From 7334b17885e12dcbf2cf425e8a5db21d780fb004 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: uakci Date: Fri, 18 Dec 2020 20:53:54 +0100 Subject: new mirror data thanks to kiepier --- 2004-en-alt/assets/1-2-1-1a.gif | Bin 0 -> 1106 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-2-1-1b.gif | Bin 0 -> 1182 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-2-1-2a.gif | Bin 0 -> 1180 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-2-1-3a.gif | Bin 0 -> 227 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-2-1-3b.gif | Bin 0 -> 293 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-2-1-3c.gif | Bin 0 -> 272 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-3-1-2a.gif | Bin 0 -> 771 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-3-1-3a.gif | Bin 0 -> 624 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-3-1-3b.gif | Bin 0 -> 263 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-3-1-3c.gif | Bin 0 -> 449 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-3-1-3d.gif | Bin 0 -> 232 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-3-1-4a.gif | Bin 0 -> 247 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-3-1-4b.gif | Bin 0 -> 190 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-3-1-4c.gif | Bin 0 -> 238 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-3-2a.gif | Bin 0 -> 67 bytes 2004-en-alt/assets/1-3-2b.gif | Bin 0 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Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 12: The Number System

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
12.1 Features of a Centesimal + Number System
12.2 Semantic Designations for Numerical + Stems
12.3 Expressing “Zero”
12.4 Writing Numerals
12.5 Using Numbers in Speech
+
+

The Ithkuil system of numbers and counting is distinct from + Western languages in two fundamental ways: it is centesimal (base one hundred) + as opposed to decimal (base ten), and the numbers themselves are full formatives + (i.e., nouns and verbs), not adjectives. This has already been discussed briefly + in Section 4.5.7 regarding + the PARTITIVE case. This section will examine the numerical + system in greater detail.

+

 

+
+ + + + +

12.1 FEATURES OF A CENTESIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

+
+

Being a centesimal system of enumeration, the numbers from + zero to 100 are considered autonomous units represented by single stems and + written using single autonomous symbols. Beginning with the number 101, numbers + are referred to by the number of hundreds plus the number of units, just as + a decimal system, beginning with the number 11, refers to the number of tens + plus the number of units. However, where a decimal system then shifts to a unit + referring to 100 once “10 tens” is reached, a centesimal system + proceeds to the number 10,000 before establishing a new unit reference (i.e., + “100 hundreds”). Thus the number 3254, which in a decimal system + is 3 thousands — 2 hundreds — 5 tens — 4 ones, in a centesimal + system becomes 32 hundreds—54 ones, and would be only two digits when + written (the single character representing 32, and the single character representing + 54). The details of writing Ithkuil numerals are given below in Section 12.5.

+

After 100, separate unit numbers and symbols are assigned to + the square of 100 (i.e. ten thousand, that being “100 hundreds”), + then the square of that number, + (100 million, i.e., 10,000 ten-thousands). The final unit is , + that is, 10 quadrillion or 100 million hundred-millions, the last number for + which Ithkuil assigns a separate root and symbol. After ten quadrillion, numbers + are referred to as multiples of lower sets, similar to saying in English “one + trillion quadrillion” instead of the equivalent “one octillion.”

+

While the above may seem unwieldy or even arbitrary, it actually + parallels Western base-ten numerals in terms of its systematization. For example, + in a Western number like 456,321,777,123, each set of three numbers between + the commas tells how many hundreds there are of a certain power of 1000 (i.e., + there are 123 of_, + 777 of_, + 321 of_, + and 456 of_, + or in more common terms 123 ones, 777 thousands, 321 millions, 456 billions).

+

The same exact system holds for Ithkuil, except that the sets + of numbers “between the commas” so to speak, is the number of ten-thousands, + not thousands. Thus, if we were to rewrite the Western number 456,321,777,123 + in such a system, it would be 4563,2177,7123 (i.e., 7123 of_, + 2177 of_, + and 4563 of_, + that being 7123 ones, 2177 ten-thousands, and 4563 hundred-millions).

