Chapter 8

From 27c9f305310f2025ae34be905589613d5c1f47e7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: uakci Date: Fri, 18 Sep 2020 02:23:27 +0200 Subject: 2004-en, 2004-ru, 2011-en --- 2004-en/Chapter_8.html.orig | 3652 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 3652 insertions(+) create mode 100644 2004-en/Chapter_8.html.orig (limited to '2004-en/Chapter_8.html.orig') diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_8.html.orig b/2004-en/Chapter_8.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0b14c5f --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_8.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,3652 @@ + + + + +Chapter 8 + + + + +

Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +


Home	4 Case Morphology	9 Syntax
Introduction	5 Verb Morphology	10 Lexico-Semantics
1 Phonology	6 More Verb Morphology	11 The Writing System
2 Morpho-Phonology	7 Affixes	12 The Number System
3 Basic Morphology	8 Adjuncts	The Lexicon

+
+
+

Chapter 8: Adjuncts

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

		8.1 Personal Reference Adjuncts		8.4 Combination Adjuncts
		8.2 Aspectual Adjuncts		8.5 Bias Adjuncts
		8.3 Affixual Adjuncts

The notion of adjuncts was introduced in Section + 2.6.2. We have already discussed details of some kinds of adjuncts — valence adjuncts and modality adjuncts were introduced in Chapter + 6. In this chapter, several +additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

+ + + + +

8.1 PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS

The first type of adjunct we will analyze are those relating + to personal reference. By “personal reference” is meant the grammatical + description of nouns by abbreviated forms of reference. In most languages, this + is accomplished by means of personal pronouns (e.g., English he, she, it, I, + you, him, her, mine, ours, etc.). Generally, personal pronouns are distinguished + by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) and case (e.g., compare English + we, us, and ours). Ilaksh accomplishes the equivalent function by means of + personal reference adjuncts, of which there are two types: single-referent and + dual-referent.

Like other adjuncts in Ilaksh, personal reference adjuncts are + highly synthetic in their structure, comprised of at least two morphemes and + usually more. Before we examine the componential structure of personal reference + adjuncts themselves, we must first introduce the personal reference categories + they refer to.

+ + + + +

NOTE TO PERSONS FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

Personal reference adjuncts in Ilaksh operate nearly identically to those of Ithkuil, the sole differences being the elimination of two personal reference categories (the generic animate and the generic inanimate) and the fact that the actual phonological markers for the various referents and their cases are, of course, different in many cases from those of Ithkuil.

+ 8.1.1 Personal Reference Categories

The morpho-semantic delineations of Ilaksh personal reference + categorization are based on inclusion or exclusion in relation to an utterance. + These delineations begin with identifying whether or not the party speaking + is included or excluded in relation to the utterance. The next delineation made + is whether the party being addressed (i.e., the audience/listener) is included + or excluded, then finally whether any third party (i.e., a party other than + the speaker and the addressee) is included or excluded.

There are 46 personal reference categories in Ilaksh, each + of which is represented by a single consonant affix plus a corresponding low + or high tone as shown in Table 23 below. The various terms and abbreviations + used in the table are explained following the table.
+

Table 23(a) + and (b): Personal Reference Categories

+ + + + + +

PRONOUNCED WITH LOW TONE
	Label	Speaker Included	Addressee Included	3rd Party Included
t	1m	YES	—	—
s	1+2m	YES	monadic	—
š	1+2u	YES	unbounded	—
k	2m	—	monadic	—
p	2u	—	unbounded	—
r	ma	—	—	monadic animate
đ	ua	—	—	unbounded animate
ç	Col	—	—	Collective
l	Ea	—	—	universal animate
y	IDa	—	—	indefinite animate
v	M	—	—	mixed m/p/a/i
ř	IPa	—	—	impersonal animate
ŧ	1+ma	YES	—	monadic animate
n	1+ua	YES	—	unbounded animate
x	2m+ma	—	monadic	monadic animate
ň	2m+ua	—	monadic	unbounded animate
f	2u+ma	—	unbounded	monadic animate
m	2u+ua	—	unbounded	unbounded animate
h	1+2m+ma	YES	monadic	monadic animate
z	1+2m+ua	YES	monadic	unbounded animate
w	1+2u+ma	YES	unbounded	monadic animate
ž	1+2u+ua	YES	unbounded	unbounded animate

PRONOUNCED WITH HIGH TONE
	Label	Speaker Included	Addressee Included	3rd Party Included
t	1m+M	YES	—	mixed m/p/a/i
s	1+2m+M	YES	monadic	mixed m/p/a/i
š	1+2u+M	YES	unbounded	mixed m/p/a/i
k	2m+M	—	monadic	mixed m/p/a/i
p	2u+M	—	unbounded	mixed m/p/a/i
r	mi	—	—	monadic inanimate
đ	ui	—	—	unbounded inanimate
ç	Abt	—	—	Abstract
l	Ei	—	—	universal inanimate
y	IDi	—	—	indefinite inanimate
v	Obv	—	—	Obviative
ř	IPi	—	—	impersonal inanimate
ŧ	1+mi	YES	—	monadic inanimate
n	1+ui	YES	—	unbounded inanimate
x	2m+mi	—	monadic	monadic inanimate
ň	2m+ui	—	monadic	unbounded inanimate
f	2u+mi	—	unbounded	monadic inanimate
m	2u+ui	—	unbounded	unbounded inanimate
h	1+2m+mi	YES	monadic	monadic inanimate
z	1+2m+ui	YES	monadic	unbounded inanimate
w	1+2u+mi	YES	unbounded	monadic inanimate
ž	1+2u+ui	YES	unbounded	unbounded inanimate

Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

+
1 = Inclusion of speaker
+ 2 = Inclusion of addressee
+ m = monadic (single party)
+ u = unbounded (more than one party)
+ a = animate 3rd party
+ i = inanimate 3rd party
+ E = universal ('everyone/everything')
+ M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
+ IP = Impersonal ('one')
+ ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
+ Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
+ Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
+ Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)
+
+

The following sections explain the terminology in the above + table.

