From 27c9f305310f2025ae34be905589613d5c1f47e7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: uakci Date: Fri, 18 Sep 2020 02:23:27 +0200 Subject: 2004-en, 2004-ru, 2011-en --- 2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm | 1422 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 1422 insertions(+) create mode 100644 2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm (limited to '2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm') diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..17d5ad0 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1422 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 8: Adjuncts + + + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
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+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 8: Adjuncts

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
8.1 Personal Reference + Adjuncts 8.4 Affixual Adjuncts
8.2 Subsidiary Adjuncts8.5 Alternate Indicators + for Vocalic Mutation
8.3 Combination Adjuncts8.6 Additional Information + on Bias
+
+


+ The notion of adjuncts was introduced in Section + 2.6.2. We have already discussed some details of various kinds of adjuncts: + valence adjuncts and conflation adjuncts were introduced in Secs. + 5.2 and 5.4, modality + adjuncts were mentioned in Sec. 5.5, + and aspectual adjuncts were described in Chapter + 6. In this chapter, more information is given about these adjuncts and several +additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

+

 

+
+ + + + +

8.1 PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS

+
+

The first type of adjunct we will analyze are those relating + to personal reference. By “personal reference” is meant the grammatical + description of nouns by abbreviated forms of reference. In most languages, this + is accomplished by means of personal pronouns (e.g., English he, she, it, I, + you, him, her, mine, ours, etc.). Generally, personal pronouns are distinguished + by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) and case (e.g., compare English + we, us, and ours). Ithkuil accomplishes the equivalent function by means of + personal reference adjuncts, of which there are two types: single-referent and + dual-referent.

+

Like all adjuncts in Ithkuil, personal reference adjuncts are + highly synthetic in their structure, comprised of at least two morphemes and + usually more. Before we examine the componential structure of personal reference + adjuncts themselves, we must first introduce the personal reference categories + they refer to.

+


+ 8.1.1 Personal Reference Categories

+

The morpho-semantic delineations of Ithkuil personal reference + categorization are based on inclusion or exclusion in relation to an utterance. + These delineations begin with identifying whether or not the party speaking + is included or excluded in relation to the utterance. The next delineation made + is whether the party being addressed (i.e., the audience/listener) is included + or excluded, then finally whether any third party (i.e., a party other than + the speaker and the addressee) is included or excluded.

+

There are 46 personal reference categories in Ithkuil, each + of which is represented by a single consonant affix plus a corresponding falling + or high tone as shown in Table 22 below. The various terms and abbreviations + used in the table are explained following the table.
+

+

Table 22(a) + and (b): Personal Reference Categories

+
+ + + + + +
+
+

Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

+
+

1 + = Inclusion of speaker
+ 2 = Inclusion of addressee
+ m = monadic (single party)
+ u = unbounded (more than one party)
+ a = animate 3rd party
+ i = inanimate 3rd party
+ E + = universal ('everyone/everything')
+ M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
+ IP = Impersonal ('one')
+ ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
+ Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
+ Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
+ Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)
+

+
+

The following sections explain the terminology in the above + table.

+

8.1.1.1 + + Monadic vs. Unbounded. These terms were discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.3 on Perspective. For simplicity’s sake, the difference between + a MONADIC third party versus an UNBOUNDED + third party can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ + and ‘they.’

+

8.1.1.2 + + Speaker and Addressee. These terms refer respectively to the party + speaking (in Western grammar the first person), the party being spoken to (the + second person), and a third party being considered or mentioned (the third person). + Unlike the standard six-person matrix common in Western grammar (the three persons + divided into singular and plural), Ithkuil divides personal reference along + logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance. +

+

From the viewpoint of Ithkuil grammar, only a single individual + can speak. Even if there are two or more persons speaking the same utterance + simultaneously it is but a collection of single individuals, each of which is + one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ithkuil, the speaker, + can be only MONADIC, never UNBOUNDED. + Thus, in Ithkuil, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” + since inherent in the various categories which translate “we” is + the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From this + we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s + utterance that determines the various personal reference categories.

