/gestation

    Same as INFORMAL stems but referring exclusively to human pregnancy/gestation

    2. manifestation of morning sickness

    3. contraction during labor

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical condition/state

    Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  conception, labor, birth/delivery

    +


    +

    +

    -RVP’- Rubidium    —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-      
    +

    +

    -RX-  ‘OBLIQUELY LINEAR  MOTION (relative to XYZ grid) The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -RXh- ‘COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. component of CNS

    1. brain

    2. neurological process

    2. spinal cord

    3. component of peripheral nervous system

    3. nerve

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical tissue

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on neurological function

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical tissue

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on neurological function

    +

    sympathetic nerve, parasympathetic nerve, vegus nerve
    + neuron, neuron firing, synapse, synaptic uptake, axon, dendrite, glial cell-->blood-brain barrier

    +

     

    +

    -RZ- ‘3-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR SURFACE OF’

    +

    -RZD-   ‘ALLIGATOR’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -RZW-    ‘YAK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -RŻ-   ‘SARI’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-
    +

    +

    -RŻW-   ‘LIZARD’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -RŽ- ‘3-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG INTERNAL 3-D BOUNDARY OF’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Ř- ‘POSSESSION / OWNERSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. have/possess; physical possession (temporary/circumstantial and alienable – e.g., a library book in one’s hand)

    1. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right and in one’s immediate possession-, e.g., a hat I bought and am wearing)

    2. have/possess; possession (circumstantial and affective + (quasi-) inalienable, either permanent or temporary – e.g., a medical condition, an office at work I occupy, a seat at a cinema showing)

    2. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right, not necessarily in one’s immediate possession -, e.g., a hat I bought/own but am not necessarily wearing)

    3. have/possess; possession (genetic, intrinsic and inalienable, but not considered property – e.g., a sibling, a child, a limb, a memory)

    3. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (quasi-permanent and legally inalienable except through formal/legal separation process – e.g., a house I own, a pet dog I registered

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing possessed

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession/ownership

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing owned; piece of property

    +


    +-ŘB- lumpy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŘBG-    ‘LEMUR’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -ŘC- hard + natural mix of smooth/rough (like a rock) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŘC’- marinade -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŘČ- ‘GASTRO-INTESTINAL/UROLOGICAL COMPONENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. gastrointestinal component (body part + function)

    1. urological component (body part + function)

    2. gastrointestinal process / digestive process / digest(ion) (physical process + nutritive function

    2. urological process (physical process + waste elimination function)

    3. (amount/piece of) feces, dung, excrement

    3. (an amount of) urine, piss, pee

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part/process  itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  gastrointestinal tract
    + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  esophagus, stomach, guts/viscera/intestine, jejenum, ilium, colon, rectum, small intestine/bowel, anus
    + SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  kidney, ureter, adrenal gland, bladder, urethra

    +


    +

    +

    -ŘČ’- coarse (like handling gravel) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŘCh- numbing (= loss of sensation) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŘD- ‘GASTRONOMIC PAROXYSM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act + sound]

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act + sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act + sound]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act]

    1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [sound]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act]

    2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [sound]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act]

    3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [sound]

    +

     

    +

    -ŘDŘ- Krypton    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -ŘDW- soggy/waterlogged/moist texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŘDh- liquidy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŘF- gooey texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŘG- ‘TUNIC’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-
    +

    +

    -ŘGL- plastic-like texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŘGR-    ‘PANTHER (PUMA/COUGAR)’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -ŘGŘ- downy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŘGW-    ‘PANTHER (JAGUAR)’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -ŘGZ-    ‘GIRAFFE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -ŘJ- gritty (like fine sand) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŘJW-   ‘ELK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -ŘK- hard + semi-smooth (like wood) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŘKW-    ‘TURKEY’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -ŘK’- “cobwebby”/like cotton-candy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŘKh- rough (like sandpaper) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŘL- ice-cold, numbing cold texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŘĻ- chewy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŘM- ‘silk’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ŘMN- Osmium    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -ŘN- gummy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŘQR- metallic texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŘSW- ‘LAVENDER’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

    -ŘThW   ‘OSTRICH’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -ŘZW - ‘BISON/BUFFALO’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -S- ‘CHANGE/ALTER/DEVIATE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. change (from one state to another) [both appearance/structure and behavior/function]

    1. alter, modify; alteration, modification [both appearance/structure and behavior/function]

    2. vary; variety, variation [both appearance/structure and behavior/function]

    2. diversify, permutate; permutation, diversification  [both appearance/structure and behavior/function]

    3. deviate; deviation [both appearance/structure and behavior/function]

    3. modulate, control variance in the state of; modulation  [both appearance/structure and behavior/function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on appearance/structure

    same as above 3 stems with focus on behavior/function

    same as above 3 stems with focus on appearance/structure

    same as above 3 stems with focus on behavior/function

    +

    Derivations:  mutate, convert, shift, tamper with, transform, transition

    +

     

    +

    -SCh- ‘GRAY’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark
    +

    +

    -SF- ‘bottom, lowest part of, foundation’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.

    +


    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SK-  ‘GENERIC MAMMAL/AVIAN/REPTILE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of mammalian/avian/reptilian genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    MAT Suffix used to indicate life stage: e.g., foal, fawn, yearling, adult, etc.
    + SSD Suffix used as follows: 1) egg, 2) milk, 3) oil/secretion/venom, 4) fat, 5) skin/hide, 6) tail, 5) tusk/horn, 8) fur/feathers 9) flesh/meat
    +
    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SKh-  ‘PATH/WAY/COURSE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. course/way [taken]

    1. route [taken]

    2. [marked] path [taken]

    2. road [taken]

    3. trajectory; move(ment) along a trajectory / “sail” / arc

    3. channel [taken]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the course/way/path/trajectory itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to following or travelling along the course/path/trajectory

    same as above 3 stems with focus on the route/road/channel itself

    same as a stems with focus on following or travelling along the route/road/channel

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: walkway, sidewalk, highway, street, slide, tunnel, conduit

    +


    +

    +

    -SKhW-    ‘ROBIN’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. cloud/flume of gas/vapor + gas/vapor itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or liquid state

    2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance + the derived gas itself

    2. thing/object composed of gas + its function/purpose

    3. source of a gas

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a gaseous state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. cloud/flume of a gas or vapor

    1. gas/vapor itself

    1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

    1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

    2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance

    2. the derived gas itself

    2. thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

    2. function/purpose of thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

    3.  natural source of a gas

    3.  derived or artificially created source of gas

    3. gaseous/vapor state

    3. semi-gaseous state (combination or gaseous + non-gaseous state, e.g., as w/ CO2 vapor rising from dry ice)

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SM-     ‘TERRAIN-BASED/GEOGRAPHICAL ELEVATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. relative elevation in comparison to other geological feature/terrain

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is geo-political or in terms of formal property [geographic ownership]

    2. geological layer/stratum

    3. flatland area/plain

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. valley / geographic depression relative to surrounding terrain

    1. hill / upland / raised geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

    2. deep underground

    2. near-surface / shallow [in terms of depth underground]

    3. plateau / raised flat-topped geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

    3. ridge / crest / flat-linear edge between different geographic/geologically-based elevations

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SN - ‘SENSE OF TASTE / THE TASTE OF SOMETHING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to taste a taste (taste faculty + flavor tasted)

    1. to taste for an anticipated/expected flavor

    2. tongue/palate (tissue containing taste buds + taste buds themselves)

    2. instrument/device for detecting flavor + flavor detected

    3. imagine a taste (act + the flavor imagined)

    3. create/manufacture a flavor + flavor created

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. to taste; faculty of taste

    1. flavor

    1. to taste

    1.

    2. tongue/palate  (as sensory organs of tasting)

    2. taste bud

    2. instrument for detecting flavor

    2. flavor detected via instrument

    3. imagine a taste in one’s mind

    3. an imagined taste

    3. create/manufacture a flavor

    3. flavor created

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  tasty, savory, flavorful
    + SSD Derivatives:  1) bitter 2) chemical-like taste 3)  salty  4) foul/rancid taste 5) sweet  6) sweet & sour  7) sour 8)  hot (spicy)  9) umami

    +

     

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SP-     ‘EXCHANGE/PURCHASE’
    + Note: The stems below are generally used in conjunction with PROCESSUAL versus COMPLETIVE version (See Secs. 5.3.1 and 5.3.2) in order to distinguish an offer of exchange from a completed exchange. Alternately, the distinction between MONOACTIVE and COMPLEMENTARY valence (Sec. 5.2) can be used for the same purpose.

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exchange / swap

    1. act of trade / act of barter

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange

    2. purchase / commercial transaction; buy(ing) and sell(ing)

    3. change out / supplant / replace

    3. invest(ment)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. exchange (focus on entity given)

    1. exchange (focus on entity taken)

    1. to trade for / acquire through trade; act of acquiring via trade

    1. to trade away / give up through trade; act of given away via trade

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted into new function/place)

    2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted out of old function/place)

    2. buy; acquisition via purchase

    2. sell; act of selling

    3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity newly placed)

    3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity taken out of action)

    3. acquire via investment; act of acquisition via investment

    3. release interest in / sell one’s investment

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: commercial venture, a purchase, acquisition via trade, acquisition via investment; purvey, goods, thing sold, market, warehouse, buyer, seller, agent, business

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SP’- ‘DEGREE OF BODILY SLENDERNESS/FATNESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of slenderness/fatness

    same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

    2. decrease in degree of slenderness/fatness; lose weight; become thin(ner); slenderize

    3. increase in degree of slenderness/fatness; gain weight; become fat(ter); fatten up

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring specifically to physical size/girth/volume

    Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

    +

    The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
    + MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  skinny, rail-thin, obese, plump

    +


    +-SPh- ‘carbon dioxide’ — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’

    +

    -SPhW-  lettuce (plant/leaves of genus Lactuca) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +


    +

    +

    -SQ - cook (= prepare food using heat) The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.

    +


    + -SQW-  tomato The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    -SQ’- oxygen — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’

    +

    -SQhW-  cabbage (plant/leaves of sp. Brassica oleracea capitata) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SR- ‘LATITUDE / NORTH-SOUTH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. north-south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    1. latitude

    2. north axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    2. north latitude

    3. south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

    3. south latitude

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. north-south axial direction or orientation

    1. north-south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    1. polar area

    1. parallel [= line of latitude]

    2. north direction or orientation

    2. north geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    2. north polar area (Arctic)

    2. Northern Hemisphere

    3. south direction or orientation

    3. south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

    3. south polar area (Antarctic)

    3. Eastern Hemisphere

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SŘ- ‘COLLATERAL FAMILY MEMBER/RELATIVE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. paternal collateral relative

    1. maternal collateral relative

    2. paternal male collateral relative

    2. maternal male collateral relative

    3. paternal female collateral relative

    3. maternal female collateral relative

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. paternal nephew/neice

    1. paternal aunt/uncle

    1. maternal nephew/neice

    1. maternal aunt/uncle

    2. paternal nephew

    2. paternal uncle

    2. maternal nephew

    2. maternal uncle

    3. paternal neice

    3. paternal aunt

    3. maternal neice

    3. maternal aunt

    +

     

    +


    +-SS- air — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ST- ‘COMPARISON/MEASUREMENT/WEIGH’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. compare/contrast

    1. measure

    2. discriminate/distinguish

    2. discern

    3. “weigh”/ponder choice/pro-con analysis

    3. relate/collate/determine relationships between

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or outcome

    +


    +

    +

    -STR- diamond       — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-   
    +

    +

    -STW-  rice (plant/seed of sp. Oryza sativa) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    -STY-  bean (lima/snap/etc.: plant/seed of genus Phaseolus or similar) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -ST’- ‘metal/ore’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -ST’W-  peanut (plant/seed/pod of sp. Arachis hypogaea) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +


    +

    +

    -STh- boil -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SŢ-   ‘FIVE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 5 / a quintet; to be 5 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make five-faceted / having 5 uses or aspects / quint- / pent- / fivefold

    3. fifth one in a sequence; be/make fifth in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 5 times the number of something; to quintuple / multiply by 5

    1. a fifth / divide by 5 or into 5 parts

    2. 5 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 5 times

    2. be of or make into 5 parts; separate(d) into 5 parts

    3. to the 5th power; raise to the 5th power

    3. to the negative 5th power; to divide by the 5th power of

    +


    +

    +

    -SThW-    ‘SPARROW’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SV-  ‘FEAR/FRIGHT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of a state/feeling/emotion; feel (an) emotion [state + content]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of the particular emotion.

    2. act or action caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling

    3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on process itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential state/feeling itself

    +

    Derivation:  panic

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SW- ‘PLANETARY BODY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. planet/planetary body

    1. The Earth/Terra

    2. moon/satellite of planetary body

    2. The Moon/Luna

    3. other spatial body

    3. artificial satellite

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

    Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

    Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  asteroid, comet, cosmic dust, cosmic gas, cosmic ray, component of Oort Cloud, cosmic string, quantum filament
    + MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  Gaia, Gaia Principle/Hypothesis

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SX- ‘BAKE/SOMETHING BAKED’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. bake (something); something baked [method + result]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except that context is that of a commercial venture, i.e., food for sale, as in a restaurant or grocery store

    2. oven [= environment or primary infrastructure used for baking]

    3. baking pan [= primary supporting interface for manipulating the food being baked]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bake; baking (as a cooking method)

    1. food cooked by baking; something baked

    2. oven (as primary baking environment)

    2. oven (as functional heating/cooking means)

    3. baking pan (as supporting interface within the oven)

    3. baking pan (as primary accessory/tool needed for manipulating, removing, shaping the baked food)

    +

    Derivatives:  baked goods, bakery, baker
    +

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SXh- ‘DISEASE/DISORDER/MALADY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. chronic systemic illness/condition/ailment; to suffer from

    1. acute abnormal/unhealthy condition/illness/malady/ailment; “come down with”

    2. chronic illness/condition/ailment – infectious in origin; to suffer from a chronic infectious illness

    2. infection; infect(ed), to “catch” a disease

    3.  chronic illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

    3. acute illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

    +

     

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -SY- ‘MANNER/CONDUCT/BEHAVIOR/DEMEANOR’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. manner (= the way something or someone acts or behaves)

    1. method, the way something happens, course of action; conduct

    2. guise, form; to take the form/guise of

    2. behave/comport/conduct onself = outward display of one’s personality/thoughts/emotions/motives; behavior/conduct/deportment

    3. practice/policy

    3. bearing/carriage/demeanor

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the manner/form/practice itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the method or behavior itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  process, procedure, regimen, strategy

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Š- ‘TEXTURE/TACTILE SENSATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. texture, tactile sensation (tactile sensation + physical-emotional reaction)

    1. act/process to render (an object/entity having) a particular texture (tactile sensation + physical-emotional reaction)

    2. material impact/benefit/effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that consistency

    2. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that consistency

    3. material impact/benefit/effect of having a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    3. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of having a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. object having a particular texture

    1. the texture itself

    1. act/process designed to render a certain texture

    1. actual results of an act or process to render a certain texture

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that texture

    2. actual material impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that texture

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the entity having that texture

    2. actual psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the entity having that texture

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact/benefit of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    3. actual material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    3. actual psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

    +

    SSD suffix specifies reaction:  sensuous, delightful/fun, soothing, as-expected, surprising/positive, surprising/negative, annoying/irritating, painful

    +


    +
    +-ŠČ-  ‘being ultra-alert with senses heightened’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -ŠČ’- ‘spite’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -ŠČh-  ‘feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that achievement of long-awaited vengeance or vindication is hollow and meaningless due to personal maturation or present irrelevance of original circumstances’    The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +
    +-ŠF-  ‘feeling of “devilishness” and spontaneous non-conformity’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŠK- ‘ARM’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. arm (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. arm (as holder, support, carrier) [both body part and function]

    3. arm (as protective extension of body) [both body part and function]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. arm as single body part

    1. arm as reacher or manipulator

    2. arm as limb (focus on part/whole relation to body)

    2. arm as holder/carrier

    3. arm as extension of body

    3. arm as natural protective/defensive implement of body

    +

     

    +

    +

    -ŠKÇ-    ‘PIGEON’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -ŠKŢ-   bicarbonate of soda       — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -ŠKY-  pea (plant/seed of sp. Pisum sativum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -ŠKh-  ‘feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that one can get past, and need not succumb to, feelings of defensiveness or “victimhood” upon being criticized, maligned, slandered, or disrespected. The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -ŠKhW-  corn, maize (plant/seeds of sp. Zea mays) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŠL- ‘HUMOR/WIT/JEST’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something funny or humorous = comical

    1. a jest or prank; make a jest or pull a prank = act or situation designed to evoke humor

    2. something witty = subtlely and cleverly humorous

    2. a joke; make a joke  = communicated situation or message designed to evoke humor

    3. something farcical = something humorous based in irony

    3. something sardonic = double-edged humor based in sarcasm

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

    Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

    +

    SSD derivatives:  pun, riddle

    +


    +

    +

    -ŠM- ‘lower part or “half”’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.
    +

    +

    -ŠNY- brine      —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-   

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŠP- ‘BINARY REVERSAL / POLARITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. switch to opposing or complementary value

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Sec. 3.7.

    2. switch or reverse [linear] direction

    3. toggle between active/positive or inactive/negative state

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. set to positive, primary, or initial value

    1. set to negative, secondary, or complementary value

    2. change current course or direction

    2. reverse course or direction

    3. active / activate / turn on / render active / on / positive state

    3. inactive / deactivate / turn off / render inactive / off / negative state

    +

     

    +

    -ŠPR- marble      — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŠP’- ‘HUNTING & GATHERING/PLANTING & HARVESTING/SUBSISTENCE FROM THE LAND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. searching for and gathering/collection of plants, vegetable matter for purposes of sustenance

    1. plant/sow and harvest an annual crop

    2. nomadic hunting/harvesting, subsistance-style nomadic sustenance [practices + products]

    2. plant/sow and harvest a permanent seasonal crop (e.g., vines, trees, bushes, etc.)

    3. live off the land [hunting/gathering practice + product(s) derived]

    3. manage crop(s) and practice animal husbandry [sowing/raising + reaping/product(s) derived]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the hunting or gathering process

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the products hunted or gathered

    1. till/plow & plant seeds or seedlings

    1.  harvest/reap an annual crop

    2. raise/grow a permanent seasonal crop

    2. harvest/reap a permanent seasonal crop

    3. raise/grow crop(s) & manage domesticated food-producing animal(s)

    3. harvest/reap crop products and process/collect animal products

    +

    Morphological Derivations:  to farm, a farm, practice agriculture
    + SSD Derivations:  slash & burn, subsistance farming, commercial farming,
    + SSD Deriviations for Formal Stems 2 and 3:  transplanting, grafting, hybridization, genetic modification

    +

     

    +

    +

    -ŠPh-  ‘mix of humor and shame one feels upon pulling a joke on someone or at their expense but the target doesn’t “get it” or remains ignorant of the joke’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -ŠPhW-    ‘LARK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŠQ- ‘WAIT/AWAIT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. wait (for), await; waiting, a wait

    1. vigil/a watch; be vigilant/watchful

    2. expect; expectation; expected/impending

    2. foresee; foresight; prospective/foreseeable

    3. predict; prediction

    3. prognosticate, forecast

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

    +


    +

    +

    -ŠQ’- roast -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.
    +

    +

    -ŠQh-  ‘schadenfreude; malicious glee at another’s (implicitly deserved) discomfort or inconvenience’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +
    + -ŠR-  ‘discomfiture at having been socially snubbed or at being ill-prepared for a situation after believing that one was accepted or was well-prepared’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -ŠŘ-  ‘impatience due to feeling that time/resources are being wasted’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +


    +

    +

    -ŠT- fry -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.

    +

    -ŠTL-    ‘OWL’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŠT’-  ‘ATTRACTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. feel/be attracted to (physical attraction to other person)

    1. feel/be attracted/drawn to (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

    2. feel/be attractive (physical attraction to other person)

    2. be attractive/seductive (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing, idea or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

    3. act/gesture indicating or hinting of attraction to; “(give) clue/hint” (physical attraction to other person)

    3. “selling point” / a “pro” (vs. “con”)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

    Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL Derivations:  seduce, seduction

    +

    +

    -ŠTh-  ‘anticipate a negative; dread’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

    +

    -ŠŢ-  ‘externally-induced feeling/sense of contemplation/re-evaluation upon discovering or hearing of an option/alternative not previously considered (stereotypically accompanied by scratching one's chin and/or frowning while uttering a prolonged "hmm")’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +
    + -ŠV-  ‘solace, comfort in the face of sadness/grief ’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +
    + -ŠX-  ‘feeling of puzzlement and curiosity, a desire to solve a mystery’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +
    + -ŠXh-  ‘feeling of being “on edge”; at cusp of loss-of-control or loss of one’s actions/inhibitions’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -ŠY- ‘wistfulness, bittersweetness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +


    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -T- ‘ALIVE/LIVING THING/LIVING BEING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. living thing; be alive / to live

    1. domesticated or civilized being

    2. [wild] animal (all orders)

    2. domesticated animal

    3. [wild] plant (all orders)

    3. cultivated plant

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. male being

    1. female being

    1. domesticated or civilized male being

    1. domesticated or civilized female being

    2. male [wild] animal

    2. female [wild] animal

    2. male [domesticated] animal

    2. female [domesticated] animal

    3. male [wild] plant

    3. female [wild] plant

    3. male [cultivated] plant

    3. female [cultivated] plant

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: life, vegetation, flora, fauna, wildlife; farm, farmer, breeder, livestock

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -TF- ‘PSYCHOLOGICAL or PSYCHO-LINGUISTIC MANIPULATION/TREATMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to fool someone (into doing/believing something); state of being fooled

    1. state of delusion (both state + content)

    2. to “play games” (with someone) = mentally manipulate via words/behavior/actions; state of being toyed with mentally

    2. means of psychiatric treatment; component of psychotherapy

    3. be mesmerized, entranced (by something)

    3. hypnotic state; be hypnotized

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    +

    Derivations:  to delude, to hypnotize, to “do a number” on someone mentally, to entrance

    +


    +-TFŘ- ozone — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’
    +

    +

    -TK- ‘upper part or “half”’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.

    +

    -TKÇ- mercury  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -TKR-  ‘PIG’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -TKh- ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPHEROID SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sphere(oid) [rigid or solid]

    1. ball-like form [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    2. ovoid / elliptoid / round [rigid or solid]

    2. ovoid /elliptoid / round [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    3. torus / toroid (hoop/ring-like form with circular/elliptical/oval cross-section) [rigid or solid]

    3. torus / toroid [flexible/mutable or hollow]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    +


    +-TL- ‘salt’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -TLW- ‘TEAL’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -TĻ-  ‘2-DIMENSIONAL CURVATURE/DISTORTION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself + object manifesting such curvature]

    1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself + object manifesting the depression]

    2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself + object manifesting the distortion]

    3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself]

    1. object manifesting a curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

    1. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself]

    2. object manifesting a dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

    2. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

    3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself]

    3. object manifesting an undefined distortion, blurring or anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself]

    3. object manifesting a volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  crease, pleat, wrinkle(s), curl up, crumple(d), wad(ded), zig-zag, groove/furrow

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -TM- ‘SIGN/MARK/SYMBOL/VISUAL MEANS OF INDICATION/REPRESENTATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. sign, signal, gesture, indication (= general indication, not 2-D planar surface bearing graphic/written communication)

    1. mark, token, single graphic representation

    2. track, print, trail (=naturally produced bodily trace)

    2. symbol, emblem, device, insignia

    3. identifying characteristic or trait

    3. formal representation

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to the indicator/sign itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content/meaning thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to the indicator/sign itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content/meaning thereof

    +

    signal, sign (= placque/board)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -TN- ‘LARGE IMPLEMENT FOR COUNTERING GRAVITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ladder [object itself + use]

    1. winch/windlass

    2. stair

    2. expandable boom

    3. bridge; span

    3. derrick

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  staircase, stairway

    +

     

    +

    -TR- ‘GREEN’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -TŘ- ‘APPEAR/MANIFEST/SHOW/EXHIBIT/DISPLAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. appear/manifest/show = be/make observable to the senses of others; manifestation, appearance

    1. exhibit; display

    2. expose; exposure

    2. show off, flaunt

    3. bring/call attention to = make others aware of the appearance/showing of something

    3. announce; advertise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of manifestation/showing

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing manifested or shown

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of exhibiting or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing exhibited or displayed

    +

    Morphological derivations:  demonstrate, flourish, show off, display, spectacle, parade, promenade, procession, ostentation, gaudy, garish, pomp, pompous

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -TT- ‘SALUTATION/GREETING/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. acknowledge/demonstrate awareness of

    1. greet(ings) / salutation(s)

    2. hail / get attention of / bring attention to

    2. formal welcome or farewell

    3. congratulate

    3. socially introduce / to socially present

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

    +

    SSD affix for FORMAL Stem Nos. 1 and 2 by degree:  1) bow upon arrival/introduction 2) shake hands upon arrival/introduction  3) wave hand or arm upon arrival/introduction/seeing 4)verbal salutation only upon arrival/introduction/seeing 5) words used in greeting/salutation/farewell  6) say goodbye  7) wave goodbye 8) shake hands upon farewell/leavetaking 9) bow upon farewell/leavetaking

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -TW- ‘OCCUPANCY/RESIDENCY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. entity present + presence

    1. tenant + domicile

    2. occupant + place occupied

    2. resident + residence

    3. denizen + claimed property

    3. citizen + property

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. entity present

    1. presence of entity

    1. tenant

    1. domicile

    2. occupant

    2. place occupied

    2. resident

    2. residence

    3. denizen

    3. claimed property

    3. citizen

    3. property

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dwelling, quarters, population, community, town, village, city, hamlet, county, geopolitical area, state/province, nation, geopolitical bloc; nest, lair, den

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -TXh-  SUBATOMIC PARTICLE

    INFORMAL

    FORMAL

    subatomic particle + its interaction/effect (either elementary or composite particle)

    hypothetical subatomic particle + its interaction/effect (either elementary or composite particle)

    elementary particle + its interaction/effect (either fermion or boson)

    antimatter particle + its interaction/effect (either fermion or boson)

    composite particle + its interaction/effect (i.e., hadron, whether baryon or meson)

    non-baryonic “dark matter” particle, (i.e., WIMP)

    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS

    COMPLEMENTARY STEMS

    same as above three stems but with focus on the particle itself

    same as above three stems but with focus on the particle’s interaction/force or effect

    same as above three stems but with focus on the particle itself

    same as above three stems but with focus on the particle’s interaction/force or effect

    +

    Formal stems P1/S1, P2/S1, and P3/S1 all have the following derivatives using the SSD1 suffix identifying the particular type of hypothetical particle and/or its associated interaction:
    + 1) (Nambu-)Goldstone boson
    + 2) (Nambu-)Goldstone fermion / goldstino
    + 3) X boson
    + 4) W-prime boson
    + 5) tachyon
    + 6) Z-prime boson
    + 7) Y boson
    + 8) gravscalar/radion
    +9) graviphoton/gravivector

    +

    Formal stems P1/S1, P2/S1, and P3/S1 all have the following derivatives using the SSD2 suffix identifying additional types of hypothetical particles and/or their associated interaction:
    + 1) axion
    + 2) axino
    + 3) saxion
    + 4) branon
    + 5) dilaton
    + 6) dilatino
    + 7) majoron
    + 8) plekton
    +9) anyon

    +

    The PLV1/1 suffix is used for the above stems where applicable to convey the corresponding antiparticle. The PLV1/5 suffix is used for these stems where applicable to convey the corresponding neurtral (non-charged) particle.

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -TY-   ‘SENSE OF WONDER/ENTHRALLMENT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of wonder/enthrallment; feel wonder/enthrallment [state + content]

    Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of awe, i.e., feeling of worship(fulness).

    2. sense of magic caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling of wonder/enthrallment

    3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling or wonder/enthrallment

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on process itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential state/feeling itself

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -T’- ‘EXTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION OUTSIDE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. position/orientation somewhere outside (of), i.e., beyond or on other side of surface or boundary layer

    1. the space beyond/outside/excluded from an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

    2. position/orientation somewhere outside of (2-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the area defined by a boundary line

    2. an external surface / functional planar area beyond/outside the boundaries of (e.g., the “out of bounds” area of a tennis court)

    3. position/orientation somewhere outside of (3-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

    3. the space beyond/outside an interior volume / functional space outside the boundaries of

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Th- ‘(CRIMINAL) LAW/ADJUDICATION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. statute, a particular law

    1. act of official law enforcement (enforcement authority + manifested act of enforcement/administration)

    2. applicability of a statute, law to a particular situation or geopolitical area, rule of law

    2. jurisdiction/applicability of enforcement powers to particular situation or geopolitical area

    3. investigate an alleged violation of law; act of criminal investigation

    3. try/adjudicate a criminal complaint, go to trial

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. statement (the wording) of a law or statute

    1. application of, or compliance with a law or statute

    1. authority to enforce law or statute

    1. act/manifestion of enforcing/administering law or statute

    2. applicability of a statute or law

    2. state of being subject to, or required to obey/ comply w/ a statute or law

    2. jurisdiction of law enforcement powers

    2. state of being subject to the jurisdiction of a law enforcement entity

    3. gather material evidence as part of criminal investigation, e.g., questioning of witnesses, viewing of records, inspecting clues and material evidence

    3. act by law enforcement for purposes of criminal identification or apprehension, e.g., interrogation or component of sting-type operation, or legal “trap” set up

    3. presentation of evidence in support of alleged crime; prosecution

    3. formal weighing of evidence by judge or jury

    +

    Morphological Derivations: code of law, rule of law, rule on an adjudicatory matter, verdict, justice
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  obtaining of warrant/authorization to detain, seizure/detention of suspect, interrogation of suspect, gathering of evidence, arrest, detention in jail cell, indictment, preparation of prosecution, incarceration
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  stake-out/surveillance, reconnaisance, infiltration of mole, component of sting operation, identification of suspect

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Ţ-   ‘HEAD’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. head (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. head (as seat of brain/mind) [both body part and function]

    3. head (as entity’s primary “interface” area of body)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. head as physical body part

    1. head as functional body part

    2. head as physical seat of brain/mind

    2. head as functional seat of brain/mind

    3. head as “top” or “forward” part or “access” point

    3. head as vital seat of identity

    +

    SSD Derivatives = parts of head 1) cheek  2) chin  3) upper lip [plane between mouth and nose] 4) forehead 5) temple 6) crown of head 6) occipital area [back of head] 7) socket area around eye 8) upper part of back of head 9) cheekbone

    +


    +

    +

    -ŢB- bounce/recoil <--> inertness/immobility — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŢC- ‘AFFECTIVE/NON-VOLITIONAL MENTAL STATE/PROCESS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mood; be in a mood

    1. rationalization; rationalize

    2. instinct; act/behave on instinct [state + content]

    2. delusion; (be) delude(d)

    3. psychic phenomenon, altered state of consciousness

    3. dream [state + content]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

    same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

    +

    SSD Derivatives for Stem 3:  1) “high”, under-the-influence of a psycho-active substance  2) hallucination; hallucinate, (observe) apparition 3) trance 4) instance of telepathy 5) (experience) premonition/vision 6) synaesthetic experience 7) sensory illusion 8) out-of-body experience  9) state of prescience/clairvoyance

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŢČ-  ‘DEGREE OF PAIN/LOSS/DISSATISFACTION/MISERY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. degree of physical pain [both feeling and cause]

    1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented displeasure/discontent [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of emotional/psychological discontent/pain [both feeling and cause]

    2. degree of unhappiness/misery
    + (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of physical dissatisfaction/lack [both feeling and cause]

    3. degree of emotional/psychological dissatisfaction and loss/lack [both feeling and cause]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unpleasant visit’ or ‘a terrible meal’

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unhappy home’ or ‘a miserable job’

    +

     

    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŢK-    ‘THREE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 3 / a trio / a triad; to be 3 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.5

    2. be/make three-faceted / having 3 uses or aspects / tri- / threefold

    3. third one in a sequence; be/make third in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 3 times the number of something; to triple / multiply by 3

    1. a third / divide by 3 or into 3 parts / trisect

    2. 3 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 3 times

    2. be of or make into 3 parts; separate(d) into 3 parts

    3. to the 3rd power; raise to the 3rd power

    3. to the negative 3rd power; to divide by the 3rd power of

    +


    +

    +

    -ŢKL- laughing gas, nitrous oxide — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME

    +


    +-ŢKŘ- Helium   — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’

    +

    +

    -ŢKY-  wheat (plant/seed of sp. Triticum aestivum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    -ŢKhW-  spinach (plant/leaves of sp. Spinacia oleracea) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    -ŢK’-    ‘commitment/loyalty’  Derivations:  ‘intransigence’, ‘stubbornness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -ŢKh- suppleness/pliancy/flexibility/ductility/bendability <--> stiffness/rigidity — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.
    +

    +

    -ŢL-   ‘numbness / emotional saturation’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +


    +-ŢLW- Hydrogen     — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’
    +

    +

    -ŢLY- Chlorine   — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŢM- ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. strip [solid/rigid]

    1. ribbon-like shape [flexible]

    2. plane/planar [solid/rigid]

    2. sheet-like shape [flexible]

    3. tube/cylinder/cylindrical [solid/rigid]

    3. tube-like shape [flexible]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    +

    -ŢMW-  garlic The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -ŢMY- ‘carbon monoxide’ — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŢN- ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION MORE THAN ONE DAY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. expanse of time/period/duration more than 1 day

    1. subjective long-term period/era

    2. lunar period / month

    2. geologic era

    3. solar year

    3. ‘lifetime’; timespan from beginning to end of something

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

    Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

    +

    Use of SSD affix give equivalents to ‘decade’, ‘century,’ ‘millenium’, etc.

