From 27c9f305310f2025ae34be905589613d5c1f47e7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: uakci Date: Fri, 18 Sep 2020 02:23:27 +0200 Subject: 2004-en, 2004-ru, 2011-en --- 2004-en/Chapter_6.html | 3349 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 3349 insertions(+) create mode 100644 2004-en/Chapter_6.html (limited to '2004-en/Chapter_6.html') diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_6.html b/2004-en/Chapter_6.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aada275 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_6.html @@ -0,0 +1,3349 @@ + + + + +Chapter 6 + + + + +

Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
   
+
+
+

Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
  6.1 Modality  6.5 Incorporation and Format   
  6.2 Valence  6.6 Bias   
  6.3 Validation  6.7 Aspect Alternative   
  6.4 Function     
+

In this chapter, we examine eight additional morphological categories and processes +which apply to verbal formatives: Modality, Valence, Validation, Bias, Function, Incorporation and Format. These categories (with the exception of Function and Format) are shown within the morpho-phonological structure of a valence adjunct (also called a modality adjunct).

+

The structure of a valence/modality adjunct is as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
((Cv)
+
Vv)
(Cd
Vd)
CM
(Vp
(Cb))

+  7 validations (in conj. w/ Vv)
+

+ 14 valences
+ x 3 validations (in conj. w/ Cv)

+ 120 C-root
+ x 3 patterns
+ =incorporated root

+ 5 V-root
+ x 6 tones
+ x 3 stems
+ x 2 designations
+

+ 30 cc-affix =
+ 29 modalities + 1 default (= no modality)

+ 32 aspects

+ 48 biases
+


+Example: hoixmial-lùiss

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
h
oi
xm
ia
l-l`
ui
ss
PURPORTIVE validation
+ (COROLLARY valence)
COROLLARY valence
+ (PURPORTIVE validation) +
incorporated stem: xmìa
ASPIRATIVE modality
REGRESSIVE
+ aspect
STUPEFACTIVE bias
+

The valence/modality adjunct appears in an Ilaksh sentence immediately before a verbal formative, or when within a case-frame, immediately after the verbal formative.

+

 

+
+ + + + +
6.1 MODALITY
+
+

Modality corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., can, may, must, should, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as to want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that, etc. However, + in Ilaksh, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see Sec. + 3.8) and the Perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. + 4.3.9). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows: As we saw in Sections + 3.8 and 4.3.9, + it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the + psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in + the following sentences.

+
+

1) You must come home at once.
+ 2) That girl can sing better than anybody.
+ 3) Our troops should attack at dawn.
+ 4) Mother needs you to come with her.
+ 5) The teacher requests that I dance for you.
+ 6) The man believes clowns are dangerous.

+
+

Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.Because the clauses following the verbs must, can, should, + need, request, believe, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) and the REPRESENTATIVE essence (see Sec. + 3.7). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns you, girl, troops, mother, teacher, and man in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see Sec. + 4.3.9). It should be noted that not all Ilaksh modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence She + chose to move to Australia, the verb chose signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the move to Australia clause would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective but + would not be marked in the REPRESENTATIVE essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ilaksh modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.

+

There are 29 modalities in Ilaksh. (This is one less than in Ithkuil; Ithkuil's COMPULSIVE modality has been eliminated in Ilaksh, its function merged with the NECESSITATIVE.) Modality is marked by the CM consonantal affix to a valence adjunct. the CM affix is always a dissyllabic geminate consonant as earlier described in Section 1.2.1.1, in which the second member of the geminate conjunct carries the word stress and tone. This is the only circumstance in which such dissyllabic stressed consonantal geminates occur in Ilaskh; thus, it is by this means that Valence/Modality adjuncts can be easily distinguished from formatives. Because some browsers and/or text displays do not allow a consonant to carry a tone-stress diacritic mark, the tone-stress diacritic is written on the vowel following the CM affix, e.g., in-nù, a three-syllable word pronounced (using X-SAMPA) as [In."n=.u] with falling tone beginning on the stressed second n-sound. In cases where there is no vowel following the CM affix, the tone-stress diacritic is written on a neutral anaptyptic vowel -a following the CM affix which the speaker may pronounce or not at his/her choosing, e.g., in-ná, pronounced (using X-SAMPA) either as [In."n= ] or as [In."n=.a] with rising tone beginning on the stressed second n-sound.

+ + + + + + + + + + +
((Cv)
+
Vv)
(Cd
Vd)
CM
(Vp
(Cb))
+

Note that the tone of a valence adjunct is always determined by the tone of any incorporated stem associated with the adjunct (the Cd+Vd optional element in the above formula) as described in Section 6.5 below. Where the adjunct has no such incorporated stem, the default tone of the adjunct is falling. The tone always appears in conjunction with the stressed syllable, the syllabic consonant as described in the above paragraph. As with all Ilaksh words, the tone of the word prior to the stressed syllable is neutral mid tone (see Section 1.3.2).

+

Where the value of the Cv and Vv terms of such an adjunct are null (i.e., there is no Valence or Validation values marked), then the adjunct may be termed a modality adjunct. + The 29 modalities and their respective suffixes are shown in Table 15 below. The function of each modality is described in the sub-sections following the table.

+

Table 15: CM Modality Affixes 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Label
Name
CM-affix
 
 
Label
Name
CM-affix
--
(no modality)
n-n
ITV
Intentive
n-nr
DES
Desiderative
m-m
ANT
Anticipative
m-mr
ASP
Aspirative
l-l
DSP
Dispositive
l-lr
EXV
Expectative
ň-ň
PRE
Preparative
ň-ňr
CRD
Credential
n-nw
NEC
Necessitative
n-nř
REQ
Requisitive
m-mw
DEC
Decisive
m-mř
EXH
Exhortative
l-lw
PTV
Proclivitive
l-lř
OPR
Opportunitive
ň-ňw
VOL
Voluntative
ň-ňř
CPC
Capacitative
n-ny
ACC
Accordative
n-nm
PRM
Permissive
m-my
INC
Inclinative
l-lm
PTN
Potential
l-ly
DVR
Divertive
ň-ňm
CLS
Compulsory
ň-ňy
DVT
Devotive
m-mn
OBG
Obligative
m-ml
PFT
Preferential
l-ln
IMS
Impositive
n-nl
IPS
Impressional
ň-ňn
ADV
Advocative
ň-ňl
PMS
Promissory
l-lň
+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.1
DES
The Desiderative
+
+

The DESIDERATIVE more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in The teacher wants the students to study hard. It is marked + by adding the suffix -a to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.2
ASP
The Aspirative
+
+

The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.3
EPC
The Expectative
+
+

The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in He expected her to be beautiful, + or I imagine he’s reached his destination.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.4
CRD
The Credential
+
+

The CREDENTIAL corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in I think she has two sons, or We believe the earth to be round. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as I think she’s pretty.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.5
REQ
The Requisitive
+
+

The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in I request his presence at the banquet, +or I’d like you to visit your father.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.6
EXH
The Exhortative
+
+

The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in I demand you return my book or Let the gates be opened!