+

The “second person” in Ithkuil is the addressee, + the person(s) being addressed or spoken to. There can be one addressee, or more + than one addressee, i.e., MONADIC or UNBOUNDED.

+

The “third person” in Ithkuil is where things get + very complicated, in that a party being referenced who is not the speaker or + the addressee can have many distinctions, including the presence or absence + of animacy, being MONADIC versus UNBOUNDED, + being referred to as a collective entity, being an intangible abstraction, being + indefinite, being an impersonal generic reference, or being a combination of + two or more of these categories. These distinctions are explained below.

+

8.1.1.3 + + Animate vs. Inanimate. This is as it sounds. As we saw in earlier chapters, + particularly Sec. 4.1, several + important morphological categories in Ithkuil are dependent on whether the party + to the act, condition, or event is a living entity or inanimate. Note that the + distinction between gender (he vs. she) found in most Western languages does + not exist in the Ithkuil personal reference system.

+

8.1.1.4 + “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible for the third + party being referenced to be two or more entities of different natures. For + example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” where + “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic + animate entity), three boxes (i.e., a polyadic inanimate entity), and an intangible + concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract entity). In such + cases, Ithkuil personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” + parties to be included in a particular personal referent.

+

8.1.1.5 + Collective Reference. This corresponds to the NOMIC + Perspective in which a noun can be spoken of as a generic collective. For example, + the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast + refers to all dogs in a collective sense, not any dog in particular. This COLLECTIVE + category has its own set of personal reference affixes in Ithkuil, depending + on what other entities are included in the context of the utterance.

+

8.1.1.6 + Abstract Reference. This corresponds to the ABSTRACT + perspective, equivalent to derivational abstract forms such as English nouns + ending with -hood, -ness, etc. In Ithkuil, all nouns can be + spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the + sense of being or functioning as a book), and the personal reference system + provides affixes for this category whose form again depends on what other entities + are included in the context of the utterance.

+

8.1.1.7 + Obviative (4th Person) Reference. This category has no equivalent in + Western languages, although it is found in various Native American languages. + It refers to a third party referent other than one previously mentioned, which + would otherwise be identically marked. In Native American grammatical treatises, + this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. + For example, the English sentence He saw his book is ambiguous because + we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer to the + same person or to two different persons (i.e., one who did the seeing and another + who owns the book). In Ithkuil, no such ambiguity occurs because the latter + third person referent, if a distinct person from the initial third person referent, + would be marked using the OBVIATIVE, not the third person. + This disambiguation of third person referents is the purpose of the OBVIATIVE. + Its translation into English is therefore dependent on a preceding personal + referent. (See Sec. 8.1.4 below for more information + about the OBVIATIVE).

+

8.1.1.8 + Indefinite Reference. This category indicates that the third party + refers to any third party within the specified parameters. For example, the + referent + indicates an indefinite animate party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or + ‘anybody,’ while the referent + indicates an indefinite inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’ +

+

8.1.1.9 + Universal Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers + to every third party within the specified parameters. For example, the referent + -l + indicates a universal animate party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or + ‘everybody,’ while the referent -l¯ + + indicates a universal inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’ +

+

8.1.1.10 + Impersonal Reference. This category corresponds to the German pronoun + man or French pronoun on, as well as the various circumlocutions + used in English to describe impersonal reference (e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ + ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). + Such impersonal reference is illustrated in the following English sentences:

+
+

· One should + never speak to clowns alone.
+ · To dance the tango you need a partner.
+ · They say it never rains in August.
+ · That town is said to be haunted.
+ · She just wants to talk to someone + without being criticized.

+
+

8.1.1.11 Inclusivity vs. Exclusivity. Since + Ithkuil personal reference adjuncts are designed to specify who among the speaker, + addressee(s), and any third party is included or excluded in the context of + the utterance, there are many possible personal reference distinctions possible + in Ithkuil for which English has no equivalent pronouns. Such exacting distinctions + would have to be made periphrastically in English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ + the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and + he but not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English + word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings equivalent to ‘you + (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ + ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and those things,’ etc.