+ +

 

+
+ + + + +

12.2 SEMANTIC DESIGNATIONS FOR NUMERICAL STEMS

+
+

The semantic roots for numbers in Ithkuil from 1 to 99 are + based on roots for 1 through 10, to which the nine degrees of the affix -V1t’ + are added. Each of the nine degrees of this suffix, when applied to one of the + ten number-roots, corresponds to an additional multiple of ten. This is illustrated + in Table 67 below.
+

+

Table 67: + The + Affix with Numerals

+

+

The addition of a particular degree of this affix to one of + the ten indicates that the root number is added to that multiple of ten. For + example, the stem kas + ‘two,’ plus the seventh degree affix -V1t’/7, + gives kast’ï + ‘seventy-two.’ Because there is no root corresponding to ‘zero’ + (see Sec. 12.3 below), each multiple of ten is constructed using stem mas + ‘ten’ plus one of the above suffixes. Thus, the numbers 20, 30 and + 40 are respectively mast’, + mast’u + and mast’ai, + but the numbers 22, 32 and 42 are kast’u, + kast’ai + and kast’ei. + This pattern only operates up to the nineties, as there is a separate autonomous + root for 100, r-s.

+

Since numbers are formatives in Ithkuil, not adjectives as + in most Western languages, holistic stem No. 1, shown by the vocalic infix -a-, + is a formative signifying a set containing a number of members corresponding + to that particular root. Thus, the formative kas + above, translatable as ‘two,’ actually means ‘a set of two; + a duo / to be a duo.’ In turn, the two complementary derivatives of each + stem denote its multiple and its fraction respectively. This is illustrated + below for both Form I and II using the roots k-s, + TWO, and n-s, + meaning SEVEN:

+

For k-s, + TWO:

+

1. kas/kâs + ‘a set of two, a duo; to be two in number’

+
+

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
+ kes/kês: + ‘twice the number of something; to double, to multiply by two’
+ käs/kaes: + ‘a half; to halve, to be or make half, to divide by or in two’

+
+

2. kus/kûs + ‘to be or make dual; having two uses or aspects; bi-; twofold’ +

+
+

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
+ kos/kôs: + ‘two times (i.e., iterations), twice; to be/do/make twice’
+ kös/køs: + ‘to be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)’

+
+

3. kis/kîs + ‘the second one in a sequence; to be or make second (in a sequence)’

+
+

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
+ kës/kÿs: + ‘to the second power, squared; to square, raise to the 2nd power’
+ küs/kius: + ‘to the negative second power, the inverse square; to divide by + the square of’

+
+

For n-s, + SEVEN:

+

1. nas/nâs + ‘a set/group of seven, a septet; to be seven in number’

+
+

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
+ nes/nês: + ‘7 times the number of something; to multiply by 7; septuple’
+ näs/naes: + ‘a seventh; to be or make a 7th part of something, to divide by + 7 or into 7 parts’

+
+

2. nus/nûs + ‘to be or make seven-faceted; having 7 uses or aspects; septi-; sevenfold’ +

+
+

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
+ nos/nôs: + ‘7 times (i.e., iterations); to be/do/make 7 times’
+ nös/nøs: + ‘to be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts’

+
+

3. nis/nîs + ‘the seventh one in a sequence; to be or make 7th (in a sequence)’ +

+
+

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
+ nës/nÿs: + ‘to the 7th power; to raise to the 7th power’
+ nüs/nius: + ‘to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of’ +

+
+

In addition to the above-described roots, there is the root + l-s, ONE/UNITY. + As this root has no multiples, its semantic designations follow a unique pattern. + NOTE: The INFORMAL versus FORMAL + distinction in this root (i.e., Form I versus Form II of each stem) distinguishes + between a focus on non-duplication/singularity for the INFORMAL, + and indivisibility/unity for the FORMAL:

+

1. las/lâs + ‘a single entity; to be one in number’