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.7
OPR
The Opportunitive
+
+

The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in Can we pass by our old house when we visit town? or Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.8
CPC
The Capacitative
+
+

The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in Can she sing opera? or He could run + like the wind. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in He speaks French like + a native [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so].

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.9
PRM
The Permissive
+
+

The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs can/could/be able or may/might where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert; or Could I talk to you?

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.10
PTN
The Potential
+
+

The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area, or That man could fly into rages for no reason. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in It rains unpredictably in the Northwest.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.11
CLS
The Compulsory
+
+

The COMPULSORY corresponds to the English + modal verbs must or have to/had to in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in You must get up now, or I had to attend the ceremony.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.12
OBG
The Obligative
+
+

The OBLIGATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs should, ought to, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel, or It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.13
IMS
The Impositive
+
+

The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as be supposed to, be expected to, or be to which impose an expectation upon a party, as in You’re supposed to + smile when introduced, or He is to give a speech at the banquet.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.14
ADV
The Advocative
+
+

The ADVOCATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as suggest that or propose that which advocate + a position, as in I suggest you study harder or They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.15
ITV
The Intentive
+
+

The INTENTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as intend to, plan on or shall which + convey an intention, as in The girls plan on travelling to Europe, + or I shall see to it.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.16
ANT
The Anticipative
+
+

The ANTICIPATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to look forward to or to eagerly await which convey positive anticipation, as in We look forward to the clowns coming + to town.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.17
DSP
The Dispositive
+
+

The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English + expression to be willing to, conveying willingness as in He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.18
PRE
The Preparative
+
+

The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English + expressions be ready to or be prepared to, indicating readiness, + as in She’s ready to host the party, or They are prepared + to endure harsh weather.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.19
NEC
The Necessitative
+
+

The NECESSITATIVE corresponds to the + English expressions need to or be necessary to, indicating + necessity, as in You need to do something about those clowns in the yard, + or It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.20
DEC
The Decisive
+
+

The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in Peter decided to cook + breakfast or Colleen chose to visit the clowns.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.21
PTV
The Proclivitive
+
+

The PROCLIVITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as tend to, be apt to, or be prone to, indicating + tendency, as in The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs, or Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.22
VOL
The Voluntative
+
+

The VOLUNTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as “offer to” or “volunteer to,” indicating an act of offering + as in The foreman offered to put poison in my beer, or Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.23
ACC
The Accordative
+
+

The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English + expression agree to, as in Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.24
INC
The Inclinative
+
+

The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to feel like or be up for, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in He’s up for going to the shindig, + or Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.25
DVR
The Divertive
+
+

The DIVERTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as like to, or enjoy, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in Boys like to dream about cars, or My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.26
DVT
The Devotive
+
+

The DEVOTIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as be devoted to or be committed to, indicating devotion + as in Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town, + or They were devoted to rooting for the losing team.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.27
PFT
The Preferential
+
+

The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English + expressions such as prefer, or would rather that, indicating + preference as in He’d rather work by himself, or Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.28
IPS
The Impressional
+
+

The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English + expressions such as have an impression that, have a hunch that, or feel that, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic, or Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.29
PMS
The Promissory
+
+

The PROMISSORY corresponds to English + expressions such as promise, or swear that, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in She promised that her son would visit my daughter, + or Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient.

+

 

+

6.1.30 Examples of Modality in Use

+
+

Rü  n-nwà  aktlàc  utputānukt.
+ ma/ACT    CRD    IFL-MNF-‘woman’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI    FML-‘travel’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI-AGC1/5-DEF1/9
+ She thinks the travelers are women.

+

Äđü  iň-ňmà  atác.
+ CSL/DPX-ua-ACT    RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
+ The two of them like writing to each other.

+

El-lnà  alairàpt  àxmoel  gmèh.
+ PRL-PFT    IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-CSS-OPR-‘eat/drink food’-PRX/A/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘mother’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘child’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/AGG
+ Mother prefers that the children stop eating together.

+

 

+
+

 

+ + + + +
6.2 VALENCE
+

In Ilaksh, the term Valence is used to refer + to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given + verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by + another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, + or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs + of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” + verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ilaksh explicitly + shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate + the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1a) I found an old man.→1b) I found an empty can.
2a) I threw the ball at Sam.→2b) I threw the ball at the window.
3a) I performed in front of her.→3b) I performed in front of the wall.
+

Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate + object of the verb (an old man, Sam, and her), while the second +member of each pair has an inanimate object (an empty can, the window, and the wall). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1c) I met an old man.→1d) * I met an empty can.
2c) I threw Sam the ball.→2d) * I threw the window the ball.
3c) I entertained her.→3d) * I entertained the wall.
+

The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these + pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why?The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except + that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been + replaced by the semantically similar meet, throw, and entertain. + Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears + unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” + i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, + whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that + the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even + being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without the old man also + meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if + I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected to participate by + catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re + asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating + in the situation by observing me. The participatory relationship involving the second party of + a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship + (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb + ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship + as in the sentence I met the old man (i.e., and so he met me) or in + verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We + love each other. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in I + played along with him (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship + as in I threw Sam the ball (i.e., and so he caught it).Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is + the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ilaksh into + the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely + explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ + ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly + specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as find/meet, + throw at/throw, perform/entertain, etc. In Ilaksh, co-activity is explicitly shown morphologically, + and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are + systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus + co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monoactively +as well as co-actively.

+

There are fourteen valences in Ilaksh: the MONOACTIVE, + PARALLEL, COROLLARY, RECIPROCAL, COMPLEMENTARY, NONRELATIONAL, DUPLICATIVE, + DEMONSTRATIVE, RESISTIVE, IMITATIVE, CONTINGENT, PARTICIPATIVE, INDICATIVE, + and MUTUAL. Valence is shown by the vocalic Vv valence prefix to a valence/modality adjunct. There are two variations for each Vv value; the choice of which of the two varations to use is dependent on the value of the Cv Validation prefix explained later in Section 6.3.

