From 27c9f305310f2025ae34be905589613d5c1f47e7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: uakci Date: Fri, 18 Sep 2020 02:23:27 +0200 Subject: 2004-en, 2004-ru, 2011-en --- 2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm.orig | 2154 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 2154 insertions(+) create mode 100644 2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm.orig (limited to '2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm.orig') diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fc86cd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2154 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 1: Phonology + + + + + + + + + +
+

Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 1: Phonology

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +

1.1 Note + On Orthography and Transliteration

1.2 Phonemic Inventory

1.3 Phonological Processes + and Rules

1.4 Phonotaxis

+
+

The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound + system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized + phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically + convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system + of Ithkuil is detailed in the sections below.

+

 

+
+ + + + +

1.1 NOTE ON + ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION

+
+

The native script used to represent Ithkuil is both alien and + complex (employing over 3600 characters). It is explained in Chapter + 11. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed + throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic + structure of Ithkuil words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in + transliterating the large number of phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ithkuil, + the following diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system: the + acute, grave and circumflex accents, the umlaut or dieresis, the cedilla, a + superposed dot, and the apostrophe. The uses of these diacritics are explained + in the sections below. Additionally, digraphs with a superscript letter h + are employed to represent various aspirated consonants.

+

 

+
+ + + + +

1.2 PHONEMIC + INVENTORY

+
+

In furtherance of morpho-phonological efficiency (one of the + language’s goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have + a large phonemic inventory, specifically 65 consonants and 17 vowels, illustrated + by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized + orthography. Because this is far more than most Western languages, Ithkuil has + many sounds alien to speakers of English or other Western languages. Consequently, + readers other than trained phoneticians (or perhaps speakers of such obscure + languages as Chechen or Abkhaz) will likely have difficulty pronouncing the + language accurately.
+

+

Tables 1(a) + and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory

+

Table 1(a): Consonantal + Inventory

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
PLOSIVES
AFFRICATES
+
Fricatives
Nasals
Taps/
+ Trills
Liquids
Approximants
 
plain
aspirated
ejective
plain
aspirated
ejective
 
un-
+ voiced
+voice
+

un-
+ voiced

+
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
+voice
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
+voice
+voice
+voice
+voice
+voice
BILABIAL
p
b
p’
_
_
_
_
_
_
m
_
_
_
LABIO-VELAR
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
w
LABIO-DENTAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
f
v
_
_
_
_
DENTAL
t
d
t’
_
_
_
_
n
_
_
_
ALVEOLAR
_
_
_
_
c
c’
s
z
_
_
_
_
ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX
_
_
_
_
’
_
r
_
POST-ALVEOLAR
_
_
_
_
j
’
_
_
_
_
PALATAL
’
_
_
_
ç’
ç
_
_
_
y
VELAR
k
g
k’
_
_
_
x’
x
_
_
_
UVULAR
q
q’
_
_
_
’
_
_
_
_
PHARYNGAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
GLOTTAL
’
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
h
_
_
_
_
_
LATERAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
l
_
VELARIZED LATERAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
+

 

+

Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
FRONT
CENTRAL
BACK
unrounded
rounded
unrounded
rounded
unrounded
rounded
High
î
ÿ
_ +
ü
ï +
û +
Mid-High
i
_ +
_ +
_ +
_ +
u
Mid
+ ê
ø
_ +
_ +
ë +
ô
Mid-Low
e
ö
_ +
_ + _
_ +
o
Low
ä
_ +
a
_ +
â
_ +
+


+ 1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants

+

The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal + sounds of Ithkuil. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol + of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well + as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these + phonetic representation systems. Sound files of actual Ithkuil words have been + provided for those consonants which are uncommon or difficult to pronounce for + English speakers, as well as in other cases to compare and distinguish two similar + but distinct phonemes, e.g., k + versus , + or c vs. + + vs. , + etc.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
b
As in English. A voiced + bilabial unaspirated plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [b].
+
+
c
+

As in English bits. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [ts]. + X-SAMPA [ + t_s ]. Example sound files: ____
+