+
+

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
+ les/lês: + ‘to be indivisible, whole, a single unit; unitary; to unify’
+ läs/laes: + ‘to be (an) individual, a distinct entity in itself; to individualize’

+
+

2. lus/lûs + ‘a lone entity, something alone; an entity in solitude, something/someone + isolated; be alone; to isolate; be in solitude’

+
+

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
+ los/lôs: + ‘something/someone lonely; be or make lonely’
+ lös/løs: + ‘something/someone independent, self-sufficient, singular (i.e., + without need of, connection to, or dependency on others); be or make independent, + self-sufficient, singular’

+
+

3. lis/lîs + ‘something/someone unique, the only one; to be or make unique’

+
+

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
+ lës/lÿs: + ‘a sole entity, the only one available or able (in terms of sufficiency + or applicability to the context)’
+ lüs/lius: + ‘something/someone one-of-a-kind, unparalleled, without equal or + peer (in terms of uniqueness of characteristics)’

+
+


+ The Ithkuil numerical roots as described in the section above are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
l-s
k-s
š-s
p-s
-s
t-s
n-s
x-s
+ f-s
m-s
one
two
three
four
five
six
seven
eight
nine
ten
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
r-s
q-s
ç-s
c-s
one hundred
ten thousand
one hundred million
ten quadrillion
+ +

 

+ + + + +

12.3 EXPRESSING “ZERO”

+

Ithkuil has no word for “zero” nor is it conceptualized + as a numerical category. Instead any appropriate formative may take the affixes + -V1ss/1 or -V2ss/1 ‘no amount of’ or -V3b/1 ‘no…at + all’ in terms of degree or extent to create negative expressions + that convey the idea of an absence of a numerical entity or quantity. In many + cases, simply the negative of whatever formative is under discussion may be + used.

+

As for handling the concept of zero as a null placeholder when + writing Ithkuil numbers, this is addressed in Section 12.4 below.

+ +

 

+ + + + +

12.4 WRITING NUMERALS

+

Writing Ithkuil numerals is somewhat similar to writing numbers + in Western languages (i.e., “Arabic” numerals), in that the interpretation + of a number as a different power of 100 (analogous to interpreting single Arabic + numerals as either ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.) is based on its sequence + within the entire number. However, there are two aspects of writing Ithkuil + numbers that are quite different from Arabic numbers.:

+
    +
  1. +
    Ithkuil does not employ a symbol for zero. Instead, Ithkuil + employs separate autonomous symbols for each power of 100 (100, 10,000, + 100 million, etc.) each of which operates as the appropriate placeholder + instead of zero. To illustrate what this means by analogy, pretend that + “@” is an autonomous symbol for 27 (since Ithkuil numbers from + 1 to 99 each have a separate symbol), “&” is a symbol for + 100, “#” is a symbol for 10,000 and there is no symbol 0 (zero). + The numbers 2700, 2705, 327, 22700 and 4,270,027 would then be written @&, + @5, 3@, 2@&, and 4@#@ respectively. (NOTE: In actual practice, numbers + which contain the “hundred” symbol, here represented as “&,” + normally place a dot above or below the adjacent numeral and dispense with + the &, indicating that the number so marked is to be multiplied by 100. + Thus, 2@& would actually be written as , + while ‘one million’ can be written as + instead of writing &#.
    +
    +
    2. +
  2. +
    Since Ithkuil is a base-100 system, numbers do not become + two digits in length until the hundreds, do not become three digits in length + until the ten thousands, do not become four digits in length until the millions, + etc.
    +
    3. +
+

 

+

One must also remember that in terms of left-to-right or up-and-down + orientation, numbers follow the boustrophedon mode the same as the + Ithkuil script (see Sec. 11.3.2). + Similarly to Western languages, small non-compound numbers can be written using + either their numerical symbols or written out in script (as in English “12” + versus “twelve”).