+


+8.1.2 Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

+

Adjuncts with one personal referent are termed single-referent + adjuncts and have three forms: (1) a short form, (2) a long form, and (3) a + conjunct form, as shown in Table 23 below.
+

+

Table 23: + Morphological Structure of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Form 1: Example:
Form 2: Examples:
+
Form 3: Example:
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Where: 
+
+ =
consonant indicating + Referent 1 [from Table 22 above]
+
+ =
short form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table + 24 below]
+
+ =
vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, Designation & Focus of Referent + 1
+ _____ (see Table 25 + below)
+
+ =
long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 [see Table + 24 below]
+
+ =
vocalic suffix + (+ stress) showing Context:
+ _____-a = EXS; -u + = FNC; -a + ultimate stress = SYM; -u + + ultimate stress = AMG
+
+ =
vocalic infix + showing degree of (see + Table 26 below)
+
+ =
consonantal suffix + for Referent 1 from standard suffix tables
+
+ =
vocalic suffix + showing Context for Referent 1: -a = EXS; -u + = FNC; -û = SYM; -â + = AMG
+
+ =
consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 20 in Sec. + 6.6))
+
Form + 3:
Stress pattern + shows affix-type: penultimate = V1C, + ultimate = V2C, antepenultimate + = V3C
+
Forms +
+ 1, 2, & 3:
Tone + shift shows RPV essence for Referent 1: falling + broken, high + rising

+

The short form of the adjunct consists of a single consonant + (labeled CR in the diagram) plus tone, + corresponding to one of the 46 particular referents (as described in Sec. + 8.1.1 above). This is followed by a single vocalic suffix VC + indicating the case of the personal referent (see Chapter 4 on Case). The 81 + possible values for this suffix are shown in Table 24 below.
+

+Table 24: Case Suffixes/Infixes +for Personal Reference Adjuncts
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
 
 
 
+

As for the long form of the adjunct, the first part is an optional + vocalic prefix + which indicates the Configuration, Affiliation, and Designation of the personal + referent (see Chapter 3 + for a discussion of these morphological categories). The possible values for + + are shown in Tables 25(a) and (b) below.

+


+ Table 25(a) and (b): Prefixes + for Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

+

25(a) Designation + of Referent 1 = INFORMAL
+
+
+ 25(b) Designation + of Referent 1 = FORMAL
+

+


+ The second part of the long form of the adjunct is the single consonant () + plus tone shown previously in Table 22, corresponding + to the personal referent. The third part of the long form of the adjunct is + a syllabic infix () + which shows the case of the personal referent; it is a combination of a vowel + or diphthong followed by the consonant y or w. + The 81 possible values for this + infix are shown in the last column of Table 24 above. + The final term of the long form of the adjunct is a single vowel suffix - + which, in conjunction with syllabic stress, indicates the Context of the personal + referenct (see Sec. + 3.6 on Context). The four values for this - + suffix are shown in Table 23 above.

+

As for the third type, or conjunct form of the adjunct, the + first three terms of are identical to those of the long-form. The new terms + are , + which is merely a standard suffix used with formatives, as analyzed in Sec. + 7.7, and a vocalic infix, , + which indicates the degree of . + The values of + are shown in Table 26 below. The affix-type + of is shown by the adjunct’s stress pattern. Optional terms are , + one of four vocalic suffixes showing the Context of the personal referent, and + , + a consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. + 6.6. The use of + is optional if the context of the referent is already known (or can be inferred) + from the utterance. The appearance of the + bias suffix is dependent on the appearance of , + i.e., + must appear if + is to appear, although + can appear in word-final position without any + bias suffix.
+

+

Table 26: + Values for

+ + + + + +
  + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1
ï
Degree 2
u
Degree 3
ë
Degree 4
e
Degree 5
a
Degree 6
ö
Degree 7
o
Degree 8
ä
Degree 9
i
+

For all three forms of the adjunct, shift from falling to broken + tone, or from high to rising, indicates the REPRESENTATIVE + essence of the personal referent.