8.1.1.1 Monadic vs. Unbounded. These terms were discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.3 on Perspective. For simplicity’s sake, the difference between + a MONADIC third party versus an UNBOUNDED third party can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ + and ‘they.’

8.1.1.2 Speaker and Addressee. These terms refer respectively to the party + speaking (in Western grammar the first person), the party being spoken to (the + second person), and a third party being considered or mentioned (the third person). + Unlike the standard six-person matrix common in Western grammar (the three persons + divided into singular and plural), Ilaksh divides personal reference along + logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance.

From the viewpoint of Ilaksh grammar, only a single individual + can speak. Even if there are two or more persons speaking the same utterance + simultaneously it is but a collection of single individuals, each of which is + one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ilaksh, the speaker, + can be only MONADIC, never UNBOUNDED. + Thus, in Ilaksh, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” + since inherent in the various categories which translate “we” is + the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From this + we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s + utterance that determines the various personal reference categories.

The “second person” in Ilaksh is the addressee, + the person(s) being addressed or spoken to. There can be one addressee, or more + than one addressee, i.e., MONADIC or UNBOUNDED.

The “third person” in Ilaksh is where things get + very complicated, in that a party being referenced who is not the speaker or + the addressee can have many distinctions, including the presence or absence + of animacy, being MONADIC versus UNBOUNDED, + being referred to as a collective entity, being an intangible abstraction, being + indefinite, being an impersonal generic reference, or being a combination of + two or more of these categories. These distinctions are explained below.

8.1.1.3 Animate vs. Inanimate. This is as it sounds. As we saw in earlier chapters, + particularly Sec. 4.1, several + important morphological categories in Ilaksh are dependent on whether the party + to the act, condition, or event is a living entity or inanimate. Note that the + distinction between gender (he vs. she) found in most Western languages does + not exist in the Ilaksh personal reference system.

8.1.1.4 “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible for the third + party being referenced to be two or more entities of different natures. For + example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” where + “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic + animate entity), three boxes (i.e., a polyadic inanimate entity), and an intangible + concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract entity). In such + cases, Ilaksh personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” + parties to be included in a particular personal referent.

8.1.1.5 Collective Reference. This corresponds to the NOMIC Perspective in which a noun can be spoken of as a generic collective. For example, + the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast refers to all dogs in a collective sense, not any dog in particular. This COLLECTIVE category has its own set of personal reference affixes in Ilaksh, depending + on what other entities are included in the context of the utterance.

8.1.1.6 Abstract Reference. This corresponds to the ABSTRACT perspective, equivalent to derivational abstract forms such as English nouns + ending with -hood, -ness, etc. In Ilaksh, all nouns can be + spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the + sense of being or functioning as a book), and the personal reference system + provides affixes for this category whose form again depends on what other entities + are included in the context of the utterance.

8.1.1.7 Obviative (4th Person) Reference. This category has no equivalent in + Western languages, although it is found in various Native American languages. + It refers to a third party referent other than one previously mentioned, which + would otherwise be identically marked. In Native American grammatical treatises, + this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. + For example, the English sentence He saw his book is ambiguous because + we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer to the + same person or to two different persons (i.e., one who did the seeing and another + who owns the book). In Ilaksh, no such ambiguity occurs because the latter + third person referent, if a distinct person from the initial third person referent, + would be marked using the OBVIATIVE, not the third person. + This disambiguation of third person referents is the purpose of the OBVIATIVE. + Its translation into English is therefore dependent on a preceding personal + referent. (See Sec. 8.1.4 below for more information + about the OBVIATIVE).

8.1.1.8 Indefinite Reference. This category indicates that the third party + refers to any third party within the specified parameters. For example, the + referent y indicates an indefinite animate party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or + ‘anybody,’ while the referent y¯ indicates an indefinite inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’

8.1.1.9 Universal Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers + to every third party within the specified parameters. For example, the referent l indicates a universal animate party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or + ‘everybody,’ while the referent l¯ indicates a universal inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’

8.1.1.10 Impersonal Reference. This category corresponds to the German pronoun man or French pronoun on, as well as the various circumlocutions + used in English to describe impersonal reference (e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ + ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). + Such impersonal reference is illustrated in the following English sentences:

+
· One should + never speak to clowns alone.
+ · To dance the tango you need a partner.
+ · They say it never rains in August.
+ · That town is said to be haunted.
+ · She just wants to talk to someone without being criticized.
+

8.1.1.11 Inclusivity vs. Exclusivity. Since + Ilaksh personal reference adjuncts are designed to specify who among the speaker, + addressee(s), and any third party is included or excluded in the context of + the utterance, there are many possible personal reference distinctions possible + in Ilaksh for which English has no equivalent pronouns. Such exacting distinctions + would have to be made periphrastically in English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ + the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and + he but not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English + word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings equivalent to ‘you + (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ + ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and those things,’ etc.