    +


    +-ŢNY-   lime (substance)     —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 
    +

    +

    -ŢPF- talc or talcum       —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -ŢPĻ- methanol, methyl alcohol    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ŢPŘ- Nitrogen     — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’
    +

    +

    -ŢPŢ- Fluorine — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’

    +

    -ŢPh-   ‘nonchalance/indifference’ Derivations:  ‘callousness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    -ŢPW- baking soda      —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -TPhW-  sorghum The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŢQ- ‘CONSISTENCY/MALLEABILITY/FLEXIBILITY/PLASTICITY/RHEOLOGICAL PHENOMENON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. consistency, degree of malleability/flexibility/ plasticity

    1. act/process to render (an object having) a certain consistency or degree of malleability / flexibility / plasticity

    2. material impact/benefit/effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

    2. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

    3. material impact/benefit/effect of having a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    3. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of having a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. object having a particular consistency

    1. the consistency itself

    1. act/process designed to render a certain consistency or degree of malleability/plasticity

    1. actual results of an act or process to render a certain consistency or degree of malleability/plasticity

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

    2. actual material impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

    2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the entity having that consistency

    2. actual psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the entity having that consistency

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    3. actual material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    3. actual psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

    +

     

    +


    +-ŢQF- Radon   — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’
    +

    +

    -ŢQŢ- Argon     — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’

    +

    -ŢQ’- tendency to disintegrate/crumble/fall apart <--> coherence/cohesiveness/compositional integrity — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.

    +

    -ŢQh-   ‘torpor/lethargy’ Derivations: ‘stupor’, ‘catatonia’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-
    +

    +

    -ŢQhW-  lentil (plant/seeds of sp. Lens culinaris) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    -ŢR-  table sugar    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ŢŘ- ‘edge’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.
    +

    +

    -ŢT- limpness/flaccidity <--> stiffness/rigidity — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.

    +

    -ŢTL- Neon    — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’
    +

    +

    -ŢTŘ- Xenon — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’
    +

    +

    -ŢTh- brittleness <--> resiliency — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.
    +

    +

    -ŢT’- flimsiness/fragility <--> resiliency/strength — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.
    +

    +

    -ŢV- jiggliness <--> inertness/immobility — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŢW- ‘WEATHER CONDITION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. (current) weather condition

    1. adverse weather condition

    2. amenable weather condition (warm seasons)

    2. adverse weather condition (warm seasons)

    3. amenable weather condition (cold seasons)

    3. adverse weather condition (cold seasons)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: climate, the weather, clime
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  mild, balmy, sunny, warm, still/calm, gently breezy
    + SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  brisk, cool, clear, still/calm, crisp, light snowfall, drizzle
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2: mugginess, heat, drought, summer rainstorm, summer flood, mud, hurricane, smog, hot wind
    + SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  fog/mist, cloudy/overcast, wind, rain, snow, blizzard, rainstorm, tornado/twister, flood

    +


    +

    +

    -ŢX- squeezability/compressability <--> stiffness/rigidity — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.
    +

    +

    -ŢXhW-  yam, sweet potato The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-’

    +

    -ŢY- ‘cordiality/benevolence’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

    +

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -V-     ‘PLAY/RECREATION/LEISURE’
    + (These stems are often used with the various Valence categories (Section 5.2) to specify the manner of participation)

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. play/recreate/amuse oneself (activity + feeling of enjoyment derived) = self-involved activity, e.g., play w/ a toy, play hide-and-seek, etc.

    1. play/recreate (activity + feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived) = formal rule-oriented activity, e.g., a board game, a sport, etc.

    2. element of participitory or self-involved leisure activity (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived), e.g., a dance, a hike, fishing, camping

    2. attend/view a formal entertainment (activity + feeling of enjoyment/diversion derived), e.g., view a show, live performance, movie, a sporting event, etc.)

    3. practice hobby or pastime (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived)

    3. engage in (a) sport activity (activity + feeling of competitive spirit) for motive of formal competition, e.g., victory-oriented

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed, i.e., a toy, game or diversion

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

    +

    SSD Derivatives:
    + sports, toys, traditional board games, participitory outdoor games

    +


    +

    +

    -VBR-   ‘ELEPHANT’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -VDR-   ‘WOLF’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -VG-   ‘HELMET’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

    +

    -VGL-  linoleum       —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-     
    +

    +

    -VGR-    ‘KANGAROO’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -VGŘ-   graphite    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -VGW-   ‘DEER’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -VGY- acetone      — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL 
    +

    +

    -VKR-    ‘ZEBRA’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -VKŘ-emery powder     —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -VKW-   ‘MULE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +


    +-VKY-  sesame (plant/seed of genus Sesamum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -VL- ‘CONTAIN / HOLD / CONTENTS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. contain(ment) via gravity (e.g., basin) + contents

    Same as INFORMAL stems but in quasi-permanent context or by intrinsic nature as opposed to the INFORMAL stems which convey an incidental or circumstantial context

    2. contain(ment) via enclosure / surrounding conveyance + contents

    3. contain(ment) via imbuement / as ingredient; to “carry” [as integrated component or ingredient] + contents

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to contents

    same as above 3 stems referring to the container

    +

    The SSD suffix provides the following distinctions: 1) bottle 2) jar/pot 3) barrel/cask 4) bin 5) vat / tub / basin [distinguished via SIZ affix] 6) can/tin 5) piece of furniture 8) purse/bag/satchel/pack 9) case/trunk

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -VM- ‘CURVATURE/BENDING/OPEN LINEAR FORMS OR SHAPES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    1. obtuse angle [degree of size/openness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

    2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    2. acute angle [degree of size/narrownness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

    3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

    3. mathematically determined form made of lines (e.g., polygon, quadrilateral, etc.) [pattern + object having the pattern]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

    1. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate

    1. obtuse angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of openness]

    1. obtuse angled object or bounded space

    2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

    2. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate

    2. acute angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of narrowness]

    2. acute angled object or bounded space

    3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself]

    3. object manifesting a linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic)

    3. mathematically determined form made of lines [the pattern]

    3. object manifesting a mathematically determined form made of lines

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  fold, bend, pleat, zig-zag/“sawtooth”/serrated pattern, undulate/undulation, S-curve, wave(s)/wavy, bent, crooked, jagged, serrated, curvature
    + The above root use PHASE and the iterative series of affixes to specify extent/number/pattern of folds.
    + SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 3:  parabola, hyperbola, exponential curve

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -VN- ‘DEGREE OF FUN/MERRIMENT/JOVIALITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. fun/ merriment; feel/be merry, have fun (both cause/source + feeling derived)

    1. be jovial/jocular/jolly; express/manifest joviality, jollity

    2. frolic, skylark = aimless, innocent pursuit of fun and amusement (both cause/source + feeling derived)

    2. formal amusement (activity or cause + feeling derived), e.g., from/at party, fete, show, performance, etc.

    3. whim, impulsive moment for purpose of amusement

    3. revel; an instance of revelry

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of merriment derived

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of merriment/amusement derived

    +

    carouse, with wild abandon, spree, escapade, jaunt, romp, party, fete

    +


    +

    +

    -VPŢ-  epsom salts     — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-   

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -VR-  ‘GENERIC WATERLIFE ’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. member of genus

    1. member of genus as resource

    2. male member of genus

    2. male as resource

    3. female member of genus

    3. female as resource

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. wild member of genus

    1. bred or domesticated member of genus

    1. member of genus as food/prey

    1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

    2. wild male member of genus

    2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

    2. male as food/prey

    2. male as derived resource or processed product

    3. wild female member of genus

    3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

    3. female as food/prey

    3. female as derived resource or processed product

    +

    SSD Suffix used as follows: 1) egg, 2) meat, 3) skin/shell, 4) fluid/ink, 5) smoked meat, 6) as bait, 7) as fodder, 8) as ingredient in food or as fishmeal 9) cooked meat
    +

    +


    +

    +

    -VTY-  millet -- The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +


    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -VW- ‘ “HEART” / “ESSENCE” / VALUES’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. metaphorical/psychological seat of one’s personality and emotions, i.e., “heart”, “soul”, mind

    1. personal value(s)/ what one holds dearest or as most important

    2. degree/depth of one’s emotions / “feelings” / experience a certain depth of emotion

    2. personal virtues/ personality traits

    3. essence; essential subjective/intangible qualities of an entity

    3. personal principles

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

    same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

    +

    Derivations:  personality

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -VY- ‘GOOD/BENEFICIAL’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. good [= beneficial to context]

    Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to concrete, range-of-moment tangible contexts, whereas INFORMAL stems are applied to general, metaphysical contexts.

    2. good [= morally right; beneficial metaphysically]

    3. good [= advantageous/effective]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act, event or situation itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on desired outcome/reward/benefit

    +


    +

    +

    -VZY-  potash       —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-     
    +

    +

    -VŽŘ-  washing soda     —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -VŽV-  zinc white, zinc oxide  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -X-   ‘VISION/SIGHT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. to sight (see + thing seen); sight

    1. observe / visually examine + thing seen

    2. eye (functional organ + visible facial feature)

    2. optical instrument + image

    3. visualize / imagine / picture a visual image in one’s mind + image

    3. create image / render an image

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. see; eyesight

    1. a sight / image; to project an image

    1. visually examine / observe

    1. thing observed / visual evidence

    2. eye (functional organ)

    2. eye (visible facial feature)

    2. optical instrument

    2. thing observed via optical instrument

    3. visualize / envision; act of visualization

    3. an image / a vision (in one’s mind)

    3. create image

    3. image created

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: look (at), view, glimpse, glance, ogle, gawk, stare, spy, espy, peep, voyeur, panorama, scrutinize (visually), camera, telescope, microscope, binoculars, magnifying glass, lens, glasses

    +


    +-XChW-  tea (plant/leaves of sp. Camellia sinensis) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -XČ- ‘WEAPON’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hand-held or hand-thrown bladed weapon for cutting or stabbing [object + use]

    1. ballistically launched projectile [projectile + use]

    2. pointed-tipped handheld or propelled weapon for piercing [object + use]

    2. explosive/incendiary substance/device [substance/device + use]

    3. blunt force-driven hand-held or propelled weapon [object + use]

    3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon [substance + use]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. bladed weapon itself

    1. use/function of bladed weapon

    1. ballistically launched projectile

    1. use/function of ballistically launched projectile

    2. pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon itself

    2. use/function of pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon

    2. explosive/incendiary substance/device

    2. use/function of explosive/incendiary substance/device

    3. blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon itself

    3. use/function of blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon

    3. gaseous, chemical or other weapon

    3. use/function of gaseous/chemical/other weapon

    +

    SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1:  dagger, switchblade, axe, sword, scimitar, bayonet
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  arrow, lance, spear, javelin, harpoon
    + SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  mace, club, hammer, catapult fodder, shot from slingshot. cudgel
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  bullet, shell, shrapnel, cannonball, shot, rocket, self-propelled missile
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  bomb, grenade, plastic explosive, firecracker, dynamite stick
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  gas irritant/poison, poison chemical vapor, liquid irritant/poison, radioactive compound used as weapon

    +

    NOTE:  In Ithkuil, guns, catapults, slings and all other firearms or devices for shooting/hurling projectiles utilize Degree 1 of the UTE suffix ('tool/implement for doing X'), as it is not the firearm/shooting device that kills but the projectile shot/fired from it. Thus a gun is a "bullet-implementer".  Care must be taken in assigning appropriate noun Cases or verbal Formats to stems associated with ballistic aerial weapons to distinguish the fact that it is the projectile that is the actual "weapon" and not the object it was fired/projected from. This is the good old "shoot bullets" vs. "shoot guns" vs. "shoot bullets from a gun" vs. "shoot him with a gun" vs. "shoot him with bullets from a gun" problem . This would translate into Ithkuil as "I bulleted him due to/enabled by a gun" or incorparatively as "I gun-bulleted him" using either the RESULTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him as a result of concurrently gun-activating") or the INSTRUMENTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him by the enabling means of gun-activating").

    +


    +

    +

    -XČW-  fluorspar     — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-          
    +

    +

    -XČ’W-  gypsum   —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-             

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -XL- ‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + substance/compound itself

    1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal liquid or gaseous state

    2. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from a another subtance +  the derived substance itself

    2. thing/object composed of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + its function/purpose

    3. source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

    3. status of substance/compound as being or not being (quasi-) solid

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a material substance

    1. substance/compound itself

    1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

    1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state

    2.  elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from refinement, distillation or processing of material substance or compound

    2. derived substance / compound itself

    2. object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

    2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

    3. natural source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

    3. derived or artificially created source of a (quasi-) solid material substance / compound

    3. solid (= hard to the touch)

    3. quasi-solid (= non-gaseous and non-liquid but not hard; able to be deformed by touch)

    +

    +

    +

    -XLW- ‘YELLOW-GREEN’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -XM-   ‘NINE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 9 / a nonet; to be 9 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make nine-faceted / having 9 uses or aspects / nono- / ninefold

    3. ninth one in a sequence; be/make ninth in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 9 times the number of something; to nonuple / multiply by 9

    1. a ninth / divide by 9 or into 9 parts

    2. 9 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 9 times

    2. be of or make into 9 parts; separate(d) into 9 parts

    3. to the 9th power; raise to the 9th power

    3. to the negative 9th power; to divide by the 9th power of

    +

        
    +

    +

    -XMY- lye or soda lye     — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -XN-    ‘BACK/DORSAL AREA OF BODY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to the dorsal area of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

    2. lower back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

    3. upper back & shoulder blade area

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -XP- ‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL (i.e., LINEAR) SHAPES/FORMS’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. point / dot [solid/fixed/rigid]

    1. point / dot [flexible/movable/fluid]

    2. line / linear [solid/fixed/rigid]

    2. line / linear [flexible/movable/fluid] / string-like

    3. hoop / ring [solid/fixed/rigid]

    3. hoop / ring [flexible/movable/fluid] / loop

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

    Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

    +

     

    +


    +-XPW-  onion The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    -XPhW-  kelp (seaweed of orders Laminariales and Fucales) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    -XP’W-  oat (plant/seed of genus Avena) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +


    +-XR- Gold   —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -XT-    ‘EFFORT/WORK’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. exert / expend energy

    1. perform / operate / act / function

    2. work / labor / effort

    2. job task / employment-related task; perform job task

    3. handiwork / craftsmanship

    3. act of industry or enterprise

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

    Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: strain, struggle, “fight”, toil, strenuous, persevere, operation, job, achievement, industry, enterprise, employment, employer, employee

    +

     

    +

    -XTĻ- ‘LIQUID (OTHER THAN WATER) IN STATIC SETTING’ -- The stems of this root are patterned after those of the root -XW-.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -XT’- ‘RED’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. something red plus the color red

    same as INFORMAL stems but referring to something tinted/painted/stained red

    2. something light-red plus the color light-red

    3. something dark-red plus the color light-red

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. something red

    1. red

    2. something light red

    2. light red

    3. something dark red

    3. dark red

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -XTh- ‘MASTERY/AUTHORITY/SERVITUDE/OBEDIENCE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act/state of mastery/ownership/overlordship + servitude/subservience/subjugation to that mastery

    1. military command/office + obedience/following of orders

    2. act/state of supervision or formal oversight + following of orders/instructions

    2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight by noble right + recognition/submission to that rule

    3. take charge of; act/state of leadership + following that leadership

    3. formal authorization, appointed/elected authority / political authority; being official, being authorized + recognition/compliance with that authority

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. act/state of mastery, ownership, overlordship

    1. servitude, subservience, subjugation to mastery or overlordship

    1. military command/office

    1. obedience/following of military orders

    2. act/state of supervision or formal oversight

    2. following of orders or instructions from supervisor/overseer

    2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight by noble claim or “right”

    2. recognition/submission to claim of noble rule

    3. take charge of; act/state of leadership

    3. follow/obey a leader

    3. formal authorization, appointed/elected authority / political authority; being official, being authorized

    3. recognition/compliance with appointed, elected, official/political authority

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS:  boss, supervisor, master, owner, lord, commander, leader, person-in-charge, officer
    + SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  general, commodore, admiral, colonel, major, captain, lieutenant

    +


    +

    +

    -XThW-  mustard (plant of sp. Brassica hirta / B. nigra / B. juncea) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -XW- ‘WATER IN STATIC SETTING’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. container of water

    1. (standing) body of water

    2. water/moisture located in confined space

    2. ambient/atmospheric water/moisture

    3. (something) imbued/drenched with water; waterlogged

    3. artificial body of water (e.g., reservoir)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. some water in/from a container

    1. holder/container which holds water

    1. water component of a body of water

    1. the basin or bed of a body of water

    2. degree of moisture contained

    2. the volume/space occupied by water/moisture

    2. water/moisture in the air or atmosphere

    2. volume of air(space) containing the water or moisture

    3. the water imbued within an object, substance, or substrate

    3. the object, substance or substrate imbued/soaked with water

    3. water within an artificial body of water

    3. the basis or bed of an artificial body of water, e.g., reservoir bed

    +

    MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  lake, pool, pond, tern, tank, sink, canteen, cistern, puddle, sea, ocean, water vapor

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -XX- ‘REPUTE/NOTORIETY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. repute/reputation

    1. distinction/mark

    2. public image/persona

    2. degree of eminence [= power or influence]

    3. notoriety [= degree of renown/recognition by others]

    3. degree of prestige/status

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

    same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

    +

    This root is usually used in conjunction with the NOTORIETY affix.

    +

     

    +

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Xh-   ‘FACT/KNOW/LEARN/UNDERSTAND/EXPERTISE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. ontological fact;  observe/notice an ontological fact

    1. study/practice [= formal process to acquire skill or knowledge
    + ]

    2. epistemological/conventionalized fact; know fact

    2. realize/understand/comprehension via act of insight

    3. experience/proficiency [= know via familiarity]

    3. understand [= know via sharing/communication of knowledge]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of knowing

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing known

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of study/understanding

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing studied or understood

    +

    INFORMAL Stem Derivations:  find out, discover, determine, wisdom
    + FORMAL Stem Derivations:  learn, insight, enlightenment, education, school, scholar, student

    +


    +-XhChW-  teff The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-
    +

    +

    -XhČW-  ginseng The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -XhL- ‘oil (petroleum)’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -XhLY- RARE NATURAL ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES -- SSD Derivatives specify exact element:  1) Indium 2) Scandium         3) Yttrium 4) Tantalum 5) source compound for such elements 6) 7) 8) 9) primary source ore in which element is found       — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-      

    +

    -XhM- ‘rubber’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -XhMY- aspirin       —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -XhNW-  hemp, marijuana (plant/material of sp. Cannabis sativa) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -XhNY-  silica      —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -XhPŘ-  saltpeter      —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-       
    +

    +

    -XhPW-  soya, soybean (plant/seed of sp. Glycine max) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -XhP’- Potassium  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-  

    +

    -XhT- ‘plastic’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -XhTR-  pepper (hot/sweet/bell pepper -- plant/pod of genus Capsicum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -XhTŘ-  magnesia   —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -XhTW-  tobacco (plant/leaves of sp. Nicotiana tabacum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW
    +

    +

    -XhT’- Copper   —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -XhT’W-  amaranth The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -XhTh- Iron  — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-  
    +

    +

    -XhW-  pepper (black -- plant/seed of sp. Piper nigrum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +


    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Z-  ‘MIND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. mind / mental (faculty + use)

    1. sentience / capacity for self awareness and self-identity + act of self-reflection

    2. perception / awareness (faculty + use)

    2. conscious + subconscious mind

    3. instinct (faculty + practice)

    3. intellect / wits /mind as efficacious tool

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. mental faculty / mind

    1. application of mental faculty; act of mentation / use one’s mind

    1. feeling of sentience

    1. act of self-reflection

    2. faculty of perception or awareness

    2. use of perception or awareness; to perceive / be aware of

    2. conscious mind

    2. subconscious mind

    3. instinct

    3. instinctual act; to act instinctively

    3. intellect; use one’s intellect

    3. product of one’s intellect / intellectual feat

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: philosophy, metaphysics

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ZB-   ‘CONFLICT-BASED HOSTILITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. hostility / anger / be angry [both emotion and display/actions]

    1. authoritative/official (i.e., police/military, etc.) use of force / act of aggression

    2. threat(en) [reason for plus act]

    2. threat of official/authoritative use of force

    3. defend oneself / defense [reason for plus act]

    3. official/authoritative defense

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. feeling of anger

    1. show/display of anger

    1. rationale/cause behind military agression

    1. official/authoritative act of force/agression

    2. cause/rationale for threat

    2. effect of threat or being threatened

    2. cause/rationale for official/authoritative/ military threat

    2. effect of official/authoritative/ military threat or being threatened

    3. situation/rationale for defensive act

    3. defend / take defensive action

    3. situation/rationale for official/authoritative/ military defensive act

    3. defend / take official/authoritative/ military defensive action

    +

    Derivations:  peeved, conflict, intimidate, fight, battle, skirmish, military operation or campaign, war

    +


    +-ZBŘ- iodine     —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ZBW- hairy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ZD- ‘MANNERS/DECORUM/DIGNITY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. well-mannered, well-behaved; display a sense of manners

    1. decorum/cultural appropriateness; have/display a sense of decorum, politeness and civility

    2. dignified; have/display a sense of dignity

    2. courtly/stately/refined; stateliness

    3. noble, distinguished, cultivated; have/display a noble, distinguished or cultivated air

    3. aristocratic, well-bred; having/displaying a sense of aristocracy, nobility and breeding

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

    +

    Morphological derivatives:  polite(ness); courtesy/courteous

    +


    +

    +

    -ZDL- formalin, aqueous formaldehyde solution    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ZDR-   ‘BEAR’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

    -ZDŘ-  milk of magnesium       — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-  
    +

    +

    -ZDW-    ‘COYOTE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -ZDY- benzene    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ZG- ‘TRAGICOMIC-BASED VOCAL/FACIAL GESTURE’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. smile [both physical process and emotional/social connotation]

    1. frown [both physical process and social connotation]

    2. laugh [both physical process and the accompanying sound]

    2. whine, moan [both physical process and the accompanying sound]

    3. “light up” (referring to one’s face’) [both physical process and emotional/social implication]

    3. crestfallen look, look of dejection (referring to one’s face’) [both physical process and emotional/social implication]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. smile [physical process]

    1. smile [emotional/social connotation]

    1. frown [physical process]

    1. frown

    2. laugh [physical process]

    2. laugh [sound]

    2. whine, moan [physical process]

    2. whine, moan [sound]

    3. “light up” (referring to one’s face’) [physical process]

    3. “light up” (referring to one’s face’) [emotional/social implication]

    3. crestfallen look, look of dejection (referring to one’s face’) [physical process]

    3. crestfallen look, look of dejection (referring to one’s face’) [emotional/social implication]

    +

    SSD DERIVATIONS:  scowl

    +

     

    +

    -ZGR-   ‘DONKEY’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)
    +

    +

    -ZGŘ- NATURALLY OCCURRING ACTINIDE OR UNSTABLE/RADIOACTIVE HEAVY ELEMENT -- SSD Derivatives specify exact element:  1) Actinium 2) Thorium 3) Protactinium 4) Neptunium 5) any radioactive isotope of an element 6) Astatine 7) Francium 8) Polonium 9) Technetium  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ZGW- ‘SHEEP’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ZL-   ‘INVERSION’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. orientational inversion

    FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is formal/authorized/permanent/abstract as described in Sec. 3.7

    2. unidirectional topological inversion [= mirror-image]

    3. three-dimensional topological inversion [= inside-out]

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. orientational inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

    1. mirror-image inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

    2. mirror-image inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

    2. orientational inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

    3. orientational inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

    3. mirror-image inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ZM-   ‘TEN THOUSAND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. a set or group of 10000; to be 10000 in number

    FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

    2. be/make 10000 -faceted / having 10000 uses or aspects / 10000 -fold

    3. 10000th in a sequence; be/make 10000th in a sequence

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. 10000 times the number of something; to multiply by 10000

    1. a 10000th / divide by 10000 or into 10000 parts

    2. 10000 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 10000 times

    2. be of or make into 10000 parts; separate(d) into 10000 parts

    3. to the 10000 power; raise to the 10000 power

    3. to the negative 10000 power; to divide by the 10000 power of

    +


    +

    +

    -ZMY- rubbing alcohol, isopropyl alcohol    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ZN- burning, heat conductive texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ZŇ- slimy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +
    +-ZP- rubbery texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ZP’-  carrot The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

    -ZPh- asbestos  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -ZQ- slippery texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ZQ’- ‘brass’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ZQh- ‘vinegar’    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ZR- ‘THROAT (interior tract of neck)/GULLET’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. throat (= interior respiratory/digestive tract of neck)

    FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “throat/gullet” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

    2. gullet (= tube- or trumpet-shaped digestive conduit from oral cavity)

    3. interior chamber of throat (containing pharynx, larynx, plus epiglottal and glottal structures)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

    Same as above 3 stems referring to function

    +

    SSD derivatives:  pharynx, larynx, syrinx, epiglottis, glottis, trachea/windpipe, vocal fold/chord, hyoid bone / “Adam’s apple”

    +


    +

    +

    -ZT- ‘coal’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ZV- ‘ROMANTIC AND/OR SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1.  state of sexual/romantic relationship

    1. significant other / boyfriend or girlfriend

    2.  erotic/sexual act; engage in a sexual/erotic activity

    2. lover / sex partner

    3.  to date / to court; pursue romantic relationship

    3. dating partner

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. sexual/romantic relationship itself

    1. emotional / hormonal basis underlying sexual relationship

    1. boyfriend

    1. girlfriend

    2. sexual/erotic act itself

    2. feeling of lust or other motive underlying sexual act

    2. male lover

    2. female lover

    3. particular act involved in dating or courtship

    3. feeling of hope or long-term goal of monogamous relationship or marriage underlying pursuit of romantic relationship

    3. male dating partner

    3. female dating partner

    +

    have sex, make love, cheat, monogamous relationship

    +


    +
    +-ZVW- NATURALLY OCCURRING ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES -- SSD Derivatives specify exact element:  1) Barium 2) Caesium (Cesium) 3) Hafnium 4) Niobium 5) Rhenium 6) Rhodium            7) Ruthenium 8) Strontium 9) Tellurium    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-   
    +

    +

    -ZVY- SYNTHETIC ACTINIDE ELEMENT -- SSD Derivatives specify exact element:  1) Americium 2) Curium 3) Berkelium 4) Californium 5) Einsteinium 6) Fermium 7) Mendelevium 8) Nobelium 9) Lawrencium    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ZW- ‘top, peak, summit’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-.
    +

    +

    -ZY- wispy/wafting texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ZZ- soft like a cushion texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Ż-    ‘DAY/NIGHT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. day [= 24-hour period]

    1. calendrical day; 24-hour day designated for some human-defined purpose or societal convention

    2. sky

    2. the sky on a designated/calendrical day

    3. degree of sunlight [use with EXN, EXD, SUF affixes, etc. from Sec. 7.7.6]

    3. degree of sunlight on a designated/calendrical day

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    1. daytime

    1. nighttime

    1. daytime of calendrical day

    1. nighttime of calendrical day

    2. daytime sky

    2. nighttime sky

    2. daytime sky of calendrical day

    2. nighttime sky of calendrical day

    3. daylight

    3. natural darkness

    3. daylight on a calendrical day

    3. natural darkness on a calendrical day

    +

    EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dawn, sunrise, daybreak, evening, sunset, twilight, morning, evening, afternoon, mid-day, noontime, midnight, the “wee” hours [= Spanish ‘madrugada’]

    +

    The SSD suffix used with FORMAL Stems is as follows: 1) day of the week, weekday 2) workday, working day 3) personal day off, personal holiday, vacation day 4) scheduled holiday, societal day off 5) day of month 6) day commemorating a person, place, event, etc. 7) one's birthday anniversary 8) cyclic/periodic day (e.g., "payday," "milking day," "visiting day," etc.) 9) day of the year

    +

    FORMAL Stem 1 of this root is used with the SPS/1 suffix to give the word for ‘week’ and the SPS/4 suffix to give the word for ‘month.’

    +

    NOTE: Use of the FORMAL stems of this root is often in conjunction with Functional (FNC) Context, given that calendrical concepts and cyclic/periodic activities associated with particular days are societal conventions as opposed to being natural ontological phenomena.

    +

     

    +


    + -ŻB- ‘tar’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -ŻG- ‘steel’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +
    +-ŻK- complexly textured + hard/honeycombed (like handling a pine cone) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŻK’- prickly texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŻN-  ‘GROWTH/CULTIVATION/HUSBANDRY’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. grow; stage of growth

    1. stage of plant growth; grow (plant)

    2. raise; look after; foster; function as guardian

    2. till/cultivate/raise crop; stage of cultivation (e.g., etc.)

    3. nurture / provide requirements for growth; husbandry

    3. to garden/specialized act of plant nurturage (e.g., prune, graft, weed, etc.)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

    Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

    Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

    +

    Stems of this root are often used with the MAT suffix
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2:  plow, sow, irrigate, fertilize; hoe, reap, pick, dry, store
    + SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 3:  prune, graft, weed, transplant, thin out
    + Morphological Derivatives:  shepherd, garden, gardener, field (of crop), crop, harvest, plow/plough, hoe, etc.

    +

     
    +-ŻP’- ‘jade’  —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ŻPh- cartilaginous texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +
    +-ŻQ- needle-like sharpness (e.g., a cactus) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŻQ’- Plutonium     —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-      
    +

    +

    -ŻQh- grainy/granular texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŻŘ- ‘quartz’ —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ŻT- “pins & needles” sensation texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŻR- bristly texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŻV-  potato The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -Ž- ‘LOVE/AFFECTION/EMOTIONAL BOND’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. act of affection / display of fondness or endearment

    1. like / value as source of emotional fulfillment

    2. familial/genetically-tied bond of love

    2. love of country, heritage, race, etc.