+

8.1.2.1 Use of the Short Form. The short form + of a single-referent personal reference adjunct is used when it is clear from + the surrounding context of the utterance which previously identified noun participant + is being referred to, so that it is unnecessary to indicate the Configuration, + Affiliation, Designation, Focus, and Context of the referent. The short form + of the adjunct merely indicates the party itself and its case.

+

8.1.2.2 Use of the Long Form: The long form + of the adjunct is used when necessary to indicate the context and/or the Configuration, + Affiliation, Designation, and Focus of the referent when the surrounding sentences + do not provide or make clear this information.

+

8.1.2.3 Use of the Conjunct Form: Form 3 of + the adjunct, the conjunct form, is a single-referent adjunct which combines + with a standard formative affix, allowing an affix category to be applied to + a personal referent, just as an affix category would normally apply to the formative + to which it is affixed. This allows personal referents to be spoken of in contexts + created by affix categories, such as when combining -V1/7 + ‘there (by addressee)’ with paw(a) + + to give the form pawo + meaning ‘you people there.’

+
8.1.2.4 Examples of Single-Referent Personal Reference + Adjuncts in Use +

+ _Listen! + +
+
+
+
+

8.1.3 Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

+

Ithkuil allows a personal reference adjunct to show the personal + reference category and associated case for two separate parties all in one adjunct. + This is called a dual-referent adjunct and serves to combine two unrelated personal + referents into one adjunct, no matter what their associated cases may be. There + is only one form of a dual-referent adjunct, shown in Table 27 below.

+


+ Table 27: Morphological Structure + of a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct +

+ + + + + + + + +
Form 3:
+

Examples: p’awik
+ Examples: ûksaiwénz
+ Examples: ççäyokluss

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Where: 
+ =
vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, Designation & Focus of Referent + 1
+ _____ (see Table 25 + above and Table 28 below)
=
consonant(s) + indicating Referent 1 and Referent 2 [see Table + 30]
+ =
long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 [see Table + 24 above]
+ =
vocalic infix + showing Context & Designation of Referent 2 (see Table + 29 below)
+ =
consonantal suffix + showing Case and Configuration of Referent 2 (see Table + 31; 9 degrees of case suffix correspond to the 9 configurations)
+ =
vocalic suffix + showing Affiliation of Referent 2: -a = CSD, -u + = ASO, -û = VAR, -â + = COA
+
=
consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 20 in Sec. + 6.6)
Tone + =
Combinations + of Ref. 1& 2:
+ _____ falling + falling = falling, high + + high = high, falling + high = rising,
+ _____ high + falling = broken
Stress + =
shows Ref. 2 + Essence & Focus: penultimate = -RPV/-FC, ultimate = -RPV/+FC, + antepenult = +RPV/-FC, preantepenult = +RPV/+FC
+

+ represents the same optional vocalic prefix as used with single-referent adjuncts + (see Section 8.1.2) and is used to give Configuration, + Affiliation, Focus, and Designation information about the first referent, Referent-1; + the values for + when Referent-1 is in the NORMAL essence are as shown in Tables + 25(a) and (b). For dual-referent adjuncts where the essence of Referent-1 + is the REPRESENTATIVE, the values for + are given in the Tables 28(a) and (b)below.

+


+ Table 28(a) - (b): + Prefixes for Dual-Referent Pers. Ref. Adjuncts
+ _______________( Where Essence of + Referent-1 = RPV)

+

28(a) Designation + of Referent 1 = INFORMAL
+

+

28(b) Designation + of Referent 1 = FORMAL
+

+

 

+

Table 29: Values for +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
DESIGNATION
 +
CONTEXT
 +
-FR
+ INFORMAL
EXS
a
FNC
e
RPS
o
AMG
ä
+FR
+ FORMAL
EXS
ï
FNC
i/u
RPS
ë
AMG
ü
+

+ is a vocalic suffix indicating the Context and Designation of Referent-2; its + values are shown in Table 29 immediately above. The composite prefix (labeled + ) + is a synthetic consonantal prefix formed from the combination of the Referent-1 + prefix and the Referent-2 prefix. For example, the combination of the prefix + s- with the + prefix f- + renders the composite prefix sf-, + while the combination of the prefix t- + with the prefix q- + gives the composite t’-. + Table 30 below illustrates how the 23 single-consonant prefixes combine with + each other.