+ 8.1.2 Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

Adjuncts with one personal referent are termed single-referent + adjuncts and have three forms: (1) a short form, (2) a long form, and (3) a + conjunct form, as shown in Table 24 below.
+

Table 24: + Morphological Structure of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Form 1: CR + VK

Example: p(w/high tone) + oi → pōi

Form 2: (Va) + CR + VK1 + Vz

Example:
+ au + t(w/high tone) + iw + u + [tone shift] → autí’wu

Form 3: (Va) + CR + VK1 + Vd + Cs (+ Vz + (Cb))

Example:
+ o + k + uiw + e + st + e + çç → okui’westeçç

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Where:
CR =	consonant indicating + Referent 1 [from Table 23 above]
VK =	short form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table + 25 below]
Va =	vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, Designation & Focus of Referent + 1 + _____ (see Table 26 below)
VK1 =	long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 [see Table + 25 below]
Vz =	vocalic suffix + (+ stress) showing Context and Extension of Referent 1 + [see Table + 27 below]
Vd =	vocalic infix + showing degree of Cs (see Table 27 below)
Cs =	consonantal suffix + for Referent 1 from standard suffix tables
Cb =	consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 21 in Sec. + 6.6))
Form + 2:	Ultimate stress = shortcut for FML designation in absence of Va
Form + 3:	Stress pattern + shows affix-type: penultimate = V1C, + ultimate = V2C, antepenultimate + = V3C
Forms + 1, 2, & 3:	Tone + shift shows RPV essence for Referent 1: low → falling, high → rising

The short form of the adjunct consists of a single consonant + (labeled CR in the diagram) plus tone, + corresponding to one of the 44 particular referents (as described in Sec. + 8.1.1 above). This is followed by a single vocalic suffix VK indicating the case of the personal referent (see Chapter 4 on Case). The 81 + possible values for this suffix are shown in Table 25 below.
+

Table 25: Case Suffixes/Infixes +for Personal Reference Adjuncts

+ + + + + +

	Label	CASE	VK	VK1
1	OBL	Oblique	a	-a’w-
2	IND	Inducive	ia	-a’y-
3	ABS	Absolutive	e	-e’w-
4	ERG	Ergative	o	-o’w-
5	EFF	Effectuative	u	-u’w-
6	AFF	Affective	ua	-u’y-
7	DAT	Dative	i	-i’w-
8	INS	Instrumental	ö	-ö’w-
9	ACT	Activative	ü	-ü’w-
10	DER	Derivative	ä	-ä’w-
11	SIT	Situative	öi	-öi’w-
12	POS	Possessive	ai	-ai’w-
13	PRP	Proprietive	ei	-ei’w-
14	GEN	Genitive	eo	-i’y-
15	ATT	Attributive	oi	-oi’w-
16	PDC	Productive	äi	-äi’w-
17	ITP	Interpretative	ëi	-ëi’w-
18	OGN	Originative	ui	-ui’w-
19	PAR	Partitive	ëu	-ëu’w-
20	CRS	Contrastive	äu	-äu’w-
21	CPS	Compositive	öu	-öu’w-
22	PRD	Predicative	öe	-ë’w-
23	MED	Mediative	eö	-ë’y-
24	APL	Applicative	au	-au’w-
25	PUR	Purposive	eu	-eu’w-
26	CSD	Considerative	ea	-e’y-
27	ESS	Essive	aú	-a-u’y-
28	ASI	Assimilative	eú	-e-u’y-
29	FUN	Functive	iú	-i-u’y-
30	TFM	Transformative	oú	-o-u’y-
31	REF	Referential	ëú	-ëu’y-
32	CLA	Classificative	oa	-o’y-
33	CNV	Conductive	ou	-ou’w-
34	IDP	Interdependent	öé	-öe’y-
35	BEN	Benefactive	ie	-eu’y-
36	TSP	Transpositive	ue	-iu’y-
37	CMM	Commutative	i-u	-ä’y-
38	COM	Comitative	io	-ö’y-
39	CNJ	Conjunctive	uo	-uo’w-
40	UTL	Utilitative	iu	-ü’y-
41	ABE	Abessive	ao	-au’y-
42	CVS	Conversive	aé	a-e’y
43	COR	Correlative	ë	-iu’w-
44	DEP	Dependent	ä-í	-ai’y-
45	PVS	Provisional	ió	-io’y-
46	PTL	Postulative	iá	-ia’y-
47	DFR	Deferential	uá	-ua’y-
48	CON	Concessive	aó	-ea’w-