    3. act/feeling of romantic love

    3. love of or emotional allegiance to abstract idea (e.g., freedom, life, wealth)

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

    Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

    +

    Morphological Derivations:  love, tenderness, infatuation, obsession, passion, passionate
    +SSD Derivatives from INFORMAL Stem 1:  kiss, embrace, hug, hold hand, cuddle, caress, massage, pat, wink

    +


    +-ŽB- feathery texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŽBŘ- sponge-like texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŽD- slushy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŽDR- papery texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŽDW- fluffy/puffy/airy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŽG- mushy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŽGL- woolly texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŽGR- dusty texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŽGY- ammonia    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -ŽK’- viscous texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŽLW-  plaster of Paris      — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-         

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    -ŽM- ‘PRIDE/EGO/RESPECT’

    INFORMAL Stems

    FORMAL Stems

    1. feel proud (of oneself); feeling of pride (in oneself)

    1. self-esteem

    2. feel proud (of someone); feeling of pride (of someone)

    2. respect/admiration

    3. one’s feelings/sensibilities (e.g., to hurt one’s feelings)

    3. ego/sense of self-identity; to sense (some)one’s ego / to gain an impression of someone’s self-identity

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    COMPLEMENTARY Stems

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

    same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

    +

    Morphological Derivatives:  arrogance/arrogant, haughtiness/haughty, pomposity/pompous, put on airs, vainglorious; magisterial/imperious

    +


    +

    +

    -ŽMY-  SYNTHETIC HEAVY ELEMENT -- SSD Derivatives specify exact element:  1) Rutherfordium 2) Dubnium 3) Seaborgium 4) Bohrium 5) Hassium       6) Meitnerium 7) Darmstadtium 8) Roentgenium 9) trans-Roentgenium synthetic element (i.e., Ununbium, Ununtrium, etc.)    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

    +

    -ŽNY- HEAVIER LANTHANIDE ELEMENT -- SSD Derivatives specify exact element:  1) Dysprosium 2) Holmium 3) Erbium 4) Thulium 5) Ytterbium 6) Lutetium 7) 8) 9) lanthanide-based compound    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-’

    +

    -ŽPh- powdery texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŽQ- tingly texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŽQ’- Uranium        —  Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-    
    +

    +

    -ŽQh- sticky texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

    -ŽVW- LANTHANIDE ELEMENT -- SSD Derivatives specify exact element:  1) Lanthanum 2) Cerium            
    +3) Praseodymium 4) Neodymium 5) Promethium 6) Samarium 7) Europium 8) Gadolinium 9) Terbium    — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-
    +

    +

    -ŽW- soft like fur texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.
    +

    +

    -ŽY- curvaceous/sensual (= soft/smooth/squeezable/rounded) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
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    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +
    +
    +

    +
    + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/links.html b/2004-en/links.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e78a051 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/links.html @@ -0,0 +1,232 @@ + + + + +Links of Interest + + + + + +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023937id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023937id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023937id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

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    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonologyhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023937id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +


    + Links of Interest

    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023937id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available! +

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/sciehttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023937id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/nce fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a ̶https://web.archive.org/web/20110925023937id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/0;para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

    My favorite sites of othttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925023937id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/her conlangers (i.e., creators of constructed languages), plus conlanging resource sites:

    + +

    +Here are some eclectic web sites which I think reflect my geeky, somewhat nihilist, and occasionally romantic personality (with a little crass commercialism thrown in while I’ve got your attention!):

    + + +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

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    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
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    +

     

    +

     

    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/links.html.orig b/2004-en/links.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d02a56f --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/links.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,233 @@ + + + + +Links of Interest + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +


    + Links of Interest

    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available! +

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

    My favorite sites of other conlangers (i.e., creators of constructed languages), plus conlanging resource sites:

    + +


    +Here are some eclectic web sites which I think reflect my geeky, somewhat nihilist, and occasionally romantic personality (with a little crass commercialism thrown in while I’ve got your attention!):

    + + +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    HomeIntroduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/ll-verticalbar.jpg b/2004-en/ll-verticalbar.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c3d75cb Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/ll-verticalbar.jpg differ diff --git a/2004-en/masthead.jpg b/2004-en/masthead.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..17bec41 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/masthead.jpg differ diff --git a/2004-en/quijada_j_conference_paper.pdf b/2004-en/quijada_j_conference_paper.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..505ca05 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/quijada_j_conference_paper.pdf differ diff --git a/2004-en/quijada_j_slideshow.pdf b/2004-en/quijada_j_slideshow.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4f6e094 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/quijada_j_slideshow.pdf differ diff --git a/2004-en/smiley_award.GIF b/2004-en/smiley_award.GIF new file mode 100644 index 0000000..64ef259 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/smiley_award.GIF differ diff --git a/2004-en/smiley_award.PNG b/2004-en/smiley_award.PNG new file mode 100644 index 0000000..947d579 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/smiley_award.PNG differ diff --git a/2004-en/text-01.jpg b/2004-en/text-01.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5478f09 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/text-01.jpg differ diff --git a/2004-en/text-02.jpg b/2004-en/text-02.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8114353 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/text-02.jpg differ diff --git a/2004-en/text-03.jpg b/2004-en/text-03.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e4e45f9 Binary files /dev/null and b/2004-en/text-03.jpg differ diff --git a/2004-en/texts.html b/2004-en/texts.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..64b0f99 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/texts.html @@ -0,0 +1,812 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Introduction + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + index.htmlp> + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + +
      

     

    		  
    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
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    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphologhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/y10 Lexhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    + +
    +

    Texts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + +   + + + + + + + + + + +
    “My Hovercraft is Full of Eels”
     Ohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/pening Line from Anna Karenina
     Marcel Duchamp’s Nude Descending a Staircase No. 2
     Basic Greetings and Salutations
     The Lord’s Prayer
     The Litany Against Fear from Frank Herbert’s Dune
     The “Babel” Text (Genesis 11:1-9)
    Schleicher’s Fable
     The Passover Seder Question & Answers
     Kaduatán Song Lyrics and Ithkuil Poetry
    +

     

    +

    This page presents various texts in Ithkuil including interlinear morphological analyses similar to thhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/e examples in previous chapters. Additionally, a few narrative presentations are offered based on presentations the author has given in other venues or formats.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    For the Monty Python Fans Out There...

    +
    +


    +
    + Tî  akt’asalb  abjatļud.
    + 1m-PRP    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/STA-‘hover’-OBL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-CVY1/5    STA-‘eel’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-SUF1/9
    + My hovercraft is full of eels.       LISTEN 

    +
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    Opening Line from Anna Karenina

    +

    The following narrative presents the step-by-step procedure undertaken by the author in translating the opening line of Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina into Ithkuil. It should be noted that I have used the English translation of the sentence instead of the Russian original as my translation source:

    +
    +

    All happy families resemble one another, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.

    +
    +


    + STEP ONE: Semantic Analysis of Source Sentence
    +
    + Before beginning translation, it is important to carefully analyze the actual meaning of the sentence from a cognitive + standpoint, i.e., what is the cognitive intent of the sentence as opposed to how it reads stylistically? This is + important because Ithkuil must convey the underlying cognitive intent of the sentence. In this sentence, one might + initially interpret the sentence to suggest that there are two different kinds of families, one happy, the other unhappy, + and that happy ones can’t ever be unhappy or vice-versa. But in fact, all families are capable of being happy or + unhappy. Therefore, the Ithkuil translation will reword the sentence to convey that when families are happy, they + resemble one another, whereas when they are unhappy they don’t resemble one another. Secondly, we must analyze + what is meant by the word ‘resemble’. In English, ‘resemble’ refers to similarity in visual appearance or observed + behavior. However, the intent of the sentence is that the similarity of behavior is intrinsic and occurs whether or not + there is anyone available to visually observe it. Therefore, the Ithkuil translation must avoid use of any concept such + as ‘resemble’ to imply visual observation of behavior. The behavior simply is similar or dissimilar, regardless of + whether there is any visual comparison made. The Ithkuil translation will therefore simply distinguish between + similarity in the manifestation/behavior of happiness in families versus dissimilarity in the manifestation/behavior of + unhappiness in families. Finally, in the original sentence, the second clause is syntactically disguised as a co-equal main clause, however, cognitively it is a dependent clause in a contingent relationship to the first half of the + sentence. The “missing” conjunction should be ‘whereas’ or ‘as opposed to’ or ‘while on the other hand’ since it is +being contrastively compared to the first clause. Ithkuil provides a case-frame (the COMPARATIVE) for exactly these kinds of contrastive comparisons. Therefore the Ithkuil sentence will employ such a case-frame when translating the second half of the sentence. So at this point, what we will be translating into Ithkuil reads something like “All families manifest happiness similarly, whereas they manifest unhappiness dissimilarly.”

    +


    + STEP TWO: Separating the Lexical from the Morphological
    +
    + At this point, the original sentence must be analyzed to determine what Ithkuil lexical roots/stems will be necessary, + as opposed to those words/concepts in the original which can be translated via morphological components instead of + lexical roots/stems. We can see we are making a statement about families and are qualifying those families as happy + or unhappy. Therefore it is likely we will need Ithkuil lexemes for ‘family’ and ‘happy/happiness.’ We have + already determined above that we do not need a word for ‘resemble’ and words like ‘all’, ‘one another’, ‘each’, ‘in + its own way’ carry little intrinsic meaning by themselves until they are used in conjunction with the main + participants (nouns and verbs) of the sentence. We know from studying Ithkuil morphology that all of these words +will be handled by morphological, not lexical means when translating. Therefore, we only need two main lexemes: ‘family’ and ‘happy/happiness.’

    +


    + STEP THREE: Analysis/Derivation Using Ithkuil Morphological Categories
    +
    + Those who have studied the Configuration and Affiliation categories of Ithkuil morphology might recognize at this + point that the concept ‘family’ is a composite sort of concept, indicating an entity composed of sub-components or + sub-members, each one of whom is a ‘family member.’ Ithkuil tends not to lexify as discrete stems those words that + are gestalt entities comprised of sub-components. Rather it is the sub-components that are lexified into stems and + then morphologically modified via the various Configuration and Affiliation categories. The Ithkuil lexicon + contains the Pattern 1, Stem 1, INFORMAL stem amm meaning a nuclear family member, derived from the root -MM- referring to the various + sanguine members of a nuclear family (parent, child, mother, father, son, daughter, etc.). A family consists of + various such members, each of whom are not identical in their attributes (e.g., gender, age, personality, talents, etc.). + A gestalt composite composed of non-identical members who are not physically interconnected, is shown by the + AGGREGATE [AGG] configuration in Ithkuil. Likewise, the resulting gestalt entity ‘family’ is more than the sum of + its parts from a cognitive standpoint (i.e., it is capable of participating in events or being described in ways + irrespective of its individual members), therefore it should be placed in the COALESCENT [COA] affiliation. Finally, + the particular sentence being translated talks about families in a timeless cultural sense, describing families in an + archetypal fashion. Such a sense can best be captured by use of the AMALGAMATE [AMG] context in Ithkuil. So far, + the Ithkuil word for ‘family’ we are fashioning has been declined for Configuration, Affiliation, and Context. + However, there are five remaining morphological categories for nominal formatives in Ithkuil. We must consider +each of these:

    +
    +


    + PERSPECTIVE: The sentence is comparing every family against every other family, thus it is speaking of each + family as a single discrete entity, not a collective concept. This is reinforced by the use of the word ‘all’ (which in + the Ithkuil translation will appear as the Inclusive suffix [INL] in ninth degree, meaning ‘each/every’). Thus the + correct perspective is the default MONADIC perspective.

    +

    EXTENSION: Each family is being considered as an entire discrete entity within the context of the sentence, + therefore the default DELIMITIVE extension is appropriate.

    +

    DESIGNATION: The stem amm is in the default INFORMAL designation, as indicated by its syllabic stress pattern (recall from Section 1.3.3 that all monosyllabic stems are considered to have penultimate stress from a morphological sthttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/andpoint).

    +

    ESSENCE: The sentence refers to all families in the real world, not families in a hypothetical or contrary-to-fact + context, therefore the default NORMAL essence is appropriate.

    +

    CASE: The word ‘family’ will be the “subject” of a verb complex meaning ‘manifests happy behavior’. The + appropriate semantic role for the subject of a non-causal descriptive state is as CONTENT, shown by the default + OBLIQUE [OBL]case in Ithkuil.

    +
    +


    + The concept ‘happy/happiness’ is given in Ithkuil by the Pattern 1, Stem 2, FORMAL stem öqtá which literally means ‘degree of happiness/joy’. + This stem is derived from the root -QT- ‘DEGREE OF POSITIVE EMOTIONAL SATIETY/FULFILLMENT’. Qualitative + concepts such as happiness are usually lexified in Ithkuil as a spectrum or range which then takes the Sufficiency + [SUF] or Extent/Degree [EXN] suffix to indicate what particular amount/extent/degree of the quality is manifested, + anywhere from none up to an overabundance. In this case, we will use the [EXN1/6] suffix indicating ‘an above-normal + degree of’. Adjectives such as ‘happy’ don’t exist in Ithkuil; their equivalent is usually shown using a verbal + formative declined into either the STATIVE [STA] function or the DESCRIPTIVE [DSC] function. The choice + between using STATIVE or DESCRIPTIVE function for this translation is subtle. I have chosen [DSC] because it + captures more of the sense of describing the nature of the family itself (which is what I think the author was trying to + convey) rather than simply a state they are in. Verbal formatives are complex structures in Ithkuil, inflecting for 22 + different morphological categories. So, besides the DSC function, the remaining 21 categories must be analyzed, +as follows:

    +
    +


    + CONFIGURATION    : Conceptually, ‘happiness’ is not a gestalt composite, therefore the default UNIPLEX value is + appropriate.

    +

    AFFILIATION: The UNIPLEX configuration implies a default CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation, and the uses of the remaining three affiliations are inapplicable to the intended meaning of ‘happiness’.

    +

    PERSPECTIVE: The sentence is asserted as being true at all times, a “law of nature” about families, therefore the + appropriate perspective is the NOMIC [N].

    +

    EXTENSION: The state of happiness being discussed is not described as having specific beginning or ending + points, therefore the appropriate extension is PROXIMAL [PRX].

    +

    CONTEXT: Happiness as an emotional state exists irrespective of opinions, cultural ideas, social conventions, etc., + therefore, the default EXISTENTIAL context is appropriate.

    +

    DESIGNATION: The stem is in the default INFORMAL designation, as indicated by its syllabic stress pattern.

    +

    ESSENCE: The sentence refers to happiness as a real-world state, not in a hypothetical or contrary-to-fact context, + therefore the default NORMAL essence is appropriate.

    +

    ILLOCUTION: The sentence constitutes a propositional speech act, an utterance which is either true or false and + can be either believed or disbelieved. Thus, the default ASSERTIVE illocution is appropriate.

    +

    VALENCE: The state of happiness is being compared between families, implying PARALLEL valence (i.e., one + participant is engaged in or experiencing the same activity or state as the other). However, because the verbal + formative will be carrying the [SIM1/8] suffix (meaning ‘very similarly’), the valence relationship between one + family and another is already implied. This means that overtly showing the PARALLEL valence in this sentence is + unnecessary (or at least optional).
    +

    +

    VERSION: The utterance describes a non-hypothetical end-in-itself and is not goal-oriented, therefore the default + PROCESSUAL version is appropriate.

    +

    FORMAT: Their is no incorporated stem in this verb, + therefore the showing of Format is inapplicable.

    +

    MODALITY: There is no modal or hypothetical content in this sentence, therefore there is no modality.

    +

    LEVEL: While one might consider translating this sentence using Ithkuil’s EQUATIVE level, its use would imply + that families manifest happiness exactly the same way (as opposed to similarly). This is not the intent behind the + word ‘resemble’ and therefore use of the [SIM1/8] suffix (meaning ‘very similarly’) is more appropriate. Therefore, + the default INDETERMINATE level is appropriate.

    +

    CASE-FRAME: As previously mentioned, the second clause of this sentence will employ the COMPARATIVE + [CMP] case-frame to signify a “whereas X” or “as opposed to X” type of relationship.

    +

    VALIDATION: Since the statement is not an empirically verifiable statement, but is written as being a truthful + assertion, the implied source of information behind the statement is as an inference on the part of the author based + on his own intuition or feelings. Therefore the appropriate validation is the INFERENTIAL.

    +

    PHASE: The statement does not refer to any repetitive or iterative situation, therefore the default CONTEXTUAL + phase is appropriate.

    +

    SANCTION: The statement constitutes an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation expressing an opinion or + belief, potentially subject to challenge or refutation. Therefore, the appropriate sanction is the ALLEGATIVE [ALG].

    +

    ASPECT: The sentence contains no additional aspectual information.

    +

    MOOD: The sentence is an assertion of an alleged fact, therefore the default FACTUAL mood is appropriate.

    +

    BIAS: The utterance contains no overtly subjective attitude or bias.

    +
    +


    + STEP FOUR: Assemble the Ithkuil words
    +
    + + When putting these elements together to render the final Ithkuil sentence, I take the option to separate out some of the suffixes + into affixual adjuncts for the sake of phonetic euphony. +Here then, is the end result, accompanied by the most natural sounding literal translation into English:

    +
    +


    +
    + Mmarnuqha  than-n  hwöeqtàdhûbüp  öeqtóu’adhiböp.
    + STA-‘nuclear.family.member’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/COA/AGG-INL1/9-IFL      ALG     INF-DSC-‘degree.of.happiness’-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-EXN1/6-SIM1/8-FML            FRAMED-DSC-‘degree.of.happiness’-CMP-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-EXN1/1-SIM1/2-FML
    + All families are happy in the same way, while being unhappy in their own way.       LISTEN&nbhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/sp;

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    Description of Marcel Duchamp’s “Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2”

    +

    Ithkuil’s ability to express subjective, non-linear, and synergistic gestalts as easily as objective, linear, discrete, componential phenomena allows it to describe phenomena such as artistic works succinctly but in great detail. For example:

    + + + + + +

    -KKR- 'OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION'

    +

    STEM: okkr- 'descend at oblique angle'

    +

    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/i-okkr-a-s       https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/  aukkras

    +
    +

    DYN-'descend'-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + 'descends'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +

    -Q- 'HIGHER ORDER LIFE-FORM'

    +

    STEM: êq- 'woman'

    +

    êq-u-tt          êqutta

    +
    +

    STA-'woman'-IND-RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + 'imaginary representation of a woman as self-initiator of action'

    +

    -GV- 'CLOTHING'

    +
    +

    STEM: ogv- 'article of clothing as coverage
    +                  (as opposed to fashion)'

    +


    + ogv-ëu-ļ            ogvëuļa

    +

    STA-'article.of.clothing.as.coverage'-ABE-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL
    + 'without a set of clothing as coverage'
    + (i.e., 'nude')

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

    -TN- 'SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY'

    +

    STEM: etn- 'stair'

    +

    etn-ou’a-lkw-            tnou’elkwa

    +
    +

    STA-'stair'-NAV-RPV/PRX/M/ASO/COH-IFL
    + 'along the directional vector of an imaginary representation of a staircase'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

    p - a - l-lš - i       pal-lši       ITR-SQN-PRG

    +
    +

    ‘in a repetitive series of single manifestations’
    +     ‘one after the other’
    +     ‘being in the midst of; ...-ing’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

    -GW- 'AMBULATION'

    + https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

    STEM: ogw- '(make) ambulatory bodily movement'

    +

    i-ogw-ai-l         áugwaila

    +
    +

    FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + 'by means of making an ambulatory bodily movement'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

     

    +

             áugwai-ňs-amb

    +
    +

    FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/COH-SEP1/5
    + 'by means of a tightly integrated set of ambulatory bodily movements'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

     

    +

             augwái-ňs-üln-amb

    +
    +

    FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/COH-WAK1/8-SEP1/5
    + 'by means of a tightly integrated set of ambulatory bodily movements which combine into a three-dimensional trail/wake behind her'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

     

    +

        &nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/bsp;    augwai-kšt-üln-àmb-u

    +
    +

    FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/PRX/A/COA/COH-WAK1/8-SEP1/5-AMG
    + 'by means of a tightly integrated set of ambulatory bodily movements which combine into a three-dimensional trail/wake behind her, forming a timeless, emergent whole to be considered intellectually, emotionally and aesthetically'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +
    +

    +

     

    +
    +

    Aukkras  êqutta  ogvëuļa  tnou’elkwa  pal-lši  augwaikštülnàmbu.

    +

    DYN-'descend'-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL               STA-'woman'-IND-RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL       
    + STA-'article.of.clothing.as.coverage'-ABE-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL      
    + STA-'stair'-NAV-RPV/PRX/M/ASO/COH-IFL              ITR-SQN-PRG      
    + FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-NRM/PRX/A/COA/COH-WAK1/8-SEP1/5    -AMG

    +

    LITERAL TRANSLATION:
    + ‘An imaginary representation of a nude woman in the midst of descending a staircase in a step-by-step series of tightly-integrated ambulatory bodily movements which combine into a three-dimensional wake behind her, forming a timeless, emergent whole to be considered intellectually, emotionally and aesthetically.’

    +

    [NOTE: Since I first encountered this painting as a teenager, I've always seen it as representing a woman. It wasn't until after I'd prepared the Ithkuil translation that someone pointed out to me that the original French title uses the masculine word "nu", implying an androgynous figure at best. Nevertheless, I've decided to keep the figure feminine.]

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

     

    +
    +


    + Aukkras  êqutta  ogvëuļa  tnou’elkwa  pal-lši  augwaikštülnàmbu.

    +

    ‘An imaginary representation of a nude woman in the midst of descending a staircase in a step-by-step series of tightly-integrated ambulatory bodily movements which combine into a three-dimensional wake behind her, forming a timeless, emergent whole to be considered intellectually, emotionally and aesthetically.’       LISTEN 

    +

     

    +

    Marcel Duchamp:  Nu descendant un escalier, No. 2    — 1912

    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

     

    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    Basic Greetings and Conversational Elements

    +

    This section provides various formulaic statements and responses, both formal and informal, pertaining to some basic conversational elements.

    +

     

    +

    Greetings/Salutations

    +

    The formal stem attá- is the general stem denoting ‘salutation/greeting.’  With the addition of the SSD1/6 suffix -ûk it conveys ‘farewell/leavetaking.’  The formal stem edná- ‘peace through fellowship’ and the informal stem edn- ‘goodwill/kindness’ are also used in greeting formulas.  Many formal and informal phrases are possible using these stems, as shown by the following examples.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Ükhu  attál.
    + I bid you greetings.

    +

    Ki  attàwîl.
    + Greetings to you.

    +

    Attál. / Attàwîl.
    + Hello!/Greetings!/Salutations!

    +

    Ki  attàlûk.
    + Goodbye to you.

    +

    Attàlûk.
    + Goodbye.

    +

    Ükhu  ettál.
    + I bid you welcome.

    +

    Ükhu  ettàlûk.
    + I bid you farewell.

    +

    (În-n)  ednal  kü.
    + (May there be) goodwill to you.

    +

    (În-n)  uhednál.
    + (May there be) peace through fellowship between us.

    +

    Ükhu  attál  în-n  uhednaláň.
    + 2m/DAT-1m-IND   STA-‘greet’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML  EXH   RCP-CNF-STA-‘peace.through.fellowship’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-COO1/7/FML
    + I bid you greetings and may there be peace through fellowship between us.

    +
    +

     

    +

    How Are You?

    +

    The stem glal ‘state of health/physical well-being’ in conjunction with the suffix -ač ‘acceptably good/well’ are used to inquire about one’s well-being.  As an affixual adjunct (see Section 8.3), the suffix -ač functions as a shortcut means of creating various infohttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/rmal expressions.

    +
    +

    Ki  glawulač? 
    + How are you?  (literally:  Are you in acceptable health?)

    +

    En-n  ki  ač.
    + Hopefully, things are well with you.

    +

    Ti  glalač.
    + I’m doing fine.  (literally:  I’m in acceptable health.)

    +

    Ti  ač.
    + I’m fine.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Thanks/Gratitude 

    +

    The “short” form of communicating thanks is Tô myal, meaning “my thanks” or more specifically “my offer of gratitude.”  This phrase is an informal abbreviated form of the following formal sentences:

    +
    +

    Auspal  ükhu  tô  myal.
    + DYN-‘give.in.exchange’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   2m/DAT-1m/IND   1m-ATT   STA-‘offer.of.gratitude’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 
    + I offer you my gratitude.

    +
    +

    or

    +
    +

    Uhispal  ükhu  tô  myal  kô  ednaul.
    + CPL-CNF-DYN-‘exchange’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   2m-ATT  STA-‘goodwill/kindness’-CMM-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + I offer you my gratitude in exchange for your kindness.

    +
    +

     

    +

    The above sentences are addressed to one single person.  If the addressee is an UNBOUNDED party or an AGGREGATE group of people, then appropriate modifications of Perspective, Configuration, etc., should be made to the personal reference adjuncts within the sentence, e.g.,  üphu, hükhu, pô, etc.

    +

    If the feeling/manifestation of gratitude is more formal, in response to an honor bestowed or to the extent that it leaves the grateful party feeling beholden to the addressee, the formal stem ömyál ‘gratefulness/feeling of being honored’ can be used in place of myal.

    +

    Variations on the above examples where the stems asp- or osp- are incorporated into the stem amy- are also possible.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    The Lord’s Prayer

    +

     

    +
    +

    Ömmële  têhwei  elthâ'àlôs
    +     STA-'father'-VOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-RPS 1m-GEN-COA-CST STA-'creator.god'-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-PLA2/7
    + Our father in heaven

    +

    în-n  imnadh  kô  adal
    + EXH-FAC DYN-'worship'-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-FML 2m-ATT STA-'name'-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + hallowed be your name

    +

    Îl-lm  ¯euč’ane  tehwei  driocaipšé  kû
    +EXH-CCL/FAC CPT-DYN-'imbue'-NRM/DEL/M/COA/UNI 1m-ABS-COA-CST STA-'rule'-CPS-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-UTE2/8-RPS/FML 2m-PRP
    +May your kingdom come to exist among us
    +(Literally: May the [metaphorical] environment which fosters/sustains your rule eventually [metaphorically] permeate us)

    +

    Ôbartöák în-n  ¯aipšalu
    +STA-'aspiration'-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-ATT/2m EXH-FAC CPT-DYN-'be.real'-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AMG
    +May your will be done
    +(Literally: As for your aspirations, may they be made real)

    +

    Swâ’ál  elthâ'àlöňňôs
    +STA-'Earth'-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI STA-'creator.god'-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-CTR1/2-PLA2/7
    +on Earth, not just in heaven

    +

    ř  uigrawulakkönurň
    +SOL STA-'food/drink'-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPR3/5-AGC1/2-IPT1/9
    +please be one who enables us to eat and drink our critical sustenance

    +

    Iekčawelöň  okhühwei  îvyoerduap  ^uhékčeöt  no.
    + DYN-'forgive'-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-COO1/2-IFL   2:ERG-Referent1:1m/Referent2:2m-1:DAT-1:COA-1:CST
    +STA-'morally right'-REF-NRM/PRX/U/CSL/AGG-SIM2/1-IFL
    +     FRAMED-CPL-CNF-DYN-'seek and grant pardon'-FUN-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL   1+ua-ERG
    + And forgive us in regard to our moral transgressions in the way we grant and receive forgiveness amongst each other

    +

    uibawetâmziúrön
    +     MNF-'unwilled.desire'-DIR-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-MOT2/5-NA13/5-AGC1/2-IFL
    +‘be one who does not enable desires against better judgement to happen’

    +

    uilthalaiňqàrzönöň  tehwei
    +MNF-'Devil'-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-OAU2/8-IMP1/5-AGC1/2-COO1/2-FML        1m-ABS-COA-CST
    +And deliver us from evil
    +(literally: and be one who enables us to successfully avoid ideas associated with the Devil)

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    Note that Line Eight could also be written uibawetâmzìurön. A different way to translate Line Eight that puts the responsibility for avoiding tempation on us instead of God [I know it’s not how the original reads but personally it makes more sense to me], would be as follows:

    +
    +

    în-n  tihwei  arz  batâmz
    +     EXH-FAC    1m-AFF-COA-CST    IMP1/5    STA-'unwilled.desire'-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-MOT2/5-IFL
    + may we successfully avoid temptations (literally: may we successfully avoid having desires [that are] against our better judgement)

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    + + + + + + +

    The “Litany Against Fear” from Frank Herbert’s Dune

    +
    +

     

    +

    Tei  svasuřfal.
    + 1m-ACT   STA-‘fear’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-MD071/9-NA21/5-IFL
    + I must not fear.

    +

    Svuic  than-n  izadhumsiuţ.
    + STA-‘fear’-DER-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL   ASR/CTX/ALG-FAC    DYN-‘mind’-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-AGN1/9-DEV2/1-IFL
    + Fear is the mind killer.
    + (literally: Fear, I allege, undoes the mind to maximal effect.)

    +

    Svac  than-n  uitacioxine  icai’cókhiţe.
    + STA-‘fear’-OBL-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL   ASR/CTX/ALG-FAC   MNF-‘live’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-SIZ3/3-AGC1/9-RPS-IFL   FRAMED-DYN-‘exist’-COR-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-CNQ1/8-DEV1/1-RPS-IFL
    + Fear is the little death that brings total obliteration.
    +(literally: Fear, I allege, is metaphorically the small undoer of life that utterly undoes existence.)

    +

    Eixalund  te  svaloit.
    + DYN-‘visualize’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MD101/9-IFL   1m-ABS   STA-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-1m/ATT-IFL
    + I will face my fear.
    +(literally: I intend to mentally visualize my fear.)

    +

    Uetö  ˉqe  ˉiočqal  ˉič’alaň.
    + NAV-1m-EFF   mi-ABS   CPT-DYN-‘vector.motion.over/above’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   CPT-DYN-‘pass.through’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-COO1/5-IFL
    + I will permit it to pass over me and through me.
    +(literally: I will enable it to pass over me and pass through me.)

    +

    ˉQe  ˉkéi’iulöt’  izap’alarxondü   tu  skhal  ˉqau.
    +mi-ABS   CPT-FRAMED -‘move.away.from.nearer.point’-PCR-DYN-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPF1/2-IFL   DYN-[incorp.stem: ‘mind’]-‘pursue/track’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-BOD1/5-MD101/7-SCH/RPS-IFL     1m-IND   STA-‘course’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   mi-COR
    + And when it has gone I will turn the inner eye to see its path.
    +(literally: After it recedes I intend to metaphorically track mentally with my eyes its course.)

    +

    ˉKâ’ìuta  svelöt’  e  uicawîluad.
    + CPT-FRAMED -‘move.away.from.nearer.point’-LOC-DYN-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI   STA-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI   PRS   MNF-‘existent.thing’-DEC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SUF2/1-IFL
    + Where the fear has gone there will be nothing.
    +(literally: In the place where the fear receded to I declare there will be nothing.)

    +

    Iun-niu  ti  casexh.
    + ITV-CNT   1m-AFF   STA-‘exist’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SCO1/3
    + Only I will remain.
    +(literally: I intend only my existence to continue.)

    +

     

    +
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    The “Babel” Text (Genesis 11:1-9)

    +

    Here are the first four sentences of the Babel Text:

    +
    +

    Ai’tilafxup  embuliëqtuqh.
    + DYN-CTX/ASR/PPS-RCP-‘speak’-NRM/PRX/N/ASO/CST-SIM1/9-IFL
    + STA-‘land’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MET1/6-INL1/9-IFL
    + All the people of the land spoke the same language.
    +     [LITERALLY:  Each person in the land spoke language in the same way to one another.]

    +

    Unš  ikàkč’êňž  çu  ˉip’ataspöň  usmas  îpual  Šinar   /qia  aitwapkáň.
    +    SQT1/9   DYN-‘journey’-NRM/GRA/U/CSL/UNI-DSG2/3-FML  Col-IND   DYN-‘seek’-CPT-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-DLB1/5-COO1/2-IFL  STA-‘plain’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-[carrier:place.name.]-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   “Šinar”   mi-LOC   DYN-‘reside’-NRM/ICP/U/CSL/UNI-COO1/5-FML
    + Then wandering from the east they came upon the plain of Šinar and began to dwell there.
    +     [LITERALLY:  Then wandering they inadvertently found the plain of Šinar and began to reside in it.]

    +

    Ai’tilatunš  çu  iùktict’awélgümui  no  aň  uok’auqvaludai  ˉxhe. 
    +     DYN-CTX/ASR/PPS-RCP-‘speak’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-SQT1/9-IFL  +  Col-IND   FRAMED:MNF-inc.stem:‘stone’-‘block’-OBL-DIR-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-ROL1/8-ISR-FNC/IFL   1m+ua/ERG   COO1/5   + DYN-inc.stem:‘flame’-‘resiliency’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SUF1/9-ISR-IFL    ui-ABS
    + Then they said to each other:  let us make bricks from stone and fire them to make them strong.
    +     [LITERALLY:  They then said to each other let us be brick-makers using stone and make them super-resilient by means of fire.]