+

The following table gives the Ithkuil numerical symbols along + with their morphological stems:
+
+ Table 68: ITHKUIL NUMERICAL + STEMS AND WRITTEN SYMBOLS
+
+
+
+

+

 

+ + + + +

12.5 USING NUMBERS IN SPEECH

+

Spoken numbers are formed from the above stems using both the + PARTITIVE and COMITATIVE cases, + as well as using the coordinative affix -V1w/1 + (= -iw or + -wai). The + number of largest base units is shown by placing the base-unit term in the PARTITIVE. + If this is then followed by another collection of smaller base units, that number + of smaller base units is connected using the COMITATIVE + case while the smaller base-unit term is again in the PARTITIVE. + Single units (from 1 to 99) are connected by the coordinative affix when they + are part of the number of hundreds or higher base-units.

+

It should be noted that when pronouncing numbers greater than + 199, it is normal in Ithkuil to omit the word ra’wirs + (= the PARTITIVE of ras + ‘one hundred’) referring to the number of hundreds. This is equivalent + to the custom in colloquial English of saying ‘three twelve’ for + ‘three hundred (and) twelve.’ The difference is that in Ithkuil, + this omission of the word for ‘hundred’ is the preferred option, + the word ra’wirs being used only in larger numbers for clarity’s + sake.

+

These principles are illustrated by the following examples:

+


+ literally: “42 (of hundreds) 29”
+ 4229
+

+


+ literally: “26 of ten-thousands with 97 (of hundreds) 66” = 26,9766
+ 269,766
+ Listen! +

+

+


+ literally: “21 of hundred of ten-thousands”
+ 21,000,000
+ [NOTE: ra’wirs is required in this example]

+


+
+ literally:
+ “72 of hundreds and 79 of hundred-millions with 3 of hundreds and 53 of + ten-thousands with 34 of hundreds 60”
+ 727,903,533,460

+


+ We have already seen that when numbers are used to indicate how many of a certain + noun there are, the noun must appear in the PARTITIVE + case, since the number itself is functioning as the “head” of the + numerical expression (e.g., English “12 boxes” being constructed + in Ithkuil as a “12-set of a box” or perhaps more appropriately + a “box-dozen”). Another syntactical consequences of numbers being + full formatives is when a number functions as a label or overt identifier, as + in the English sentence You’ll find him in Room 216. Such usage + of numbers is not primarily sequential (which would involve the equivalent of + “ordinal” numbers such as ‘fourth,’ ‘twenty-sixth’, + etc. equivalent to stem No. 3 of each number root) but rather organizational + (e.g., as in the three-dimensional array of room numbers in a hotel). Ithkuil + handles such organizational labeling using either the CONTRASTIVE + case (see Sec. 4.5.6) or + the ESSIVE case (see Sec. + 4.6.1) depending respectively on whether the enumeration of the noun in + question is to distinguish it from other enumerated nouns versus merely identifying + the noun by a numerical name. Examples:

+


+
+ ‘the room marked “12”’ OR + ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room + No. 12’ [i.e., as distinguished from the other numbered rooms]

+


+
+ ‘the room marked “12”’ OR + ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room + No. 12’ [identifying reference only]

+


+ Lastly, when numbers comprising multiple number-stems are declined for case, + configuration, extension, etc., rather than writing out the entire number “long-hand,” + the number symbol is used, preceded by the carrier stem kir + (see Sec. 9.4) which carries the appropriate + declensions. This use of the carrier stem applies even to single-stemmed numbers + when writing, in order to allow use of the number symbol instead of writing + it out. In such cases involving single-stemmed numbers, the carrier stem is + not pronounced (rather, the numerical stem bears the pronounced declensions); + it is there only as a written indicator of the declensions to be applied to + the number stem. Thus, the above two examples could also be written as:

+

+

+

 

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

+

 

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch0-introduction.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch0-introduction.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..5a844ed --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch0-introduction.html @@ -0,0 +1,878 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Introduction + + + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

INTRODUCTION
+

+

 