	Label	CASE	VK	VK1
49	EXC	Exceptive	eó	-eo’y-
50	AVR	Aversive	ö-í	-ö-i’y-
51	CMP	Comparative	ë-í	-ëi’y-
52	SML	Simultaneitive	aö	-oi’y-
53	ASS	Assessive	ö-á	-öi’y-
54	CNR	Concursive	ié	-ie’y-
55	ACS	Accessive	ué	-ue’y-
56	DFF	Diffusive	uó	-uo’y-
57	PER	Periodic	oe	-oe’w-
58	PRO	Prolapsive	oé	-oe’y-
59	PCV	Precursive	eá	-ea’y-
60	PCR	Postcursive	oá	-oa’y-
61	ELP	Elapsive	öa	-oa’w-
62	ALP	Allapsive	üa	-ua’w-
63	INP	Interpolative	öá	-öa’y-
64	EPS	Episodic	üo	-io’w-
65	PRL	Prolimitive	üó	-ie’w-
66	LIM	Limitative	üá	-ia’w-
67	LOC	Locative	a-í	-a-i’y-
68	ORI	Orientative	e-í	-e-i’y-
69	PSV	Procursive	iö	-iö’w-
70	ALL	Allative	o-í	-o-i’y-
71	ABL	Ablative	u-í	-u-i’y
72	NAV	Navigative	uö	-uö’w-
73	CMP1A	Comparative1A	iai	a-i’w
74	CMP2A	Comparative2A	iei	e-i’w
75	CMP3A	Comparative3A	ioi	o-i’w
76	CMP4A	Comparative4A	i-ui	-i-u’w
77	CMP5A	Comparative5A	uai	-a-u’w
78	CMP6A	Comparative6A	uei	-e-u’w
79	CMP7A	Comparative7A	u-iu	u-i’w
80	CMP8A	Comparative8A	uoi	-o-u’w
81	CMP1B	Comparative1B	iái	-üa’y-
82	CMP2B	Comparative2B	iéi	-ei’y-
83	CMP3B	Comparative3B	iói	ao’y
84	CMP4B	Comparative4B	iúi	-ui’y-
85	CMP5B	Comparative5B	uái	-üa’w-
86	CMP6B	Comparative6B	uéi	-ue’w-
87	CMP7B	Comparative7B	uíu	-eo’w-
88	CMP8B	Comparative8B	uói	-üo’w-
89	CMP1C	Comparative1C	iau	-äu’y-
90	CMP2C	Comparative2C	ieu	-eö’y-
91	CMP3C	Comparative3C	iou	-ou’y-
92	CMP4C	Comparative4C	eai	-iö’y-
93	CMP5C	Comparative5C	oai	-uö’y-
94	CMP6C	Comparative6C	eau	ao’w
95	CMP7C	Comparative7C	iéu	a-e’w
96	CMP8C	Comparative8C	ióu	-eö’w-

+ As for the long form of the adjunct, the first part is an optional + vocalic prefix Va which indicates the Configuration, Affiliation, and Designation of the personal +referent (see Chapter 3 for a discussion of these morphological categories). The possible values for Va are shown in Tables 26 below.

+ Table 26: Va Prefixes for Single-Referent Personal Reference Aduncts

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ DESIGNATION	+ AFFILIATION	CONFIGURATION
+ DESIGNATION	+ AFFILIATION	UNI	DPX	DCT	AGG	SEG	CPN	COH	CST	MLT
+ IFL	CSL	a	au	ai	ia	ua	ya	yo	ea	iö
	ASO	u	iu	ui	ie	ue	yu	yë	ae	ao
	VAR	e	eu	ei	io	uo	ye	yö	oa	oe
	COA	i	ou	oi	ië	uë	yi	yä	eo	uö
+ FML	CSL	o	wa	wo	äi	äu	wai	yau	wia	yua
	ASO	ü	wu	wë	ë	ï	wui	yiu	wie	yue
	VAR	ö	we	wö	ëi	ëu	wei	yeu	wio	yuo
	COA	ä	wi	wä	öi	öu	woi	you	wië	yuë

+
+
+

The second part of the long form of the adjunct is the single consonant (CR) + plus tone shown previously in Table 23, corresponding + to the personal referent. The third part of the long form of the adjunct is + a syllabic infix (VK1) + which shows the case of the personal referent; it is a combination of a vowel + or diphthong followed by the consonant y or w. + The 96 possible values for this infix are shown in the righthand columns of Table 25 above. + The final term of the long form of the adjunct is a single vowel suffix -Vz which indicates the Context and Extension of the personal + referent (see Sec. +3.5 on Context). The values for this -Vz suffix are shown in Table 27 below.

As for the third type, or conjunct form of the adjunct, the + first three terms of are identical to those of the long-form. The new terms + are Cs, + which is merely a standard suffix used with formatives, as analyzed in Sec. + 7.4, and a vocalic infix, Vd, + which indicates the degree and affix-type of Cs. + The values of Vd are shown in Table 27 below. The affix-type of Cs is shown by the adjunct’s stress pattern (penultimate stress = Type 1, ultimate stress = Type 2, antepenultimate = Type 3). Optional terms are Vz, + the same term as explained in the preceding paragraph indicating the Context and Extension of the personal + referent, and Cb, the Bias suffix discussed in Section 6.6. The use of optional elements in these adjunct is unnecessary if the particular category indicated by the optional element is already known (or can be inferred) + from the utterance. Note that the appearance of the bias suffix Cb is dependent on the appearance of Vz, as indicated by the nested pattern of parentheses + shown in Table 24 above.
+

Table 27(a) and (b) : + Values for Vd and Vz

+ + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Vd
Degree 1	i
Degree 2	e
Degree 3	ä
Degree 4	ö
Degree 5	a
Degree 6	ü
Degree 7	ï/ë
Degree 8	o
Degree 9	u

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Vz
	EXS	FNC	SYM	AMG
DEL	a	u	au	iu
PRX	ai	ui	eu	ëu
ICP	i	ü	ou	ï
TRM	ö	ëi	öi	öu
DPL	o	e	äi	äu
GRD	oi	ei	ea	oa

For all three forms of the adjunct, shift from low to falling tone, or from high to rising, indicates the REPRESENTATIVE essence of the personal referent.

8.1.2.1 Use of the Short Form. The short form + of a single-referent personal reference adjunct is used when it is clear from + the surrounding context of the utterance which previously identified noun participant + is being referred to, so that it is unnecessary to indicate the Configuration, + Affiliation, Designation, Extension, and Context of the referent. The short form + of the adjunct merely indicates the party itself and its case.

8.1.2.2 Use of the Long Form: The long form + of the adjunct is used when necessary to indicate the Context and Extension, and/or the Configuration, + Affiliation, and Designation of the referent when the surrounding sentences + do not provide or make clear this information.