    +

    Öň  êktict’algui  îktalgöň  ôňgyé’c.
    +     COO1/2   STA-inc.stem:‘stone’-‘block’-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-ISR-FNC/IFL  
    + STA-‘clay’-OBL-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-COO1/2-IFL   STA-‘mortar’-PUR-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-FML
    + And there was stone for brick and clay for mortar.
    +     [LITERALLY: And there were batches of stone blocks and there was clay for the purpose of mortar.]

    +
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    Schleicher’s Fable

    +

    Florian Bauer of the Ithkuil Facebook group has taken a stab at translating Schleicher’s Fable here.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    The Passover Seder Question & Answers

    +

    I received a special request to translate the traditional Question and Answers from the Jewish Passover Seder dinner. You'll find my translation here.

    +

     

    +

     

    + +

    + + + + + + +

    Song Lyrics and Ithkuil “Poetry”

    +

    During the period March through June 2014, I wrote lyrics to six progressive-rock songs I composed during late 2013 and early 2014 (music composition is one of my many hobbies). I decided to write the lyrics in Ithkuil in order to explore using the language for (quasi-)poetic purposes, as I’ve long threatened to do.

    + +

    It should be noted that I do not consider these song lyrics to be poetry per se, given that the lines are meant to be sung to music, so that syllables are often spread across multiple beats, or several syllables rushed through a single beat, all for a musically aesthetic effect. If this were meant to be real poetry, I would demand a strict meter and specific alliterative scheme, perhaps with room for some sort of rhyme as well.

    + +

    Nevertheless, given the nature of the music and the subjects of the songs, the lyrics can be considered poetic in a quasi-verse sort of way. The experience of writing them was very interesting, in that it allowed me to explore the language for use in conveying both metaphorical and psychological imagery.

    + +

    I am currently working on the actual musical production of these songs with a couple of musician friends. The band’s name is Kaduatán, that is “Wayfarers.” When the songs are finished, they will be made available via compact disc and as mp3 downloads.

    + +

    Two of the six songs are now finished. Links to YouTube videos of these songs, featuring artwork by my brother Paul, are below, for those interested in a taste of the forthcoming album. The first song is called “Ozkavarkúi” (“Guessing Games”) and the second is called "Uňk’àtân" ("Renegades").

    + +

     

    +
    +

    Kaduatán - Ozkavarkúi (“Guessing Games”)

    + +

    Lyrics with translation and morphological analysis

    +
    + +

     

    + +
    +

    Kaduatán - Uňk’àtân (“Renegades”)

    + +

    Lyrics with translation

    +
    + +

     

    +

    Additionally, here are the lyrics to another forthcoming song, “Ôrödyagzou”. I've yet to add the morphological analysis for this second song, but am posting the lyrics anyway for those who may have an interest in analyzing the morphology for themselves. Also, the lyrics to this song in particular were composed directly in Ithkuil rather than being translated from notes in English; as a result, I think the lyrics really showcase the language's ability to convey psychological imagery succinctly. + +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
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    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a polihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/tical thriller/science fiction story that explores the
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    + Ithkuil as a Rhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/20;para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by Johhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/n & Paul Quijada

    +

     

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    https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ +

     

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     https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/

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    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use whihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ch is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/pt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially dihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/stributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provihttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ded you give full attribution to the author and this website.

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    +https://web.archive.org/web/20111013065638id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/texts.html.orig b/2004-en/texts.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6cde4d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/texts.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,814 @@ + + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Introduction + + + + + +

    Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

    		  
    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    + +
    +

    Texts

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     “My Hovercraft is Full of Eels”
     Opening Line from Anna Karenina
     Marcel Duchamp’s Nude Descending a Staircase No. 2
     Basic Greetings and Salutations
     The Lord’s Prayer
     The Litany Against Fear from Frank Herbert’s Dune
     The “Babel” Text (Genesis 11:1-9)
     Schleicher’s Fable
     The Passover Seder Question & Answers
     Kaduatán Song Lyrics and Ithkuil Poetry
    +

     

    +

    This page presents various texts in Ithkuil including interlinear morphological analyses similar to the examples in previous chapters. Additionally, a few narrative presentations are offered based on presentations the author has given in other venues or formats.

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    For the Monty Python Fans Out There...

    +
    +


    +
    + Tî  akt’asalb  abjatļud.
    + 1m-PRP    STA-‘hover’-OBL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-CVY1/5    STA-‘eel’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-SUF1/9
    + My hovercraft is full of eels.       LISTEN 

    +
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    Opening Line from Anna Karenina

    +

    The following narrative presents the step-by-step procedure undertaken by the author in translating the opening line of Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina into Ithkuil. It should be noted that I have used the English translation of the sentence instead of the Russian original as my translation source:

    +
    +

    All happy families resemble one another, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.

    +
    +


    + STEP ONE: Semantic Analysis of Source Sentence
    +
    + Before beginning translation, it is important to carefully analyze the actual meaning of the sentence from a cognitive + standpoint, i.e., what is the cognitive intent of the sentence as opposed to how it reads stylistically? This is + important because Ithkuil must convey the underlying cognitive intent of the sentence. In this sentence, one might + initially interpret the sentence to suggest that there are two different kinds of families, one happy, the other unhappy, + and that happy ones can’t ever be unhappy or vice-versa. But in fact, all families are capable of being happy or + unhappy. Therefore, the Ithkuil translation will reword the sentence to convey that when families are happy, they + resemble one another, whereas when they are unhappy they don’t resemble one another. Secondly, we must analyze + what is meant by the word ‘resemble’. In English, ‘resemble’ refers to similarity in visual appearance or observed + behavior. However, the intent of the sentence is that the similarity of behavior is intrinsic and occurs whether or not + there is anyone available to visually observe it. Therefore, the Ithkuil translation must avoid use of any concept such + as ‘resemble’ to imply visual observation of behavior. The behavior simply is similar or dissimilar, regardless of + whether there is any visual comparison made. The Ithkuil translation will therefore simply distinguish between + similarity in the manifestation/behavior of happiness in families versus dissimilarity in the manifestation/behavior of + unhappiness in families. Finally, in the original sentence, the second clause is syntactically disguised as a co-equal main clause, however, cognitively it is a dependent clause in a contingent relationship to the first half of the + sentence. The “missing” conjunction should be ‘whereas’ or ‘as opposed to’ or ‘while on the other hand’ since it is +being contrastively compared to the first clause. Ithkuil provides a case-frame (the COMPARATIVE) for exactly these kinds of contrastive comparisons. Therefore the Ithkuil sentence will employ such a case-frame when translating the second half of the sentence. So at this point, what we will be translating into Ithkuil reads something like “All families manifest happiness similarly, whereas they manifest unhappiness dissimilarly.”

    +


    + STEP TWO: Separating the Lexical from the Morphological
    +
    + At this point, the original sentence must be analyzed to determine what Ithkuil lexical roots/stems will be necessary, + as opposed to those words/concepts in the original which can be translated via morphological components instead of + lexical roots/stems. We can see we are making a statement about families and are qualifying those families as happy + or unhappy. Therefore it is likely we will need Ithkuil lexemes for ‘family’ and ‘happy/happiness.’ We have + already determined above that we do not need a word for ‘resemble’ and words like ‘all’, ‘one another’, ‘each’, ‘in + its own way’ carry little intrinsic meaning by themselves until they are used in conjunction with the main + participants (nouns and verbs) of the sentence. We know from studying Ithkuil morphology that all of these words +will be handled by morphological, not lexical means when translating. Therefore, we only need two main lexemes: ‘family’ and ‘happy/happiness.’

    +


    + STEP THREE: Analysis/Derivation Using Ithkuil Morphological Categories
    +
    + Those who have studied the Configuration and Affiliation categories of Ithkuil morphology might recognize at this + point that the concept ‘family’ is a composite sort of concept, indicating an entity composed of sub-components or + sub-members, each one of whom is a ‘family member.’ Ithkuil tends not to lexify as discrete stems those words that + are gestalt entities comprised of sub-components. Rather it is the sub-components that are lexified into stems and + then morphologically modified via the various Configuration and Affiliation categories. The Ithkuil lexicon + contains the Pattern 1, Stem 1, INFORMAL stem amm meaning a nuclear family member, derived from the root -MM- referring to the various + sanguine members of a nuclear family (parent, child, mother, father, son, daughter, etc.). A family consists of + various such members, each of whom are not identical in their attributes (e.g., gender, age, personality, talents, etc.). + A gestalt composite composed of non-identical members who are not physically interconnected, is shown by the + AGGREGATE [AGG] configuration in Ithkuil. Likewise, the resulting gestalt entity ‘family’ is more than the sum of + its parts from a cognitive standpoint (i.e., it is capable of participating in events or being described in ways + irrespective of its individual members), therefore it should be placed in the COALESCENT [COA] affiliation. Finally, + the particular sentence being translated talks about families in a timeless cultural sense, describing families in an + archetypal fashion. Such a sense can best be captured by use of the AMALGAMATE [AMG] context in Ithkuil. So far, + the Ithkuil word for ‘family’ we are fashioning has been declined for Configuration, Affiliation, and Context. + However, there are five remaining morphological categories for nominal formatives in Ithkuil. We must consider +each of these:

    +
    +


    + PERSPECTIVE: The sentence is comparing every family against every other family, thus it is speaking of each + family as a single discrete entity, not a collective concept. This is reinforced by the use of the word ‘all’ (which in + the Ithkuil translation will appear as the Inclusive suffix [INL] in ninth degree, meaning ‘each/every’). Thus the + correct perspective is the default MONADIC perspective.

    +

    EXTENSION: Each family is being considered as an entire discrete entity within the context of the sentence, + therefore the default DELIMITIVE extension is appropriate.

    +

    DESIGNATION: The stem amm is in the default INFORMAL designation, as indicated by its syllabic stress pattern (recall from Section 1.3.3 that all monosyllabic stems are considered to have penultimate stress from a morphological standpoint).

    +

    ESSENCE: The sentence refers to all families in the real world, not families in a hypothetical or contrary-to-fact + context, therefore the default NORMAL essence is appropriate.

    +

    CASE: The word ‘family’ will be the “subject” of a verb complex meaning ‘manifests happy behavior’. The + appropriate semantic role for the subject of a non-causal descriptive state is as CONTENT, shown by the default + OBLIQUE [OBL]case in Ithkuil.

    +
    +


    + The concept ‘happy/happiness’ is given in Ithkuil by the Pattern 1, Stem 2, FORMAL stem öqtá which literally means ‘degree of happiness/joy’. + This stem is derived from the root -QT- ‘DEGREE OF POSITIVE EMOTIONAL SATIETY/FULFILLMENT’. Qualitative + concepts such as happiness are usually lexified in Ithkuil as a spectrum or range which then takes the Sufficiency + [SUF] or Extent/Degree [EXN] suffix to indicate what particular amount/extent/degree of the quality is manifested, + anywhere from none up to an overabundance. In this case, we will use the [EXN1/6] suffix indicating ‘an above-normal + degree of’. Adjectives such as ‘happy’ don’t exist in Ithkuil; their equivalent is usually shown using a verbal + formative declined into either the STATIVE [STA] function or the DESCRIPTIVE [DSC] function. The choice + between using STATIVE or DESCRIPTIVE function for this translation is subtle. I have chosen [DSC] because it + captures more of the sense of describing the nature of the family itself (which is what I think the author was trying to + convey) rather than simply a state they are in. Verbal formatives are complex structures in Ithkuil, inflecting for 22 + different morphological categories. So, besides the DSC function, the remaining 21 categories must be analyzed, +as follows:

    +
    +


    + CONFIGURATION    : Conceptually, ‘happiness’ is not a gestalt composite, therefore the default UNIPLEX value is + appropriate.

    +

    AFFILIATION: The UNIPLEX configuration implies a default CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation, and the uses of the remaining three affiliations are inapplicable to the intended meaning of ‘happiness’.

    +

    PERSPECTIVE: The sentence is asserted as being true at all times, a “law of nature” about families, therefore the + appropriate perspective is the NOMIC [N].

    +

    EXTENSION: The state of happiness being discussed is not described as having specific beginning or ending + points, therefore the appropriate extension is PROXIMAL [PRX].

    +

    CONTEXT: Happiness as an emotional state exists irrespective of opinions, cultural ideas, social conventions, etc., + therefore, the default EXISTENTIAL context is appropriate.

    +

    DESIGNATION: The stem is in the default INFORMAL designation, as indicated by its syllabic stress pattern.

    +

    ESSENCE: The sentence refers to happiness as a real-world state, not in a hypothetical or contrary-to-fact context, + therefore the default NORMAL essence is appropriate.

    +

    ILLOCUTION: The sentence constitutes a propositional speech act, an utterance which is either true or false and + can be either believed or disbelieved. Thus, the default ASSERTIVE illocution is appropriate.

    +

    VALENCE: The state of happiness is being compared between families, implying PARALLEL valence (i.e., one + participant is engaged in or experiencing the same activity or state as the other). However, because the verbal + formative will be carrying the [SIM1/8] suffix (meaning ‘very similarly’), the valence relationship between one + family and another is already implied. This means that overtly showing the PARALLEL valence in this sentence is + unnecessary (or at least optional).
    +

    +

    VERSION: The utterance describes a non-hypothetical end-in-itself and is not goal-oriented, therefore the default + PROCESSUAL version is appropriate.

    +

    FORMAT: Their is no incorporated stem in this verb, + therefore the showing of Format is inapplicable.

    +

    MODALITY: There is no modal or hypothetical content in this sentence, therefore there is no modality.

    +

    LEVEL: While one might consider translating this sentence using Ithkuil’s EQUATIVE level, its use would imply + that families manifest happiness exactly the same way (as opposed to similarly). This is not the intent behind the + word ‘resemble’ and therefore use of the [SIM1/8] suffix (meaning ‘very similarly’) is more appropriate. Therefore, + the default INDETERMINATE level is appropriate.

    +

    CASE-FRAME: As previously mentioned, the second clause of this sentence will employ the COMPARATIVE + [CMP] case-frame to signify a “whereas X” or “as opposed to X” type of relationship.

    +

    VALIDATION: Since the statement is not an empirically verifiable statement, but is written as being a truthful + assertion, the implied source of information behind the statement is as an inference on the part of the author based + on his own intuition or feelings. Therefore the appropriate validation is the INFERENTIAL.

    +

    PHASE: The statement does not refer to any repetitive or iterative situation, therefore the default CONTEXTUAL + phase is appropriate.

    +

    SANCTION: The statement constitutes an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation expressing an opinion or + belief, potentially subject to challenge or refutation. Therefore, the appropriate sanction is the ALLEGATIVE [ALG].

    +

    ASPECT: The sentence contains no additional aspectual information.

    +

    MOOD: The sentence is an assertion of an alleged fact, therefore the default FACTUAL mood is appropriate.

    +

    BIAS: The utterance contains no overtly subjective attitude or bias.

    +
    +


    + STEP FOUR: Assemble the Ithkuil words
    +
    + + When putting these elements together to render the final Ithkuil sentence, I take the option to separate out some of the suffixes + into affixual adjuncts for the sake of phonetic euphony. +Here then, is the end result, accompanied by the most natural sounding literal translation into English:

    +
    +


    +
    + Mmarnuqha  than-n  hwöeqtàdhûbüp  öeqtóu’adhiböp.
    + STA-‘nuclear.family.member’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/COA/AGG-INL1/9-IFL      ALG     INF-DSC-‘degree.of.happiness’-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-EXN1/6-SIM1/8-FML            FRAMED-DSC-‘degree.of.happiness’-CMP-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-EXN1/1-SIM1/2-FML
    + All families are happy in the same way, while being unhappy in their own way.       LISTEN 

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    Description of Marcel Duchamp’s “Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2”

    +

    Ithkuil’s ability to express subjective, non-linear, and synergistic gestalts as easily as objective, linear, discrete, componential phenomena allows it to describe phenomena such as artistic works succinctly but in great detail. For example:

    + + + + + +

    -KKR- 'OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION'

    +

    STEM: okkr- 'descend at oblique angle'

    +

    i-okkr-a-s         aukkras

    +
    +

    DYN-'descend'-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + 'descends'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + +

    -Q- 'HIGHER ORDER LIFE-FORM'

    +

    STEM: êq- 'woman'

    +

    êq-u-tt          êqutta

    +
    +

    STA-'woman'-IND-RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + 'imaginary representation of a woman as self-initiator of action'

    +

    -GV- 'CLOTHING'

    +
    +

    STEM: ogv- 'article of clothing as coverage
    +                  (as opposed to fashion)'

    +


    + ogv-ëu-ļ            ogvëuļa

    +

    STA-'article.of.clothing.as.coverage'-ABE-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL
    + 'without a set of clothing as coverage'
    + (i.e., 'nude')

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

    -TN- 'SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY'

    +

    STEM: etn- 'stair'

    +

    etn-ou’a-lkw-            tnou’elkwa

    +
    +

    STA-'stair'-NAV-RPV/PRX/M/ASO/COH-IFL
    + 'along the directional vector of an imaginary representation of a staircase'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

    p - a - l-lš - i       pal-lši       ITR-SQN-PRG

    +
    +

    ‘in a repetitive series of single manifestations’
    +     ‘one after the other’
    +     ‘being in the midst of; ...-ing’

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +
    ]

    -GW- 'AMBULATION'

    +

    STEM: ogw- '(make) ambulatory bodily movement'

    +

    i-ogw-ai-l         áugwaila

    +
    +

    FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + 'by means of making an ambulatory bodily movement'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

     

    +

             áugwai-ňs-amb

    +
    +

    FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/COH-SEP1/5
    + 'by means of a tightly integrated set of ambulatory bodily movements'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

     

    +

             augwái-ňs-üln-amb

    +
    +

    FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/COH-WAK1/8-SEP1/5
    + 'by means of a tightly integrated set of ambulatory bodily movements which combine into a three-dimensional trail/wake behind her'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

     

    +

             augwai-kšt-üln-àmb-u

    +
    +

    FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/PRX/A/COA/COH-WAK1/8-SEP1/5-AMG
    + 'by means of a tightly integrated set of ambulatory bodily movements which combine into a three-dimensional trail/wake behind her, forming a timeless, emergent whole to be considered intellectually, emotionally and aesthetically'

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +
    +

    +

     

    +
    +

    Aukkras  êqutta  ogvëuļa  tnou’elkwa  pal-lši  augwaikštülnàmbu.

    +

    DYN-'descend'-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL               STA-'woman'-IND-RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL       
    + STA-'article.of.clothing.as.coverage'-ABE-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL      
    + STA-'stair'-NAV-RPV/PRX/M/ASO/COH-IFL              ITR-SQN-PRG      
    + FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-NRM/PRX/A/COA/COH-WAK1/8-SEP1/5    -AMG

    +

    LITERAL TRANSLATION:
    + ‘An imaginary representation of a nude woman in the midst of descending a staircase in a step-by-step series of tightly-integrated ambulatory bodily movements which combine into a three-dimensional wake behind her, forming a timeless, emergent whole to be considered intellectually, emotionally and aesthetically.’

    +

    [NOTE: Since I first encountered this painting as a teenager, I've always seen it as representing a woman. It wasn't until after I'd prepared the Ithkuil translation that someone pointed out to me that the original French title uses the masculine word "nu", implying an androgynous figure at best. Nevertheless, I've decided to keep the figure feminine.]

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + +

     

    +
    +


    + Aukkras  êqutta  ogvëuļa  tnou’elkwa  pal-lši  augwaikštülnàmbu.

    +

    ‘An imaginary representation of a nude woman in the midst of descending a staircase in a step-by-step series of tightly-integrated ambulatory bodily movements which combine into a three-dimensional wake behind her, forming a timeless, emergent whole to be considered intellectually, emotionally and aesthetically.’       LISTEN 

    +

     

    +

    Marcel Duchamp:  Nu descendant un escalier, No. 2    — 1912

    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

     

    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    Basic Greetings and Conversational Elements

    +

    This section provides various formulaic statements and responses, both formal and informal, pertaining to some basic conversational elements.

    +

     

    +

    Greetings/Salutations

    +

    The formal stem attá- is the general stem denoting ‘salutation/greeting.’  With the addition of the SSD1/6 suffix -ûk it conveys ‘farewell/leavetaking.’  The formal stem edná- ‘peace through fellowship’ and the informal stem edn- ‘goodwill/kindness’ are also used in greeting formulas.  Many formal and informal phrases are possible using these stems, as shown by the following examples.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Ükhu  attál.
    + I bid you greetings.

    +

    Ki  attàwîl.
    + Greetings to you.

    +

    Attál. / Attàwîl.
    + Hello!/Greetings!/Salutations!

    +

    Ki  attàlûk.
    + Goodbye to you.

    +

    Attàlûk.
    + Goodbye.

    +

    Ükhu  ettál.
    + I bid you welcome.

    +

    Ükhu  ettàlûk.
    + I bid you farewell.

    +

    (În-n)  ednal  kü.
    + (May there be) goodwill to you.

    +

    (În-n)  uhednál.
    + (May there be) peace through fellowship between us.

    +

    Ükhu  attál  în-n  uhednaláň.
    + 2m/DAT-1m-IND   STA-‘greet’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML  EXH   RCP-CNF-STA-‘peace.through.fellowship’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-COO1/7/FML
    + I bid you greetings and may there be peace through fellowship between us.

    +
    +

     

    +

    How Are You?

    +

    The stem glal ‘state of health/physical well-being’ in conjunction with the suffix -ač ‘acceptably good/well’ are used to inquire about one’s well-being.  As an affixual adjunct (see Section 8.3), the suffix -ač functions as a shortcut means of creating various informal expressions.

    +
    +

    Ki  glawulač? 
    + How are you?  (literally:  Are you in acceptable health?)

    +

    En-n  ki  ač.
    + Hopefully, things are well with you.

    +

    Ti  glalač.
    + I’m doing fine.  (literally:  I’m in acceptable health.)

    +

    Ti  ač.
    + I’m fine.

    +
    +

     

    +

    Thanks/Gratitude 

    +

    The “short” form of communicating thanks is Tô myal, meaning “my thanks” or more specifically “my offer of gratitude.”  This phrase is an informal abbreviated form of the following formal sentences:

    +
    +

    Auspal  ükhu  tô  myal.
    + DYN-‘give.in.exchange’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   2m/DAT-1m/IND   1m-ATT   STA-‘offer.of.gratitude’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 
    + I offer you my gratitude.

    +
    +

    or

    +
    +

    Uhispal  ükhu  tô  myal  kô  ednaul.
    + CPL-CNF-DYN-‘exchange’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   2m-ATT  STA-‘goodwill/kindness’-CMM-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
    + I offer you my gratitude in exchange for your kindness.

    +
    +

     

    +

    The above sentences are addressed to one single person.  If the addressee is an UNBOUNDED party or an AGGREGATE group of people, then appropriate modifications of Perspective, Configuration, etc., should be made to the personal reference adjuncts within the sentence, e.g.,  üphu, hükhu, pô, etc.

    +

    If the feeling/manifestation of gratitude is more formal, in response to an honor bestowed or to the extent that it leaves the grateful party feeling beholden to the addressee, the formal stem ömyál ‘gratefulness/feeling of being honored’ can be used in place of myal.

    +

    Variations on the above examples where the stems asp- or osp- are incorporated into the stem amy- are also possible.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    The Lord’s Prayer

    +

     

    +
    +

    Ömmële  têhwei  elthâ'àlôs
    +     STA-'father'-VOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-RPS 1m-GEN-COA-CST STA-'creator.god'-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-PLA2/7
    + Our father in heaven

    +

    în-n  imnadh  kô  adal
    + EXH-FAC DYN-'worship'-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-FML 2m-ATT STA-'name'-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI
    + hallowed be your name

    +

    Îl-lm  ¯euč’ane  tehwei  driocaipšé  kû
    +EXH-CCL/FAC CPT-DYN-'imbue'-NRM/DEL/M/COA/UNI 1m-ABS-COA-CST STA-'rule'-CPS-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-UTE2/8-RPS/FML 2m-PRP
    +May your kingdom come to exist among us
    +(Literally: May the [metaphorical] environment which fosters/sustains your rule eventually [metaphorically] permeate us)

    +

    Ôbartöák în-n  ¯aipšalu
    +STA-'aspiration'-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-ATT/2m EXH-FAC CPT-DYN-'be.real'-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AMG
    +May your will be done
    +(Literally: As for your aspirations, may they be made real)

    +

    Swâ’ál  elthâ'àlöňňôs
    +STA-'Earth'-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI STA-'creator.god'-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-CTR1/2-PLA2/7
    +on Earth, not just in heaven

    +

    ř  uigrawulakkönurň
    +SOL STA-'food/drink'-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPR3/5-AGC1/2-IPT1/9
    +please be one who enables us to eat and drink our critical sustenance

    +

    Iekčawelöň  okhühwei  îvyoerduap  ^uhékčeöt  no.
    + DYN-'forgive'-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-COO1/2-IFL   2:ERG-Referent1:1m/Referent2:2m-1:DAT-1:COA-1:CST
    +STA-'morally right'-REF-NRM/PRX/U/CSL/AGG-SIM2/1-IFL
    +     FRAMED-CPL-CNF-DYN-'seek and grant pardon'-FUN-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL   1+ua-ERG
    + And forgive us in regard to our moral transgressions in the way we grant and receive forgiveness amongst each other

    +

    uibawetâmziúrön
    +     MNF-'unwilled.desire'-DIR-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-MOT2/5-NA13/5-AGC1/2-IFL
    +‘be one who does not enable desires against better judgement to happen’

    +

    uilthalaiňqàrzönöň  tehwei
    +MNF-'Devil'-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-OAU2/8-IMP1/5-AGC1/2-COO1/2-FML        1m-ABS-COA-CST
    +And deliver us from evil
    +(literally: and be one who enables us to successfully avoid ideas associated with the Devil)

    +
    +

     

    +
    +

    Note that Line Eight could also be written uibawetâmzìurön. A different way to translate Line Eight that puts the responsibility for avoiding tempation on us instead of God [I know it’s not how the original reads but personally it makes more sense to me], would be as follows:

    +
    +

    în-n  tihwei  arz  batâmz
    +     EXH-FAC    1m-AFF-COA-CST    IMP1/5    STA-'unwilled.desire'-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-MOT2/5-IFL
    + may we successfully avoid temptations (literally: may we successfully avoid having desires [that are] against our better judgement)

    +
    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    + + + + + + +

    The “Litany Against Fear” from Frank Herbert’s Dune

    +
    +

     

    +

    Tei  svasuřfal.
    + 1m-ACT   STA-‘fear’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-MD071/9-NA21/5-IFL
    + I must not fear.

    +

    Svuic  than-n  izadhumsiuţ.
    + STA-‘fear’-DER-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL   ASR/CTX/ALG-FAC    DYN-‘mind’-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-AGN1/9-DEV2/1-IFL
    + Fear is the mind killer.
    + (literally: Fear, I allege, undoes the mind to maximal effect.)

    +

    Svac  than-n  uitacioxine  icai’cókhiţe.
    + STA-‘fear’-OBL-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL   ASR/CTX/ALG-FAC   MNF-‘live’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-SIZ3/3-AGC1/9-RPS-IFL   FRAMED-DYN-‘exist’-COR-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-CNQ1/8-DEV1/1-RPS-IFL
    + Fear is the little death that brings total obliteration.
    +(literally: Fear, I allege, is metaphorically the small undoer of life that utterly undoes existence.)

    +

    Eixalund  te  svaloit.
    + DYN-‘visualize’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MD101/9-IFL   1m-ABS   STA-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-1m/ATT-IFL
    + I will face my fear.
    +(literally: I intend to mentally visualize my fear.)

    +

    Uetö  ˉqe  ˉiočqal  ˉič’alaň.
    + NAV-1m-EFF   mi-ABS   CPT-DYN-‘vector.motion.over/above’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   CPT-DYN-‘pass.through’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-COO1/5-IFL
    + I will permit it to pass over me and through me.
    +(literally: I will enable it to pass over me and pass through me.)

    +

    ˉQe  ˉkéi’iulöt’  izap’alarxondü   tu  skhal  ˉqau.
    +mi-ABS   CPT-FRAMED -‘move.away.from.nearer.point’-PCR-DYN-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPF1/2-IFL   DYN-[incorp.stem: ‘mind’]-‘pursue/track’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-BOD1/5-MD101/7-SCH/RPS-IFL     1m-IND   STA-‘course’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   mi-COR
    + And when it has gone I will turn the inner eye to see its path.
    +(literally: After it recedes I intend to metaphorically track mentally with my eyes its course.)

    +

    ˉKâ’ìuta  svelöt’  e  uicawîluad.
    + CPT-FRAMED -‘move.away.from.nearer.point’-LOC-DYN-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI   STA-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI   PRS   MNF-‘existent.thing’-DEC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SUF2/1-IFL
    + Where the fear has gone there will be nothing.
    +(literally: In the place where the fear receded to I declare there will be nothing.)

    +

    Iun-niu  ti  casexh.
    + ITV-CNT   1m-AFF   STA-‘exist’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SCO1/3
    + Only I will remain.
    +(literally: I intend only my existence to continue.)

    +

     

    +
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    The “Babel” Text (Genesis 11:1-9)

    +

    Here are the first four sentences of the Babel Text:

    +
    +

    Ai’tilafxup  embuliëqtuqh.
    + DYN-CTX/ASR/PPS-RCP-‘speak’-NRM/PRX/N/ASO/CST-SIM1/9-IFL
    + STA-‘land’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MET1/6-INL1/9-IFL
    + All the people of the land spoke the same language.
    +     [LITERALLY:  Each person in the land spoke language in the same way to one another.]

    +

    Unš  ikàkč’êňž  çu  ˉip’ataspöň  usmas  îpual  Šinar   /qia  aitwapkáň.
    +    SQT1/9   DYN-‘journey’-NRM/GRA/U/CSL/UNI-DSG2/3-FML  Col-IND   DYN-‘seek’-CPT-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-DLB1/5-COO1/2-IFL  STA-‘plain’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   STA-[carrier:place.name.]-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL   “Šinar”   mi-LOC   DYN-‘reside’-NRM/ICP/U/CSL/UNI-COO1/5-FML
    + Then wandering from the east they came upon the plain of Šinar and began to dwell there.
    +     [LITERALLY:  Then wandering they inadvertently found the plain of Šinar and began to reside in it.]

    +

    Ai’tilatunš  çu  iùktict’awélgümui  no  aň  uok’auqvaludai  ˉxhe. 
    +     DYN-CTX/ASR/PPS-RCP-‘speak’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-SQT1/9-IFL  +  Col-IND   FRAMED:MNF-inc.stem:‘stone’-‘block’-OBL-DIR-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-ROL1/8-ISR-FNC/IFL   1m+ua/ERG   COO1/5   + DYN-inc.stem:‘flame’-‘resiliency’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SUF1/9-ISR-IFL    ui-ABS
    + Then they said to each other:  let us make bricks from stone and fire them to make them strong.
    +     [LITERALLY:  They then said to each other let us be brick-makers using stone and make them super-resilient by means of fire.]

    +

    Öň  êktict’algui  îktalgöň  ôňgyé’c.
    +     COO1/2   STA-inc.stem:‘stone’-‘block’-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-ISR-FNC/IFL  
    + STA-‘clay’-OBL-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-COO1/2-IFL   STA-‘mortar’-PUR-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-FML
    + And there was stone for brick and clay for mortar.
    +     [LITERALLY: And there were batches of stone blocks and there was clay for the purpose of mortar.]

    +
    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    Schleicher’s Fable

    +

    Florian Bauer of the Ithkuil Facebook group has taken a stab at translating Schleicher’s Fable here.

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    + + + + + + +

    The Passover Seder Question & Answers

    +

    I received a special request to translate the traditional Question and Answers from the Jewish Passover Seder dinner. You'll find my translation here.

    +

     

    +

     

    + +

    + + + + + + +

    Song Lyrics and Ithkuil “Poetry”

    +

    During the period March through June 2014, I wrote lyrics to six progressive-rock songs I composed during late 2013 and early 2014 (music composition is one of my many hobbies). I decided to write the lyrics in Ithkuil in order to explore using the language for (quasi-)poetic purposes, as I’ve long threatened to do.