+ + + + +
+

0.1 Background

+

Ithkuil is an artificially constructed human language systematically + designed to blend a high degree of communication of cognitive intent and meaning + with a high degree of efficiency, i.e., to allow speakers to say a lot in as + few syllables as possible. The navigational links above (or at the bottom + of this page) lead to chapters on the major grammatical components of the language + and should be read in sequence, as each chapter is cumulative and assumes knowledge + of the preceding. While this grammar assumes only a basic knowledge of linguistic + concepts, it will be helpful to briefly familiarize the reader with the hierarchical/schematic + structure of human language in general, as the organization of this grammar + is somewhat based around this structure. The analysis of human language can + be organized into the following hierarchical schema of primary concepts:

+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The above components of language in turn operate in an interrelated + fashion, combining to designate several additional or secondary levels of analysis. + For example:
+
+ +
+

The interrelationships between these components can be illustrated + by the following diagram.

+

+

 

+ + + + +
+

0.2 How the Language Works

+

As a model for human language, Ithkuil is capable of high levels + of conciseness and semantic detail while overtly reflecting a deep level of + cognitive conceptualization, more so than in natural languages. This means, + essentially, that Ithkuil is designed to convey large amounts of linguistic + information using fewer words, with those words being based on monosyllabic + roots and word-parts. In turn, the grammar supporting these words reflect the + speaker’s cognitive intent explicitly, while displaying little of the + euphemism, vagueness, circumlocution, redundancy, polysemy (i.e., multiple meanings), + and ambiguity manifested in natural languages.

+

NOTE: The preceding paragraph may remind some readers of the + “Speedtalk” + language in Robert Heinlein’s novella Gulf, in which every morpheme + (meaningful word-part) is apparently represented by a single phoneme (sound). + To some extent, Ithkuil approaches this ideal. However, Heinlein’s Speedtalk + appears to focus only on the morpho-phonological component of language (i.e., + the correspondence between sound and individual grammatical components) without + any corresponding focus on the logical redesign of a language’s morphology, + lexico-morphology, or lexico-semantics to provide an equally “compressed” + morpho-syntactical and lexical component. Ithkuil has been designed with an + equal focus on these latter linguistic components. Additionally, the apparent + purpose of Heinlein's language is simple rapidity/brevity of speech and thought, + while Ithkuil is focused on maximal communication in the most efficient manner, + a somewhat different purpose, in which brevity per se is irrelevant.

+

As an example of the morphological richness and efficiency + possible in this language, examine the following Ithkuil sentence, comparing + it to its literal English translation:

+ + + + + + + + + +
+

+

Listen! +
TRANSLATION:‘On the contrary, I think it may turn + out that this rugged mountain range trails off at some point.’
+NOTE: See Phonology, Section +1.2 on how to pronounce the Romanized orthography used to transliterate the +Ithkuil characters.
+

The reader may well wonder why it takes a 19-word sentence + in English to translate a two-word Ithkuil sentence. One might assume the sentence + “cheats” in that the two Ithkuil words simply have innately intricate + and specialized meanings. While it is true that the first word, oumpeá, + translates as ‘on the contrary, I have a feeling it may turn out at + some point (that),’ and the second word, äx’ääuktëx, + means ‘the unevenly high range of mountains in question trails off,’ + it would be quite erroneous to conclude that these are simply autonomous words + one might theoretically find in an Ithkuil dictionary. Indeed, the only part + of the sentence that represents any sort of “root” word is -xä-, + a stem more or less meaning ‘hill’ or ‘upland.’ The + remainder of the sentence is made up entirely of morphological, not lexical + components, i.e., prefixes, suffixes, infixes, vowel permutations, shifts in + stress, etc. For example, the first word, oumpeá, + has four parts to it as shown below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 1.ou-=an aspectual prefix translatable as ‘it + turns out that’ or ‘it is revealed that’
 2.-mp-=an infix indicating both a rebuttal to an allegation + and a conclusion based on the speaker’s intuition, translatable as + ‘on the contrary, I have a feeling’
 3.-ea=an aspectual suffix translatable as ‘at + some point’ or ‘somewhere along the way’
 4.stress + on final syllable + falling tone = subjunctive mood, translatable + as ‘may’
+