+ + + + + + + + + + +
((Cv)
+
Vv)
(Cd
Vd)
CM
(Vp
(Cb))
+


+ Table + 16: Vv Valence Prefixes
+ (The two variations work in conjunction with Cv Validation prefix explained later in Section 6.3)

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Label
Valence name
Var 1
Var 2
1
MNO
Monoactive
a
ai
2
PRL
Parallel
e
ei
3
CRO
Corollary
o
oi
4
RCP
Reciprocal
i
iu
5
CPL
Complementary
u
ui
6
NNR
Nonrelational
ä
au
7
DUP
Duplicative
ë
eu
8
DEM
Demonstrative
ö
ou
9
RES
Resistive
ü
ëu
10
IMT
Imitative
ia
ua
11
CNG
Contingent
ie
ue
12
PTI
Participative
io
uo
13
IDC
Indicative
iö
uö
14
MUT
Mutual
ea
oa
+


+ The fourteen valences are explained as follows:
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.1
MNO
The Monoactive
+
+

The MONOACTIVE valence is the default + valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second + party is implied.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.2
PRL
The Parallel
+
+

The PARALLEL valence indicates that a + second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children all sang + together, We both went jogging on the parkway.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.3
CRO
The Corollary
+
+

The COROLLARY valence is similar to the PARALLEL, except that the second party engages in related + activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children played in + the yard (i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or The + band played my favorite song (implying that not everyone in the band was + playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed + to playing an instrument).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.4
RCP
The Reciprocal
+
+

The RECIPROCAL valence indicates identical + activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial + phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in They + looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.5
CPL
The Complementary
+
+

The COMPLEMENTARY valence indicates that + the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. + By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the + first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., + the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences + such as The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, + The clown read the children a story, where ‘played catch’ implies + the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the + woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, and ‘read’ + implies a reader and an audience.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.6
NNR
The Nonrelational
+
+

The NONRELATIONAL valence indicates that + a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., + an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify + this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause + such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in He shaved + while she did something else. The way an Ilaksh sentence would utilize + this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, + ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one + thing while the other did something else.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.7
DUP
The Duplicative
+
+

The DUPLICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the + sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, + then you draw the same picture), They both read that book (i.e., first + one, then the other), I bought a new car (i.e., and now someone else + is buying a new car, too).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.8
DEM
The Demonstrative
+
+

The DEMONSTRATIVE valence indicates that + the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what + to do. Thus an Ilaksh sentence constructed as We played chess with + the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I + showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They + fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.9
RES
The Resistive
+
+

The RESISTIVE valence indicates that + the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity + of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the + adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases + such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as We took the + children to see the clowns anyway (i.e., they didn’t want to go), They fed me liver just the same (i.e., I can’t stand liver), Nevertheless, he told us the story (i.e., despite our not wanting to + hear it).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.10
IMT
The Imitative
+
+

The IMITATIVE valence indicates that + the second party mimics, imitates, or attempts to duplicate the activity of + the first party. The Ilaksh sentence The clown juggled three balls for + the child in the IMITATIVE valence implies that the + child attempted to juggle the balls as well.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.11
CNG
The Contingent
+
+

The CONTINGENT valence indicates that + the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, + the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ilaksh sentence I started the campfire for my friend in the CONTINGENT implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked + the food.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.12
PTI
The Participative
+
+

The PARTICIPATIVE valence indicates that + the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable + by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ilaksh sentence They raced in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They + each took part in the race.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.13
IDC
The Indicative
+
+

The INDICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s + activity. Thus the sentence I looked at her in the INDICATIVE would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ + while the sentence I spoke to them would mean ‘They gleaned what + I really meant from my words.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.14
MUT
The Mutual
+
+

The MUTUAL valence indicates that both + parties alternate performing an activity, as in She and I take turns cleaning or They both alternate teaching the beginning and advanced classes.

+


+
+6.2.15 Examples of Valence in Use

+
+

Un-nà  uvéstra  tu  guiliënìk  ilákš.
+ CPL    FML-OPR-‘study’-GRD/M/CSL/UNI    1M-EFF    IFL-‘illness’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-SSD1/1    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/CST
+ I’m teaching the nurse to speak Ilaksh.

+

In-nà  alpçulámz  kiàll.
+ RCP    IFL-STA-‘smile’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MOT1/5    IFL-‘person’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/DPX
+ The couple can’t help smiling at each other.

+

Iön-nà  xtàl  axmëèl  ukšŭl.
+ IDC    IFL-OPR-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘father’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ The clown gets the meaning of father’s look.

+

Äđü  iň-ňmà  atác.
+ CSL/DPX-ma-ACT    RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
+ The two of them like writing to each other.

+

El-lnà  alairàpt  àxmoel  gmèh.
+ PRL-PFT    IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-CSS-OPR-‘eat/drink food’-PRX/A/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘mother’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘child’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/AGG
+ Mother prefers that the children stop eating together.

+
+


+

+ + + + +
6.3 VALIDATION
+

Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ilaksh. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. Validation is another of the few areas where Ilaksh morphology differs from that of Ithkuil, in that Ithkuil's nine validations have been expanded to fourteen in Ilaksh. Of these 14 validations, five refer to non-hearsay types of evidence, while nine refer to hearsay situations. These nine hearsay categories are distinguished by a two-fold matrix of whether the source of the hearsay is considered by the speaker to be trustworthy and whether the statement/information is potentially verifiable. The exactitude of Ilaksh evidential categories is impossible to capture in English translation except through cumbersome paraphrase, but can be approximated in a rough way using phrases such as reportedly, presumably, supposedly, purportedly, allegedly, rumour has it, I have a feeling that, etc.

+

The 14 validations are shown by one of seven consonantal Cv prefixes (including a null prefix, i.e., the absence of a prefix) combined with one of two variations in the Vv valence affix described above in Section 6.2.