    + +

    It should be noted that I do not consider these song lyrics to be poetry per se, given that the lines are meant to be sung to music, so that syllables are often spread across multiple beats, or several syllables rushed through a single beat, all for a musically aesthetic effect. If this were meant to be real poetry, I would demand a strict meter and specific alliterative scheme, perhaps with room for some sort of rhyme as well.

    + +

    Nevertheless, given the nature of the music and the subjects of the songs, the lyrics can be considered poetic in a quasi-verse sort of way. The experience of writing them was very interesting, in that it allowed me to explore the language for use in conveying both metaphorical and psychological imagery.

    + +

    I am currently working on the actual musical production of these songs with a couple of musician friends. The band’s name is Kaduatán, that is “Wayfarers.” When the songs are finished, they will be made available via compact disc and as mp3 downloads.

    + +

    Two of the six songs are now finished. Links to YouTube videos of these songs, featuring artwork by my brother Paul, are below, for those interested in a taste of the forthcoming album. The first song is called “Ozkavarkúi” (“Guessing Games”) and the second is called "Uňk’àtân" ("Renegades").

    + +

     

    +
    +

    Kaduatán - Ozkavarkúi (“Guessing Games”)

    + +

    Lyrics with translation and morphological analysis

    +
    + +

     

    + +
    +

    Kaduatán - Uňk’àtân (“Renegades”)

    + +

    Lyrics with translation

    +
    + +

     

    +

    Additionally, here are the lyrics to another forthcoming song, “Ôrödyagzou”. I've yet to add the morphological analysis for this second song, but am posting the lyrics anyway for those who may have an interest in analyzing the morphology for themselves. Also, the lyrics to this song in particular were composed directly in Ithkuil rather than being translated from notes in English; as a result, I think the lyrics really showcase the language's ability to convey psychological imagery succinctly. + +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

    		  
    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    +
    + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available!

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +
    +

    ©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/update_2011.htm b/2004-en/update_2011.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..424a5d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/update_2011.htm @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ + + + + +Ithkuil Update + + + +
    +

    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +

    +
    +

    Update - May 12, 2011

    +

    Dear Visitor to the Ithkuil Website:

    +

    This is to let you know a newly revised version of Ithkuil will be introduced sometime in June or July, 2011. I consider this new forthcoming version of the language to be the definitive or “official” (and presumably final) version of the language. The current version of the language, originally posted to the Web in early 2004, will be withdrawn, as will the Ilaksh web pages.

    +

    The new version of the language is based on lessons learned while creating the previous revision, Ilaksh, during 2006 and 2007. After creating Ilaksh, I realized that many ideas from its morpho-phonological structure could be reverse-applied to Ithkuil but without the phonological contraints demanded by Ilaksh. A common complaint about Ithkuil has been its harsh and difficult-to-pronounce phonology (a complaint shared by the author!). The result of revising Ithkuil’s morpho-phonology using ideas from Ilaksh would be a version of Ithkuil that is less harsh-sounding and easier to pronounce, while preserving its intricate and expansive morphology and morpho-phonological conciseness.

    +

    Additionally, the forthcoming revision of Ithkuil allows the author to make a few minor changes and improvements to the morphology and syntax. The Ithkuil script is also being revised to conform to the radically different morpho-phonological structure of the language. (It will be similar in general appearance to the current script but operates in a completely different manner. It is not based on the experimental two-dimensional non-linear script of Ilaksh.)

    +

    The new version of the Ithkuil website will provide a more detailed description of the language than the current version and will contain a larger number of example phrases and sentences.

    +

    The following link provides a PREVIEW of the new version of Ithkuil. The Introduction, as well as Chapters 11 through 14 are still missing. The remaining chapters are more or less complete except that transliterations into Ithkuil script are incomplete and need correction. I also plan on adding more examples to each chapter. Additionally, I have yet to make sound recordings of the examples.

    +

    PREVIEW OF THE NEW VERSION OF ITHKUIL

    +

    And here is a comparison sentence between the three versions of the language: Original Ithkuil, Ilaksh, and Ithkuil-2011.

    +

    +

    John Quijada
    +May 12, 2011

    +

    Addendum (May 15, 2011): Persons familiar with the current ithkuil site will find the majority of changes in the new site as follows:

    +

    • Chapter 1, Section 1.2: The phoneme inventory has been modified.

      +
      • +
    • +

      Chapter 2, Sections 2.1.1 and 2.2: The structure of formatives has been redesigned.

      + +
      • +
    • +

      Chapter 4: A whole new section (Section 4.1.3) on Argument Structure has been added and Section 4.3.12 showing examples and usage of Transrelative cases has been greatly expanded. Also, the consolidation of the 81 noun cases to 72 in Ilaksh has now been reverse-applied to Ithkuil.

      +
      • +
    • +

      Chapters 5 & 6: The order in which verbal morphological categories are presented has been changed to conform to the new morpho-phonological structure of formatives. Also, Section 6.2 on Level has been greatly expanded and the section on Derivation has been replaced by a new section on stem-incorporation (Section 6.4).

      +
      • + +
    • +

      Additional Planned Changes (not yet added to the preview site): Many new suffixes will be added to Chapter 7, and an index of all the 3-letter morphological abbreviations is planned.

      +
      • +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    + + +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/update_2011.htm.orig b/2004-en/update_2011.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ea5954b --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/update_2011.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ + + + + +Ithkuil Update + + + +
    +

    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +
    +

    +
    +

    Update - May 12, 2011

    +

    Dear Visitor to the Ithkuil Website:

    +

    This is to let you know a newly revised version of Ithkuil will be introduced sometime in June or July, 2011. I consider this new forthcoming version of the language to be the definitive or “official” (and presumably final) version of the language. The current version of the language, originally posted to the Web in early 2004, will be withdrawn, as will the Ilaksh web pages.

    +

    The new version of the language is based on lessons learned while creating the previous revision, Ilaksh, during 2006 and 2007. After creating Ilaksh, I realized that many ideas from its morpho-phonological structure could be reverse-applied to Ithkuil but without the phonological contraints demanded by Ilaksh. A common complaint about Ithkuil has been its harsh and difficult-to-pronounce phonology (a complaint shared by the author!). The result of revising Ithkuil’s morpho-phonology using ideas from Ilaksh would be a version of Ithkuil that is less harsh-sounding and easier to pronounce, while preserving its intricate and expansive morphology and morpho-phonological conciseness.

    +

    Additionally, the forthcoming revision of Ithkuil allows the author to make a few minor changes and improvements to the morphology and syntax. The Ithkuil script is also being revised to conform to the radically different morpho-phonological structure of the language. (It will be similar in general appearance to the current script but operates in a completely different manner. It is not based on the experimental two-dimensional non-linear script of Ilaksh.)

    +

    The new version of the Ithkuil website will provide a more detailed description of the language than the current version and will contain a larger number of example phrases and sentences.

    +

    The following link provides a PREVIEW of the new version of Ithkuil. The Introduction, as well as Chapters 11 through 14 are still missing. The remaining chapters are more or less complete except that transliterations into Ithkuil script are incomplete and need correction. I also plan on adding more examples to each chapter. Additionally, I have yet to make sound recordings of the examples.

    +

    PREVIEW OF THE NEW VERSION OF ITHKUIL

    +

    And here is a comparison sentence between the three versions of the language: Original Ithkuil, Ilaksh, and Ithkuil-2011.

    +

    +

    John Quijada
    +May 12, 2011

    +

    Addendum (May 15, 2011): Persons familiar with the current ithkuil site will find the majority of changes in the new site as follows:

    +

    • Chapter 1, Section 1.2: The phoneme inventory has been modified.

      +
      • +
    • +

      Chapter 2, Sections 2.1.1 and 2.2: The structure of formatives has been redesigned.

      + +
      • +
    • +

      Chapter 4: A whole new section (Section 4.1.3) on Argument Structure has been added and Section 4.3.12 showing examples and usage of Transrelative cases has been greatly expanded. Also, the consolidation of the 81 noun cases to 72 in Ilaksh has now been reverse-applied to Ithkuil.

      +
      • +
    • +

      Chapters 5 & 6: The order in which verbal morphological categories are presented has been changed to conform to the new morpho-phonological structure of formatives. Also, Section 6.2 on Level has been greatly expanded and the section on Derivation has been replaced by a new section on stem-incorporation (Section 6.4).

      +
      • + +
    • +

      Additional Planned Changes (not yet added to the preview site): Many new suffixes will be added to Chapter 7, and an index of all the 3-letter morphological abbreviations is planned.

      +
      • +
    +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
     2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
      3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
     4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    + + +

     

    + + diff --git a/2004-en/updates.htm b/2004-en/updates.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed80ce4 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/updates.htm @@ -0,0 +1,968 @@ + + + + +Ithkuil Update + + + + + +
    +

    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Designhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + https://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + https://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

    		  
    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest  + 2 Morpho-Phonologyhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/e Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ing SystemTexts
    +

     

    +

    Updates / News

    + +

    Supplement to Lexicon (updated March 27, 2015)

    +

    Ithkuil Grammar Book Errata

    + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    February 4, 2016

    +

    I am pleased to announce that the video to a second KADUATÁN song is now available on YouTube. The song is called "Uňk’àtân" ("Renegades") and again features my friend David J. Peterson on lead vocals (thanks, Dave!). The lyrics to this song were originally composed by my brother Paul in English, which I subsequently translated into Ithkuil. The lyrics with translation are now available on the Texts page of this website. The link to the video is below.

    +

    KADUATÁN – Uňk’àtân

    +

    January 29, 2016

    +

    CORRECTION TO NEWS UPDATE OF MAY 25, 2015: The list of reassigned values to the elements of Table 52 contained errors. I have now corrected the listing under the May 25, 2015 post. Additionally, the character extension in Table 51 for the combination of ž + C is no longer valid. The character extension for the value ž + C will now be shown by the value in Table 52 previously assigned to C + v.

    + +

    ALSO: I have created two new suffixes to deal with the issue of semantic frames. Here is a discussion of this topic and the details of the two new suffixes.

    + +

    +

    July 11, 2015

    +

    I am pleased to announce that, after a year and a half of work and numerous delays, my music project Kaduatán has borne fruit. The first song is now available for your enjoyment on YouTube as a preview of the forthcoming album. The song is called “Ozkavarkúi” (“Guessing Games”). As mentioned in an earlier update, the lyrics with morphological analysis are available on the Texts page of this website. (Note: I have updated the lyrics and analysis to correct a few mistakes/omissions and to match changes in the song structure since the lyrics were first written.)

    + +

    I’d like to thank my friend and conlanging colleague David J. Peterson for supplying the lead vocals on the track. (For those unaware, David is the creator of the Dothraki and Valyrian languages for HBO’s Game of Thrones television series, as whttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ell as the various alien languages spoken on the Syfy network’s Defiance series). Thanks, Dave!

    + +

    So for those of you interested in hearing Dave sing in Ithkuil, or who simply enjoy progressive-rock music, the link is below. Enjoy!

    + +

    KADUATÁN – Ozkavarkúi +

    +

    May 25, 2015

    + https://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/

    I have finally determined a way to address the issue regarding ambiguous consonantal combinations in the Ithkuil writing system, specifically how to distinguish combinations such as -pg- from -bg-, -kt- from -gt-, etc. when writing the Cr root.

    + +

    In analyzing the script, I realize that the character extension elements shown in Table 52 (in Section 11.3.4.1 of the Grammar) are redundant, given that they can be much more easily shown using the subscript diacritics shown in Table 53. The original intent of these Table 53 diacritics was that they be used only for tri-consonantal and tetra-consonantal roots, I realize there’s no reason not to use them in biconsonantal roots as well, which then obviates the need for the character extensions shown in Table 52. By rendering these Table 52 extensions redundant, it makes them available for use to disambiguate the k/g, p/b, t/d problem.

    + +

    Therefore, the Table 52 elements are hereby reassigned to indicate the following values [THE LIST BELOW WAS CORRECTED ON JAN 29, 2016]:

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + w will now indicate b + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + y will no longer be used

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + l will now indicate d + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + r will now indicate g + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + ř will now indicate ż + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + m will now indicate j + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + n will now indicate dh + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + v will now indicate ž + C and the extension shown in Table 51 for ž + C will no longer be used

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + ň will no longer be used

    +

    As a result of the above, those character extension elements in Table 51 of the grammar which currently indicate dual/alternate values will now only be used to indicate their primary value.

    + +

    Note that, using the subscript diacritics in lieu of the now-obsolete values of the Table 52 character extension elements, might at first glance give rise to ambiguities. For example does the consonantal character for /s/ plus an extension indicating prefixed /k/- plus a subscript diacritic indicating +/n/ mean -KNS- or -KSN-? However, no ambiguity exists, as -KNS- is not a valid combination for a Cr root. So when interpreting how to read such combinations, the reader must bear in mind Ithkuil phonotactical constraints.

    + +

    Note also that, with the above changes, quite a number of the existing examples of Ithkuil script throughout the Ithkuil website and grammar book are now unfortunately erroneous. I will correct these errors when I (eventually) publish the revised website and grammar book.

    + +

    March 27, 2015

    +

    OK, at long last, here is how Ithkuil handhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/les mathematical expressions and units of measurement.

    +

    I have also added twenty-one new roots to the Lexicon Supplement at the link above and to the right.

    +

    January 10, 2015

    +

    An astute reader on the Ithkuil subreddit has determined that the "flaw" I describe in Item One of my November 15, 2014 posting below is, in fact, not a flaw at all. It turns out I already address the potential ambiguity of Slot I of the formative by unequivochttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ally stating in Table 3 of Section 2.1.1 that the presence of Cv in Slot I requires that Slot III be filled by Cs, not Cg. So it looks like Slot I is back in business.

    +

    Also, an update on the music situation: I've now completed recording the music for two of the six songs and have them ready as draft instrumental mixes. Thttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/hey will not be turned into final mixes until the vocals have been recorded, which should be sometime in the next couple of months in my musician friend's studio. I'm anxious to start recording the third song, but I made a promise to the Ithkuil subreddit group that I'd look into formalizing and improving how Ithkuil handles mathematics, which will be a big distraction for me. Since I'm ahead of schedule on recording the music (I thought I'd only have one song done by now), I think I'll wohttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/rk on the third song for a few weeks, then take a break and work on Ithkuil mathematics. +

    November 15, 2014

    +

    For whatever reason, I woke up this morning with several major flashes of insight regarding Ithkuil, the details of which I’ve spent the entire morning working out. As a result, I am announcing some small but significant structural changes to the grammar. The details are as follows:

    + + +

    ITEM ONE: A flaw discovered in the Morpho-Phonology!

    + +

    I’ve discovered a flaw in the morpho-phonology involving the Slot I of the formative. I realized that a hypothetical Ithkuil word like skaherad is ambiguous, in that the word could represent either of the following:

    + +

    sk - a - h - e - r - a – d
    +Cv-VL-Cg-Vr-Cr-Vc-Ca
    +(i.e., the following slots filled: I - II - III - IV - VII - VIII - X)

    + +

    sk - a - he - r - ad
    +Cr-Vc-Ci+Vi-Ca-VxC
    + (i.e., the following slots filled: VII - VIII - IX - X - XI)

    + +

    I’ve traced the ambiguity to the presence of the Cv Phase/Sanction/Illocution affix in Slot I. It has to go. Therefore, I officially announce . . . (drumroll please) . . . that the Cv affix is no longer permissible in Slot I of a formative. It can only appear in Slot V in the absence of an incorporated root. If the formative contains an incorporated root taking up Slots V and VI, then Cv must be shown via Slot C in a verbal adjunct instead.

    + +

    This essentially means that Slot I no longer exists, which would entail renumbering all the subsequent slots accordingly (e.g., Slot II becomes Slot I, Slot III becomes Slot II, etc.). However, given the confusion this would cause to those persons who have spent significant time learning the slot structure and its labels (yours truly included), we will simply consider Slot I to be “vacant” or “dormant” for now, eh?

    + + +

    ITEM TWO: Introducing a new morphological category: Register

    + +

    The question has been raised here and there on various online fora as to how to deal with direct speech in Ithkuil, as in the sentence ‘She turned to him and said “take care of yourself”’ as opposed to the indirect speech equivalent of ‘She turned and told him to take care of himself.’ I’ve ponderedhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ the matter now and again but have never really dealt with it in terms of finding a solution. Suddenly, the answer came to me this morning and now, much to my surprise, I am introducing a brand new morphological category, which for lack of a better term, I shall call “Register.” (Like most Ithkuil grammatical terms, I am simply appropriating this nomenclature from existing linguistics terminology, but, as usual, the Ithkuil category has little, if anything, to do with the traditional definition of the term). So, what is this new Register category?

    + +

    In Ithkuil, the category of Register will indicate intra-sentence or intra-narrative changes in the mode of personal communication from a general narrative to instead indicate either one’s personal cogitation/deliberation, an unwilled or subjective impression, direct speech, or a parenthetical “aside”. Register will be indicated phonologically by tone distinctions. The first word of a phrase carrying a specific register will have one of five tones, and the last word of the phrase carrying that register will have rising tone to indicate termination of the register. Here are the specifics:

    + +

    NRR – NARRATIVE
    +Tone marking:https://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ falling (default)
    +Description: The default register, indicating a general narrative statement. Also used for formal narration, as when telling the events a story from an omniscient narrator’s perspective.

    + +

    DSV – DISCURSIVE
    +Tone marking: higindex.htmlIndicates a phrase/statement represents direct speech, as in ‘His wife turned to him and said “You’ve forgotten your hat.”’ ”

    + +

    PTH – PARENTHETICAL
    +Tone marking: low
    +Description:https://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ Indicates a phrase/statement is a parenthetical aside, or the equivalent to an in-line footnote, as in ‘All equine species in Eurasia (we needn’t bother with those in the Americas) can be shown to be quadrupeds,’ or ‘I generally prefer coffee to tea on summer afternoons – over ice, of course – but sometimes only a beer will do, ’ or ‘That artist’shttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ landscapes (you should see his portraits!) are simply sublime.’

    + +

    COG – COGITANT
    +Tone marking: falling-rising
    +Description: Indicates a phrase/statement represents silent thoughts or beliefs. Equivalent to various devices in natural languages for indicating silent thoughts/beliefs within a narrativehttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/, as in the use of italics within a written paragraph, or the sudden interjection of a character’s disembodied voice on the soundtrack of a film/video while the character visually doesn’t open their mouth.

    + +

    IPR – IMPRESSIONISTIC
    +Tone marking: rising-falling
    +Description: I ndicates a phrase/statement represents the imagination, subjective impressions, or unwilled “wandering” thoughts of the party being referenced in the phrase/statement. Equivalent in natural languages to a narrator suddenly interjecting a subjective description within a statement, as in ‘The little girl ran down the hillside, a feeling of joy in her heart, then leaped into the arms of her father.’

    + +

    NOTE: Since it is not possible for an Ithkuil word to carry more than one morphologically significant tone (see Sec. 1.3.2), if a non-default register (i.e., a register other than NAR) is to be applied to a single word only, this is indicated by the fact that there will be no subsequent indication that thhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/e Register has terminated, i.e., there will be no subsequent word carrying rising tone prior to the end of the sentence or prior to a new/subsequent change to a non-NARRATIVE register. It is this absence of the register-termination tone marker that retrospectively indicates that only the initial word of the previous non-NARRATIVE utterance/statement carried that particular register.

    + + + +

    ITEM THREE: Changes in how the categories of Version and Validation are phonologically marked.

    + +

    As a result of using tone to mark the new category of Register described above, the existing phonological markers for the category of Version (see Sec. 5.8) will have to be changed from tone to something else. In reviewing the possibilities, I have decided to change the markings for both the category of Version and the category of Validation (see Sec. 5.9) as well. These changes will entail the creation of a new Hearsay suffix, as well as a revamping of the existing SCS suffix. The details are as follows:

    + +

    Both Version and Validation will be primarily shown via a consonantal affix in Slot III. The affix for Validation will continue to be labelled Cg and will have priority over affixes showing Version. The Version affix will be arbitrarily labelled Cn. If Slot III is already occupied by Cg, then Version must be shown by the SCS suffix (-rk/kr-) in Slot XI. The SCS suffix has been re-formulated to accommodate all six Versions.

    + +

    The Cn Version affix in Slot III can only appear if the formative’s Validation is in its default value CNF-Confirmative. Conversely, the default Version, PRC-Processual is now completely unmarked, so that if a formative has both default CNF Validation and default PRC Version, it will be the CNF Validation that will occupy Slot III if required by the presence of a Valence affix in Slot II.

    + +

    The number of Cg Validations is being reduced from fourteen to six. This is because the existing nine hearsay values are being collapsed into a single value; the Ithkuil speaker/writer will instead now have to option to specify the exact nature of the hearsay via a new Hearsay suffix in Slot XI. The six values for Validation are now as follows:

    + +

    CNF – CONFIRMATIVE
    +Cg affix: glottal stop + h
    +NOTE: CNF Validation is normally unmarked; this suffix only appears if a Valence prefix occupies Slot II of the formative. Also: this suffix is supplanted by any non-default Cn Version affix.

    + +

    AFM – AFFIRMATIVE
    +Cg affix: glottal stop + y

    + +

    RPT – REPORTIVE
    +Cg affix: w-

    + +

    INF – INFERENTIAL
    +Cg affix: glottal stop + w

    + +

    ITU – INTUITIVE
    +Cg affix: hh-

    + +

    PSM – PRESUMPTIVE
    +Cg affix: y-
    +NOTE: This is the new affix that collapses the previous nine hearsay Validations into one. If exact specification of the hearsay source is desired, a new HSY-Hearsay VxC suffix is available for use in Slot XI. If this HSY suffix is employed, then use of the PSM Cg affix in Slot III is optional (i.e., it can be supplanted by a Cn Version affix or Slot III can be left unfilled if there is no Valence affix in Slot II).

    + +

    The new HSY Hearsay suffix is -ňţ. Its nine degrees match the previous nine hearsay Validations shown in Table 13(b) in Sec. 5.9.

    + +

    The six new Cn Version affixes for Slot III are as follows:

    + +

    PRC – PROCESSUAL
    +[unmarked]

    + +

    CPT – COMPLETIVE
    +Cn affix: -h-

    + +

    INE – INEFFECTUAL
    +Cn affix: -hw-

    + +

    INC – INCOMPLETIVE
    +Cn affix: -hm-

    + +

    PST – POSITIVE
    +Cn affix: -hn-

    + +

    EFC – EFFECTIVE
    +Cn affix: -hr-

    + +

    If necessary to show Version using the SCS suffix because of the presence of Cg, the new values of the SCS suffix are as follows:

    + +

    SCS -rk / -kr Degree of Success/Failure
    +1. total failure in; utterly fail to
    +2. INC version
    +3. INE version
    +4. certain to fail in, expected to fail in; anticipated/expected failure to
    +5. CPT version
    +6. certain to succeed in, expected to succeed in; anticipated/expected success in
    +7. PST version
    +8. EFC version
    +9. overwhelming success in; overwhelmingly successful

    + + +

    ITEM FOUR: Availability of new roots

    + +

    As a result of the changes above to permissible values in Slot III, the number of impermissible Cr root forms as stated in Table 3 (in Sec. 2.1.1) and in Sec. 2.2.1 is now reduced from fourteen to eight. The remaining prohibited root forms are -w-, -y-, -h-, -hw-, -hr-, -hh-, -hn-, -hm-.

    + + +

    ITEM FIVE: Correction of Rule in Sec. 5.5

    + +

    In Sec. 5.5, just above Table 11, there is a note indihttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/cating two methods by which one disambiguates (or correctly parses) the structure of a formative when Slots V and VI are filled. I have now realized the information given is overlyhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ complicated and not entirely correct. Specifically, the second note regarding use of the Slot IX infix -wë- in the presence of an incorporated root in Slots V and VI is both unnecessary and incorrect. Any incorporated root already mandatorily requires the presence of a Format/Context affix in Slot XII, so there is no need for any other means of indicating the function of Slots V and VI in that situation. It is also incorrect because the infix -wë- can also be used to increase the number of syllables in the word if necessary for purposes of applying antepenultimate or pre-antepenultimate stress (see the paragraph below Table 10 in Sec. 5.4.1).

    + +

    As a result, the only rule needed is for when Slots V and VI are occupied by the Cv Phase/Sanction/Illocution affix and the VL Valence affix. Specifically, the note above Table 11 in Sec. 5.5 should be simplified and corrected to say that a glottal stop is required immediately following the Vr affix in Slot IV whenever Slots V and VI are filled by the Cv and the VL valence affix. No such glottal stop is required if Slots V and VI are occupied by an incorporated root Cx+Vp.

    + + +

    I will eventually incorporate all of the above changes into the forthcoming Grammar Supplement.

    + +

    p.s. Work proceeds smoothly but slowly on the music production.

    + + + + + + + + + + +

    August 25, 2014

    +

    I have decided to post the lyrics to the last of the songs I composed, the one entitled "Synaesthesia." Rather than translate lines already written in English, this time I composed the lyrics directly in Ithkuil, which resulted in some very rich imagery and use of the language to its fullest extent. Furthermore, I was able to work out a (more-or-less) tetrameter verse for the English translation. I've yet to add a morphological analysis, but I'm posting the lyrics anyway for those who may have an interest in working out the morphology for themselves. The lyrics can be found in the Ithkuil Poetry section of the "Texts" page.

    +

    These new lyrics utilize some new roots, which I have now added to the Lexicon Supplement whose link is above to the right.

    +

    August 24, 2014

    +

    I will be at the Institute Library in New Haven, CT on Tuesday evening, September 9th, as the guest of honor at their Amateur Hour No. 14 event. It will be an hour-long free-wheeling conversation with Joshua Foer about Ithkuil and invented languages in general. Joshua is the co-founder of the Amateur Hour series and the author of the now-infamous New Yorker magazine article about my work.

    +

    July 11, 2014

    +

    I’ve completed all my song lyrics and production of the actual songs is underway (slowly). Producing theshttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/e songs is going to take many months, maybe even a year, so I’ve decided that once thhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/e first song is done, I will release it as an mp3 download (maybe even a YouTube vidhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/eo?) as a “teaser” for the rest of the album. At any rate, since it’s going to be a whihttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/le before anyone hears any music, I’ve decided to release the completed lyrics to thehttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ first song in their entirety for those of you interested in analyzing a new (and significant) corpus of Ithkuil-language material. The lyrics (including morphological analhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ysis) are now available on the Texts page of this website, under the Ithkuil Poetry link.

    +

    July 10, 2014

    +

    Here is a list of seven new suffixes. I will behttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ including them in the forthcoming Grammar Supplement, but I thought I'd list them separately for those who may be curious.

    +

    Also, while we're on the topic of sufhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/fixes, I should make it clear that suffixes beginning with –l or –r can reverse their consonants for the sake of euphony if followed by a vowel (e.g., –rk can become –kr). While this is explicitly shown in the existing grammar https://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/for some such suffixes, for others it is not. Nevertheless, this reversal of consonants is applicablehttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ to any suffix beginning with –l or –r.

    +

    June 21, 2https://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/014

    +

    I’ve now finished the lyrics to five ohttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/f the six songs of my music project. Yesterday I sat down to begin writing the lyrics to the shttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ixth and final song and I found myself thinking about my visit with the psychoneticishttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/ts in Kiev, Ukraine, back in 2011. While there, I was asked to create an Ithkuil word for “synaesthesia.” Belatehttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926161919id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/dly, I have done so and have decided to use it as the title of the song.

    + +

    In researching the exact meaning of the word, I discovered that many scholars studying the phenomenon consider the word inappropriate and would prefer the term “ideaesthesia”, as the nature of synaesthesia does not really involve the mind translating one sense impression into another, but rather translating thoughts/ideas/concepts into sense impressions. Therefore, the Ithkuil word is ôrödyagzou, which literally translates as something like “the concept (and wondrous experience thereof) of varied sets of sense impressions resulting from concurrent ideas/thoughts being considered”.

    + +

    The concept appears in the song lyrics contained within some very interesting (and powerful) words such as the one below:

    + +uorödyoi’gzuxharçiámtixtou +

    P3S3/DYN-inc.stem:‘thought.or.idea.considered’/P3S2/IFL-‘imagined.sensory.experience’-PTL-NRM/PRX/A/AGG/VAR-SCO1/9-MD051/5-CNM2/9-NEW1/1-RSL/AMG-IFL

    + +

    The literal translation of the above word is something like: “If there could be an act of embodiment of a new and wondrous synergistic expansion of synaesthesia”, which I will word more naturally (for the eventual lyric sheet) as:

    + +

    ‘If one could embody an emergence of new synaesthesia’

    + +

    The interesting thing about this sixth song, is that this is the first of the songs where I am deliberately composing the words without regard for how they fit into the music, as I’ve already decided that the existing music for this song does not match the subject matter of the lyrics at all.

    + +

    I have therefore decided to shelve the music I wrote for this song and will be composing new music later to go with the lyrics after I’ve finished them. This is the reverse of how the other five songs have been written and should prove an interesting experiment. I have a feeling that, as a result, the song may end up sounding rather different than the other five.

    + +

    June 17, 2014

    +

    I've now corrected a few errors and redundancies in the recently updated Lexicon Supplement and have added additional roots for a total of 75 roots and their stems.

    +

    June 10, 2014

    +

    I've updated the Lexicon Supplement (link is above right) with 26 new roots and their stems.

    +

    June 9, 2014

    +

    + I have now completed lyrics to four of the six songs. I’ve written further about the experience in a couple of posts on the Ithkuil subreddit for those interested (and have also provided a glimpse at more of the lyrics). At any rate, working with the language again after more than a two-year hiatus, I have discovered a few aspects of grammar that need, ahem, improvement, as well as an error.

    + +

    First of all, the example sentence at the end of Sec. 8.1.4 in the Grammar, illustrating use of the switch-reference suffix, has an error in it. The fourth word should be èkšülöt’ (not ekšüléňţ) and the morphological analysis below the sentence should show the suffix on this word as TPF1/2, not TPF1/3.

    + +

    More importantly:

    + +

    I’ve decided to augment the Ithkuil grammar to allow case stacking—the ability to assign two cases simultaneously to a formative (or to a case-frame). This is necessary to accurately translate sentences like the following:

    + +

    ‘I jog every day except in case of illness.’ or ‘I jog every day except during (an) illness.’

    + +

    In Ithkuil, “except (for) X” is expressed by the EXCEPTIVE case (Sec. 4.5.30), while the idea of “in case of X” is expressed by the POSTULATIVE case (Sec. 4.5.28) and “during X” by the CONCURSIVE case (Sec. 4.6.3). So how do we apply two different cases to the formative which translates ‘illness’ when translating the above sentence? Current Ithkuil grammar would require such a sentence to be expressed paraphrastically as something like ‘I jog every day except that I don’t jog during illness.’

    + +

    To allow for two (or more) cases to be assigned to the same formative (or case-frame), I am now introducing case adjuncts, a new kind of adjunct which signifies the case of the following case-frame (or formative if there is nothing but a formative between the case adjunct and the end of the sentence) which may, in turn have its own separate case. The form of these case adjuncts are based on Table 28 (in Section 8.1.2.2) as follows:

    + +

    For cases 1 through 48 (as per Table 28), the form of the adjunct is the consonant -w- plus Vc as indicated in Table 28. Alternately, a “full” form is available consisting of the Vc plus the syllable -wa. Examples: wa = OBLIQUE case (or awa), woe = REFERENTIAL case (or oewa), wëu = VOCATIVE case (or ëúwa), etc. Cases where Vc is -û- (i.e., the OGN case) or where Vc is a bisyllabic form beginning with -u- (i.e., the MED, APL, PUR, and CSD cases), must use the full form (in order to avoid phonetically undesirable forms such as wû or wuo, etc.)

    + +

    Cases 49 through 96 (as per Table 28) take the same forms except that the consonant -y- is substituted for -w-. Cases where Vc is -î- (i.e., the ELP case) or where Vc is a bisyllabic form beginning with -i- (i.e., the LOC, ORI, PSV, and ALL cases), must use the full form (in order to avoid phonetically undesirable forms such as yî or yio, etc.)

    + +

    So now the original English sentence can be translated as follows using the EXCEPTIVE case adjunct ya in conjunction with POSTULATIVE case on the following formative:

    + +

    Aigwaloekç   tu   żo’aluqh   ya   egloi’löat.
    +DYN-‘run’-[OBL]-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FRC2/4     1m-IND     (STA)-‘day’-ACS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-INL1/9
    +EXC     STA-‘illness’-PTL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-ATT/1m
    + ‘I jog every day except in case of illness.’