8.1.2.3 Use of the Conjunct Form: Form 3 of + the adjunct, the conjunct form, is a single-referent adjunct which combines + with a standard formative affix, allowing an affix category (and a Bias category if desired) to be applied to + a personal referent, just as an affix category would normally apply to the formative + to which it is affixed.

8.1.2.4 Examples of Single-Referent Personal Reference +Adjuncts in Use

+
Teo fwò-ul ilákš ujtavépla.
+ 1m-GEN    IFL-‘male maternal cousin’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/CST       FML-EFC/CTX/IPU-OPR-‘study’-TRM/M/CSL/UNI
+ My cousin has finally learned Ilaksh.
+
Hlŭakya nia.
+ EXP-IFL/RSL-OPR-‘congratulate’    1m+ua-IND
+ We (I and the others) offer our congratulations.
+
Rü  n-nwà aktlàc utputānukt.
+ ma/ACT    CRD    IFL-MNF-‘woman’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI    FML-‘travel’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI-AGC1/5-DEF1/9
+ She thinks the travelers are women.
+
Äđü iň-ňmà atác.
+ CSL/DPX-ua-ACT    RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
+ The two of them like writing to each other.
+

8.1.3 Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

Ilaksh allows a personal reference adjunct to show the personal + reference category and associated case for two separate parties all in one adjunct. + This is called a dual-referent adjunct and serves to combine two unrelated personal + referents into one adjunct, no matter what their associated cases may be. There + is only one form of a dual-referent adjunct, shown in Table 28 below.

+ Table 28: Morphological Structure + of a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct

+ + + + + + + + +

Form 3:

(Va) + CRR + VK1 + VB + CK2 (+ Vg + (Cb))
+

Example: : ûksai'wénz
+ Examples:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Where:
Va =	vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, & Designation of Referent + 1 + _____ (see Table 26 above)
CRR =	consonant(s) + indicating Referent 1 and Referent 2 (see Table + 30 below)
VK1 =	long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 (see Table + 25 above)
VB =	vocalic infix + showing Context & Designation of Referent 2 (see Table + 29 below)
CK2 =	consonantal suffix + showing Case and Configuration of Referent 2 (see Table + 31; 9 degrees of case suffix correspond to the 9 configurations)
Vg =	vocalic suffix + showing Affiliation of Referent 2 (see Table + 31)
Cb =	consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 21 in Sec. + 6.6)
Tone =	Combinations + of Ref. 1& 2: + _____ low + low = low, high + + high = high, low + high = rising, + _____ high + low = falling
Stress =	shows Referents 1 and 2 + Essence respectively: penultimate = 1:NRM/1:NRM, ultimate = 1:NRM/2:RPV, + antepenultimate = 1:RPV/2:NRM, preantepenultmate = 1:RPV/2:RPV

Table 29: Values for VB

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

DESIGNATION	CONTEXT	VB
IFR + INFORMAL	EXS	a
	FNC	e
	RPS	o
	AMG	ä
FML + FORMAL	EXS	ï
	FNC	i/u
	RPS	ë
	AMG	ü

VB is a vocalic suffix indicating the Context and Designation of Referent-2; its + values are shown in Table 29 immediately above. The composite prefix (labeled CRR) + is a synthetic consonantal prefix formed from the combination of the Referent-1 + prefix and the Referent-2 prefix. For example, the combination of the prefix s- with the + prefix f- + renders the composite prefix sf-, + while the combination of the prefix t- + with the prefix k- + gives the composite g-. + Table 30 below illustrates how the 22 single-consonant prefixes combine with + each other. Those values grayed out on the table do not occur.
+

Table 30: Personal Reference + Adjunct Prefixes

Low Tone

High Tone

2nd referent→
+
+

1st referent ↓

çr

ňr

đr

ŧr

žr

šr

1+ M

str

tř

çt

štw

stw

2m+M

skr

kř

çk

ňk

škw

skw

gđ

kç

kŧ

gž

kš

2u+M

spr

př

çp

pç

špw

spw

bđ

pŧ

bž

pš

1+2m

1+2m+M

sř

sň

žž

1+2u+ma

1+2u+mi

řw

çw

ňw

đw

1+2u

1+2u+M

šř

šč

mš

šl

šň

šn

šm

šš

šx

šŧ

šf

1+2m+ua

1+2m+ui

žd

IDa

IDi

çç

řy

đy

çm

ŧy

žb

1+2u+ua

1+2u+ui

žw

čč

mž

žl

žg

žn

žm

šw

šk

št

šp

2u+ma

2u+mi

fř

ŧŧ

1+ma

1+mi

ŧř

xŧ

nŧ

ŧl

đđ

škl

2m+ma

2m+mi

çn

ňx

sŧ

skl

gř

stl

đl

ŧw

2u+ua

2u+ui

mř

špr

ňň

1+ua

1+ui

nř

štr

2m+ua

2m+ui

hň

řř

škr

ňg

ňl

Obv

špl

štl

spl

Col

Abt

pst

psk

IPa

IPi

pšt

1+2m+ma

1+2m+mi

Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

+
1 = Inclusion of speaker
+ 2 = Inclusion of addressee
+ m = monadic (single party)
+ u = unbounded (more than one party)
+ a = animate 3rd party
+ i = inanimate 3rd party
+ E = universal ('everyone/everything')
+ M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
+ IP = Impersonal ('one')
+ ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
+ Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
+ Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
+ Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)
+

Note that when combining two referent prefixes to form the + composite prefix the tones associated with each referent must also be combined (remember + it is the distinction between low and high tone that expands the 22 single-consonant + referents into 44). Since all single-referent adjuncts are either of low + or high tone, their combination proceeds as follows:

+
low + low → low
+ high + high → high
+ low + high → rising
+ high + low → falling
+

As for the Referent-1 case infix, this is the same vocalic + case-affix (VK1) we saw for single-referent adjuncts in Sec. + 8.1.2 above (with the vocalic increment ending in -y- + or -w-). The + forms for these case infixes were given in Table 25.