+

Table 30: Personal Reference + Adjunct Prefixes
+

+

Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

+
+

1 + = Inclusion of speaker
+ 2 = Inclusion of addressee
+ m = monadic (single party)
+ u = unbounded (more than one party)
+ a = animate 3rd party
+ i = inanimate 3rd party
+ E + = universal ('everyone/everything')
+ M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
+ IP = Impersonal ('one')
+ ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
+ Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
+ Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
+ Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)

+
+

Note that when combining two referent prefixes to form the + composite + prefix the tones associated with each referent must also be combined (remember + it is the distinction between low and high tone that expands the 23 single-consonant + referents into 46). Since all single-referent adjuncts are either of falling + or high tone, their combination proceeds as follows:

+ +
+

falling + + falling + falling
+ high + high high
+ falling + high rising
+ high + falling broken

+
+

As for the Referent-1 case infix, this is the same vocalic + case-affix (VC1) we saw for single-referent adjuncts in Sec. + 8.1.2 above (with the vocalic increment ending in -y- + or -w-). The + forms for these case infixes were given in Table 24.

+

Deferring for a moment the explanation of the Referent-2 consonantal + case suffix (), + the last two terms of the dual-referent adjunct are + and . + The former is one of four vocalic affixes representing the affiliation of Referent-2, + while the latter is the consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. + 6.6. The use of + is optional if the affiliation of the referent is already known (or can be inferred) + from the context of the utterance. The appearance of the + bias suffix is dependent on the appearance of , + i.e., + must appear if + is to appear, although + can appear in word-final position without any + bias suffix.

+

The four-way combination of Essence and Focus for Referent-2 + is shown by the four available stress patterns: penultimate stress indicates + NORMAL + UNFOCUSED, ultimate stress + indicates NORMAL + FOCUSED, antepenultimate + indicates REPRESENTATIVE + UNFOCUSED, + and preantepenultimate indicates REPRESENTATIVE + FOCUSED. + (See Sec. 3.8 on + Essence, and Sec. 3.5 + on Focus.)

+

The Referent-2 consonantal case suffix () + is a consonantal suffix associated with each of the 81 noun cases. Note that + each of these case-frame adjunct markers has nine forms (a default form and + eight mutations). These nine variants are used to indicate the configuration + of Referent-2 (see Sec. + 3.1 on Configuration). The values for are shown in Tables 31 below.

+


+ Table 31: + Suffixes for Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

+ + + + + + + + + + +
+


+ 8.1.3.1 Special Use of Short Adjunct Form. The short form of + the single-referent adjunct discussed in Sec. 8.1.2 + above (utilizing the abbreviated + suffix from Table 24) can be used with the special dual-referent + + composite prefixes from Table 30 under the following + circumstance: to show that two different parties are governed by the same case + and participate equally with the verb, equivalent to connecting two pronouns + in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or + The man looked at them and me. Examples: ksau¯, + xnû, + hhea. + Note in the last example hhea + how the combination of a low-toned referent and a high-toned referent combines + to give a rising-toned adjunct.

+

8.1.3.2 Illustration of a Dual-Referent Adjunct: + Based on the above information, we can now analyze an example dual-referent + adjunct — diawàsmûç:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
( + )-
=
INFORMAL designation, UNIPLEX + configuration, CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation, NORMAL + essence and negative FOCUS for Referent No. 1
-d + -
=
combination of Referent No. 1, t- + , + plus Referent No. 2, ¯- + +
-iaw-
=
PROLATIVE case infix (meaning “along [the + surface of] X”) for Referent No. 1
-a-
=
INFORMAL designation and EXISTENTIAL + context for Referent No. 2
-sm-
=
POSSESSIVE case and MULTIFORM + configuration for Referent No. 2
-û-
=
VARIATIVE affiliation for Referent No. 2
-ç
=
REACTIVE bias
[stress]
=
ultimate stress indicating NORMAL essence and positive + FOCUS for Referent No. 2
+

Approximate translation: over me + [= along my body] + what belongs to a rag-tag amalgamation of you (singular) + and all those things + [sense of surprise].