+
No English equivalent. Similar to the + sound immediately above except that the s-component of the affricate + is made up of the Ithkuil alveolar retroflex s-sound + (see below). This sound occurs in most Chinese languages, as well as the + Basque language, where it is spelled ts. A voiceless unaspirated + apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [ t_s` + ]. Example sound files:
+
+ + +
+ +
+
+
As in English chin + but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff + of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [ t_S + ]. Example sound files:       
+
+ + +
+ + +
+
+
ç
Like the initial sound in English human, + huge, hue, or the + sound in German ich. A voiceless dorso-palatal + non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [ç]. + X-SAMPA [C]. + Example sound files:
+ +
+
+
+
+
d
Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar + ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An unaspirated + voiced apico-dental plosive; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [d_d]. +
+
+
As in English this, + bathe, weather. A + voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [ð]. + X-SAMPA [D]. +
+
+
f
As in English. A voiceless labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [f]. +
+
+
g
Always as in English gag; + never as in ginger. A voiced dorso-velar unaspirated plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [g]. + Example sound file:       
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiced dorso-uvular + unaspirated plosive found in Inuit and several Paleo-Siberian languages + such as Chukchi and Nivkh. Similar to the hard g-sound above + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + The resulting sound has a characteristic “gulped” quality. + The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil q below; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [G\]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of x below. Can be approximated by putting the tongue + in the position to pronounce English g as in gag + then, without moving the tongue, trying to say ‘uh’ instead. + A voiced dorso-velar fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [G]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
+
h
As in English hall. + Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable + in Ithkuil. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [h]. + Example sound files:
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiceless + radico-pharyngal fricative found in Arabic and several Northeast Caucasian + languages. A deep raspy sound produced by pronouncing an h-sound + while constricting the pharynx and trying to press the root of the tongue + against the back wall of the pharynx. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [X\]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
j
As in English judge + but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. An unaspirated + non-labialized voiced lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [d_Z]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of Ithkuil + below. Found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled gy and + d´ respectively. Sort of like a g+y sound + as in English big year pronounced rapidly, with + the g-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate + as opposed to the soft palate. A voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive. + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [J\]. + Example sound files:
+ ‘day + (24-hour period)’
+
+
+
k
Similar to English k + but without aspiration. Like the k-sound of the Romance languages, + e.g., Spanish or Italian casa. A voiceless unaspirated + dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [k]. + Example sound files:
+
+
No English equivalent. Like a k-sound + but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced + farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, + not the soft palate as with English k. The result + should sound somewhat like a k+y as in backyard + when spoken rapidly. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [c]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
l
The “light” l-sound + of the Romance languages, or as in British English leader; + not the “dark” (velarized) l-sound of American English + lull. A voiced apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [l]. + Example sound files:
+ +
+
+
+
The “dark” (velarized) l-sound + of American English lull, not + the “light” l-sound of the Romance languages or British + English leader. A voiced velarized apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [5]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-bilateral fricative as found in Welsh llan. + Can best be approximated by putting the tongue in position as if to say + an l-sound, and while holding the position, make a forceful h-sound + instead; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [K]. + Example sound files:
+
+ + +
+
+
m
As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal + continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [m].
+
+
n
Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages, + not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant + obstruent; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [n_d].
+
+
The English ng-sound as in + song or ringer; NEVER + as in finger. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant + obstruent;. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [N].
+
+
p
Similar to English, but without aspiration. + As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [p].
+
+
q
No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American + Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated k-sound + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + IPA and X-SAMPA [q]. + Example sound file:
+
+
This sound is a combination of a heavily + aspirated and palatal Ithkuil (see + above) released laterally (i.e., along the two sides of the tongue) into + a voiceless lateral fricative (IPA []). + This sound occurs in some North American Indian and North Caucasian languages. + An aspirated voiceless palatal-lateral affricate. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [c_K_h]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
r
This sound is a single flap of the tongue + tip as in Spanish caro or pero. + When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish carro + or perro. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex + flap/trill; IPA [], + [r]. + X-SAMPA [4], + [r]. + Example sound files:
+ +
+
+
+
Pronounced similarly to the English + retroflex r-sound except that there is no lip-rounding and the + tongue is in direct contact with the alveolar gum ridge behind the upper + teeth, giving the sound an l-coloring. A voiced apico-alveolar + retroflex liquid continuant; the closest IPA symbol is [] + (a voiced rhoticized retroflex lateral approximant). (No X-SAMPA equivalent). + Example sound files:
+ +
+
+
+
No English equivalent. Like the throaty + or “gargled” r-sound found in colloquial French and + German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA []. + X-SAMPA [R]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
s
As in English sister. + A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA + [s]. + Example sound file:
+
+
No English equivalent. The retroflex + s-sound heard in Castilian (but not Latin American) Spanish. + Also found in Basque, Catalan, and most Chinese languages. Similar to + an English s-sound, but with the blade of the tongue curved convexly + away from the roof of the mouth, as with an English r-sound, + so that the tongue curls back and touches the alveolar ridge. The result + should sound halfway between an English s and sh. A + voiceless apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [ s`]. + Example sound file:
+
+
+
š
As in English shoeshine + but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [S].Example + sound file:
+ +
+
+
t
Similar to English but without aspiration + and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against + the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless apico-dental + unaspirated plosive; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [t_d].
+
+
As in English thin, + bath. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [T].
+
+
v
As in English. A voiced labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [v].
+
+
w
+