    + +

    Additionally, I have decided that the tone of these case adjuncts will be used to indicate which word following the case adjunct constitutes the topic of the following case-frame. Specifically:

    + +

    falling tone = no specific element topicalized
    +high tone = the first word following the adjunct is topicalized
    +rising tone = the second word following the adjunct is topicalized
    +low tone = the third word following the adjunct is topicalized
    +rising-falling tone = the fourth word following the adjunct is topicalized
    +falling-rising tone = the fifth word following the adjunct is topicalized

    + +

    This new ability to stack cases in Ithkuil also allows for alternative ways to construct case-frames which are potentially more elegant than what Ithkuil grammar previously allowed. For example, note the following English sentence:

    + +

    ‘She looks at the book about rats (that) I captured.’

    + +

    The Ithkuil translation can be either of the following:

    + +

    Ixal   qu   ultánļ   çt’oert   ikdai’rt   eçtho.
    +DYN-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     3a-IND     STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML
    +(STA)-‘rat’-REF-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-IFL     DYN/FRAMED-‘capture’-COR-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-IFL
    1m/ERG+ua/ABS

    + +

    Ixal   qu   ultánļ   íkdoert   to   çt’ertût’.
    +DYN-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     3a-IND     STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-TPF1/3-FML
    +DYN/FRAMED-‘capture’-REF-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-IFL     1m-ERG     (STA)-‘rat’-ABS-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-TPF1/6-IFL

    + +

    The first Ithkuil sentence above literally begins with “she looks at the book about rats” followed by a case-frame in CORRELATIVE case (equivalent to a relative clause in English) which states “I captured them.” So literally: ‘She looks at the book about rats that I captured them.’ The extra personal reference adjunct ua/ABS “them” is necessary, otherwise the Ithkuil sentence wouldn’t have a way to indicate that what was captured were the rats.

    + +

    The second Ithkuil sentence literally states “she looks at the book”, followed by a case-frame in REFERENTIAL case which states “rats (are what) I captured” or alternately “it is rats (that) I captured” where the word “rats” bears a TPF suffix indicating it is the topic of the case-frame. So literally: ‘She looks at the book – it’s about rats (that) I captured.’ Without the TPF suffix on “rats”, the Ithkuil sentence would translate as ‘She looks at the book about me having captured rats’, which does not mean quite the same thing as the original English sentence.

    + +

    With the new ability to stack cases using case adjuncts, we can render a new translation of the English sentence using the REFERENTIAL case adjunct woe (or oewa) as follows:

    + +

    Ixal   qu   ultánļ   ¯woe   çt’ert   ikdart   to.
    +DYN-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     3a-IND     STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML
    +REF     (STA)-‘rat’-ABS-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-IFL     DYN-‘capture’-[OBL]-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-IFL     1m-ERG
    + ‘She looks at the book about rats (that) I captured.’

    + +

    Due to the presence of the case adjunct, there is no need to indicate FRAMED relation on the verb ‘capture’. Additionally, by using the case adjunct, it allows us to show ‘rats’ as the topic of the case-frame via tone (high tone indicates the word immediately following the case adjunct is the topic of the case-frame), eliminating the need to use a TPF suffix to indicate the topicalization. Note that use of the case adjunct to mark the beginning of a case frame also eliminates the requirement that case-frames have verb-initial word order, thus allowing pragmatic relations such as semantic focus and topicalization within the case-frame to be shown via word order.

    + +

    I will be adding this new information on case adjuncts to the forthcoming Grammar Supplement I plan to add to this website before the end of this year. + +

    +

    May 26, 2014

    +

    So far I’ve finished writing lyrics for three of the six songs of my music project. One of the three songs is a direct translation from English-language lyrics written by my brother. The other two are original Ithkuil lyrics inspired by thoughts I wrote down in English. It’s been interesting finding ways to translate from an English source within the constraints of the music. It should be noted that I do not consider these lyrics to be poetry per se, as the lines do not follow a strict meter given that many of the syllables are meant to be stretched across two or more beats or multiple notes, or paused for rests in the music, etc. (Being progressive-rock, the fact that the music is often in time signatures such as 5/4, 6/8, and 7/8 doesn’t help either.)

    +

    If these were meant to be real poems, I’d demand a strict meter and overt rules for consonantal and vocalic alliteration. Nevertheless, the lyrics do display a fair amount of rhyming on the last syllable of each line as well as a loose internal alliteration. Here is an example (and, no, I haven’t checked it yet for errors so it’s still potentially subject to change):

    +

    Oňň   âândairpöt’   îp   ütvaqayûlo
    + iùlái’št’axta   twiam-mt’uo
    + enk’alaň   ûkt   ač’át   ţiuteowa
    + a’tiçpralothukraň   öìçtheya

    +

    “However, with this information, there would be this other person who is myself
    + who might eventually choose to begin saying things I never said,
    + might steer clear of certain doorways as I did not,
    + and befriend strangers I’ll never meet”

    +

    So far I’ve created half a dozen new roots and three new suffixes while writing the lyrics. [NOTE: the above passage uses two new roots: -TV- ‘one’s “self” (as a metaphorical object of reflection)’, and -ŇK’- ‘make way for / keep clear of’.] After I’m done, I plan to add the new roots to the existing Lexicon Supplement PDF file, and will also be posting a new PDF file called Grammar Supplement where I will be presenting the new suffixes as well as some interesting grammatical innovations I’ve come up with that are not currently discussed in the existing grammar. For example, astute readers will note the word “ţiuteowa” above, a personal reference adjunct meaning “like me” preceded by the DEV/1 affix (reversative “un-”) but in 2nd degree. By using 2nd degree of this affix, I create a short-cut way of saying that the preceding verbal phrase is linked to the reversative reference; thus, the meaning is essentially “unlike what I do/did” or “like the reverse of what I do/did”.

    +

    The lyrics also provide a corpus of new Ithkuil example phrases and sentences which further illustrate the various morphological categories of the language. I plan to analyze these examples in the forthcoming Grammar Supplement PDF I will be posting. Again looking at the above stanza, the line “iùlái’št’axta twiam-mt’uo” is a good example of the language’s morpho-semantic efficiency:

    +

    iùlái’št’axta   twiam-mt’uo
    +P3/S2/DYN-‘communicate.spoken.content’-FRAMED/NRM/ICP/COR/AGG/ASO/U-NEW1/2
    +ASR/CTX/EXV-DCV-HYP/CUL-CSQ

    +

    The phrase fully translates as “who theoretically might eventually go ahead and choose to begin making various statements unsaid before”.

    +

    Unfortunately, I find that I have had to sacrifice the representation of stress accent when singing these lyrics. I can’t find a way to consistently place the lyrics I need within the melodies and rhythms I’ve written while preserving proper stress on the syllables. So there are lots of stems with FORMAL designation (requiring word-final stress) which are not stressed on the final syllable, and vice-versa for INFORMAL stems. I’ve decided to rationalize this given that there are plenty of natural languages where stress rules, and even tone requirements (e.g., Mandarin), are dispensed with in singing. I am likewise ignoring morpho-phonological tone in the music as well, but so far there’s only been a few words with non-falling tone, so the impact is not serious.

    +

    Anyway, three more songs to write lyrics for....

    +

    ALSO: Since I can no longer access the Ithkuil Facebook community, I’ve begun following the Ithkuil reddit community (for those of you familiar with reddit). Mostly I lurk, but do occasionally post answers to questions or comment on interesting threads.

    +

    February 7, 2014

    +

    I've finished composing the music for my music project. Six songs of progressive rock comprising approximately 70 minutes of music, enough to fill an audio CD. Now comes the hard part, composing the lyrics. Except for the Passover Seder translation last year, I've barely touched or looked at Ithkuil in over two years. Time to dust off my grammar book and notes and put on my conlanger hat. Now what do I want to say in these songs...?

    +

    August 16, 2013

    +

    I've received a special request to translate into Ithkuil the traditional Question & Answers from the Jewish Passover Seder celebration. I have added the translation to the Texts page of this website. (For those who take the trouble to analyze the translation, you'll find I've utilized two new roots not in the Ithkuil lexicon: -PKY- "grain/grain-based products" and -MSK- "bodily positions/stances (other than upright/supine)."

    +

    Also: After a long hiatus of over twenty years, I have begun composing music again (one of my many hobbies) which my brother and I will be realizing electronically using MIDI technology. (For those interested, I compose both progressive rock and world-fusion music.) Anyway, I have decided to compose the lyrics to the new material in Ithkuil in order to force myself to begin exploring Ithkuil "poetry." One might imagine Ithkuil to be incapable of poetry given that most poetry is based in metaphor. But I see Ithkuil's ability to more-or-less transparently provide words for complex thoughts, concepts, and gestalt imagery as being a worthwhile vehicle for exploration. Now I just need to find a vocalist willing and able to sing in the language!

    +

    Hopefully this flurry of activity is the beginning of a re-igniting of my interest in working on the language after well over a year's hiatus. We'll see!

    +

    April 22, 2013

    +

    I will be giving a presentation at the Fifth Language Creation Conference in Austin, Texas on May 4th.

    +

    December 27, 2012

    +

     

    +

    Joshua Foer’s New Yorker article about Ithkuil has gone a bit viral in terms of re-postings, links, and blog commentary, so I suppose I should offer a couple of corrections and clarifications:

    +

    Beyond getting my age wrong, the article states that I “lurk” on Facebook. This may lead some (i.e., the members of the Ithkuil Facebook community) to believe I am seeing their various comments and postings. I’ve never joined Facebook (and don’t intend to for various reasons) but I used to be able to see entries on the Ithkuil Facebook page and respond as necessary on this Updates page. However, when Facebook changed to its “Timeline” interface, I found I could no longer uncollapse the comment boxes to meaningfully read the various threads. Also, I’m told most of the Facebook commentary now occurs in a “private group,” to which I have no access whatsoever. So, no, I don’t lurk on Facebook because I can’t.

    +

    Also: based on various blog comments I’ve read here and there, apparently some readers of the article have gotten the impression that Ithkuil is supposed to represent some sort of “perfect” language (whatever that’s supposed to mean). I certainly don’t subscribe to such a presumptuous notion about my work. Ithkuil is for me nothing more than a private experiment to see the extent to which it might be possible to achieve the design goals mentioned at the beginning of the Introduction page of this website, nothing more. I originally posted it on the internet just to get some feedback from a few fellow conlangers.

    +

    Corollary to the above issue, some readers have apparently gotten the idea that Ithkuil is designed to (theoretically) replace natural languages or be used as an international auxiliary language like Esperanto. I address this erroneous notion in the FAQ pages of this website.

    +

    Thanks to those who've purchased a copy of the Ithkuil grammar book, and a special thank you to those who've bought a copy of my brother's and my novel.

    +

    December 14, 2012

    +

     

    +

    The forthcoming December 24th issue of the New Yorker magazine (available on U.S. newsstands and online Monday, December 17th) contains a feature-length article about me, my development of Ithkuil, and how it led to my amazing adventures in Russia and Ukraine during 2010 and 2011. The article is written by Joshua Foer, author of last year's bestselling book on memory Moonwalking With Einstein, who accompanied me to Kiev, Ukraine last year for four days to meet with the students there who have been studying Ithkuil. The article should be an interesting read!

    +

    I have also added a PDF of an Ithkuil translation of Schleicher's Fable to the Texts page. The translation was made last year by Florian Bauer of the Ithkuil Facebook group.

    +

    Sept 1, 2012

    +

     

    +

    The hardcopy book version of the Ithkuil Grammar has been revised to incorporate the corrections contained in the "Ithkuil Grammar Book Errata" PDF link above. I will maintain the above link to the PDF file for those persons who already own the previous version of the book.

    +

    July 27, 2012

    +

     

    +

    I corrected a few errors to the "Supplement to Lexicon" PDF file at the link above.

    +

    July 23, 2012

    +

     

    +

    I have added the above "Supplement to Lexicon" link to a PDF file containing approximately 30 additional lexical roots and their associated stems. I am posting these new roots as a separate PDF so that owners of the hardcopy book can refer to the PDF (or print it out) as a supplement to the book.

    +

    July 16, 2012

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    I have added the above "Ithkuil Grammar Book Errata" link to a PDF file listing the various errata found in the hardcopy book version of the Ithkuil Grammar. I will soon correct the manuscript and re-publish the book with the corrections, however, I will also maintain this PDF of errata for those persons who have previously purchased the book.

    +

    November 29, 2011

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    The passage of Ithkuil script shown on the cover of the Grammar book is meant to be merely decorative, however for those who feel they must figure it out, remember that Ithkuil script is written in boustrophedon mode.

    +

    I will be retiring in a few days, and now that the book is out, I will be hanging up my "conlanger" hat for a while to pursue my many other hobbies and interests. I will eventually return to work on the language (maybe in the spring?), as I am still keen on exploring Ithkuil poetry and expanding the lexicon. At any rate, this will likely be the last update for quite a while. Thanks for all the interest shown and best wishes to all.

    +

     

    November 23, 2011

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Paul Elaku just advised me that my system for using the SSD suffix with the carrier stem won't work, since it is highly unlikely that a hypothetical Ithkuil listener would be able to aurally parse the foreign words/phrase to know how many words it contains (i.e., s/he would be unable to know where the non-Ithkuil words stop and the words "go back to being Ithkuil words.") Duh! Therefore, I have now modified and simplified the rule in Sec. 9.3.1. Note, also, that it in written Ithkuil, the triple-dot "quotation marks" already indicate the end of the non-Ithkuil word/phrase so it is unnecessary to otherwise represent it in writing. (That's why it was unnecessary to modify the title masthead on these pages to show the SSD suffix.)

    +

     

    November 22, 2011

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Amended Section 9.3.1 regarding use of the SSD suffix with the carrier stem to address non-Ithkuil proper nouns, words, or phrases that are more than one word in length.

    +

    Added new Section 10.6.4 to address the equivalents to WH-questions.

    +

    Added new Sections 6.4.3 and 7.4.15 to the grammar, explaining the expansion of Format to include the ability of an incorporated root to be associated with any of the 72 main noun cases.

    +

     

    November 21, 2011

    +

     

    Made corrections to the interlinear analysis of the Babel Text, as pointed out by Jacob from the Facebook group.

    +

    Paul Elaku is inquiring as to how Ithkuil handles WH-questions, e.g., who? what? when? why?, etc. The Ithkuil equivalents are not structured as questions using INTERROGATIVE illocution, but rather as statements using DIRECTIVE illocution. Thus, in Ithkuil, one does not ask "What is your name?" "What time is it?" "Where is the toilet?" "Who is that woman?" "Which clown was caught stealing?" Instead, an Ithkuil speaker would say "Please tell me your name," "Please indicate the time of day," "Indicate the location of the toilet," "Please identify that woman," and "Identify the [individual] clown [from the group of clowns] who was caught stealing."

    +

     

    November 17, 2011

    +

     

    +

     

    Added the first four sentences of the Babel Text to the Texts page.

    +

    Flo Bauer pointed out another error in the first Sec. 5.4.3 example. Somehow the first case-frame was in PURPOSIVE case instead of POSTCURSIVE case. Not sure how that happened. Oh, well....corrected now.

    +

     

    November 9, 2011

    Paul Elaku at the vk.com/ithkuil community pointed out a big error with the suffixes in the first example in Sec. 5.4.3, which I've now corrected. (One of those instances of me creating an early example of the new version of the language, then forgetting to modify it after I made additional last-minute revisions.)

    +

    Also: I noticed the "extreme" verb example shown at the beginning of Chapters 5 and 6 is inflected for a non-OBLIQUE case-frame but is in UNFRAMED relation, which makes no sense. I have corrected it to FRAMED relation.

    +

     

    November 8, 2011

    +

     

    +

     

    Anton on Facebook correctly pointed out that I forgot FUNCTIONAL context and FORMAL designation in my simplified version of the word for "computer." That got me to thinking. Technically, there's no reason conceptually that a computer has to function electronically (it just so happens that they do). After all, some of you may recall Babbadge's Engines. Therefore, I think the simplified version of the word doesn't really need the MEC1/5 affix. That leaves the form of the word as âdraxhtipší“apparatus designed for running programs.”

    +

    As for a word for "Internet," looks like Flo and Anton from the Facebook community rose to the challenge. Flo suggests eqaškonîškatu analyzed below:

    +
      +
    • +
      +
      +
      eq - Human, Person; P1S2 'higher order animal life'
      + a - OBL Case
      + šk - COMPOSITE configuration: -> A mass/unit of people
      + on - AGC1/7 suffix "one enables to"
      + îšk - DPR1/4 suffix " not physically connected but with immediate accessibility and ...knowledge of other member actions" - so now we know what kind of "unit" of people this is and that the word is the enablement of such.
      + at - MEC1/5 - ..by means of electronic binary switching
      + u - AMG, adding that it has a big social impact
      +
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    +

    I really like his use of the DPR1/4 suffix here; I doubt I would've thought of that. Two small corrections to his analysis: The idea of enablement is given by the AGC1 affix in Degree 2, not Degree 7, thus -ön, not -on. Also: the MEC1/5 suffix only indicates “by electronic means” -- if you want to specify binary switching, you'd have to drag in the incorporated root -šp- (P3S1 FML) as I did below in the full version for the word "computer." (I don't think it's necessary.) And for easier pronunciation, I'd change the order of his suffixes. The end result being: eqaškönatîšku.

    +

    Anton's suggestion is âdraxhtipšatekšarqú, which takes the word for "computer" and adds on the DRC1/3 and SPS1/5 suffixes plus AMALGAMATIVE context to give a word meaning “an indirect 2nd-order level of computer-based infrastructure with strong social impact/ramifications.” Interesting how Flo sees the Internet as a network of people through electronic means with big social impact, whereas Anton sees it as a network of computers with big social impact. What's even more interesting is that I, myself, was thinking along a third line of reasoning, focused neither on people nor computers, but rather on information. But I think I'll stick to the above two words.

    +

    Both are great efforts. I'd go with Flo's suggestion for contexts focusing on what the Internet is for and how each of us is part of it, whereas Anton's word seems appropriate when focusing on how it works or is structured.

    +

    Added the missing -rn- suffix (alternative suffix forms of the Phase categories) to Chapter 7

    +

     

    November 7, 2011

    +

     

    I have amended Section 1.2.1.3 to clarify that syllabic consonants count as full syllables for purposes of applying stress rules. Corrected additional errors. Began adding revised sound files back to where they had been previously removed for correction.

    +

    THE ITHKUIL WORD FOR “COMPUTER”: The administrator of the Ithkuil page at vk.com (the Russian-speaking world's answer to Facebook) contacted me puzzling over how to create the Ithkuil words for "computer" and "internet." In answer, I've now created a word for "computer" -- a very interesting exercise. There are two versions of the word, the full-length version, and a simplified version. The full version is âšpeudraxhtipšatúi while the simplified version is âdraxhtipšat. The analysis is below:

    +

    â - šp - eu - dr - a - xht -ipš - at - úi
    + P3S1/STA - inc.root:P1S3.FML='binary.switching' - stem:'follow/obey.rule' - OBL - NRM/DEL/U/COA/CST - UTE1/1 - MEC1/5 - ISR/FNC/FML
    +     “apparatus designed for running programs [literally: 'obeying synergistically composite sets of rules'] by means of eletronic binary switching”

    +

    The simplified version âdraxhtipšat means “apparatus designed for running programs electronically” which is probably more usable than the full version. [NOTE: This form is not correct - see entry for November 8th above.]

    +

    Now I need a word for "Internet." That should put the morphology, suffixes and lexicon through their paces, eh? Anyone wanna give it a try before I take a crack at it? (Hmm, new root needed, maybe?)

    +

     

    November 4, 2011

    +

     

    Continued to correct various errors pointed out by the Facebook gang. (Note: some of the errors involve a choice as to how to correct them -- I don't always go along with the correction suggested.)

    +

    I have amended the second note under the fourth paragraph in Sec. 5.5 (above Table 11) to ensure that Cs Phase-Sanction-Illocution forms and Cg Validation forms do not become ambiguous in certain instances.

    +

    I have added a paragraph to Sec. 8.1.3, following Table 34, clarifying the order in which tones are combined in dual-referent personal reference adjuncts.

    +

     

    November 3, 2011

    +

     

    I've begun correcting several errors in example sentences pointed out on Facebook in the three weeks I've been away, (although not all of the items being pointed out are, in fact, errors). I will continue making corrections over the next few days.

    +

    By the way, I appreciate the eagle eyes of those few on the Facebook page who bother to take the time to so scrupulously check my work. After creating this revision of Ithkuil over the last couple of years, my enthusiasm lagged when it came time to create (or re-create) all the example phrases and sentences. The results were obviously hurried and sloppy in many instances. The fact that I made a few last-minute changes to the morpho-phonology and the script after I'd already created several examples obviously hasn't helped either.

    +

    Note: The brief epenthetic vowel following a glottal stop described in Section 1.2.2.1 does not count for purposes of antepenultimate or pre-antepenultimate syllabic stress. The rules for syllabic stress operate at the phonemic level, not the phonetic level.

    +

     

    October 18, 2011

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    Lexicon: Fixed errors in the meanings of the complementary stems of the roots -Ļ- ‘BREATHE/RESPIRATION’ and -RXh- ‘COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM’.

    +

    I just realized that nowhere in Chapter 2 do I indicate that the Slot VII root consonant form Cr cannot be a glottal stop nor those consonant forms that are the same as CG forms (from Slot III) or Ci forms (from Slot IX), i.e., -w-, -y-, -h-, -hw-, -hr-, -hh-, -hn-, -hm-, -lw-, -ly-, -rw-, -ry-, -řw-, -řy-. Don't know how I could've failed to state something so basic that, without it, the entire morpho-phonological formula for formatives (Sec. 2.1.1) falls apart. I've amended Table 3 (in Section 2.1.1) and Section 2.2.1 accordingly.

    +

    Prior to the end of 2012, I plan to divide the Lexicon into two different versions: (1) the existing alphabetical listing, and (2) a listing of roots by topics, which will group semantically-related roots together.

    +

    Next updates will not be until November.

    +

     

    October 14, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    To those persons who are attempting to memorize all 1728 forms of the Ca affix from Tables 5(a) through 5(l) in Section 3.5.3: You might find it helpful to review the alternate means of showing Extension explained in Section 6.3.5 via tone on a verbal adjunct (use a neutral default verbal adjunct an-n if you have to). In this way, you only have to memorize 288 forms of the Ca affix (the NRM and RPV forms of the DELIMITIVE extension) instead of the full 1728 forms. Just a suggestion.

    +

     

    October 13, 2011:

    +

     

    In anticipation of the forthcoming print-version of the Ithkuil grammar, I have modified the copyright terms listed at the bottom of each page of this website, making them more specific.

    +

     

    October 11, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Resolved the issue of duplicate stems -SP- and -SK’-. The latter root has been eliminated, and the examples on the Texts page which had utilized that root (involving formulas of thanks/gratitude) have been changed to utilize the -SP- root instead.

    +

    To the Facebook poster wondering why the native name of the language still carries a circumflex accent over the last vowel -- see Sec. 1.2.3.1.

    +

     

    October 5, 2011:

    +

     

    Corrected the root for the ‘prepared food’ example in Section 5.1.5. Made several additional corrections of various small typos/errors, as well as some Ithkuil script transcription errors found by the astute folks on Facebook.

    +

     

    October 3, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

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    Various additional typos and errors pointed out by the Facebook gang have been corrected.

    +

    I have introduced four new roots to the lexicon relating to the atomic and subatomic world as well as the fundamental forces, including electromagnetism and gravity. The four new roots are -KTh-, -ŇKY-, -TXh-, and -KSS-.

    +

    Additionally, I have added two new suffixes to the list of derivational suffixes in Chapter 7: The PLV and MLR suffixes. The former suffix operates closely in conjunction with the four new roots above.

    +

    During 2012, I plan to add new entries to the lexicon on a more frequent basis.

    +

    Also: Upon closer analysis, I've determined that -K- and -PÇ- are not, in fact, duplicate roots. I have clarified the distinction between them in the lexicon as well as in the interlinear analysis of the fifth example from Sec. 4.5.33.

    +

     

    Sept. 21, 2011:

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    +

     

    I managed to sneak some time from my vacation to make an update. I have made numerous corrections pointed out by the Facebook gang. A few remain to be fixed. The most important corrections are as follows:

    + Corrections made to several values in Tables 5(d), 5(k) and 5(L) in Chapter 3, Section 3.5.3. (I don't think any example sentences are affected, are there?)

    Additional information added to Section 11.3.1.5 on how to indicate high-toned personal reference adjuncts in the writing system.

    +

    Example sentences in Sections 3.5.4, 4.5.33, and 6.4.2 corrected.

    +

    Correction made to one of the values in Table 11(f), Section 5.5.

    +

     

    Sept. 2, 2011:

    +

     

    I will be away for the rest of September and will likely be unable to make any updates to the site until October.

    +

    I've also just discovered a duplicate root in the lexicon: -K- and -PÇ-, both meaning ‘PATH-ORIENTED TRANSLATIVE MOTION’. I will need to eliminate one of them, but first must determine how many example sentences using one of these two roots will need to be changed. Unfortunately, I will likely not have time to do this until October. Until then!

    +

     

    Sept. 1, 2011:

    +

     

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    Table 5(i) in Chapter 3: Corrected the RPV/ICP/M/CSL/CST affix to -ļtl-.

    +

    As for yesterday's correction, yes, the value should be -ndv- not -nv-, as both /m/ and /n/ allophonically assimilate to a labio-dental nasal (IPA [] ) before /v/ for most speakers (including yours truly), except in hyper-enunciated speech.

    +

    IMPORTANT: I am planning a big addition to the grammar of the language. There will be a whole new set of suffixes added to Chapter 7 that will greatly expand the category of Format (see Sec. 6.4) for use with incorporated stems. These new suffixes will essentially be entirely new formats. Many, if not all of them, will correspond to noun cases, so that a great many new kinds of relationships will be available between a primary stem and its incorporated stem. In many instances, these will allow for single-word substitutes for noun-to-noun case relationships. At this stage, I have only considered the idea conceptually; I have not yet mapped out the specific relationships nor assigned any morpho-phonological values to these suffixes. I anticipate I will be adding these to the website sometime in late 2011 or early 2012. The eventual update will include many new examples added to Section 6.4 on Format.

    +

     

    August 31, 2011:

    +

     

    In Table 5(b) in Chapter 3, corrected the value of the NRM/PRX/N/VAR/COH Ca affix from -mv- to -ndv-, plus a few other minor errors. Thanks, Anton!

    +

     

    August 30, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Florian's critique of my Litany Against Fear translation has caused me to rethink the translation and make some changes. I have modified lines 2 and 3 to indicate ALLEGATIVE sanction. Also, I now realize the future tense used in Lines 6 and 8 in the English original implies intentionality rather than mere future time; it should therefore be translated by INTENTIVE modality (or the suffixed equivalent) rather than PROSPECTIVE aspect. And in Line 7, this use of English 'will' rises beyond intentionality to the level of a declarative statement, i.e., the speaker is willing the statement to be true, thus corresponding to DECLARATIVE illocution. Finally, while fear is spoken of as an abstract entity in Lines 2 and 3, it is personalized as the speaker's own feelings of fear in Lines 4 through 7 and should not, therefore, be expressed using ABSTRACT perspective or ABSTRACT personal reference, but MONADIC perspective and MONADIC inanimate personal reference. On the Texts page, I have now shown these modifications to the original translation in green. I have also added literal English reverse-translations of the Ithkuil version.

    +

    Corrected the Vc+Cz values of the last six cases in Table 28 in Chapter 8.

    +

     

    August 26, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Well, as it turns out, I decided on the straightforward approach to the vocative -- I've made it a new noun case. You'll now find it described in new Section 4.8. While I was at it, I eliminated the DEFERENTIAL case and merged its function with the BENEFACTIVE case, so there are still a total of 96 cases. The Vc infix for the new VOCATIVE case is -ë-. I have updated Table 7 in Chapter 4 to reflect these changes, as well as the first line of the Lord's Prayer on the Texts page.

    +

    As for the Vc and Vc+Cz forms used with personal reference adjuncts (see Sec. 8.1.2), I did some switching around. I changed the Vc and Vc+Cz values of the CONCESSIVE case to those of the now-obsolete DEFERENTIAL case, and have assigned the former values of the CONCESSIVE case to the new VOCATIVE case. The new values for the CONCESSIVE and VOCATIVE cases can be seen in Table 28 in Chapter 8.

    +

    The tables of primary and secondary case/aspect written characters in Chapter 11 have also been updated to reflect these changes.

    +

     

    August 24, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Florian from the Facebook group is attempting a translation of Schleicher's Fable, which involves conveying indirect speech. Ithkuil handles indirect speech, as well as direct quotations in the same way, via case frame. In most cases this would be the OBLIQUE case-frame, considering the statement's semantic role as CONTENT of the verb 'speak/say', as in 'He said X,' where X is obviously not a semantic patient, enabler, experiencer, agent, stimulus, etc., but merely the non-causal content associated with the verb.

    +

    Flo is also looking for a root for "thing" (looking at the fable I'm not sure why he needs such a stem, but it's his translation...). At any rate, I don't have the stems from the root "TANGIBLE OBJECT/THING/SUBSTANCE" worked out yet, although almost certainly Informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root will simply mean "tangible object/thing; be/exist as a tangible object/thing." The root will most likely be -TÇ-. Or, in the meantime you could always use Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root -C-, as a nominal formative (translation: "something that exists").

    +

    As for the vocative, I'm still toying with whether to make it a suffix, a case form, or a Slot IX Ci+Vi form (i.e., a new illocution like the DECLARATIVE, available only in FACTUAL mood). I'm leaning toward the latter solution.

    +

     

    August 22, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    Finished adding the Litany Against Fear to the Texts page.

    +

    Corrected a few more errata pointed out by the Facebook gang.

    +

     

    August 19, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Began adding to the Texts page the Ithkuil translation and interlinear analysis of the Litany Against Fear from Frank Herbert’s Dune.

    +

    Added the script analysis example to Section 11.1.5.

    +

    Corrected the written form of the example phrase at the beginning of Chapter 5.

    +

     

    August 18, 2011:

    +

     

    Corrected a few more errors listed on the Facebook/Ithkuil site.

    +

     

    August 17, 2011:

    +

     

    Added the handwritten forms of the Ithkuil script to Section 11.5.

    +

    Corrected various errata pointed out by the folks on the Ithkuil Facebook page. Thanks guys! Nice to know there's someone more attentive to details than I am.

    +

    As for ordering of the days of the week, Ithkuil grammar arbitrarily chooses to follow the pattern of most Western European cultures in calling Sunday the first day of the week, e.g., Portuguese segunda-feira 'Monday,' terça-feira 'Tuesday' -- literally 'second-day,' 'third-day.' And in the 'on Sundays' example from Section 4.6.16, the Configuration could also be SEGMENTATIVE if you want to emphasize that the recurring Sundays are subjectively connected to each other (e.g., by the same activities or purpose or interdependency, such as when each Sunday's events/activities are dependent on the preceding Sunday's events/acitivities and likewise form the basis/foundation for the following Sunday's events/activities.)

    +

     

    August 16, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Added the new CAL suffix to Section 7.4.5 to address the issue of names of the days of the week and months of the year. As a result, the 'on Sundays' example in Section 4.6.16 has been modified. Also changed the meaning of the FORMAL stems of the root -Ż- to refer to calendrical/cyclic days; the lexicon entry for this root has been expanded with various notes, including information on deriving the words for 'week' and 'month.'

    +

    On the Texts page, I modified my analysis of Line 7 of the Lord's Prayer in order to address in greater detail the erroneous form ^tuhekčéötöt’.

    +

     

    August 15, 2011:

    +

     

    Finished the analysis of the Lord's Prayer on the Texts page.

    +

     

    August 12, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    An Ithkuil fan has posted his own Ithkuil translation of the Lord's Prayer on Facebook. Hooray! I have copied it to the Texts page and have added my own comments/analysis regarding it.

    +

    Made corrections to examples in Sections 5.7.15 and 5.9.1 where the values for the CPL and RCP valences were transposed.