+ + + + + + + + + + +
((Cv)
+
Vv)
(Cd
Vd)
CM
(Vp
(Cb))
+


+The values for these prefixes are shown in Table 17 below as well as the meaning (description of evidential basis) of each validation.
+

+ + Table 17(a) and (b): Cv Validation Prefixes With Vv Variants
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Label
Name
Cv
Vv
+ variant
Evidential Basis
1
CNF
CONFIRMATIVE
—
1
direct observation/knowledge and verifiable by others
2
AFM
AFFIRMATIVE
—
2
direct observation/knowledge but unknown verifiability by others
3
RPT
REPORTIVE
w-
1
direct observation/knowledge but unverifiable by others
4
INF
INFERENTIAL
w-
2
inference
5
ITU
INTUITIVE
y-
1
intuition/feeling
+
+Hearsay Categories +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Label
Name
Cv
Vv
+ variant
Source
+ Trustworthy?
Verifiable? +
+
6
PSM
PRESUMPTIVE
y-
2
Yes
Yes
7
PSM2
PRESUMPTIVE 2
h-
1
Yes
Unknown
8
PPT
PURPORTIVE
h-
2
Yes
No
9
PPT2
PURPORTIVE 2
hw-
1
Unknown
Yes
10
CJT
CONJECTURAL
hw-
2
Unknown
Unknown
11
DUB
DUBITATIVE
hm-
1
Unknown
No
12
TEN
TENTATIVE
hm-
2
No
Yes
13
PUT
PUTATIVE
hn-
1
No
Unknown
14
IPB
IMPROBABLE
hn-
2
No
No
+


+
+ 6.3.1 Examples of Validation in Use

+
+

Yuin-nà  uvéstra  ru  guiliënìk  ilákš.
+ PSM-CPL    FML-OPR-‘study’-GRD/M/CSL/UNI    ma-EFF    IFL-‘illness’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-SSD1/1    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/CST
+ He's presumably teaching the nurse to speak Ilaksh.

+

Hiun-nà  alpçulámz  kiàll.
+ PPT-RCP    IFL-STA-‘smile’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MOT1/5    IFL-‘person’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/DPX
+ Purportedly, the couple can’t help smiling at each other.

+

Äđü  hmiň-ňmà  atác.
+ CSL/DPX-ma-ACT    DUB-RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
+ Supposedly the two of them like writing to each other but who knows if it’s true or not.

+
+

 

+

 

+ + + + +
6.4 FUNCTION
+

Function refers to the general relationship a verb has to its noun participants based on whether the verb represents a tangible/physical act, an existential or psychological state, a subjective description, a statement of identification, inherent motion-in-place, a statement of location or position in space, or a transformation from one state to another. In this manner, a given verb can manifest different interpretations without the need for relexification or paraphrase. This addresses a lexico-semantic flaw in languages such as English where new verbs sometimes arise directly from nouns but the new verbal meaning can't be predicted until the verb is used in context. For example, imagine + an English speaker using a new verb form such as ‘to apple,’ as + in Let’s ‘apple’ today. Would this mean to pick + apple?, to be an apple?, to grow an apple?, to look like an apple?, to turn something into an apple? Without + a standardized system for the lexico-semantic function of verbs, the meaning of such a form could only be + learned from hearing others using it in context.

+

Through the morphological category of function, Ilaksh provides such a standardized system, i.e., eight ways by which to interpret such verbal meaning. This is very important since all formatives are capable of both nominal (noun) and verbal meanings. Thus, by means of the different functions, the stem xtà- ‘eye’ can be made to have verbal meanings as diverse as to be an eye, to be like an eye, to turn into an eye, to cause an eyeball to move (in place), to be in an eye-like state, to be positioned where the eye is situated, and to move an eye from one place to another. We will see later in Section 6.5 that these eight semantic interpretations can be infinitely expanded by means of stem incorporation and the category of Format.

+ + + + +

NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

+

In Ithkuil, this concept of Function was called Conflation and worked in conjunction with two other categories called Derivation and Format. However, in Ilaksh, the notion of Derivation has been abandoned in favor of allowing any formative stem to be incorporated directly into another stem, a process which will be described at length in Section 6.5. As a result, the notion of Conflation from Ithkuil has been decoupled from the concept of Format. Because of this change, the concept has been renamed Function and is described in this section on its own.

+

Function is shown by the Cm modification of the consonantal portion of the verbal stem within the formative itself, which usually means the adding a consonantal prefix + to the stem consonant; however the exact phonological manifestation of each Cm modification is dependent on the specific stem consonant or consonant cluster.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
((VL)
Ci
Vc
(Cx
Vp))
(Cm)
Cr
Vr
Ca
(VxC)
(VF
(Cb))
[stress]
+

The specific Cm modifications are described below in Section 6.4.9 . The eight Functions are the OPERATIVE, STATIVE, MANIFESTIVE, INCHOATIVE, DESCRIPTIVE, ACTIVE, POSITIONAL and TRANSLATIVE . They are described in the following sections.

+


+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.1
OPR
The Operative
+
+

OPERATIVE function is unmarked, i.e., there is no change to the stem consonant or consonant cluster. The OPERATIVE indicates that the verb refers to a tangible or physical act or cause-and-effect event: to perform the action + of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function.

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.2
STA
The Stative
+
+

The STATIVE function is usually marked by prefixing or suffixing an -l- to the stem consonant, although the specific pattern is dependent on the stem consonant itself, as shown in Table 18 below. The STATIVE indicates a stative manifestation, + i.e. to be in a (temporary) state. It does NOT mean “be” in the + sense of copula identification as in “I am John”

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3
MNF
The Manifestive
+
+

MANIFESTIVE function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -r- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant; see Table 18 below for details. The MANIFESTIVE indicates that the verb represents a manifestion or naming of the identity of a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the “be” + copula of identification in Western languages.

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.4
ICH
The Inchoative
+
+

INCHOATIVE function is marked by prefixing a homologous nasal to the stem consonant or consonant cluster (i.e., a nasal pronounced in the same place of articulation as the stem consonant or first consonant of the stem's consonant cluster), although the specific pattern is dependent on the particular stem consonant or consonant cluster; see Table 18 below for specifics. The INCHOATIVE indicates that the verb refers to a transformation from + one state to another or (trans-)formation of an identity.

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.5
DSC
The Descriptive
+
+

DESCRIPTIVE function is marked by a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The DESCRIPTIVE indicates descriptive manifestation, + i.e., to appear or manifest in the manner of. This sense is the nearest + Ilaksh equivalent to English adjectives.