As in English well, worry. + A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [w].
+

+
x
No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless + dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled x + in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish j. + Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce + a k-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing + an h-sound instead. Should be distinguished from + below; IPA and X-SAMPA [x]. + Example sound file:
+
+
No English equivalent. The rough voiceless + dorso-uvular fricative (or trill) found in German ach. + Can be approximated by means of a dry gargle without vocal chord vibration. + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [X]. + Example sound file:
+
+
y
As in English yet, + yam. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [ j + ]. Example sound file: +
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to ç above. This is the “intensive” + y-sound heard in Castilian and some Latin American varieties + of Spanish. Like the sound in English yet, yam + but with the blade of the tongue held more closely to the hard palate, + so that audible friction occurs. A voiced dorso-palatal fricative; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [j\]. + Example sound file:
+
+
z
As in English zoo, + wizard. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; + IPA and X-SAMPA [z]. + Example sound file:
+

No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil + + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative. IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [ z`]. + Example sound file: + +
+

The voiced counterpart of š + above. Similar to the sound in English pleasure + or leisure, but without lip-rounding. A voiced + lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [Z]. + Example sound file:
+ +
Like an English d+z + sound, as in roads, adze. + A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [dz]. + X-SAMPA [d_z]. + Example sound file: +
+
No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [d_z`]. + Example sound file:
+
’
This sound is the glottal stop heard + between the two vowels in English oh-oh or as the sound heard + in most American English speakers’ pronunciation of the word fattening. + This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, + Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA []. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
+

1.2.1.1 Aspirated Consonants: The consonants + are + all unaspirated, i.e., without the accompanying puff of air characteristic of + English voiceless stops and affricates. In Ithkuil each of these has an aspirated + counterpart, pronounced like the unaspirated version but with a distinct expulsion + of air, more so than in English. These aspirated counterparts are written with + a following superscript h; thus: + Example sound files:

+
+

+
+ +
+
+ +

+
+

1.2.1.2 Ejective Consonants: The same eight + consonants immediately above also have ejective counterparts, which do not exist + in any major Western language, but are found in languages such as Armenian, + Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian + languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied + by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which + gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives + are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: . + Note: the lateral affricate + has an allophone (alternate pronunciation) as an ejective as well. Example sound + files:

+
+

+
+ +
+
+ +

+
+

In addition to the above ejectives, there are three additional + ejective consonants, all of them affricates, ç’, + x’, + and ’, + whose rather difficult and exotic pronunciations are described below.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ç’ +
This sound is a combination of Ithkuil + + + Ithkuil ç + (the voiceless palatal slit fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [’]. + X-SAMPA [c_C_>]. + Example sound file:
+
+
x’ +
This sound is a combination of Ithkuil k + + Ithkuil x (the voiceless velar fricative described + above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. + When pronounced properly, it should be a harsh, sudden, emphatic k-sound, + accompanied by a high-pitched sound of static, as if someone is verbally + imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [kx’]. + X-SAMPA [k_x_>]. + Example sound file:
+
’ +
This sound is a combination of Ithkuil q + + Ithkuil + (the voiceless uvular fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [q’]. + X-SAMPA [q_X_>]. + This sound is found in a few obscure Northeast Caucasian languages (e.g., + Dido, Archi). Example sound file:
+
+
+
+

1.2.1.3 Syllabic consonants. Six consonants, + , + can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of + syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions + such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ + (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants n + and l as in the second syllable of words like button and little. + Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words nda ‘no’, + and ndíghílii ‘sunflower.’ In Ithkuil, these + six syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant + as in + However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where + the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate + syllable. Examples: .

+

+

1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels

+

There are 17 vowels, all of which are pure sounds, not glided + into diphthongs as in English. These include the five primary vowels a, + e, i, o, u. + The vowel a is phonetically an unrounded central low vowel, + IPA [a], + as in Spanish or Italian. The vowels e and o + are similar to the vowels in American English let + and short, phonetically IPA [] + and [], + although both sounds are actually somewhat higher, being between low-mid and + mid in height. The vowels i and u are lower + than in Romance languages: i is about halfway between the vowels + in English pit and machine; + u is halfway between English cook + and kook. Sound files: a + e i o u

+

The vowel â is pronounced as in Western + U.S. all, IPA []; + ê and ô are mid-height, IPA [e] + and [o] + as in Spanish estos or in French + poésie; î and û + are high (i.e., fully closed) as in Spanish or Italian i and u, + IPA [i] + and [u]. + Example sound files: â + ê î ô û

+

The vowel ä is slightly higher than the + vowel in American English sat but not as high as in + set, IPA [æ^]. The vowel ö + is the rounded equivalent of e, that is, the vowel in French + boeuf or German könnte, + IPA [œ]. + The vowel ë is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American + English cut or nut, although, + more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel ô but without rounding + of the lips, a vowel which occurs in Estonian, IPA []. + The vowel ï is pronounced as an unrounded û, + an obscure vowel found in Turkish and Japanese, IPA . + The vowel ü is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel, + as found in Norwegian hus or the Highland Scottish + pronunciation of English book or good, + IPA []. + The vowel ø is the rounded equivalent of ê, + as in French feu or German schön, + IPA [ø]; + the vowel ÿ represents the front rounded vowel of French + du and German über, + IPA [y]. + Example sound files: ä + ë ï ö ø ü ÿ +

+


+ 1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions

+

Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation + of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that + phoneme occurs. These variances, while audible to a trained linguist, are often + indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these + allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional + role in the language. As an example, compare the two t-sounds in the + English words top and stop. + The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while + the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. + However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, + the difference in the two t-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers + of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages + where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other + Indic languages).

+

Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within + a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely + regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration + in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning + a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign + accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, + and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without + aspirating the initial t-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration + in Romance languages.)