+ The second word, äx’ääuktëx, + breaks down morphologically as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 1.ä-=a prefix indicating, among other things, that + the entity displays depletion (i.e., ‘trailing off’ or ‘petering + out’)
 2.x’ä=a stem derived from xä + ‘hill, upland’ (in turn derived from the root x- + indicating the level of a landscape), the mutation of the initial consonant + x- into + x’- + indicating that the stem is to be re-interpreted as comprising a composite + entity of non-identical members consolidated together into a single segmented + whole (i.e., ‘hill’ becomes ‘uneven range of hills’)
 3.-ukt-=a demonstrative suffix translatable as ‘this’ + (= ‘the one in question’ or ‘the one at hand’)
 4.-ëx=a suffix indicating that the stem is to be interpreted + as being very large in size, and furthermore, that the increase in size + creates a new gestalt entity, i.e., not simply a ‘very large hill + or upland’ but rather a ‘mountain’
 5.stress + on antepenultimate (i.e., third-from-last) syllable (indicated in the Romanized + spelling by doubling of the stem vowel -ä-)= generic statement neutral as to time or present + impact
 6.falling + tone (unmarked)=statement reflects objective fact as opposed to subjective + interpretation, i.e., that it describes a real situation irrespective of + the speaker’s beliefs, opinions, convention, usage, etc. (i.e., the + fact that the mountain range does have an ending whether one knows where + it is or not)
+

The following additional example sentences illustrate how the + language manifests a combination of semantic richness with morphological conciseness:
+

+ + + + + + + + +
Listen! +
+Hey! Something belonging to you and your hodge-podge of parts is crawling +on me!
+[What a Star Trek character might say to a Borg who has just produced an assimilated +arachnid from his pocket]
+ +

 

+ + + + + +
Listen! +
+We successfully took part in the effort using a formal set of varying parts +on behalf of the group of people with whom you and he are associated.
+

 

+ + + + + +
Listen! +
+The sound coming from the banks of printers kept on steadily repeating. +
+
+
+
+ + + + + +
Listen! +
+As it turned out, the snake-handler apparently began trapping each mouse in +a container, one at a time like clockwork.
+

 

+ + + + + + + + +
Listen! +
+Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man, in inadvertently letting +it out of the house, unexpectedly and accidentally killed it without even realizing +he’d done so.
+


+ Such detail plus conciseness is possible due to the design of the grammar, essentially + a matrix of grammatical concepts and structures designed for compactness, cross-functionality + and reusability. This matrix-like grammar is combined with a vocabulary/lexicon + of semantic stems which (1) are capable of a high degree of flexibility and + synergism within that matrix, (2) have been completely reconceptualized from + the cognitive level up regardless of their correspondence to actual word roots + and grammatical categories in existing languages, and (3) reflect the inherent + dependencies and interrelationships between one semantic concept and another. + Therefore, the morphemes of the language (i.e., word-roots, suffixes, prefixes, + grammatical categories, etc.) are as phonetically brief as possible, function + in multiple roles with one another, and correspond more closely to human cognitive + categories than in natural languages. In this fashion, a limited number of sounds + and word-roots can be made to generate a vast array of variations and derivations + corresponding to and even surpassing all of the grammatical and semantic functions + of the usual stock of words, phrases, and idiomatic constructions in natural + languages. These linguistic design principles are described in greater detail + in the sections below by means of illustrative analogies with English examples. +

+

 