    +

    I have begun preparing the handwritten forms of the Ithkuil script and will be posting them to Section 11.5 probably sometime next week.

    +

     

    August 11, 2011:

    +

     

    A few paragraphs on Ithkuil equivalents to placenames, ethnonymns, and language names has been added to the end of Section 11.4.1.

    +

     

    August 9, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    One of the Facebook members is apparently tackling an Ithkuil translation of the Lord's Prayer. Interesting! He'll need to review the new root I've just added: -KČ-. As for a word for 'sin', I think I'd use the root -VY- in Pattern 2, Stem 2, Formal Designation, in conjunction with the SIM2/1 suffix to give a word meaning more or less 'immoral act, moral transgression.'

    +

    Corrected various errors pointed out by Anton Sanarov: Sections 1.2.5.2, 5.4.1, 8.1.3, 10.1.2, and all of the variants of the 'She and I were planning on taking a walk later on" sentence from Chapters 5 and 6. Still one or two more to correct....

    +

    And I'm still thinking about the vocative....

    +

     

    August 8, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    I've been peeking at posts on Facebook's Ithkuil community. Looks like some of the members there have been hard at work (best of luck!). They have pointed out various errata (for which I'm grateful and will be correcting over the next few days) and have raised some good questions which I will address in the grammar soon, including the thorny issue of an Ithkuil equivalent to a vocative form (which I've always somehow managed to avoid dealing with ... [sigh]).

    +

     

    August 3, 2011:

    +

     

    Corrected an error in Section 6.1.31 and made a few minor edits to Chapter 6.

    +

     

    August 2, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Corrected an error in the fourth example sentence from Section 5.7.15 and added a clarifying paragraph to Section 6.2.3 below Table 17 regarding the value of the Ve Level infix in Slot B of a verbal adjunct when there is no Level but the presence of Ve is required by the presence of a CL Valence prefix in Slot A.

    +

    Populated the greetings/salutations section of the “Texts” page.

    +

     

    August 1, 2011:

    +

     

    Added sound files to “Texts” page.

    +

     

    July 29, 2011:

    +

     

    Made some small edits and corrections to Chapters 4 and 5.

    +

     

    July 27, 2011:

    +

     

    Oops! Forgot about the sound files for the “Texts” page. I'll record those this coming weekend.

    +

     

    July 26, 2011:

    +

     

    Made some small edits and corrections to Chapters 1, 2, and 3.

    +

     

    July 25, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    		Finished adding sound files to the site. +

    Added placeholder section in the “Texts” chapter pertaining to greetings and other conversational + elements.

    +

    Corrected two errors in Table 35 and one error in Table 43 in Chapter 11.

    +

    NOTE: A video of my May 2011 Ithkuil slideshow presentation in Kyiv, Ukraine, has recently appeared online. Viewers should be aware that at the time of that slideshow, the new Ithkuil writing system had not yet been finalized, and that the written forms of the phrases and sentences shown in the slideshow have since changed.

    +

     

    July 21, 2011:

    +

     

    		Added IPT suffix to Chapter 7. Added all sound files through Chapter 4. +

     

    July 20, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    		 +

    Placeholder sections 11.5 and 11.6 added to Chapter 11, for the eventual posting of the handwritten forms of the Ithkuil written characters and description of the yet-to-be-developed adaptation of the 2-dimensional ornamental script from the now-defunct Ilaksh website.

    +

    Corrected the pronunciation table in the Phonology chapter regarding the value of the xh-digraph.

     

    July 18, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Began placing sound files for new site into production. Will continue to do so over the course of the week.

    +

    Added new "Updates / News" page and links.

    +

    Added new Section 1.2.3.1 to the Phonology chapter regarding separation of diphthongs into separate syllables.

    +

    Amended Section 11.3.4.1 to address tri-consonantal and tetra-consonantal stems that cannot be written using a single consonantal character.

    +

     

    July 15, 2011:

    +

     

    		 +

    New version of website placed in production; old Ithkuil site plus Ilaksh site withdrawn.

     

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    ©2004-2015 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available! +

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    + +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/2004-en/updates.htm.orig b/2004-en/updates.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d98d0da --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/updates.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,969 @@ + + + + +Ithkuil Update + + + + + +
    +

    Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
    +

    +
    +

    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
      

     

     

    		  
    Home Introduction4 Case Morphology8 Adjuncts12 The Number System
    FAQs 1 Phonology5 Verb Morphology9 SyntaxList of Abbreviations
    Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology6 More Verb Morphology10 Lexico-SemanticsThe Lexicon
    Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology7 Suffixes11 The Writing SystemTexts
    +

     

    +

    Updates / News

    +

    +

    Supplement to Lexicon (updated March 27, 2015)

    +

    Ithkuil Grammar Book Errata

    + +
    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

    February 4, 2016

    +

    I am pleased to announce that the video to a second KADUATÁN song is now available on YouTube. The song is called "Uňk’àtân" ("Renegades") and again features my friend David J. Peterson on lead vocals (thanks, Dave!). The lyrics to this song were originally composed by my brother Paul in English, which I subsequently translated into Ithkuil. The lyrics with translation are now available on the Texts page of this website. The link to the video is below.

    +

    KADUATÁN – Uňk’àtân

    +

    January 29, 2016

    +

    CORRECTION TO NEWS UPDATE OF MAY 25, 2015: The list of reassigned values to the elements of Table 52 contained errors. I have now corrected the listing under the May 25, 2015 post. Additionally, the character extension in Table 51 for the combination of ž + C is no longer valid. The character extension for the value ž + C will now be shown by the value in Table 52 previously assigned to C + v.

    + +

    ALSO: I have created two new suffixes to deal with the issue of semantic frames. Here is a discussion of this topic and the details of the two new suffixes.

    + +

    +

    July 11, 2015

    +

    I am pleased to announce that, after a year and a half of work and numerous delays, my music project Kaduatán has borne fruit. The first song is now available for your enjoyment on YouTube as a preview of the forthcoming album. The song is called “Ozkavarkúi” (“Guessing Games”). As mentioned in an earlier update, the lyrics with morphological analysis are available on the Texts page of this website. (Note: I have updated the lyrics and analysis to correct a few mistakes/omissions and to match changes in the song structure since the lyrics were first written.)

    + +

    I’d like to thank my friend and conlanging colleague David J. Peterson for supplying the lead vocals on the track. (For those unaware, David is the creator of the Dothraki and Valyrian languages for HBO’s Game of Thrones television series, as well as the various alien languages spoken on the Syfy network’s Defiance series). Thanks, Dave!

    + +

    So for those of you interested in hearing Dave sing in Ithkuil, or who simply enjoy progressive-rock music, the link is below. Enjoy!

    + +

    KADUATÁN – Ozkavarkúi +

    +

    May 25, 2015

    +

    I have finally determined a way to address the issue regarding ambiguous consonantal combinations in the Ithkuil writing system, specifically how to distinguish combinations such as -pg- from -bg-, -kt- from -gt-, etc. when writing the Cr root.

    + +

    In analyzing the script, I realize that the character extension elements shown in Table 52 (in Section 11.3.4.1 of the Grammar) are redundant, given that they can be much more easily shown using the subscript diacritics shown in Table 53. The original intent of these Table 53 diacritics was that they be used only for tri-consonantal and tetra-consonantal roots, I realize there’s no reason not to use them in biconsonantal roots as well, which then obviates the need for the character extensions shown in Table 52. By rendering these Table 52 extensions redundant, it makes them available for use to disambiguate the k/g, p/b, t/d problem.

    + +

    Therefore, the Table 52 elements are hereby reassigned to indicate the following values [THE LIST BELOW WAS CORRECTED ON JAN 29, 2016]:

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + w will now indicate b + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + y will no longer be used

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + l will now indicate d + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + r will now indicate g + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + ř will now indicate ż + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + m will now indicate j + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + n will now indicate dh + C

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + v will now indicate ž + C and the extension shown in Table 51 for ž + C will no longer be used

    +

    The extension previously indicating C + ň will no longer be used

    +

    As a result of the above, those character extension elements in Table 51 of the grammar which currently indicate dual/alternate values will now only be used to indicate their primary value.

    + +

    Note that, using the subscript diacritics in lieu of the now-obsolete values of the Table 52 character extension elements, might at first glance give rise to ambiguities. For example does the consonantal character for /s/ plus an extension indicating prefixed /k/- plus a subscript diacritic indicating +/n/ mean -KNS- or -KSN-? However, no ambiguity exists, as -KNS- is not a valid combination for a Cr root. So when interpreting how to read such combinations, the reader must bear in mind Ithkuil phonotactical constraints.

    + +

    Note also that, with the above changes, quite a number of the existing examples of Ithkuil script throughout the Ithkuil website and grammar book are now unfortunately erroneous. I will correct these errors when I (eventually) publish the revised website and grammar book.

    + +

    March 27, 2015

    +

    OK, at long last, here is how Ithkuil handles mathematical expressions and units of measurement.

    +

    I have also added twenty-one new roots to the Lexicon Supplement at the link above and to the right.

    +

    January 10, 2015

    +

    An astute reader on the Ithkuil subreddit has determined that the "flaw" I describe in Item One of my November 15, 2014 posting below is, in fact, not a flaw at all. It turns out I already address the potential ambiguity of Slot I of the formative by unequivocally stating in Table 3 of Section 2.1.1 that the presence of Cv in Slot I requires that Slot III be filled by Cs, not Cg. So it looks like Slot I is back in business.

    +

    Also, an update on the music situation: I've now completed recording the music for two of the six songs and have them ready as draft instrumental mixes. They will not be turned into final mixes until the vocals have been recorded, which should be sometime in the next couple of months in my musician friend's studio. I'm anxious to start recording the third song, but I made a promise to the Ithkuil subreddit group that I'd look into formalizing and improving how Ithkuil handles mathematics, which will be a big distraction for me. Since I'm ahead of schedule on recording the music (I thought I'd only have one song done by now), I think I'll work on the third song for a few weeks, then take a break and work on Ithkuil mathematics. +

    November 15, 2014

    +

    For whatever reason, I woke up this morning with several major flashes of insight regarding Ithkuil, the details of which I’ve spent the entire morning working out. As a result, I am announcing some small but significant structural changes to the grammar. The details are as follows:

    + + +

    ITEM ONE: A flaw discovered in the Morpho-Phonology!

    + +

    I’ve discovered a flaw in the morpho-phonology involving the Slot I of the formative. I realized that a hypothetical Ithkuil word like skaherad is ambiguous, in that the word could represent either of the following:

    + +

    sk - a - h - e - r - a – d
    +Cv-VL-Cg-Vr-Cr-Vc-Ca
    +(i.e., the following slots filled: I - II - III - IV - VII - VIII - X)

    + +

    sk - a - he - r - ad
    +Cr-Vc-Ci+Vi-Ca-VxC
    + (i.e., the following slots filled: VII - VIII - IX - X - XI)

    + +

    I’ve traced the ambiguity to the presence of the Cv Phase/Sanction/Illocution affix in Slot I. It has to go. Therefore, I officially announce . . . (drumroll please) . . . that the Cv affix is no longer permissible in Slot I of a formative. It can only appear in Slot V in the absence of an incorporated root. If the formative contains an incorporated root taking up Slots V and VI, then Cv must be shown via Slot C in a verbal adjunct instead.

    + +

    This essentially means that Slot I no longer exists, which would entail renumbering all the subsequent slots accordingly (e.g., Slot II becomes Slot I, Slot III becomes Slot II, etc.). However, given the confusion this would cause to those persons who have spent significant time learning the slot structure and its labels (yours truly included), we will simply consider Slot I to be “vacant” or “dormant” for now, eh?

    + + +

    ITEM TWO: Introducing a new morphological category: Register

    + +

    The question has been raised here and there on various online fora as to how to deal with direct speech in Ithkuil, as in the sentence ‘She turned to him and said “take care of yourself”’ as opposed to the indirect speech equivalent of ‘She turned and told him to take care of himself.’ I’ve pondered the matter now and again but have never really dealt with it in terms of finding a solution. Suddenly, the answer came to me this morning and now, much to my surprise, I am introducing a brand new morphological category, which for lack of a better term, I shall call “Register.” (Like most Ithkuil grammatical terms, I am simply appropriating this nomenclature from existing linguistics terminology, but, as usual, the Ithkuil category has little, if anything, to do with the traditional definition of the term). So, what is this new Register category?

    + +

    In Ithkuil, the category of Register will indicate intra-sentence or intra-narrative changes in the mode of personal communication from a general narrative to instead indicate either one’s personal cogitation/deliberation, an unwilled or subjective impression, direct speech, or a parenthetical “aside”. Register will be indicated phonologically by tone distinctions. The first word of a phrase carrying a specific register will have one of five tones, and the last word of the phrase carrying that register will have rising tone to indicate termination of the register. Here are the specifics:

    + +

    NRR – NARRATIVE
    +Tone marking: falling (default)
    +Description: The default register, indicating a general narrative statement. Also used for formal narration, as when telling the events a story from an omniscient narrator’s perspective.

    + +

    DSV – DISCURSIVE
    +Tone marking: high
    +Description: Indicates a phrase/statement represents direct speech, as in ‘His wife turned to him and said “You’ve forgotten your hat.”’ ”

    + +

    PTH – PARENTHETICAL
    +Tone marking: low
    +Description: Indicates a phrase/statement is a parenthetical aside, or the equivalent to an in-line footnote, as in ‘All equine species in Eurasia (we needn’t bother with those in the Americas) can be shown to be quadrupeds,’ or ‘I generally prefer coffee to tea on summer afternoons – over ice, of course – but sometimes only a beer will do, ’ or ‘That artist’s landscapes (you should see his portraits!) are simply sublime.’

    + +

    COG – COGITANT
    +Tone marking: falling-rising
    +Description: Indicates a phrase/statement represents silent thoughts or beliefs. Equivalent to various devices in natural languages for indicating silent thoughts/beliefs within a narrative, as in the use of italics within a written paragraph, or the sudden interjection of a character’s disembodied voice on the soundtrack of a film/video while the character visually doesn’t open their mouth.

    + +

    IPR – IMPRESSIONISTIC
    +Tone marking: rising-falling
    +Description: I ndicates a phrase/statement represents the imagination, subjective impressions, or unwilled “wandering” thoughts of the party being referenced in the phrase/statement. Equivalent in natural languages to a narrator suddenly interjecting a subjective description within a statement, as in ‘The little girl ran down the hillside, a feeling of joy in her heart, then leaped into the arms of her father.’

    + +

    NOTE: Since it is not possible for an Ithkuil word to carry more than one morphologically significant tone (see Sec. 1.3.2), if a non-default register (i.e., a register other than NAR) is to be applied to a single word only, this is indicated by the fact that there will be no subsequent indication that the Register has terminated, i.e., there will be no subsequent word carrying rising tone prior to the end of the sentence or prior to a new/subsequent change to a non-NARRATIVE register. It is this absence of the register-termination tone marker that retrospectively indicates that only the initial word of the previous non-NARRATIVE utterance/statement carried that particular register.

    + + + +

    ITEM THREE: Changes in how the categories of Version and Validation are phonologically marked.

    + +

    As a result of using tone to mark the new category of Register described above, the existing phonological markers for the category of Version (see Sec. 5.8) will have to be changed from tone to something else. In reviewing the possibilities, I have decided to change the markings for both the category of Version and the category of Validation (see Sec. 5.9) as well. These changes will entail the creation of a new Hearsay suffix, as well as a revamping of the existing SCS suffix. The details are as follows:

    + +

    Both Version and Validation will be primarily shown via a consonantal affix in Slot III. The affix for Validation will continue to be labelled Cg and will have priority over affixes showing Version. The Version affix will be arbitrarily labelled Cn. If Slot III is already occupied by Cg, then Version must be shown by the SCS suffix (-rk/kr-) in Slot XI. The SCS suffix has been re-formulated to accommodate all six Versions.

    + +

    The Cn Version affix in Slot III can only appear if the formative’s Validation is in its default value CNF-Confirmative. Conversely, the default Version, PRC-Processual is now completely unmarked, so that if a formative has both default CNF Validation and default PRC Version, it will be the CNF Validation that will occupy Slot III if required by the presence of a Valence affix in Slot II.

    + +

    The number of Cg Validations is being reduced from fourteen to six. This is because the existing nine hearsay values are being collapsed into a single value; the Ithkuil speaker/writer will instead now have to option to specify the exact nature of the hearsay via a new Hearsay suffix in Slot XI. The six values for Validation are now as follows:

    + +

    CNF – CONFIRMATIVE
    +Cg affix: glottal stop + h
    +NOTE: CNF Validation is normally unmarked; this suffix only appears if a Valence prefix occupies Slot II of the formative. Also: this suffix is supplanted by any non-default Cn Version affix.

    + +

    AFM – AFFIRMATIVE
    +Cg affix: glottal stop + y

    + +

    RPT – REPORTIVE
    +Cg affix: w-

    + +

    INF – INFERENTIAL
    +Cg affix: glottal stop + w

    + +

    ITU – INTUITIVE
    +Cg affix: hh-

    + +

    PSM – PRESUMPTIVE
    +Cg affix: y-
    +NOTE: This is the new affix that collapses the previous nine hearsay Validations into one. If exact specification of the hearsay source is desired, a new HSY-Hearsay VxC suffix is available for use in Slot XI. If this HSY suffix is employed, then use of the PSM Cg affix in Slot III is optional (i.e., it can be supplanted by a Cn Version affix or Slot III can be left unfilled if there is no Valence affix in Slot II).

    + +

    The new HSY Hearsay suffix is -ňţ. Its nine degrees match the previous nine hearsay Validations shown in Table 13(b) in Sec. 5.9.

    + +

    The six new Cn Version affixes for Slot III are as follows:

    + +

    PRC – PROCESSUAL
    +[unmarked]

    + +

    CPT – COMPLETIVE
    +Cn affix: -h-

    + +

    INE – INEFFECTUAL
    +Cn affix: -hw-

    + +

    INC – INCOMPLETIVE
    +Cn affix: -hm-

    + +

    PST – POSITIVE
    +Cn affix: -hn-

    + +

    EFC – EFFECTIVE
    +Cn affix: -hr-

    + +

    If necessary to show Version using the SCS suffix because of the presence of Cg, the new values of the SCS suffix are as follows:

    + +

    SCS -rk / -kr Degree of Success/Failure
    +1. total failure in; utterly fail to
    +2. INC version
    +3. INE version
    +4. certain to fail in, expected to fail in; anticipated/expected failure to
    +5. CPT version
    +6. certain to succeed in, expected to succeed in; anticipated/expected success in
    +7. PST version
    +8. EFC version
    +9. overwhelming success in; overwhelmingly successful

    + + +

    ITEM FOUR: Availability of new roots

    + +

    As a result of the changes above to permissible values in Slot III, the number of impermissible Cr root forms as stated in Table 3 (in Sec. 2.1.1) and in Sec. 2.2.1 is now reduced from fourteen to eight. The remaining prohibited root forms are -w-, -y-, -h-, -hw-, -hr-, -hh-, -hn-, -hm-.

    + + +

    ITEM FIVE: Correction of Rule in Sec. 5.5

    + +

    In Sec. 5.5, just above Table 11, there is a note indicating two methods by which one disambiguates (or correctly parses) the structure of a formative when Slots V and VI are filled. I have now realized the information given is overly complicated and not entirely correct. Specifically, the second note regarding use of the Slot IX infix -wë- in the presence of an incorporated root in Slots V and VI is both unnecessary and incorrect. Any incorporated root already mandatorily requires the presence of a Format/Context affix in Slot XII, so there is no need for any other means of indicating the function of Slots V and VI in that situation. It is also incorrect because the infix -wë- can also be used to increase the number of syllables in the word if necessary for purposes of applying antepenultimate or pre-antepenultimate stress (see the paragraph below Table 10 in Sec. 5.4.1).

    + +

    As a result, the only rule needed is for when Slots V and VI are occupied by the Cv Phase/Sanction/Illocution affix and the VL Valence affix. Specifically, the note above Table 11 in Sec. 5.5 should be simplified and corrected to say that a glottal stop is required immediately following the Vr affix in Slot IV whenever Slots V and VI are filled by the Cv and the VL valence affix. No such glottal stop is required if Slots V and VI are occupied by an incorporated root Cx+Vp.

    + + +

    I will eventually incorporate all of the above changes into the forthcoming Grammar Supplement.

    + +

    p.s. Work proceeds smoothly but slowly on the music production.

    + + + + + + + + + + +

    August 25, 2014

    +

    I have decided to post the lyrics to the last of the songs I composed, the one entitled "Synaesthesia." Rather than translate lines already written in English, this time I composed the lyrics directly in Ithkuil, which resulted in some very rich imagery and use of the language to its fullest extent. Furthermore, I was able to work out a (more-or-less) tetrameter verse for the English translation. I've yet to add a morphological analysis, but I'm posting the lyrics anyway for those who may have an interest in working out the morphology for themselves. The lyrics can be found in the Ithkuil Poetry section of the "Texts" page.

    +

    These new lyrics utilize some new roots, which I have now added to the Lexicon Supplement whose link is above to the right.

    +

    August 24, 2014

    +

    I will be at the Institute Library in New Haven, CT on Tuesday evening, September 9th, as the guest of honor at their Amateur Hour No. 14 event. It will be an hour-long free-wheeling conversation with Joshua Foer about Ithkuil and invented languages in general. Joshua is the co-founder of the Amateur Hour series and the author of the now-infamous New Yorker magazine article about my work.

    +

    July 11, 2014

    +

    I’ve completed all my song lyrics and production of the actual songs is underway (slowly). Producing these songs is going to take many months, maybe even a year, so I’ve decided that once the first song is done, I will release it as an mp3 download (maybe even a YouTube video?) as a “teaser” for the rest of the album. At any rate, since it’s going to be a while before anyone hears any music, I’ve decided to release the completed lyrics to the first song in their entirety for those of you interested in analyzing a new (and significant) corpus of Ithkuil-language material. The lyrics (including morphological analysis) are now available on the Texts page of this website, under the Ithkuil Poetry link.

    +

    July 10, 2014

    +

    Here is a list of seven new suffixes. I will be including them in the forthcoming Grammar Supplement, but I thought I'd list them separately for those who may be curious.

    +

    Also, while we're on the topic of suffixes, I should make it clear that suffixes beginning with –l or –r can reverse their consonants for the sake of euphony if followed by a vowel (e.g., –rk can become –kr). While this is explicitly shown in the existing grammar for some such suffixes, for others it is not. Nevertheless, this reversal of consonants is applicable to any suffix beginning with –l or –r.

    +

    June 21, 2014

    +

    I’ve now finished the lyrics to five of the six songs of my music project. Yesterday I sat down to begin writing the lyrics to the sixth and final song and I found myself thinking about my visit with the psychoneticists in Kiev, Ukraine, back in 2011. While there, I was asked to create an Ithkuil word for “synaesthesia.” Belatedly, I have done so and have decided to use it as the title of the song.

    + +

    In researching the exact meaning of the word, I discovered that many scholars studying the phenomenon consider the word inappropriate and would prefer the term “ideaesthesia”, as the nature of synaesthesia does not really involve the mind translating one sense impression into another, but rather translating thoughts/ideas/concepts into sense impressions. Therefore, the Ithkuil word is ôrödyagzou, which literally translates as something like “the concept (and wondrous experience thereof) of varied sets of sense impressions resulting from concurrent ideas/thoughts being considered”.

    + +

    The concept appears in the song lyrics contained within some very interesting (and powerful) words such as the one below:

    + +uorödyoi’gzuxharçiámtixtou +

    P3S3/DYN-inc.stem:‘thought.or.idea.considered’/P3S2/IFL-‘imagined.sensory.experience’-PTL-NRM/PRX/A/AGG/VAR-SCO1/9-MD051/5-CNM2/9-NEW1/1-RSL/AMG-IFL

    + +

    The literal translation of the above word is something like: “If there could be an act of embodiment of a new and wondrous synergistic expansion of synaesthesia”, which I will word more naturally (for the eventual lyric sheet) as:

    + +

    ‘If one could embody an emergence of new synaesthesia’

    + +

    The interesting thing about this sixth song, is that this is the first of the songs where I am deliberately composing the words without regard for how they fit into the music, as I’ve already decided that the existing music for this song does not match the subject matter of the lyrics at all.

    + +

    I have therefore decided to shelve the music I wrote for this song and will be composing new music later to go with the lyrics after I’ve finished them. This is the reverse of how the other five songs have been written and should prove an interesting experiment. I have a feeling that, as a result, the song may end up sounding rather different than the other five.

    + +

    June 17, 2014

    +

    I've now corrected a few errors and redundancies in the recently updated Lexicon Supplement and have added additional roots for a total of 75 roots and their stems.

    +

    June 10, 2014

    +

    I've updated the Lexicon Supplement (link is above right) with 26 new roots and their stems.

    +

    June 9, 2014

    +

    + I have now completed lyrics to four of the six songs. I’ve written further about the experience in a couple of posts on the Ithkuil subreddit for those interested (and have also provided a glimpse at more of the lyrics). At any rate, working with the language again after more than a two-year hiatus, I have discovered a few aspects of grammar that need, ahem, improvement, as well as an error.

    + +

    First of all, the example sentence at the end of Sec. 8.1.4 in the Grammar, illustrating use of the switch-reference suffix, has an error in it. The fourth word should be èkšülöt’ (not ekšüléňţ) and the morphological analysis below the sentence should show the suffix on this word as TPF1/2, not TPF1/3.

    + +

    More importantly:

    + +

    I’ve decided to augment the Ithkuil grammar to allow case stacking—the ability to assign two cases simultaneously to a formative (or to a case-frame). This is necessary to accurately translate sentences like the following:

    + +

    ‘I jog every day except in case of illness.’ or ‘I jog every day except during (an) illness.’

    + +

    In Ithkuil, “except (for) X” is expressed by the EXCEPTIVE case (Sec. 4.5.30), while the idea of “in case of X” is expressed by the POSTULATIVE case (Sec. 4.5.28) and “during X” by the CONCURSIVE case (Sec. 4.6.3). So how do we apply two different cases to the formative which translates ‘illness’ when translating the above sentence? Current Ithkuil grammar would require such a sentence to be expressed paraphrastically as something like ‘I jog every day except that I don’t jog during illness.’

    + +

    To allow for two (or more) cases to be assigned to the same formative (or case-frame), I am now introducing case adjuncts, a new kind of adjunct which signifies the case of the following case-frame (or formative if there is nothing but a formative between the case adjunct and the end of the sentence) which may, in turn have its own separate case. The form of these case adjuncts are based on Table 28 (in Section 8.1.2.2) as follows:

    + +

    For cases 1 through 48 (as per Table 28), the form of the adjunct is the consonant -w- plus Vc as indicated in Table 28. Alternately, a “full” form is available consisting of the Vc plus the syllable -wa. Examples: wa = OBLIQUE case (or awa), woe = REFERENTIAL case (or oewa), wëu = VOCATIVE case (or ëúwa), etc. Cases where Vc is -û- (i.e., the OGN case) or where Vc is a bisyllabic form beginning with -u- (i.e., the MED, APL, PUR, and CSD cases), must use the full form (in order to avoid phonetically undesirable forms such as wû or wuo, etc.)

    + +

    Cases 49 through 96 (as per Table 28) take the same forms except that the consonant -y- is substituted for -w-. Cases where Vc is -î- (i.e., the ELP case) or where Vc is a bisyllabic form beginning with -i- (i.e., the LOC, ORI, PSV, and ALL cases), must use the full form (in order to avoid phonetically undesirable forms such as yî or yio, etc.)

    + +

    So now the original English sentence can be translated as follows using the EXCEPTIVE case adjunct ya in conjunction with POSTULATIVE case on the following formative:

    + +

    Aigwaloekç   tu   żo’aluqh   ya   egloi’löat.
    +DYN-‘run’-[OBL]-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FRC2/4     1m-IND     (STA)-‘day’-ACS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-INL1/9
    +EXC     STA-‘illness’-PTL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-ATT/1m
    + ‘I jog every day except in case of illness.’

    + +

    Additionally, I have decided that the tone of these case adjuncts will be used to indicate which word following the case adjunct constitutes the topic of the following case-frame. Specifically:

    + +

    falling tone = no specific element topicalized
    +high tone = the first word following the adjunct is topicalized
    +rising tone = the second word following the adjunct is topicalized
    +low tone = the third word following the adjunct is topicalized
    +rising-falling tone = the fourth word following the adjunct is topicalized
    +falling-rising tone = the fifth word following the adjunct is topicalized

    + +

    This new ability to stack cases in Ithkuil also allows for alternative ways to construct case-frames which are potentially more elegant than what Ithkuil grammar previously allowed. For example, note the following English sentence:

    + +

    ‘She looks at the book about rats (that) I captured.’

    + +

    The Ithkuil translation can be either of the following:

    + +

    Ixal   qu   ultánļ   çt’oert   ikdai’rt   eçtho.
    +DYN-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     3a-IND     STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML
    +(STA)-‘rat’-REF-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-IFL     DYN/FRAMED-‘capture’-COR-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-IFL
    1m/ERG+ua/ABS

    + +

    Ixal   qu   ultánļ   íkdoert   to   çt’ertût’.
    +DYN-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     3a-IND     STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-TPF1/3-FML
    +DYN/FRAMED-‘capture’-REF-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-IFL     1m-ERG     (STA)-‘rat’-ABS-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-TPF1/6-IFL

    + +

    The first Ithkuil sentence above literally begins with “she looks at the book about rats” followed by a case-frame in CORRELATIVE case (equivalent to a relative clause in English) which states “I captured them.” So literally: ‘She looks at the book about rats that I captured them.’ The extra personal reference adjunct ua/ABS “them” is necessary, otherwise the Ithkuil sentence wouldn’t have a way to indicate that what was captured were the rats.

    + +

    The second Ithkuil sentence literally states “she looks at the book”, followed by a case-frame in REFERENTIAL case which states “rats (are what) I captured” or alternately “it is rats (that) I captured” where the word “rats” bears a TPF suffix indicating it is the topic of the case-frame. So literally: ‘She looks at the book – it’s about rats (that) I captured.’ Without the TPF suffix on “rats”, the Ithkuil sentence would translate as ‘She looks at the book about me having captured rats’, which does not mean quite the same thing as the original English sentence.

    + +

    With the new ability to stack cases using case adjuncts, we can render a new translation of the English sentence using the REFERENTIAL case adjunct woe (or oewa) as follows:

    + +

    Ixal   qu   ultánļ   ¯woe   çt’ert   ikdart   to.
    +DYN-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL     3a-IND     STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML
    +REF     (STA)-‘rat’-ABS-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-IFL     DYN-‘capture’-[OBL]-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-IFL     1m-ERG
    + ‘She looks at the book about rats (that) I captured.’

    + +

    Due to the presence of the case adjunct, there is no need to indicate FRAMED relation on the verb ‘capture’. Additionally, by using the case adjunct, it allows us to show ‘rats’ as the topic of the case-frame via tone (high tone indicates the word immediately following the case adjunct is the topic of the case-frame), eliminating the need to use a TPF suffix to indicate the topicalization. Note that use of the case adjunct to mark the beginning of a case frame also eliminates the requirement that case-frames have verb-initial word order, thus allowing pragmatic relations such as semantic focus and topicalization within the case-frame to be shown via word order.

    + +

    I will be adding this new information on case adjuncts to the forthcoming Grammar Supplement I plan to add to this website before the end of this year. + +

    +

    May 26, 2014

    +

    So far I’ve finished writing lyrics for three of the six songs of my music project. One of the three songs is a direct translation from English-language lyrics written by my brother. The other two are original Ithkuil lyrics inspired by thoughts I wrote down in English. It’s been interesting finding ways to translate from an English source within the constraints of the music. It should be noted that I do not consider these lyrics to be poetry per se, as the lines do not follow a strict meter given that many of the syllables are meant to be stretched across two or more beats or multiple notes, or paused for rests in the music, etc. (Being progressive-rock, the fact that the music is often in time signatures such as 5/4, 6/8, and 7/8 doesn’t help either.)