+

The particular phonetic variants of a particular phoneme are + known as allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ithkuil are + as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
h
This phoneme is a simple + (bi-)glottal fricative as in English head when in a syllable-initial position + and in word-final position. However, at the end of a syllable when preceded + by a vowel and followed by another consonant, this sound approaches a + voiceless bilabial fricative, similar to the bilabial sound of Japanese + h as pronounced before u (usually transliterated into + Roman orthography as f). IPA []. +
+
hh
The geminated version of Ithkuil h is + pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is + completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along + their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre + to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English thin) + as well as the English f-sound, however there is absolutely no + contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound. + No IPA equivalent. Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
+
This aspirated lateral affricate is + in free variation with (i.e., may be alternately pronounced as) its non-aspirated + ejective counterpart (IPA []); + in word-initial position it is more common to pronounce it ejectively. + Example sound files:
+ +
+ + +
+
+
In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced + as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar + to the throaty r-sound found in colloquial French and German, + IPA []. + However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound + becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [].
+
+
w
Normally pronounced as a voiced labio-velar + approximant (i.e., labialized dorso-velar approximant) as in English wet + (IPA [w]), + when followed by the Ithkuil vowel û, this sound, + takes on even greater lip-rounding to become a voiced labio-velar fricative + (i.e., labialized dorso-velar fricative) (IPA []). +
+
+
+
w’
In this word-initial combination of + voiced labio-velar approximant followed by a glottal stop is found, the + w is pronounced followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, + Ithkuil ï, followed by the glottal stop (IPA []). +
+
+
+
y’
Similarly to the combination above, + this word-initial combination has its voiced dorso-palatal approximant + followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, followed by the glottal + stop (IPA []). +
+
+
+
+
bm, + dn, km, kn, pm, tn
+
 
When in word-initial position, the first + consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral + release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to + pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to + pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the + tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead. IPA []. +
+
+
hl, + hm, hn, h, hr, h, + hw
+
+
Each of these consonant conjuncts, when + word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not + pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts + to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct, + i.e., IPA + To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce + an Ithkuil l, + m, n, n, r, + , + or w, + and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear h-sound + instead.
+

 

+ + + + +
1.3 PHONOLOGICAL + PROCESSES AND RULES
+

Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages + have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are + combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, + the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ithkuil + productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and + tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends.
+

+

1.3.1 Gemination

+

Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in + length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination + does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological + grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ + versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based + gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, + Finnish).

+

In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy + is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and + word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination + in Ithkuil:

+

1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination. All consonants + are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except + for y and w.

+

1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination. + The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, + are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: +

+
+

+
+

The consonant + can be geminated in word-initial position.

+

1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants. + Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite + duration), specifically are + simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated + r is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like + rr in Spanish or Italian. Example sound files:

+
+

+
+ +
+ +
+ +

+
+

The non-aspirated plosive consonants b, + d, g, + , + , + k, , + p, q, + and t, when + geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two d-sounds + in the English phrase bad dog when spoken rapidly. + Example sound file:

+
+

+

+
+

The aspirated plosives + are likewise held momentarily before release, the aspiration occurring upon + release, much like the two t-sounds in the English phrase hot + tar when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives k’, + ’, + p’, q’, and + t’ are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic + ejectivization occurring upon release. Example sound files:

+
+

+

+
+

The pronunciation of affricates () + when geminated depends on whether or not they are in word-final position. If + not in word-final position, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial + stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative + or sibilant portion. Aspiration or ejectivization, if present, occurs during + release of the plosive into the sibilant or fricative component, e.g., + is pronounced as IPA [ttš]. + For those affricates which can appear as word-final geminates (), + geminated pronunciation in word-final position is achieved by simply lengthening + the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of + each affricate). Thus, + in word-final position is pronounced as IPA [tšš], + + as IPA []. + Example sound files:

+
+

+
+ +
+ + +

+
+

1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates. + Single character consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g., + bb, dd, nn, šš. + Aspirated digraph-consonants have the first letter of the digraph written doubled + followed by a single superscript h, e.g., + Geminated ejective consonants are likewise written with the initial character + doubled followed by a single apostrophe, e.g., + Exceptions to this rule exist for the ejective affricates ç’, + x’, + and ’. + Because the non-apostrophed forms of these three characters do not correspond + to non-ejectivized versions of the apostrophed form, these geminates are written + as

+


+ 1.3.2 Pitch and Tone

+

Ithkuil is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other + Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages + and some American Indian languages. This means that pitch or tone of voice is + used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone + and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic + features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, + while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other + attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words + themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories).