Deferring for a moment the explanation of the Referent-2 consonantal + case suffix (CK2), + the last two terms of the dual-referent adjunct are Vg and Cb. + The former is one of four vocalic affixes representing the affiliation of Referent-2 (see Sec. 3.2), + while the latter is the consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. + 6.6. The use of Vg is optional if the affiliation of the referent is already known (or can be inferred) + from the context of the utterance. The appearance of the Cb bias suffix is dependent on the appearance of Vg. There are three different series Vg values for each of the four Affiliation categories (CSL - ASO - VAR - COA . These three series of four are arranged as follows:

+
Vg variants: (in the order CSL - ASO - VAR - COA)
+ A) a – u – o – e B) ai – ui – oi – ei C) i – ü – ï/ë – iu
+

The three different series of Vg values are utilized by the CK2 suffixes detailed in Table 31 below.

The four-way combination of Essence for Referent-1 and Referent-2 + respectively is shown by the four available stress patterns: penultimate stress indicates NORMAL + NORMAL, ultimate stress + indicates NORMAL + REPRESENTATIVE, antepenultimate + indicates REPRESENTATIVE + NORMAL, + and preantepenultimate indicates REPRESENTATIVE + REPRESENTATIVE. + (See Sec. 3.7 on + Essence)

shows Referents 1 and 2 + Essence respectively: penultimate = 1:NRM/1:NRM, ultimate = 1:NRM/2:RPV, +antepenultimate = 1:RPV/2:NRM, preantepenultmate = 1:RPV/2:RPV

The Referent-2 consonantal case suffix (CK2) + is a consonantal suffix associated with each of the 72 main noun cases (personal reference adjuncts marked for the specialized comparison cases, Nos. 73 - 96 cannot use dual-referent adjuncts). Note that + each of these case-frame adjunct markers has nine forms (a default form consisting of three variations in the consonantal form itself combined with the three series of the Vg affix). These nine variants are used to indicate the configuration + of Referent-2 (see Sec. + 3.1 on Configuration). The values for are shown in Tables 31 below.

+ Table 31: CK2 Suffixes for Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