+

While such a word might seem contrived at first, it nevertheless + proves quite functional in a sentence such as the following (which a Star Trek© + character might say to a Borg after the latter has produced an “assimilated” + spider from its pocket and let it loose during the night):

+
+


+
+ _Listen! + +

+
+

 

+

Other examples of the use of dual-referent personal reference adjuncts are + given below.

+
+


+ _Listen! + +

+
+


+ 8.1.4 Use of the Switch Reference Suffix

+

In Section + 7.7.13, the SWR switch reference suffix was introduced. + This affix works with the OBVIATIVE personal referent + (see Sec. 8.1.1.7) to specifically indicate which + party is being referred to. The following is a review of this affix for all + nine degrees. By use of this affix, reference can be made immediately to any + party relevant to a discourse, even to a third party not previously mentioned.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2_’
SWR
Switch Reference & Obviative Specification
Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
Degree 5first referent + mentioned
Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
+

The following example illustrates the use of the switch reference suffix:

+


+ _Listen! +

+

 

+

8.1.5 Details of Personal Reference Suffixes

+

Sec. 7.4 described + the existence of a special group of specialized suffixes derived from personal + reference adjunct consonantal infixes. As previously discussed in Sec. + 8.1.1, there are 23 single consonants associated with 46 single-referent + personal reference categories (based on a distinction between low and high tone). + These 23 consonants can be combined with Type 3 vocalic infix patterns (see + Sec. 2.7.2) to correspond + to certain Associative and Appositive noun cases. The low versus high tone distinction + for these 23 consonants (from which the 46 categories are derived) is shown + by distinguishing between the V+C standard form of the suffix and its reversed + C+V form (see Sec. 7.5.2 on + the “reversed” form of suffixes). Unlike other -V3C + suffixes, there are no -V1C or -V2C + counterparts to these suffixes (or rather, the -V1C or + -V2C counterparts have completely different meanings and + uses). The use of these suffixes is optional, since they are merely substitutes + for single-referent personal reference adjuncts. The noun cases associated with + the nine suffix degrees are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1POSSESSIVE + Case
Degree 2PROPRIETIVE + Case
Degree 3GENITIVE + Case
Degree 4ATTRIBUTIVE + Case
Degree 5ORIGINATIVE + Case
Degree 6PRODUCTIVE + Case
Degree 7INTERPRETATIVE + Case
Degree 8 INHERENT + Case
Degree 9CONDUCTIVE + Case
+

Examples of Use:

+

+
+ _Listen! + +
+

+

+

 

+ + + + +

8.2 SUBSIDIARY ADJUNCTS

+

Subsidiary adjuncts refer to adjuncts which are essentially + subsets or “pieces” of the conflation adjunct first introduced in + Chapter 5. Conflation adjuncts comprise the morphological categories of Derivation, + Valence, Version, Format, Modality and Level, and are of the form CN + + VV + CK + Vm [+ tone], exemplified by the word t’uillia¯ + = t’+ui+ll+ia+¯.
+ However, it is possible to take this same adjunct and present only select portions + of it. We already saw this in Sec. 5.2 when we were introduced to valence adjuncts, + which are essentially composed of the VV + CK “subset” of a conflation + adjunct. Similarly we can have simple modality adjuncts of the form Vm + [+ tone] as in the word ia¯ which also shows + the category of Level (via the tone indication). A simple format adjunct is + possible by simply using CK by itself as a word, e.g., ll. + To this can be added the Vm [+ tone] increment to provide a + subsidiary adjunct showing Format, Modality and Level, as in llia¯.

+

 

+ +
+ + + + +

8.3 COMBINATION ADJUNCTS

+
+

Combination adjuncts refer to adjuncts which start with an + autonomous consonantal form indicating Mood (see Sec. + 6.5), then add on various morphological categories other than those combinations + seen in conflation, subsidiary, and aspectual adjuncts. The use combination + adjuncts is optional, determined primarily by euphonic (i.e., phonotactical + and phonaesthetic) concerns in order to decrease the number of syllables which + a formative might otherwise have due to multiple affixation and mutation of + its phonemes. The various combination adjunct structures are de-tailed in the + sections below.