+

There are five tones used in Ithkuil, one of which, mid-low + tone, is considered morpho-phonologically neutral. The other four tones are + falling, high, broken (i.e., mid to low to mid-low), and rising (i.e., mid-low + to mid-high) and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries + one significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously + carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed + syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid-low tone. Therefore, + the function of mid-low tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since + any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid-low. Like most tone languages, + the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual + speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
(mid-low)
falling
high
broken
rising
+

The four significant tones are indicated in the Roman transliteration + by small superscript symbols at the end of each word, as follows: falling tone + is unmarked, high tone is marked by a superscript hyphen (or macron), broken + tone by a superscript backslash, and rising tone by a superscript forward slash. + This is illustrated in the example words/sound files below.

+
+

+ + [falling tone]
+ + + [high tone]
+ + + [broken tone]
+ + + [rising tone]
+

+
+


+ 1.3.3 Syllabic Stress

+

Stress normally falls on the penultimate (next-to-last) + syllable but can shift to either the ultimate (last) syllable + of a word, to the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable, + and occasionally to the preantepenultimate (fourth-from-last) + syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations.

+

When transliterating Ithkuil into Roman characters, the number + of vowels in Ithkuil requires the use of diacritics due to the limited number + of Roman vowel characters. As a result, the orthographic representation of stress + using the system of romanization becomes complicated. It is explained as follows: +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1)All monosyllabic words are unmarked for stress.
2)The grave accent ( ` + ) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted, + e.g., in distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as au + and ei from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts aù + and eì.
3)Penultimate stress. Polysyllabic words having penultimate + stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing the dissyllabic + phonemes ì or ù as the penultimate + syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word iskoùt + (stress on the o), if adding the syllable -ma, + becomes iskoútma + (stress on the u).
4)

Ultimate stress. Polysyllabic words which have ultimate + stress indicate this in one of the following ways:

 
    +
  • the unmarked vowels a, e, i, + o, u, and the marked disyllabic vowels + ì and ù take an acute + accent, e.g., á, é, + í, ó, ú.
    • +
  • if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other + than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, or syllabic liquid + or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate + syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., ròihnäl.
    • +
  • If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs + in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then a grave accent over + the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress + (as the grave accent would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate + stress), e.g. òspätlök.
    • +
  • if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate + syllables already have diacritic marks (other than the grave accent) + then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., ksûtpäär. +
    • +
5)Antepenultimate stress. To show antepenultimate stress + (third syllable from the end):
 
    +
  • if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant) + does not carry a diacritic (other than the grave accent), it takes the + acute accent, e.g., áksiyor
    • +
  • if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave + accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack of acute accent on + the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate + stress, e.g., ëitlàrrun, + ôrümzìl. + (Note that the use of the grave accent over the i in + ôrümzìl + would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress, therefore + its presence implies antepenultimate stress).
    • +
  • if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules, + then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., öömoläk.
    • +
6)Preantepenultimate stress. To show preantepenultimate + stress (i.e., fourth syllable from the end) apply the same rules as for + antepenultimate stress above, but to the preantepenultimate syllable.
+

Note that the acute accent on the stressed second member of + the bi-syllabic geminate clusters + distinguishes them from their standard geminate counterparts . +

+

 

+ + + + +

1.4 PHONOTAXIS

+

In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, + and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to + what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or + word. This concept is called phonotaxis and such rules are + known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain + why sprelch could be a hypothetical word in English, while znatk + could not be, even though znatk is as easily pronounced by a linguist + as sprelch. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, + and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis

+

Equally important are the optional rules each language employs + to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics + or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly + responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” + of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are + described in the sections below.

+


+ 1.4.1 Syllable Structure

+

The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable + forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable, + or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are + shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents + a mandatory vowel or diphthong.