    +

    If these were meant to be real poems, I’d demand a strict meter and overt rules for consonantal and vocalic alliteration. Nevertheless, the lyrics do display a fair amount of rhyming on the last syllable of each line as well as a loose internal alliteration. Here is an example (and, no, I haven’t checked it yet for errors so it’s still potentially subject to change):

    +

    Oňň   âândairpöt’   îp   ütvaqayûlo
    + iùlái’št’axta   twiam-mt’uo
    + enk’alaň   ûkt   ač’át   ţiuteowa
    + a’tiçpralothukraň   öìçtheya

    +

    “However, with this information, there would be this other person who is myself
    + who might eventually choose to begin saying things I never said,
    + might steer clear of certain doorways as I did not,
    + and befriend strangers I’ll never meet”

    +

    So far I’ve created half a dozen new roots and three new suffixes while writing the lyrics. [NOTE: the above passage uses two new roots: -TV- ‘one’s “self” (as a metaphorical object of reflection)’, and -ŇK’- ‘make way for / keep clear of’.] After I’m done, I plan to add the new roots to the existing Lexicon Supplement PDF file, and will also be posting a new PDF file called Grammar Supplement where I will be presenting the new suffixes as well as some interesting grammatical innovations I’ve come up with that are not currently discussed in the existing grammar. For example, astute readers will note the word “ţiuteowa” above, a personal reference adjunct meaning “like me” preceded by the DEV/1 affix (reversative “un-”) but in 2nd degree. By using 2nd degree of this affix, I create a short-cut way of saying that the preceding verbal phrase is linked to the reversative reference; thus, the meaning is essentially “unlike what I do/did” or “like the reverse of what I do/did”.

    +

    The lyrics also provide a corpus of new Ithkuil example phrases and sentences which further illustrate the various morphological categories of the language. I plan to analyze these examples in the forthcoming Grammar Supplement PDF I will be posting. Again looking at the above stanza, the line “iùlái’št’axta twiam-mt’uo” is a good example of the language’s morpho-semantic efficiency:

    +

    iùlái’št’axta   twiam-mt’uo
    +P3/S2/DYN-‘communicate.spoken.content’-FRAMED/NRM/ICP/COR/AGG/ASO/U-NEW1/2
    +ASR/CTX/EXV-DCV-HYP/CUL-CSQ

    +

    The phrase fully translates as “who theoretically might eventually go ahead and choose to begin making various statements unsaid before”.

    +

    Unfortunately, I find that I have had to sacrifice the representation of stress accent when singing these lyrics. I can’t find a way to consistently place the lyrics I need within the melodies and rhythms I’ve written while preserving proper stress on the syllables. So there are lots of stems with FORMAL designation (requiring word-final stress) which are not stressed on the final syllable, and vice-versa for INFORMAL stems. I’ve decided to rationalize this given that there are plenty of natural languages where stress rules, and even tone requirements (e.g., Mandarin), are dispensed with in singing. I am likewise ignoring morpho-phonological tone in the music as well, but so far there’s only been a few words with non-falling tone, so the impact is not serious.

    +

    Anyway, three more songs to write lyrics for....

    +

    ALSO: Since I can no longer access the Ithkuil Facebook community, I’ve begun following the Ithkuil reddit community (for those of you familiar with reddit). Mostly I lurk, but do occasionally post answers to questions or comment on interesting threads.

    +

    February 7, 2014

    +

    I've finished composing the music for my music project. Six songs of progressive rock comprising approximately 70 minutes of music, enough to fill an audio CD. Now comes the hard part, composing the lyrics. Except for the Passover Seder translation last year, I've barely touched or looked at Ithkuil in over two years. Time to dust off my grammar book and notes and put on my conlanger hat. Now what do I want to say in these songs...?

    +

    August 16, 2013

    +

    I've received a special request to translate into Ithkuil the traditional Question & Answers from the Jewish Passover Seder celebration. I have added the translation to the Texts page of this website. (For those who take the trouble to analyze the translation, you'll find I've utilized two new roots not in the Ithkuil lexicon: -PKY- "grain/grain-based products" and -MSK- "bodily positions/stances (other than upright/supine)."

    +

    Also: After a long hiatus of over twenty years, I have begun composing music again (one of my many hobbies) which my brother and I will be realizing electronically using MIDI technology. (For those interested, I compose both progressive rock and world-fusion music.) Anyway, I have decided to compose the lyrics to the new material in Ithkuil in order to force myself to begin exploring Ithkuil "poetry." One might imagine Ithkuil to be incapable of poetry given that most poetry is based in metaphor. But I see Ithkuil's ability to more-or-less transparently provide words for complex thoughts, concepts, and gestalt imagery as being a worthwhile vehicle for exploration. Now I just need to find a vocalist willing and able to sing in the language!

    +

    Hopefully this flurry of activity is the beginning of a re-igniting of my interest in working on the language after well over a year's hiatus. We'll see!

    +

    April 22, 2013

    +

    I will be giving a presentation at the Fifth Language Creation Conference in Austin, Texas on May 4th.

    +

    December 27, 2012

    +

     

    +

    Joshua Foer’s New Yorker article about Ithkuil has gone a bit viral in terms of re-postings, links, and blog commentary, so I suppose I should offer a couple of corrections and clarifications:

    +

    Beyond getting my age wrong, the article states that I “lurk” on Facebook. This may lead some (i.e., the members of the Ithkuil Facebook community) to believe I am seeing their various comments and postings. I’ve never joined Facebook (and don’t intend to for various reasons) but I used to be able to see entries on the Ithkuil Facebook page and respond as necessary on this Updates page. However, when Facebook changed to its “Timeline” interface, I found I could no longer uncollapse the comment boxes to meaningfully read the various threads. Also, I’m told most of the Facebook commentary now occurs in a “private group,” to which I have no access whatsoever. So, no, I don’t lurk on Facebook because I can’t.

    +

    Also: based on various blog comments I’ve read here and there, apparently some readers of the article have gotten the impression that Ithkuil is supposed to represent some sort of “perfect” language (whatever that’s supposed to mean). I certainly don’t subscribe to such a presumptuous notion about my work. Ithkuil is for me nothing more than a private experiment to see the extent to which it might be possible to achieve the design goals mentioned at the beginning of the Introduction page of this website, nothing more. I originally posted it on the internet just to get some feedback from a few fellow conlangers.

    +

    Corollary to the above issue, some readers have apparently gotten the idea that Ithkuil is designed to (theoretically) replace natural languages or be used as an international auxiliary language like Esperanto. I address this erroneous notion in the FAQ pages of this website.

    +

    Thanks to those who've purchased a copy of the Ithkuil grammar book, and a special thank you to those who've bought a copy of my brother's and my novel.

    +

    December 14, 2012

    +

     

    +

    The forthcoming December 24th issue of the New Yorker magazine (available on U.S. newsstands and online Monday, December 17th) contains a feature-length article about me, my development of Ithkuil, and how it led to my amazing adventures in Russia and Ukraine during 2010 and 2011. The article is written by Joshua Foer, author of last year's bestselling book on memory Moonwalking With Einstein, who accompanied me to Kiev, Ukraine last year for four days to meet with the students there who have been studying Ithkuil. The article should be an interesting read!

    +

    I have also added a PDF of an Ithkuil translation of Schleicher's Fable to the Texts page. The translation was made last year by Florian Bauer of the Ithkuil Facebook group.

    +

    Sept 1, 2012

    +

     

    +

    The hardcopy book version of the Ithkuil Grammar has been revised to incorporate the corrections contained in the "Ithkuil Grammar Book Errata" PDF link above. I will maintain the above link to the PDF file for those persons who already own the previous version of the book.

    +

    July 27, 2012

    +

     

    +

    I corrected a few errors to the "Supplement to Lexicon" PDF file at the link above.

    +

    July 23, 2012

    +

     

    +

    I have added the above "Supplement to Lexicon" link to a PDF file containing approximately 30 additional lexical roots and their associated stems. I am posting these new roots as a separate PDF so that owners of the hardcopy book can refer to the PDF (or print it out) as a supplement to the book.

    +

    July 16, 2012

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    I have added the above "Ithkuil Grammar Book Errata" link to a PDF file listing the various errata found in the hardcopy book version of the Ithkuil Grammar. I will soon correct the manuscript and re-publish the book with the corrections, however, I will also maintain this PDF of errata for those persons who have previously purchased the book.

    +

    November 29, 2011

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    The passage of Ithkuil script shown on the cover of the Grammar book is meant to be merely decorative, however for those who feel they must figure it out, remember that Ithkuil script is written in boustrophedon mode.

    +

    I will be retiring in a few days, and now that the book is out, I will be hanging up my "conlanger" hat for a while to pursue my many other hobbies and interests. I will eventually return to work on the language (maybe in the spring?), as I am still keen on exploring Ithkuil poetry and expanding the lexicon. At any rate, this will likely be the last update for quite a while. Thanks for all the interest shown and best wishes to all.

    +

     

    November 23, 2011

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

    Paul Elaku just advised me that my system for using the SSD suffix with the carrier stem won't work, since it is highly unlikely that a hypothetical Ithkuil listener would be able to aurally parse the foreign words/phrase to know how many words it contains (i.e., s/he would be unable to know where the non-Ithkuil words stop and the words "go back to being Ithkuil words.") Duh! Therefore, I have now modified and simplified the rule in Sec. 9.3.1. Note, also, that it in written Ithkuil, the triple-dot "quotation marks" already indicate the end of the non-Ithkuil word/phrase so it is unnecessary to otherwise represent it in writing. (That's why it was unnecessary to modify the title masthead on these pages to show the SSD suffix.)

    +

     

    November 22, 2011

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    +

     

    +

     

    Amended Section 9.3.1 regarding use of the SSD suffix with the carrier stem to address non-Ithkuil proper nouns, words, or phrases that are more than one word in length.

    +

    Added new Section 10.6.4 to address the equivalents to WH-questions.

    +

    Added new Sections 6.4.3 and 7.4.15 to the grammar, explaining the expansion of Format to include the ability of an incorporated root to be associated with any of the 72 main noun cases.

    +

     

    November 21, 2011

    +

     

    Made corrections to the interlinear analysis of the Babel Text, as pointed out by Jacob from the Facebook group.

    +

    Paul Elaku is inquiring as to how Ithkuil handles WH-questions, e.g., who? what? when? why?, etc. The Ithkuil equivalents are not structured as questions using INTERROGATIVE illocution, but rather as statements using DIRECTIVE illocution. Thus, in Ithkuil, one does not ask "What is your name?" "What time is it?" "Where is the toilet?" "Who is that woman?" "Which clown was caught stealing?" Instead, an Ithkuil speaker would say "Please tell me your name," "Please indicate the time of day," "Indicate the location of the toilet," "Please identify that woman," and "Identify the [individual] clown [from the group of clowns] who was caught stealing."

    +

     

    November 17, 2011

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    +

     

    Added the first four sentences of the Babel Text to the Texts page.

    +

    Flo Bauer pointed out another error in the first Sec. 5.4.3 example. Somehow the first case-frame was in PURPOSIVE case instead of POSTCURSIVE case. Not sure how that happened. Oh, well....corrected now.

    +

     

    November 9, 2011

    Paul Elaku at the vk.com/ithkuil community pointed out a big error with the suffixes in the first example in Sec. 5.4.3, which I've now corrected. (One of those instances of me creating an early example of the new version of the language, then forgetting to modify it after I made additional last-minute revisions.)

    +

    Also: I noticed the "extreme" verb example shown at the beginning of Chapters 5 and 6 is inflected for a non-OBLIQUE case-frame but is in UNFRAMED relation, which makes no sense. I have corrected it to FRAMED relation.

    +

     

    November 8, 2011

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    +

     

    Anton on Facebook correctly pointed out that I forgot FUNCTIONAL context and FORMAL designation in my simplified version of the word for "computer." That got me to thinking. Technically, there's no reason conceptually that a computer has to function electronically (it just so happens that they do). After all, some of you may recall Babbadge's Engines. Therefore, I think the simplified version of the word doesn't really need the MEC1/5 affix. That leaves the form of the word as âdraxhtipší“apparatus designed for running programs.”

    +

    As for a word for "Internet," looks like Flo and Anton from the Facebook community rose to the challenge. Flo suggests eqaškonîškatu analyzed below:

    +
      +
    • +
      +
      +
      eq - Human, Person; P1S2 'higher order animal life'
      + a - OBL Case
      + šk - COMPOSITE configuration: -> A mass/unit of people
      + on - AGC1/7 suffix "one enables to"
      + îšk - DPR1/4 suffix " not physically connected but with immediate accessibility and ...knowledge of other member actions" - so now we know what kind of "unit" of people this is and that the word is the enablement of such.
      + at - MEC1/5 - ..by means of electronic binary switching
      + u - AMG, adding that it has a big social impact
      +
      +
      +
      +
      • +
    +

    I really like his use of the DPR1/4 suffix here; I doubt I would've thought of that. Two small corrections to his analysis: The idea of enablement is given by the AGC1 affix in Degree 2, not Degree 7, thus -ön, not -on. Also: the MEC1/5 suffix only indicates “by electronic means” -- if you want to specify binary switching, you'd have to drag in the incorporated root -šp- (P3S1 FML) as I did below in the full version for the word "computer." (I don't think it's necessary.) And for easier pronunciation, I'd change the order of his suffixes. The end result being: eqaškönatîšku.

    +

    Anton's suggestion is âdraxhtipšatekšarqú, which takes the word for "computer" and adds on the DRC1/3 and SPS1/5 suffixes plus AMALGAMATIVE context to give a word meaning “an indirect 2nd-order level of computer-based infrastructure with strong social impact/ramifications.” Interesting how Flo sees the Internet as a network of people through electronic means with big social impact, whereas Anton sees it as a network of computers with big social impact. What's even more interesting is that I, myself, was thinking along a third line of reasoning, focused neither on people nor computers, but rather on information. But I think I'll stick to the above two words.

    +

    Both are great efforts. I'd go with Flo's suggestion for contexts focusing on what the Internet is for and how each of us is part of it, whereas Anton's word seems appropriate when focusing on how it works or is structured.

    +

    Added the missing -rn- suffix (alternative suffix forms of the Phase categories) to Chapter 7

    +

     

    November 7, 2011

    +

     

    I have amended Section 1.2.1.3 to clarify that syllabic consonants count as full syllables for purposes of applying stress rules. Corrected additional errors. Began adding revised sound files back to where they had been previously removed for correction.

    +

    THE ITHKUIL WORD FOR “COMPUTER”: The administrator of the Ithkuil page at vk.com (the Russian-speaking world's answer to Facebook) contacted me puzzling over how to create the Ithkuil words for "computer" and "internet." In answer, I've now created a word for "computer" -- a very interesting exercise. There are two versions of the word, the full-length version, and a simplified version. The full version is âšpeudraxhtipšatúi while the simplified version is âdraxhtipšat. The analysis is below:

    +

    â - šp - eu - dr - a - xht -ipš - at - úi
    + P3S1/STA - inc.root:P1S3.FML='binary.switching' - stem:'follow/obey.rule' - OBL - NRM/DEL/U/COA/CST - UTE1/1 - MEC1/5 - ISR/FNC/FML
    +     “apparatus designed for running programs [literally: 'obeying synergistically composite sets of rules'] by means of eletronic binary switching”

    +

    The simplified version âdraxhtipšat means “apparatus designed for running programs electronically” which is probably more usable than the full version. [NOTE: This form is not correct - see entry for November 8th above.]

    +

    Now I need a word for "Internet." That should put the morphology, suffixes and lexicon through their paces, eh? Anyone wanna give it a try before I take a crack at it? (Hmm, new root needed, maybe?)

    +

     

    November 4, 2011

    +

     

    Continued to correct various errors pointed out by the Facebook gang. (Note: some of the errors involve a choice as to how to correct them -- I don't always go along with the correction suggested.)

    +

    I have amended the second note under the fourth paragraph in Sec. 5.5 (above Table 11) to ensure that Cs Phase-Sanction-Illocution forms and Cg Validation forms do not become ambiguous in certain instances.

    +

    I have added a paragraph to Sec. 8.1.3, following Table 34, clarifying the order in which tones are combined in dual-referent personal reference adjuncts.

    +

     

    November 3, 2011

    +

     

    I've begun correcting several errors in example sentences pointed out on Facebook in the three weeks I've been away, (although not all of the items being pointed out are, in fact, errors). I will continue making corrections over the next few days.

    +

    By the way, I appreciate the eagle eyes of those few on the Facebook page who bother to take the time to so scrupulously check my work. After creating this revision of Ithkuil over the last couple of years, my enthusiasm lagged when it came time to create (or re-create) all the example phrases and sentences. The results were obviously hurried and sloppy in many instances. The fact that I made a few last-minute changes to the morpho-phonology and the script after I'd already created several examples obviously hasn't helped either.

    +

    Note: The brief epenthetic vowel following a glottal stop described in Section 1.2.2.1 does not count for purposes of antepenultimate or pre-antepenultimate syllabic stress. The rules for syllabic stress operate at the phonemic level, not the phonetic level.

    +

     

    October 18, 2011

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    +

     

    Lexicon: Fixed errors in the meanings of the complementary stems of the roots -Ļ- ‘BREATHE/RESPIRATION’ and -RXh- ‘COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM’.

    +

    I just realized that nowhere in Chapter 2 do I indicate that the Slot VII root consonant form Cr cannot be a glottal stop nor those consonant forms that are the same as CG forms (from Slot III) or Ci forms (from Slot IX), i.e., -w-, -y-, -h-, -hw-, -hr-, -hh-, -hn-, -hm-, -lw-, -ly-, -rw-, -ry-, -řw-, -řy-. Don't know how I could've failed to state something so basic that, without it, the entire morpho-phonological formula for formatives (Sec. 2.1.1) falls apart. I've amended Table 3 (in Section 2.1.1) and Section 2.2.1 accordingly.

    +

    Prior to the end of 2012, I plan to divide the Lexicon into two different versions: (1) the existing alphabetical listing, and (2) a listing of roots by topics, which will group semantically-related roots together.

    +

    Next updates will not be until November.

    +

     

    October 14, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    To those persons who are attempting to memorize all 1728 forms of the Ca affix from Tables 5(a) through 5(l) in Section 3.5.3: You might find it helpful to review the alternate means of showing Extension explained in Section 6.3.5 via tone on a verbal adjunct (use a neutral default verbal adjunct an-n if you have to). In this way, you only have to memorize 288 forms of the Ca affix (the NRM and RPV forms of the DELIMITIVE extension) instead of the full 1728 forms. Just a suggestion.

    +

     

    October 13, 2011:

    +

     

    In anticipation of the forthcoming print-version of the Ithkuil grammar, I have modified the copyright terms listed at the bottom of each page of this website, making them more specific.

    +

     

    October 11, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Resolved the issue of duplicate stems -SP- and -SK’-. The latter root has been eliminated, and the examples on the Texts page which had utilized that root (involving formulas of thanks/gratitude) have been changed to utilize the -SP- root instead.

    +

    To the Facebook poster wondering why the native name of the language still carries a circumflex accent over the last vowel -- see Sec. 1.2.3.1.

    +

     

    October 5, 2011:

    +

     

    Corrected the root for the ‘prepared food’ example in Section 5.1.5. Made several additional corrections of various small typos/errors, as well as some Ithkuil script transcription errors found by the astute folks on Facebook.

    +

     

    October 3, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Various additional typos and errors pointed out by the Facebook gang have been corrected.

    +

    I have introduced four new roots to the lexicon relating to the atomic and subatomic world as well as the fundamental forces, including electromagnetism and gravity. The four new roots are -KTh-, -ŇKY-, -TXh-, and -KSS-.

    +

    Additionally, I have added two new suffixes to the list of derivational suffixes in Chapter 7: The PLV and MLR suffixes. The former suffix operates closely in conjunction with the four new roots above.

    +

    During 2012, I plan to add new entries to the lexicon on a more frequent basis.

    +

    Also: Upon closer analysis, I've determined that -K- and -PÇ- are not, in fact, duplicate roots. I have clarified the distinction between them in the lexicon as well as in the interlinear analysis of the fifth example from Sec. 4.5.33.

    +

     

    Sept. 21, 2011:

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    +

     

    +

     

    I managed to sneak some time from my vacation to make an update. I have made numerous corrections pointed out by the Facebook gang. A few remain to be fixed. The most important corrections are as follows:

    + Corrections made to several values in Tables 5(d), 5(k) and 5(L) in Chapter 3, Section 3.5.3. (I don't think any example sentences are affected, are there?)

    Additional information added to Section 11.3.1.5 on how to indicate high-toned personal reference adjuncts in the writing system.

    +

    Example sentences in Sections 3.5.4, 4.5.33, and 6.4.2 corrected.

    +

    Correction made to one of the values in Table 11(f), Section 5.5.

    +

     

    Sept. 2, 2011:

    +

     

    I will be away for the rest of September and will likely be unable to make any updates to the site until October.

    +

    I've also just discovered a duplicate root in the lexicon: -K- and -PÇ-, both meaning ‘PATH-ORIENTED TRANSLATIVE MOTION’. I will need to eliminate one of them, but first must determine how many example sentences using one of these two roots will need to be changed. Unfortunately, I will likely not have time to do this until October. Until then!

    +

     

    Sept. 1, 2011:

    +

     

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    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Table 5(i) in Chapter 3: Corrected the RPV/ICP/M/CSL/CST affix to -ļtl-.

    +

    As for yesterday's correction, yes, the value should be -ndv- not -nv-, as both /m/ and /n/ allophonically assimilate to a labio-dental nasal (IPA [] ) before /v/ for most speakers (including yours truly), except in hyper-enunciated speech.

    +

    IMPORTANT: I am planning a big addition to the grammar of the language. There will be a whole new set of suffixes added to Chapter 7 that will greatly expand the category of Format (see Sec. 6.4) for use with incorporated stems. These new suffixes will essentially be entirely new formats. Many, if not all of them, will correspond to noun cases, so that a great many new kinds of relationships will be available between a primary stem and its incorporated stem. In many instances, these will allow for single-word substitutes for noun-to-noun case relationships. At this stage, I have only considered the idea conceptually; I have not yet mapped out the specific relationships nor assigned any morpho-phonological values to these suffixes. I anticipate I will be adding these to the website sometime in late 2011 or early 2012. The eventual update will include many new examples added to Section 6.4 on Format.

    +

     

    August 31, 2011:

    +

     

    In Table 5(b) in Chapter 3, corrected the value of the NRM/PRX/N/VAR/COH Ca affix from -mv- to -ndv-, plus a few other minor errors. Thanks, Anton!

    +

     

    August 30, 2011:

    +

     

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    +

     

    Florian's critique of my Litany Against Fear translation has caused me to rethink the translation and make some changes. I have modified lines 2 and 3 to indicate ALLEGATIVE sanction. Also, I now realize the future tense used in Lines 6 and 8 in the English original implies intentionality rather than mere future time; it should therefore be translated by INTENTIVE modality (or the suffixed equivalent) rather than PROSPECTIVE aspect. And in Line 7, this use of English 'will' rises beyond intentionality to the level of a declarative statement, i.e., the speaker is willing the statement to be true, thus corresponding to DECLARATIVE illocution. Finally, while fear is spoken of as an abstract entity in Lines 2 and 3, it is personalized as the speaker's own feelings of fear in Lines 4 through 7 and should not, therefore, be expressed using ABSTRACT perspective or ABSTRACT personal reference, but MONADIC perspective and MONADIC inanimate personal reference. On the Texts page, I have now shown these modifications to the original translation in green. I have also added literal English reverse-translations of the Ithkuil version.

    +

    Corrected the Vc+Cz values of the last six cases in Table 28 in Chapter 8.

    +

     

    August 26, 2011:

    +

     

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    +

     

    Well, as it turns out, I decided on the straightforward approach to the vocative -- I've made it a new noun case. You'll now find it described in new Section 4.8. While I was at it, I eliminated the DEFERENTIAL case and merged its function with the BENEFACTIVE case, so there are still a total of 96 cases. The Vc infix for the new VOCATIVE case is -ë-. I have updated Table 7 in Chapter 4 to reflect these changes, as well as the first line of the Lord's Prayer on the Texts page.

    +

    As for the Vc and Vc+Cz forms used with personal reference adjuncts (see Sec. 8.1.2), I did some switching around. I changed the Vc and Vc+Cz values of the CONCESSIVE case to those of the now-obsolete DEFERENTIAL case, and have assigned the former values of the CONCESSIVE case to the new VOCATIVE case. The new values for the CONCESSIVE and VOCATIVE cases can be seen in Table 28 in Chapter 8.

    +

    The tables of primary and secondary case/aspect written characters in Chapter 11 have also been updated to reflect these changes.

    +

     

    August 24, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Florian from the Facebook group is attempting a translation of Schleicher's Fable, which involves conveying indirect speech. Ithkuil handles indirect speech, as well as direct quotations in the same way, via case frame. In most cases this would be the OBLIQUE case-frame, considering the statement's semantic role as CONTENT of the verb 'speak/say', as in 'He said X,' where X is obviously not a semantic patient, enabler, experiencer, agent, stimulus, etc., but merely the non-causal content associated with the verb.

    +

    Flo is also looking for a root for "thing" (looking at the fable I'm not sure why he needs such a stem, but it's his translation...). At any rate, I don't have the stems from the root "TANGIBLE OBJECT/THING/SUBSTANCE" worked out yet, although almost certainly Informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root will simply mean "tangible object/thing; be/exist as a tangible object/thing." The root will most likely be -TÇ-. Or, in the meantime you could always use Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root -C-, as a nominal formative (translation: "something that exists").

    +

    As for the vocative, I'm still toying with whether to make it a suffix, a case form, or a Slot IX Ci+Vi form (i.e., a new illocution like the DECLARATIVE, available only in FACTUAL mood). I'm leaning toward the latter solution.

    +

     

    August 22, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    Finished adding the Litany Against Fear to the Texts page.

    +

    Corrected a few more errata pointed out by the Facebook gang.

    +

     

    August 19, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Began adding to the Texts page the Ithkuil translation and interlinear analysis of the Litany Against Fear from Frank Herbert’s Dune.

    +

    Added the script analysis example to Section 11.1.5.

    +

    Corrected the written form of the example phrase at the beginning of Chapter 5.

    +

     

    August 18, 2011:

    +

     

    Corrected a few more errors listed on the Facebook/Ithkuil site.

    +

     

    August 17, 2011:

    +

     

    Added the handwritten forms of the Ithkuil script to Section 11.5.

    +

    Corrected various errata pointed out by the folks on the Ithkuil Facebook page. Thanks guys! Nice to know there's someone more attentive to details than I am.

    +

    As for ordering of the days of the week, Ithkuil grammar arbitrarily chooses to follow the pattern of most Western European cultures in calling Sunday the first day of the week, e.g., Portuguese segunda-feira 'Monday,' terça-feira 'Tuesday' -- literally 'second-day,' 'third-day.' And in the 'on Sundays' example from Section 4.6.16, the Configuration could also be SEGMENTATIVE if you want to emphasize that the recurring Sundays are subjectively connected to each other (e.g., by the same activities or purpose or interdependency, such as when each Sunday's events/activities are dependent on the preceding Sunday's events/acitivities and likewise form the basis/foundation for the following Sunday's events/activities.)

    +

     

    August 16, 2011:

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    +

     

    Added the new CAL suffix to Section 7.4.5 to address the issue of names of the days of the week and months of the year. As a result, the 'on Sundays' example in Section 4.6.16 has been modified. Also changed the meaning of the FORMAL stems of the root -Ż- to refer to calendrical/cyclic days; the lexicon entry for this root has been expanded with various notes, including information on deriving the words for 'week' and 'month.'

    +

    On the Texts page, I modified my analysis of Line 7 of the Lord's Prayer in order to address in greater detail the erroneous form ^tuhekčéötöt’.

    +

     

    August 15, 2011:

    +

     

    Finished the analysis of the Lord's Prayer on the Texts page.

    +

     

    August 12, 2011:

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    +

     

    +

     

    An Ithkuil fan has posted his own Ithkuil translation of the Lord's Prayer on Facebook. Hooray! I have copied it to the Texts page and have added my own comments/analysis regarding it.

    +

    Made corrections to examples in Sections 5.7.15 and 5.9.1 where the values for the CPL and RCP valences were transposed.

    +

    I have begun preparing the handwritten forms of the Ithkuil script and will be posting them to Section 11.5 probably sometime next week.

    +

     

    August 11, 2011:

    +

     

    A few paragraphs on Ithkuil equivalents to placenames, ethnonymns, and language names has been added to the end of Section 11.4.1.

    +

     

    August 9, 2011:

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    +

     

    One of the Facebook members is apparently tackling an Ithkuil translation of the Lord's Prayer. Interesting! He'll need to review the new root I've just added: -KČ-. As for a word for 'sin', I think I'd use the root -VY- in Pattern 2, Stem 2, Formal Designation, in conjunction with the SIM2/1 suffix to give a word meaning more or less 'immoral act, moral transgression.'

    +

    Corrected various errors pointed out by Anton Sanarov: Sections 1.2.5.2, 5.4.1, 8.1.3, 10.1.2, and all of the variants of the 'She and I were planning on taking a walk later on" sentence from Chapters 5 and 6. Still one or two more to correct....

    +

    And I'm still thinking about the vocative....

    +

     

    August 8, 2011:

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    +

     

    I've been peeking at posts on Facebook's Ithkuil community. Looks like some of the members there have been hard at work (best of luck!). They have pointed out various errata (for which I'm grateful and will be correcting over the next few days) and have raised some good questions which I will address in the grammar soon, including the thorny issue of an Ithkuil equivalent to a vocative form (which I've always somehow managed to avoid dealing with ... [sigh]).

    +

     

    August 3, 2011:

    +

     

    Corrected an error in Section 6.1.31 and made a few minor edits to Chapter 6.

    +

     

    August 2, 2011:

    +

     

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    Corrected an error in the fourth example sentence from Section 5.7.15 and added a clarifying paragraph to Section 6.2.3 below Table 17 regarding the value of the Ve Level infix in Slot B of a verbal adjunct when there is no Level but the presence of Ve is required by the presence of a CL Valence prefix in Slot A.

    +

    Populated the greetings/salutations section of the “Texts” page.

    +

     

    August 1, 2011:

    +

     

    Added sound files to “Texts” page.

    +

     

    July 29, 2011:

    +

     

    Made some small edits and corrections to Chapters 4 and 5.

    +

     

    July 27, 2011:

    +

     

    Oops! Forgot about the sound files for the “Texts” page. I'll record those this coming weekend.

    +

     

    July 26, 2011:

    +

     

    Made some small edits and corrections to Chapters 1, 2, and 3.

    +

     

    July 25, 2011:

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    		Finished adding sound files to the site. +

    Added placeholder section in the “Texts” chapter pertaining to greetings and other conversational + elements.

    +

    Corrected two errors in Table 35 and one error in Table 43 in Chapter 11.

    +

    NOTE: A video of my May 2011 Ithkuil slideshow presentation in Kyiv, Ukraine, has recently appeared online. Viewers should be aware that at the time of that slideshow, the new Ithkuil writing system had not yet been finalized, and that the written forms of the phrases and sentences shown in the slideshow have since changed.

    +

     

    July 21, 2011:

    +

     

    		Added IPT suffix to Chapter 7. Added all sound files through Chapter 4. +

     

    July 20, 2011:

    +

     

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    		 +

    Placeholder sections 11.5 and 11.6 added to Chapter 11, for the eventual posting of the handwritten forms of the Ithkuil written characters and description of the yet-to-be-developed adaptation of the 2-dimensional ornamental script from the now-defunct Ilaksh website.

    +

    Corrected the pronunciation table in the Phonology chapter regarding the value of the xh-digraph.

     

    July 18, 2011:

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    Began placing sound files for new site into production. Will continue to do so over the course of the week.

    +

    Added new "Updates / News" page and links.

    +

    Added new Section 1.2.3.1 to the Phonology chapter regarding separation of diphthongs into separate syllables.

    +

    Amended Section 11.3.4.1 to address tri-consonantal and tetra-consonantal stems that cannot be written using a single consonantal character.

    +

     

    July 15, 2011:

    +

     

    		 +

    New version of website placed in production; old Ithkuil site plus Ilaksh site withdrawn.

     

     

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    +

    ©2004-2015 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

    +
    +

     

    + + + + + + + + + +
    Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book

     

    +

    For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar
    + in book form, it is now available! +

    +

    And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-
    + wrote     with my twin brother Paul, also now available!

    + +

    (It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the
    + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features
    + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

    Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada

    + + + + + + + + + -- cgit v1.2.3