			CONFIGURATION OF REFERENT 2
			UNI	DPX	DCT	AGG	SEG	CPN	COH	CST	MLT
	LABEL	CASE	Vg=A	Vg=B	Vg=C	Vg=A	Vg=B	Vg=C	Vg=A	Vg=B	Vg=C
1	OBL	Oblique	l	→	→	rl	→	→	çt	→	→
2	IND	Inducive	p	→	→	rp	→	→	lp	→	→
3	ABS	Absolutive	n	→	→	rn	→	→	ln	→	→
4	ERG	Ergative	m	→	→	rm	→	→	lm	→	→
5	EFF	Effectuative	ň	→	→	rň	→	→	lň	→	→
6	AFF	Affective	t	→	→	rt	→	→	lt	→	→
7	DAT	Dative	k	→	→	rk	→	→	lk	→	→
8	INS	Instrumental	r	→	→	ňň	→	→	lr	→	→
9	ACT	Activative	ç	→	→	rç	→	→	lç	→	→
10	DER	Derivative	v	→	→	rv	→	→	lv	→	→
11	SIT	Situative	đ	→	→	rđ	→	→	lđ	→	→
12	POS	Possessive	s	→	→	rs	→	→	ls	→	→
13	PRP	Proprietive	c	→	→	rc	→	→	lc	→	→
14	GEN	Genitive	š	→	→	rš	→	→	lš	→	→
15	ATT	Attributive	č	→	→	rč	→	→	lč	→	→
16	PDC	Productive	j	→	→	rj	→	→	lj	→	→
17	ITP	Interpretative	ż	→	→	rż	→	→	lż	→	→
18	OGN	Originative	rr	→	→	sr	→	→	šr	→	→
19	PAR	Partitive	ř	→	→	kk	→	→	ňr	→	→
20	CRS	Constrastive	řř	→	→	hs	→	→	hš	→	→
21	CPS	Compositive	ll	→	→	sl	→	→	šl	→	→
22	PRD	Predicative	nn	→	→	tt	→	→	nđ	→	→
23	MED	Mediative	mm	→	→	pp	→	→	mv	→	→
24	APL	Applicative	pf	→	→	rpf	→	→	lpf	→	→
25	PUR	Purposive	tf	→	→	rtf	→	→	ltf	→	→
26	CSD	Considerative	kf	→	→	rkf	→	→	lkf	→	→
27	ESS	Essive	f	→	→	rf	→	→	lf	→	→
28	ASI	Assimilative	ŧ	→	→	rŧ	→	→	lŧ	→	→
29	FUN	Functive	x	→	→	rx	→	→	lx	→	→
30	TFM	Transformative	ss	→	→	nsk	→	→	msk	→	→
31	REF	Referential	h	→	→	rh	→	→	lh	→	→
32	CLA	Classificative	šš	→	→	nšt	→	→	mšt	→	→
33	CNV	Conductive	ns	→	→	nš	→	→	nst	→	→
34	IDP	Interdependent	ms	→	→	mš	→	→	mst	→	→
35	BEN	Benefactive	ňs	→	→	ňš	→	→	ňst	→	→
36	TSP	Transpositive	ft	→	→	rft	→	→	lft	→	→
37	CMM	Commutative	g	→	→	rg	→	→	lg	→	→
38	COM	Comitative	z	→	→	rz	→	→	lz	→	→
39	CNJ	Conjunctive	b	→	→	rb	→	→	lb	→	→
40	UTL	Utilitative	d	→	→	rd	→	→	ld	→	→
41	ABE	Abessive	ž	→	→	rž	→	→	lž	→	→
42	CVS	Conversive	sp	→	→	rsp	→	→	lsp	→	→
43	CON	Concessive	šp	→	→	ršp	→	→	lšp	→	→
44	COR	Correlative	nt	→	→	nŧ	→	→	nd	→	→
45	DEP	Dependent	mp	→	→	mf	→	→	mb	→	→
46	PTL	Postulative	sk	→	→	rsk	→	→	sk	→	→
47	DFR	Deferential	šk	→	→	ršk	→	→	šk	→	→
48	EXC	Exceptive	st	→	→	rst	→	→	lst	→	→
49	PVS	Provisional	št	→	→	ršt	→	→	lšt	→	→
50	AVR	Aversive	ňk	→	→	ňx	→	→	ňg	→	→
51	CMP	Comparative	ff	→	→	vv	→	→	bv	→	→
52	SML	Simultaneitive	ŧŧ	→	→	đđ	→	→	dv	→	→
53	ASS	Assessive	xx	→	→	ňt	→	→	gv	→	→
54	CNR	Concursive	zz	→	→	nz	→	→	mz	→	→
55	ACS	Accessive	žž	→	→	nž	→	→	mž	→	→
56	DFF	Diffusive	fs	→	→	pss	→	→	kss	→	→
57	PER	Periodic	fš	→	→	pšš	→	→	kšš	→	→
58	PRO	Prolapsive	sf	→	→	rsf	→	→	lsf	→	→
59	PCV	Precursive	sŧ	→	→	rsŧ	→	→	lsŧ	→	→
60	PCR	Postcursive	pŧ	→	→	rpŧ	→	→	lpŧ	→	→
61	ELP	Elapsive	kŧ	→	→	rkŧ	→	→	lkŧ	→	→
62	ALP	Allapsive	šf	→	→	ršf	→	→	lšf	→	→
63	INP	Interpolative	šŧ	→	→	ršŧ	→	→	lšŧ	→	→
64	EPS	Episodic	pt	→	→	rpt	→	→	lpt	→	→
65	PRL	Prolimitive	kt	→	→	rkt	→	→	lkt	→	→
66	LIM	Limitative	nç	→	→	hc	→	→	hč	→	→
67	LOC	Locative	xt	→	→	rxt	→	→	lxt	→	→
68	ORI	Orientative	çç	→	→	cc	→	→	čč	→	→
69	PSV	Procursive	ps	→	→	bz	→	→	pst	→	→
70	ALL	Allative	pš	→	→	bž	→	→	pšt	→	→
71	ABL	Ablative	ks	→	→	gz	→	→	kst	→	→
72	NAV	Navigative	kš	→	→	gž	→	→	kšt	→	→

+ 8.1.3.1 Special Use of Short Adjunct Form. The short form of + the single-referent adjunct discussed in Sec. 8.1.2 above (utilizing the abbreviated VK suffix from Table 24) can be used with the special dual-referent CRR composite prefixes from Table 30 under the following + circumstance: to show that two different parties are governed by the same case + and participate equally with the verb, equivalent to connecting two pronouns + in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or The man looked at them and me. Examples: ksau, xlú. + Note in the last example xlú how the combination of a low-toned referent and a high-toned referent combines +to give a rising-toned adjunct.

8.1.3.2 Illustration of a Dual-Referent Adjunct: + Based on the above information, we can now analyze an example dual-referent + adjunct:

gro-i’yálsëç

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

( + )-	=	INFORMAL designation, UNIPLEX configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation for Referent No. 1
-gr -	=	combination of Referent No. 1, t- , 1m, + plus Referent No. 2, ň¯, 2m+ui
[rising tone]	=	combination of low tone of Referent No. 1 and high tone of Referent No. 2
-o-i’y-	=	ALLATIVE case infix (meaning ‘toward X’) for Referent No. 1
-a-	=	INFORMAL designation and EXISTENTIAL context for Referent No. 2
-ls-	=	POSSESSIVE case and MULTIFORM configuration for Referent No. 2
-ë-	=	VARIATIVE affiliation for Referent No. 2
-ç	=	REACTIVE bias
[stress]	=	penultimate stress indicating NORMAL essence for both Referents Nos. 1 and 2

Approximate translation: toward me + what belongs to a rag-tag amalgamation of you (singular) and all those things + [sense of surprise].

While such a word might seem contrived at first, it nevertheless + proves quite functional in a sentence such as the following (which a Star Trek© character might say to a Borg after the latter has produced an “assimilated” + spider from its pocket and let it loose during the night):

+
Gro-i’yálsëç xamstīelŧ.
+ 1m/ALL-2m+ui/POS/VAR/MLT-RAC IFL-OPR-‘ambulate’-PRX/M/ASO/SEG-STR2/3
+ Hey! Something belonging to you and your hodge-podge of parts is crawling toward me!
+
+

Other examples of the use of dual-referent personal reference adjuncts are +given below.