+

Table 2: + Syllabic Structure

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Syllable + Type
Structure
Examples
Consonantal + Word
C(C)(C) + where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless + fricative continuant
s, + h,, + ll, mm, pçç
Monosyllabic
(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
a, ui, öt, + isk, du, tuil, kleb, tliqs, pskarn, xxoršt
Word-initial
(C)(C)(C)V(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
uran, + tahin, ui’wá, + prinu, klatma, + xmoiskra, kstollap, + ltuirbis, mpeilt’um
Word-medial
-(C)(C)V(C)(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
kialun, + ruentik, isteixlam, + ïkspûzqai,
Word-final
-(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
lua, + antoi, tial, eifqés, + poxšurn, ultrönn, + +
+

The following rules apply:

+
+ +
+

1.4.2 Diphthongs

+

An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination + of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil diphthongs are + “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives + the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred + to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 24 diphthongs + in Ithkuil, described as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
ai + +
Pronounced as in Spanish + or Italian; like English i in white or ice. +
+
äi + +
No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English y-sound. +
+
ei +
As in Spanish or Italian; like English + ai in rain or ei in rein.
+
ëi + +
No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English y-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the i + in ice.
+
oi +
As in Spanish or Italian; as in English + boy or voice.
+
öi + +
No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English y-sound. + Somewhat like the French word oeil.
+
ui + +
As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of Spanish or Italian “pure” u + (i.e., without the glide into -w as in English rude) + + an English y-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this + diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the u-sound + is reduced to a w- (the result sounding like English wee). +
+
au + +
As in Spanish or Italian; like English + ou in loud or ow in cow.
+
äu + +
No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English w-sound. +
+
eu + +
As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of “pure” e (i.e., without + the glide into –y as in English they) + an English w-sound. +
+
ëu + +
No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English w-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word oh!. +
+
iu + +
No English equivalent; a combination + of the Ithkuil vowel i (which is more open than the Spanish + or Italian “pure” i (i.e., closer to English i + in bit) + an English w-sound.
+
ou + +
Like the o + w-glide + of English road or mode. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese + roupa.
+
öu + +
No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English w-sound. + Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the + word oh!.
_aï, + eï, ëï, iï, oï, uï + +
+
Each of these is a combination of a + vowel with the back central vowel ï. No English + equivalents, although the sound can be approximated by pronouncing the + first vowel followed by the velarized “dark” l-sound + of American English lull but without touching the tip of the + tongue to the gum ridge behind the upper teeth; the tongue tip should + remain low instead. The resulting diphthongs should sound somewhat like + English all, ell (as in bell), ull + (as in dull), eel, ole (as in pole), + and ool (as in tool), as pronounced by someone speaking + in an indistinct, slurred voice. For those familiar with IPA, these diphthongs + may be represented as
_äï, + öï, üï
As with the series of diphthongs immediately + above, these are combinations of the Ithkuil vowels ä, + ö, and ü with the back central + vowel ï. IPA
ae + +
No English equivalent. A combination + of Ithkuil a + ê. Sounds like + a more “open” version of Ithkuil ai. Tolkien’s + Sindarin language also has this diphthong.
+

All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are + pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing + the many two-vowel combinations beginning with u- and i- + into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a w-sound or y-sound. + This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives + the syllabic stress.

+


+ 1.4.3 Constraints on Vowels

+

All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts + previously mentioned can occur in any syllable in any position with the following + exceptions:

+ +

 

+

1.4.4 Constraints on Consonants

+ +

Table 3 below shows the permissible structures for word-initial + consonant conjuncts, while Table 4 shows the permissible structures for consonant + conjuncts in word-final position. Note that not all the possible conjuncts are + shown, merely examples of each type of combination. There are many combinations + of consonants permitted in Ithkuil which would never be allowed as conjuncts + in Western languages.

+


+ Table 3: Permissible Structure of Initial Consonant Conjuncts
+
+

+


+ Table 4: Permissible Structure of Word-Final Consonant Conjuncts

+

+


+ 1.4.5 Phonaesthetic Rules

+

Phonaesthetic rules refer to the generally applied rules and + preferences peculiar to each language for structuring the patterns of phonemes + for purposes of phonological euphony. The following such principles apply to + Ithkuil.

+ +

Proceed + to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >>

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

+

 

+

 

+


+

+


+

+ + -- cgit v1.2.3