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.6
ATV
The Active
+
+

ACTIVE function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -l- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant (see Table 18 below for details) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The ACTIVE indicates action or motion in situ, i.e., action performed in place or movement in place (as in shaking, + spinning, wagging, wiggling, jumping up and down, etc.).
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.7
PSN
The Positional
+
+

POSITIONAL function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -r- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant (see Table 18 below for details) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The POSITIONAL indicates that the verb refers to a position or location, + i.e. to be situated in a location/position in space.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.8
TNV
The Translative
+
+

TRANSLATIVE function is generally marked by prefixing a homologous nasal to the stem consonant or consonant cluster (i.e., a nasal pronounced in the same place of articulation as the stem consonant or first consonant of the stem's consonant cluster), although the specific pattern is dependent on the particular stem consonant or consonant cluster (see Table 18 below for specifics) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The TRANSLATIVE indicates that the verb indicates a change in position or location is taking place, + i.e. to move or be moved from one location/position in space to another.

+

 

+

6.4.9 Values of the Cm Function Affixes/Modifications and Alternation of the Vc Affix

+

The specific values for the stem-consonant modifications associated with Function are shown in Table 18 below. There are several different patterns of Cm prefixes and/or modification of the Cr stem consonant or consonant cluster. Note that the OPERATIVE function is shown by a zero-form, i.e., it is unmarked, the Function being shown simply by the presence of the default Cr stem consonant or consonant cluster. Also note that the last four of the Functions (the DESCRIPTIVE, ACTIVE, POSITIONAL and TRANSLATIVE) are shown using the same prefix forms as the first four, with the addition of a modification of the value of the verb's Vc Affix to its secondary Form (see Sections 3.6 and 6.5.2 below).

+


+ Tables 18(a)-(f): Function Prefixes + for Each Cr Stem Consonant or Consonant Cluster
+ *Asterisked Functions are indicated by addition of alternation of Vc affix to secondary form (see Sec. 6.5.2)

+

(a) Standard pattern: ( )-, l-, r-, and Homologous Nasal prefixed to the stem consonant (Cr) element, illustrated below by Cr elements p, t, and kt. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
+ (OPR/DSP* Function )

+ STA/ATV*

+ MNF/PSN*

+ ICH/TNV*
p
lp
rp
mp
t
lt
rt
nt
kt
lkt
rkt
ňkt
+


+(b) Pattern: ( )-, l-, r-, and homologous nasal prefixed to the stem consonant (Cr) element but with deletion of the initial stem consonant p- or k- following the nasal prefix due to assimilation with the nasal. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: pt, pk, ptl, ptr, ptř, pŧ, pŧl, pŧr, kŧ, kŧl, kŧr, ps, pš, ks, kš, psr, pšr, ksr, kšr, psl, pšl, ksl, kšl, pst, pšt, kst, kšt, psk pšk, ksp, kšp, bz, bž, gz, gž, bzg, bžg, gzb, gžb,gzd, and gžd. Four of these elements are illustrated below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
+ (OPR/DSP* Function )

+ STA/ATV*

+ MNF/PSN*

+ ICH/TNV*
pt
lpt
rpt
mt
ptr
lptr
rptr
mtr
ksr
lksr
rksr
ňsr
gz
lgz
rgz
ňz
+


+c) Pattern: -(), -l, -r, and -w are added as suffixes to the Cr element. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: pp, tt, kk, bb, dd, gg, ff, ŧŧ, xx, vv, đđ, ss, šš, zz, žž, mm, ňň, žž, bg, and gd. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
+ (OPR/DSP* Function )

+ STA/ATV*

+ MNF/PSN*

+ ICH/TNV*
pp
ppl
ppr
ppw
gd
gdl
gdr
gdw
+


+d) Same as standard pattern (a) above, except that a geminated consonant within the Cr element is simplified to a non-geminate when taking the -l, -r, and nasal prefixes. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: ppy, tty, kky, bby, ddy, ggy, ffy, ŧŧy, xxy, vvy, and đđy. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
+ (OPR/DSP* Function )

+ STA/ATV*

+ MNF/PSN*

+ ICH/TNV*
ppy
lpy
rpy
mpy
xxy
lxy
rxy
ňxy
+


+ e) Same as standard pattern (a) above, except that a -w suffix is substituted for the nasal prefix in the INCHOATIVE and TRANSLATIVE functions. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: m, n, ň, c, č, ż, j, ck, čk, gż, jg, cp, čp, ct, čt, vm, vn, đm, đn, pf, bv, dv,and gv. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
+ (OPR/DSP* Function )

+ STA/ATV*

+ MNF/PSN*

+ ICH/TNV*
m
lm
rm
mw
gv
lgv
rgv
gvw
+


+ f) The following Cr elements are individual in their patterning for each Function:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster
+ (OPR/DSP* Function )

+ STA/ATV*

+ MNF/PSN*

+ ICH/TNV*
r
lr
hh
řs
l
rw
rl
řt
rr
ňw
hr
řš
ll
řy
hl
řth
ry
xw
xv
řç
ly
lw
rly
řd
ř
lř
řw
řk
rry
çř
řřw
řm
lly
llw
rrw
řn
řř
řl
řřy
řh
my
pw
bw
mw
ny
tw
dw
nw
cc
pc
fc
cw
čč
pč
fč
čw
ddz
thc
bdz
dzw
jj
thč
bj
jw
bd
lbd
rbd
md
bdh
lbdh
rbdh
mdh
gdh
lgdh
rgdh
ňdh
db
ldb
rdb
nb
cm
lcm
rcm
smw
dg
ldg
rdg
mg
cl
lcl
rcl
nsw
čl
čl
čl
nšw
dzl
ldzl
rdzl
nzw
jl
ljl
rjl
nžw
cř
lcř
rcř
ssw
čř
lčř
rčř
ššw
dzř
ldzř
rdzř
zzw
jř
ljř
rjř
žžw
cr
lcr
rcr
sw
čr
lčr
rčr
šw
dzr
ldzr
rdzr
zw
jr
ljr
rjr
žw
mmy
vw
smy
zmy
nny
dhw
sny
zny
ml
fw
psw
spw
nl
thw
ksw
stw
mr
kw
pšw
špw
nr
gw
kšw
štw
ňl
kc
xc
ňř
ňr
kč
xč
gj
mř
sfw
šfw
řņ
nř
skw
škw
řg
+
+

All remaining Cr elements not referenced in the tables above follow the standard pattern (a).