+


+ 8.3.1 Mood + Aspect Adjuncts

+

The most basic combination adjunct combines Aspect with Mood. + In this adjunct, Mood is indicated by an initial w- + or y- plus + tone (the tone pattern is shown in Table 32 below). This is followed by one + of the 32 aspect suffixes from Table + 19 in Sec. 6.4.1. Examples: wea¯, + yaï. + Note that, in the absence of an aspectual adjunct (which normally shows mood), + this simple element can function by itself as a mood adjunct + by simply using the neutral -VS suffix, + e.g., wa, + ya¯.

+


+ Table 32: Consonant + Tone Values for Mood Adjuncts and Mood+Aspect Adjuncts
+
+
+
+
+ 8.3.2 Phase/Validation + Format + Level + Mood + Bias Adjuncts

+

This combination adjunct has the form Vj + + w/y + VF (+Cb) + [tone + & stress], where:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Vj
=
an initial vowel indicating either one + of the nine phases or one of the nine validations, as shown in Table 33 + below; a following -w- infix indicates that Vj + shows Phase, while a following -y- infix indicates Vj + shows Validation
VF
=
a vowel form indicating one of eight Formats and + four Levels (see Sec. 5.6), + as shown in Table 34 below
Cb
=
one of the 48 optional Bias affixes from Table + 20 in Sec. 6.6
tone+ + stress
=
The combination of four tones with ultimate versus + antepenultimate stress signifies one of the eight moods, consistent with + the tone/stress pattern for mood used with aspectual adjuncts, as described + in Section 6.5
+

Example: oweiç.

+


+ Table 33: Vj + Format + Level Vocalic Infixes for Combination Adjuncts
+
+

+

 

+

8.3.3 Affix + Format + Mood + Bias Adjuncts

+

This combination adjunct is structured identically to the immediately + preceding adjunct form except that the adjunct adds a word-initial affix (one + of the consonantal affix forms from Sec. + 7.7) and Vj now indicates one of + the nine affix-degrees associated with this affix. Additionally, the first three + forms of the Format/Focus infix from Table 33 above are now used to indicate + affix-type instead of Level. + Examples: psiyoul, + juwä’mm. +

 

+ + + + +

8.4 AFFIXUAL ADJUNCTS

+

Any single formative affix, or any two such affixes, may be + removed from the formative and positioned as an adjacent adjunct for purposes + of euphony. Additionally, since affix categories represent common concepts generally + applicable to many contexts, an affixual adjunct can also be informally used + as a “short cut” method of conveying a notion, essentially as an + abbreviated one-word sentence somewhat like an interjection or exclamation in + English, thus conveying the concept of the affix category. For example, the + affix -V1/7 + connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, ï.’a, + it can be used by itself as an informal expression translatable by the English + phrase How typical!

+


+ 8.4.1 Forms for Single- and Dual-Affix Adjuncts

+

The form of a single-affix affixual adjunct is CV’a, + where CV represents the word-final + “reversed” form of a standard suffix for formatives from Sec. + 7.7 (see Secs. 2.7.2 + and 7.5.2 on the alternate + “reversed” forms of suffixes). So, for example, the suffix -eu’/’iu + (i.e., -V2’/4) + becomes the autonomous word ’iu’a, + meaning ‘scattered all around here.’

+

The form for a dual-affix affixual adjunct is CV’’VC, + where the first part, CV, is + the same reversed form of a standard suffix as for the single-affix adjunct + above. The second part, VC, + represents the “normal,” unreversed form of a standard suffix. When + pronouncing such an adjunct, it is important to geminate (i.e., double) the + glottal stop, so as not to confuse the word with a simple formative in Secondary + Mode, Series B vowel mutation (see Sec. + 2.5). So, combining the two suffixes -V2v/7 + and -V1kt/9 + would give the adjunct vë’’ukt, + meaning ‘probably this one.’