+
Uzgăt tra’wap zmäāwal.
+ FML-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI   mi/OBL-1m/IND   IFL-‘valley’-LOC-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ I bought it in the valley.
+
Đrëu’yìrňu wufyér?
+ mi/REF-ua/FML/FNC/REF/AGG/ASO     IRG-FML-OPR-‘inquiry’-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
+ Is it those formally recognized groups of people who are helping to make inquiries about it?
+
Hlŭakya škwi’wap.
+ EXP-IFL/RSL-OPR-‘congratulate’    2m/DAT-1m+ua/IND
+ We (I and the others) offer you our congratulations.
+

+ 8.1.4 Use of the Switch Reference Suffix

In Section + 7.4.13, the SWR switch reference suffix was introduced. + This affix works with the OBVIATIVE personal referent + (see Sec. 8.1.1.7) to specifically indicate which + party is being referred to. The following is a review of this affix for all + nine degrees. By use of this affix, reference can be made immediately to any + party relevant to a discourse, even to a third party not previously mentioned.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

-V2_’/kw	SWR	Switch Reference & Obviative Specification
Degree 1	nearest + preceding referent
Degree 2	2nd to + nearest preceding referent
Degree 3	3rd party + not previously mentioned
Degree 4	referring + to sentence focus
Degree 5	first referent + mentioned
Degree 6	referring + to sentence topic
Degree 7	3rd party + non-transrelative referent
Degree 8	2nd order + transrelative referent
Degree 9	higher + order transrelative referent

The following example illustrates the use of the switch reference suffix:

Lawöól alüùl teo ukše-ulă’ xakkā va’yạ’ żżüwül vei’wiekwạ.
+ IFL-OPR-‘speak’-PCR-DEL/M/CSL/UNI IFL-‘brother’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI 1m-GEN FML-‘clown’-DAT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPF1/5 IFL-OPR-‘run’-ICP/M/CSL/UNI OBV/IND-SWR/5 IFL-‘pet dog’-ALL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI OBV/PRP-SWR/3
+ After my brother spoke to the clown, he [my brother] began running toward his [a third party’s] pet dog.

+ + + + +

8.2 ASPECTUAL ADJUNCTS

As we saw in Section 6.7, Aspect can be shown as the Vp suffix to a valence/modality adjunct, in addition to the its “standard ”position as an infix to a formative. However, in the absence of any valence/modality adjunct, and as another alternative to infixing Vp within a formative, Aspect can also be conveyed by simply using the Vp affix as its own autonomous adjunct.

Examples (compare these to the examples in Sec. 5.6.3):

+
Ia anyût lülùlt teo.
+ CLM    IFL-OPR-‘choose’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘brother’-IND-CFD1/9    1M-GEN
+ My over-confident brother made a choice once and for all.
+
Akkäàl ui usét.
+ IFL-‘woman’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     RGR    FML-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI
+ The woman returned to singing.
+
Au ççwaralaruëèŧ güliëèn.
+ PCL    HOR-IFL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
+ If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.
+

+

+ + + + +

8.3 AFFIXUAL ADJUNCTS

Any Type-1 or Type-2 VX-C formative suffix described in Chapter 7 may be + removed from the formative and positioned as an adjacent adjunct for purposes + of euphony (i.e., to reduce the number of syllables in the formative). Additionally, since affix categories represent common concepts generally + applicable to many contexts, an affixual adjunct can also be informally used + as a “short cut” method of conveying a notion, essentially as an + abbreviated one-word sentence somewhat like an interjection or exclamation in + English, thus conveying the concept of the affix category. For example, the + affix -V1j/7 connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, ïj, + it can be used by itself as an informal expression translatable by the English + phrase How typical!

Example:

+
Ççwa’lauralaruëèŧ güliëèn.   →   Au ëŧ  ççwaralàr güliëèn.
+ HOR-IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-PCL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-EXT2/6     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
+ →   PCL    EXT2/6    HOR-IFL-OPR-‘eat food’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5     IFL-‘illness’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7
+ If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.
+

+ + + + +

8.4 COMBINATION ADJUNCTS

This section is under construction.

+ + + + +

8.5 BIAS ADJUNCTS

Section + 6.6.1 describes the standard ways in which Bias is shown on valence/modality adjuncts + and on formatives. And in Sec. 8.1.2, we saw how the conjunct + form of a single-referent personal reference adjunct can take an optional affix, Cb, + to indicate Bias. In the absence of these + possibilities, the Bias suffix (shown in Table 21 of Sec. + 6.6.1), like affixual adjuncts described above in Section 8.3, can stand alone as an autonomous adjunct. Such a Bias adjunct can be used to informally convey one’s attitude toward + a situation. For example, if one wishes to convey a sense of awe, one could + state the Ilaksh equivalent to the sentence, I feel a sense of awe! or one can simply hiss out a long s-sound, ‘ss,’ + which is the intensive form of the affix for the STUPEFACTIVE bias category, whose translation can be approximated by the English expressions + ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’

Other examples would be the expression ‘çç’ to signify fulfillment and contentment, the equivalent to a long sigh of satisfaction + ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression ‘kšš’to convey contempt and disgust, similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ + or ‘What bullshit!’

+
Proceed to Chapter 9: Syntax >>
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Home 4 Case Morphology 9 Syntax
Introduction 5 Verb Morphology 10 Lexico-Semantics
1 Phonology 6 More Verb Morphology 11 The Writing System
2 Morpho-Phonology 7 Suffixes 12 The Number System
3 Basic Morphology 8 Adjuncts The Lexicon

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