+

 

+

6.4.10 Examples of Function

+

Here follow examples of the eight functions applied to the same stem urà ‘prepare(d) food’:

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
OPROPERATIVEurà   ‘prepare(d)/cook(ed) food’
STASTATIVEulrà   ‘to be in a state of preparing/cooking food’
MNFMANIFESTIVEuhhà    ‘to be prepared/cooked food’
ICHINCHOATIVEuřsà   ‘to become/turn into prepared/cooked food’
DSPDESCRIPTIVEärà    ‘to be like prepared/cooked food’
ATVACTIVEälrà   ‘prepared/cooked food moving around’ [e.g., in the pan or on the plate]
PSNPOSITIONALähhà    ‘to be situated at or placed with the prepared/cooked food’
TNVTRANSLATIVEäřsà   ‘to move the prepared/cooked food’[e.g., from one place to another]
+
+

Additional examples of Function:

+
+

Ūalkresk  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
+ IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ His wife’s clothes are inside-out.

+

Epsiolřūl  aktäàl.
+ IFL-PST/ITR/PPS-TMP-ATV-‘circular motion’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘man’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ The man succeeded in twirling/spinning around for a while.

+

Yoaňšŭl  gmèint.
+ DEC-FML/RSL-ICH-‘clown’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘child’-ABS-DEL/U/CSL/DPX
+ The pair of children are hereby turned into clowns!

+

Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
+ IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

+

Ervrekf īfš  nrūoilüb  zmayüūlavz.
+ IFL-PSN-‘pathway’-PRX/N/CSL/UNI-DCS1/1    IFL-‘oblique verticality’-FUN-EXN1/6     IFL-‘valley’-NAV-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5
+ The path winds steeply through the canyon.

+

 

+
+

 

+ + + + +
6.5 INCORPORATION AND FORMAT
+

Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings + into a single verb, a process termed conflation. This is illustrated + in the following English sentences:

+
+

1. He bicycled south. = He traveled south by bicycle.
+ 2. She dolled herself up. = She made herself look as pretty as a + doll.
+ 3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the + books on the shelf/shelves.
+ 4. Slide me a beer. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the + bar).

+
+

The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry + inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and + giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random + and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English to bicycle in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to + make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the + verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but + rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means + ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ + or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first + three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does slide in sentence (4).

+

As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” + way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, + placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary + sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our + four sentences above as follows:

+
+

He [1: + (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle]
+ = He bicycled south.

+

She [1: + (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll]
+ = She dolled herself up.

+

They [1: + (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves]
+ = They’re shelving the books.

+

[1: (GIVE+imperative)] + a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me
+ = Slide me a beer.

+
+

Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown + by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb + and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English + must learn that to hand means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, + but to shoulder does not mean to GIVE by MEANS of + one’s shoulder.

+

Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity + for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack + of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use + when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form.

+

Ilaksh systemizes verb conflation into a productive + scheme, in which the primary verb can convey any of eight overt senses, called formats, which in turn combine with any secondary verbal stem to convey the covert sense. The secondary verbal stem is incorporated directly into a valence/modality adjunct as an affix immediately preceding the CM modality element and following the Vv valence affix if present. This incorporated stem is labeled as morphological terms Cd and Vd, that is, the Stem Consonant + Stem vowel of the incorporated stem. As for the tone of the incorporated stem, it becomes the tone for the entire adjunct, to be pronounced as usual beginning with the stressed syllable, i.e., the CM syllabic consonant. (NOTE: For those valence/modality adjuncts which do not contain a Cd + Vd incorporated stem, the default tone of the adjunct is falling tone.)

+ + + + + + + + + + +
((Cv)
+
Vv)
(Cd
Vd)
CM
(Vp
(Cb))
+

In addition to the tone of the incorporated stem's tone, we know from Chapter 2 that each Consonant+Vowel root in Ilaksh falls into one of three Patterns (Pattern 1 being the three holistic stems, and Patterns 2 and 3 being the six complementary stems). While the three Patterns can be shown by mutation of the Cd consonant, a way must be found to indicate which of three stems per pattern is intended, as well as the Designation of the stem (i.e., FORMAL versus INFORMAL). This is accomplished by mutating the Vd vowel element, as shown in Table 19 below.

+Table 19: Vd Mutation Series
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Stem Vowel —>
a
e
i
o
u
Informal
+ Designation
Stem 1
a
e
i
o
u
Stem 2
ä
ë
ï
ö
ü
Stem 3
ai
ei
ëi
oi
ui
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Formal Designation
Stem 1
au
eu
iu
ou
ëu
Stem 2
ia
ie
ië
io
i-u
Stem 3
u
ue
u-i
uo
uë
+

 

+

6.5.1 Examples of Stem Incorporation

+

Here are some examples of incorporation using the stems xtā- ‘run’, zdā- ‘keep in holding area; contain’, ammyû- ‘sleep’, úse- ‘sing a song’, açrà- ‘ingest/consume’, and admù- ‘cry’ :

+
+

Akkoàl  xtam-mā  zlul.
+ IFL-‘woman’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-DES    IFL/SCH-OPR-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ The woman wants to run like a gazelle.

+

Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
+ IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

+

Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
+ IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
+ Father went off clam-hunting.

+

Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üúsel  gmìel.
+ IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

+

Çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt ukšüŭl  bler.
+ ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRT-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
+ The clown had to buy some clams and consume them.

+

Axmièl  seun-ná  a-ildmùl.
+ IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘sing a song’-FML     IFL/SBQ-STA-‘cry’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ Father is crying because of the song.

+

Àxmäula  axmièl  dmün-nà  úisel.
+ IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘cry’-IFL    FML/ISR-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ Mother makes father cry by singing.

+

 

+
+ + + + +

NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL

+

Ithkuil provides for a process called Derivation in which the eight formats which convey the sense of the primary verb combine with the seven conflations plus any of nearly 240 derivative conflations to yield over 2000 possible semantic combinations. While the category of Format is retained in Ilaksh, the process of Derivation has been eliminated and replaced by the process of Incorporation, allowing a theoretically unlimited number of semantic conflations for verbs.

+

 

+

6.5.2 Format

+

As described above, the primary stem of a conflated verb in English can convey different senses such as means, manner, or location, the specific sense being learnable only through actual usage and context. In Ilaksh, this sense is overtly identified by the format of the verb. Format is shown as part of the Vc prefix which also shows the categories of Designation and Essence (see Sections 3.6 and 3.7).