+


+ 8.4.2 Combining Mood with Affixual Adjuncts

+

Using stress and tone, it becomes possible to combine Mood + with both single- and dual-affix affixual adjuncts (with the exception of the + default FACTUAL mood which is unmarked). Because the standard forms for both + types of affixual adjuncts have at least two syllables, the regular indicators + for Mood used with aspectual adjuncts as described in Sec. + 6.5 (four tones + two stress patterns = 8 moods) can be applied to affixual + adjuncts as well.

+

 

+ +
+ + + + +

8.5 ALTERNATE INDICATORS FOR VOCALIC MUTATION

+
+

In looking at the tables in Sec. + 2.5, one can see that several vocalic mutational series cause an additional + syllable to be added to a formative (e.g., kad + ka’wed). + For phonaesthetic purposes (see Sec. + 1.4.5), it may become desirable to eliminate this extra syllable in the + formative by indicating the vocalic mutation series elsewhere. Ithkuil allows + this to be done by using word-initial vocalic prefixes to certain adjuncts as + an alternate way of indicating the vocalic mutation series of an adjacent formative. + As a result, the formative itself displays the default Series A form. The two + types of adjuncts which can take such prefixes are affixual adjuncts (both single- + and dual-affix types) and conflation adjuncts. The specific prefixes used with + the adjunct are shown in Table 34 below.

+


+ Table 34: Alternate Vocalic Mutation Prefixes For Affixual Adjuncts

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
Series A
 +
Series B
 +
Series C
 +
Series D
 +
Series E
 +
Series F
 +
Series G
 +
Series H
 +
Series J
—
a-
i-
e-
u-
o-
ö-
ë-
ä-
+

To illustrate this process for the + two example adjuncts ’iu’a + and vë’’ukt, + adding Series B and Series G mutation respectively results in the forms a’iu’a + and + övë’’ukt. Illustrating the process + for conflation adjuncts, the adjunct p’uimû + plus Series C mutation becomes ip’uimû.

+

 

+ + + + +

8.6 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON BIAS +

+

Section + 6.6.1 describes the standard ways in which Bias is shown on aspectual adjuncts + and on formatives. In Sec. 8.1.2, we saw how the conjunct + form of a single-referent personal reference adjunct can take an optional affix, + Cb, + to indicate Bias. And in Sec. 8.3.2, we saw how a Bias + suffix can be added to a Mood-based combination adjunct. In the absence of these + possibilities, the following sections offer additional ways to display Bias.

+


+ 8.6.1 Adding Bias to Valence, Conflation or Subsidiary Adjuncts

+

Both valence and conflation adjuncts (see Secs. + 5.2 and 5.4), as well + as their subsidiary adjuncts (see Sec. 8.2) can take a + word-final Bias suffix if needed, as long as there is a vocalic Modality suffix + present as part of the adjunct. The Bias suffix is the same consonantal form + shown in Table 20 of Sec. + 6.6.1. As an example, adding the SUGGESTIVE bias suffix + -ps to the + valence adjunct oiiu + gives the resulting forms oiiups.

+


+ 8.6.2 Informal Bias Adjuncts

+

Just as affixual adjuncts can stand on their own as informal + expressions, so can the consonantal Bias affixes (shown Table 20 of Sec. + 6.6.1) be used autonomously to informally convey one’s attitude toward + a situation. For example, if one wishes to convey a sense of awe, one could + state the Ithkuil equivalent to the sentence, I feel a sense of awe! + or one can simply hiss out a long s-sound, ‘ss,’ + which is the intensive form of the affix for the STUPEFACTIVE + bias category, whose translation can be approximated by the English expressions + ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’

+

Other examples would be the expression + to signify fulfillment and contentment, the equivalent to a long sigh of satisfaction + ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression kšš + to convey contempt and disgust, similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ + or ‘What bullshit!’

+

It is even possible to combine two biases into a single bias + adjunct, using the form C+ï+C, where each C + represents a single consonantal bias affix. For example, combining the intensive + forms of the REVELATIVE and the ASSURATIVE + biases gives the adjunct llïnn, + translatable as ‘Aha! I told you so!’

+

 

+

Proceed +to Chapter 9: Syntax >>

+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

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