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
((VL)
Ci
Vc
(Cx
Vp))
(Cm)
Cr
Vr
Ca
(VxC)
(VF
(Cb))
[stress]
+

Table 20 below shows the values of Vc. We have previously seen (in Secs. 3.6, and 3.7) that each of the Vc affixes has a secondary form (used in conjunction with four of the eight verbal Functions, as explained in Sec. 6.4.9 above). However, in addition to these secondary forms, all Vc affixes also have an alternate form used to indicate the presence of a Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix. These alternate forms are necessary in order to disambiguate which consonants in a complex formative belong to the formative stem from those belonging to affixes. By providing an alternate form, the reader of a complex Ilaksh formative can know that the syllable following the Vc affix is, in fact, a Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix and not the Cr+Vr formative stem.

+


+ Tables 20(a) and (b): Vc Affixes:  Designation/Essence/Format Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+
Designation

+
Essence

+
 
FORMAT
SCH
ISR
ATH
PRT
RSL
SBQ
CCM
OBJ
 
+
INFORMAL

+ NORMAL
primary form
(a)
ai
au
ia
ua
a-i
a-u
ao
2ndary form
e
ei
eu
ie
ue
e-i
e-u
eo
REPRESENTATIVE
primary form
i
ï
iu
ea
u-i
eë
ae
aö
2ndary form
o
oi
ou
io
uo
o-i
o-u
o-ü
 
+
FORMAL

+ NORMAL
primary form
u
ui
ü
i-u
oa
oë
oe
öa
2ndary form
ä
äi
äu
iä
uä
eö
üo
ä-i
REPRESENTATIVE
primary form
ö
öi
öu
iö
uö
ö-i
ö-u
ä-u
2ndary form
ë
ëi
ëu
ië
uë
ë-i
ë-u
äo
+

The alternate versions of these affixes, used to indicate the presence of Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infixes, are given below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+
Designation

+
Essence

+
 
FORMAT
SCH
ISR
ATH
PRT
RSL
SBQ
CCM
OBJ
 
+
INFORMAL

+ NORMAL
primary form
a’
ai’
au’
i’a
u’a
a’i
a’u
a’o
2ndary form
e’
ei’
eu’
i’e
u’e
e’i
e’u
e’o
REPRESENTATIVE
primary form
i’
ï’
iu’
e’a
u’i
e’ë
a’e
a’ö
2ndary form
o’
oi’
ou’
i’o
u’o
o’i
o’u
o’ü
 
+
FORMAL

+ NORMAL
primary form
u’
ui’
ü’
i’u
o’a
o’ë
o’e
ö’a
2ndary form
ä’
äi’
äu’
i’ä
u’ä
e’ö
ü’o
ä’i
REPRESENTATIVE
primary form
ö’
öi’
öu’
i’ö
u’ö
ö’i
ö’u
ä’u
2ndary form
ë’
ëi’
ëu’
i’ë
u’ë
ë’i
ë’u
ä’o
+
+ + + + +
IMPORTANT NOTE: The above alternate versions of the Vc affix are used if the formative conatins a Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix and only if the formative Cr+Vr stem + Ca affix are followed by one or more of the consonant-based suffixes from Chapter 7. Otherwise, the reader/listener can assume that the last consonant or consonant cluster in an Ilaksh formative is the Ca affix and that the penultimate (second-to-last) consonant or consonantal cluster is the Cr stem consonantal form. In this way, it is always possible to discern exactly which consonants in an Ilaksh formative correspond to the terms of the ((VL +) Ci + Vc (+ Cx + Vp) +) (Cm +) Cr + Vr + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ VF (+ Cb)) [+ tone][+ stress] morphological formula.
+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.2.1
SCH
The Schematic
+ The SCHEMATIC function indicates that the + verb specifies the manner of the conflated primary sense, e.g., I’m + speeding through the book = reading speedily; Clouds blanketed + the city = cover like a blanket
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.2.2
ISR
The Instrumentative
+ The INSTRUMENTATIVE function Indicates the means, + cause, or instrument of causation of the conflated primary sense, e.g., I clubbed him = I hit him with a club; She drove him there = She transported him there by driving
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.2.3
ATH
The Authoritive
+ The AUTHORITIVE function indicates that the + verb specifies the indirect/enabling cause or circumstance which gives rise + to the conflated primary sense, e.g., He sang her cares away = + his singing allowed her to forget her cares
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.2.4
PRT
The Precurrent
+ The PRECURRENT function indicates that the + verb specifies an initial event immediately preceding or continuing on into + the conflated sense, where the overt sense is not the cause of the conflated + sense, i.e., the conflated sense would have occurred anyway, e.g., I + bought some lunch (conflated sense: EAT)
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.2.5
RSL
The Resultative
+ The RESULTATIVE function indicates that the + verb specifies the concurrent result of the conflated sense, i.e., an event + which occurs in conjunction with the conflated sense but is also caused + by it, e.g., The plane crashed into the water (conflated sense: + FLY)
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.2.6
SBQ
The Subsequent
+ The SUBSEQUENT function indicates that the + verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect result or purpose (not the + concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., I’ll look in + on the stew (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen])
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.2.7
CCM
The Concommitant
+ The CONCOMMITANT function indicates that the + verb specifies an incidental simultaneous event having no causal relationship, + e.g., She wore jeans to church (conflated sense: GO); He sweated + through her recital (Conflated sense: LISTEN)
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.2.8
OBJ
The Objective
+ The OBJECTIVE function indicates that the + verb specifies the Patient (see Sec. + 4.1.1) of the underlying conflated sense, e.g., She dusted + the table (conflated sense: REMOVE); They fish that river each + spring (conflated sense: GATHER/COLLECT)
+


+ 6.5.3 Examples of Format in Use

+

These are the same examples from Section 6.5.1 above on Incorporation, now highlighting the different formats used:

+
+

Akkoàl  xtam-mā  zlul.
+ IFL-‘woman’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-DES    IFL/SCH-OPR-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ The woman wants to run like a gazelle.

+

Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
+ IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

+

Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
+ IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
+ Father went off clam-hunting.

+

Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üúsel  gmìel.
+ IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

+

Çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt ukšüŭl  bler.
+ ‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRT-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
+ The clown had to buy some clams and consume them.

+

Axmiè  seun-ná  a-ildmùl.
+ IFL-father-AFF     ‘sing a song’-FML     IFL/SBQ-STA-‘cry’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ Father is crying because of the song.

+

Àxmäula  axmièl  dmün-nà  úisel.
+ IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘cry’-IFL    FML/ISR-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ Mother makes father cry by singing.

+
+


+

+


+

+
+ + + + +
6.6 BIAS
+
+

Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which + often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation + (previously discussed in Sec. 6.1), often triggering a + translation change as well.

+


+ 6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage

+

Bias is shown in any one of two ways:

+
    +
  1. +
    If a valence/modality adjunct is present, then as a word-final consonantal suffix to to the adjunct, e.g., illûi’ss
    +
    +
    2. +
  2. +
    If no valence/modality adjunct is present, then as a word-final consonantal suffix to formative with a glottal stop being infixed between the suffix and the VF mood/context suffix, + e.g., uprexalo’ss
    +
    3. +
+ + + + + + + + + + +
((Cv)
+
Vv)
(Cd
Vd)
CM
(Vp
(Cb))
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
((VL)
Ci
Vc
(Cx
Vp))
(Cm)
Cr
Vr
Ca
(VxC)
(VF
(’Cb))
[stress]
+

(NOTE: We will also see in Section 8.1.2 that a Cb Bias affix may be associated with a Form 3 single-referent personal reference adjunct.)

+

These Cb affix forms are shown in Table 21 + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms +described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.

+


+ Table 21: Morpho-Phonological +Markers for Bias

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
LABEL
NAME OF BIAS
Cb AFFIX →
+ Cb INTENSIVE AFFIX
1
ASU
ASSURATIVEn → nn
2
HPB
HYPERBOLICm → mm
3
COI
COINCIDENTALň → ňň
4
ACP
ACCEPTIVEh → hh
5
RAC
REACTIVEç → çç
6
STU
STUPEFACTIVEs → ss
7
CTV
CONTEMPLATIVEz → zz
8
DPV
DESPERATIVEš → šš
9
RVL
REVELATIVEl → ll
10
GRA
GRATIFICATIVEr → rr
11
SOL
SOLICITIVEř → řř
12
SEL
SELECTIVEŧ  → ŧŧ
13
IRO
IRONICđ → đđ
14
EXA
EXASPERATIVEbz → bzz
15
LTL
LITERALgž → g žž
16
CRR
CORRECTIVEx → xx
17
EUP
EUPHEMISTICgz → gzz
18
SKP
SKEPTICALks → kss
19
CYN
CYNICALž → žž
20
CTP
CONTEMPTIVEkš → kšš
21
DSN
DISMISSIVEpç → pçç
22
IDG
INDIGNATIVEpš → pšš
23
SGS
SUGGESTIVEps → pss
24
PPV
PROPOSITIVEbž → bžž
+


+

+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.1
ASU
ASSURATIVE
+ This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by I told you so! or You see?!
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.2
HPB
HYPERBOLIC
+ This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in I + so don’t care! or That is totally not what I wanted. The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.3
COI
COINCIDENTAL
+ This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in I happened to run into Jane or It + just so happens that I’m busy. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.4
ACP
ACCEPTIVE
+ This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.5
RAC
REACTIVE
+ This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.6
STU
STUPEFACTIVE
+ This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.7
CTV
CONTEMPLATIVE
+ This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.8
DPV
DESPERATIVE
+ This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.9
RVL
REVELATIVE
+ This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.10
GRA
GRATIFICATIVE
+ This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.11
SOL
SOLICITIVE
+ This bias expresses the Ilaksh equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence So dance already!
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.12
SEL
SELECTIVE
+ This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.13
IRO
IRONIC
+ This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.14
EXA
EXASPERATIVE
+ This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.15
LTL
LITERAL
+ This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.16
CRR
CORRECTIVE
+ This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.17
EUP
EUPHEMISTIC
+ This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.18
SKP
SKEPTICAL
+ This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.19
CYN
CYNICAL
+ This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.20
CTP
CONTEMPTIVE
+ This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.21
DSM
DISMISSIVE
+ This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.22
IDG
INDIGNATIVE
+ This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.23
SGS
SUGGESTIVE
+ This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’
+
+ + + + + + +
6.6.1.24
PPV
PROPOSITIVE
+ This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences How about going for a stroll?, We + could meet behind the barn if you want, or You can sit on my lap. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’
+


+ 6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use

+
+

Ūalkresk  zìhh  ùdvüöla’nn.
+ IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FAC-ASU+
+ You see?! I told you his wife’s clothes are inside-out!

+

Uxakloskò’ňň.
+ FRM-PRC/FRG/PPS-OPR-‘rain’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SUB-COI
+ It may just so happen to be raining.

+

Wain-nyàx  u’rleuvaskăr  kü.
+ INF-MNO-CPC-CRR    FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-CNT-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5     2m-ACT
+ What I mean to say is that I don't think you'll be able to work any longer.

+

Xasskügà’pss  akkiàl.
+ IFL-OPR-‘eyesight’-PRX/M/CSL/DPX-FLC1/6-FAC-SGS+    IFL-‘woman’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ Let's assume for the sake of argument that the woman’s eyesight is improving.

+
+

 

+

 

+
+ + + + +
6.7 ASPECT ALTERNATIVE
+
+

The category of Aspect was introduced and discussed in Section 5.6, where it was described that Aspect is normally presented as the Vp infix to a formative, placed immediately following the Cx Phase/Sanction/Version affix. As an alternative, however, Aspect may be conveyed by suffixing Vp infix to a valence/modality adjunct immediately following the CM modality affix.

+ + + + + + + + + + +
((Cv)
+
Vv)
(Cd
Vd)
CM
(Vp
(Cb))
+

Examples:

+
+

Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
+ IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
+ Father went off clam-hunting.

+

Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üsél  gmìel.
+ IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

+

Wain-nyeu  u’rlavastăr  ktòal.
+ INF-MNO-CPC-CNT     FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/ASO/UNI-NA11/5     IFL-‘man’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
+ It's fair to say the man won't be able to work any longer.

+
+

 

+

 

+
+

Proceed to Chapter 7: Suffixes >>

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Home4 Case Morphology9 Syntax
Introduction5 Verb Morphology10 Lexico-Semantics
1 Phonology6 More Verb Morphology11 The Writing System
2 Morpho-Phonology7 Suffixes12 The Number System
3 Basic Morphology8 AdjunctsThe Lexicon
   
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