+ + + + +

0.3 + A Synergistic Matrix of Semantic and Grammatical Categories

+

The above-described matrix can be dramatically illustrated + by describing the distinct difference between Ithkuil and other languages in + the way its lexicon (stock of word-roots) has been created and the principles + underlying its lexico-semantics (the relationship between words and meaning). + In natural languages, the choice as to what mental concepts and categories will + be overtly reflected as word-roots and stems is arbitrary and unsystematic (while + in most invented languages, the lexicon is by and large consciously or sub-consciously + patterned after that of natural languages). While it is true that virtually + all languages reflect certain basic universals of word choice (e.g., all have + words for sun, moon, speak, mother, father, laugh, I, you, one, two, water, + blood, black, white, hot, cold, etc.), the manner in which these words + are created is haphazard and with little regard for basic conceptual interrelationships. + The result, in most cases, is a plethora of separate, distinct word roots which + bear no morpho-phonological, or morpho-semantic relation to one another (i.e., + the patterns of sounds used to create particular words are unsystematic and + independent for each word-root regardless of whether those word-roots are semantically + or cognitively related to one another). Ithkuil word-roots have been created + in a more efficient and systematic manner, with a recognition that the interrelatedness + between what are large sets of discrete words in other languages can be formalized + and systematized into a vast array or matrix of derivational rules, the result + being a drastic reduction in the number of basic word-roots, which in turn allows + all individual stems to be extremely compact phonologically-speaking.

+

For example, consider the following series of English words: + see, sight, vision, glimpse, stare, gawk, view, panorama, look, eye, glance, + visualize. Note how each of these is a separate, autonomous word despite + the fact that it shares a single underlying semantic concept with the others + (a concept which we can conveniently refer to as SIGHT/VISION), + each representing a mere manipulation of either durational aspect, situational + perspective, or manner of participation relating to that underlying concept. + What is more, these manipulations are, by and large, haphazardly applied, vague, + subjective, and particular to the specific underlying concept (i.e., the aspectual/perspectival + manipulations applied to SIGHT/VISION do not parallel + those manipulations applied to the concept TRANSFERENCE OF POSSESSION + by which we derive the series give, take, receive, steal, donate, lend, + borrow, send, etc.).

+

In Ithkuil, it is the seminal underlying concept which is lexified + into a word-root which then undergoes a series of regular, predictable, and + universally applicable modifications at the morphological (i.e., grammatical) + level to generate new words that, in some cases, parallel such series of English + words, but in most cases, far exceed the dynamism and range of such English + word series. This is illustrated by the list of Ithkuil words in the table below, + all of which are simply grammatical derivations, using affixes and systematic + phonemic mutations (i.e., sound shifts), of a single word-root r–q + whose meaning is translatable as ‘EXISTENT THING; TO EXIST + (AS SOMETHING).’ Alongside each word is its translation. (Note: + the translations below represent convenient approximations at best, as purely + literal translations would have to capture the systematic and derivative structure + of the Ithkuil words. For example, the word + amriqoçi + translated below as ‘destroy’ literally means ‘unmake + a constructed componential set by extreme violence.’ Note also that the + list below represents only a small number of the thousands of derivations theoretically + possible for this single word-root.)

+ + + + +
+

Another principle underlying the formation of words in Ithkuil + is complementarity. Western thought and language generally + reflect Aristotelian logic in the way they conceptualize the world and the interrelationships + between discrete entities in that world. Ithkuil, on the other hand, views the + world as being based on complementary principles, where, instead of discrete + independence between related entities, such concepts are seen as complementary + aspects of a single holistic entity. Such complementarity is in turn reflected + in the derivation of word-roots. By “complementarity” is meant that + the manifestation of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort + of entity or another, but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation + can be considered to be a discrete whole without the existence of the other. + A simple illustration of complementarity is the flip of a coin: the coin can + only land on one side or the other, yet without both sides being part of the + coin, any given coin toss has no meaning or contextual relevance no matter which + side is face-up.

+

For example, in Western languages, words such as male, + night, limb, sit, and happen are all autonomous + words, linguistically representing what are inherently considered to be basic + mental concepts or semantic primitives. However, in Ithkuil, none of these words + is considered to be a semantic primitive. Instead, they are seen to be parts + of greater, more holistic semantic concepts, existing in complementary relationship + to another part, the two together making up the whole.

+

Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male + has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) + from the underlying concept translatable as day (24-hour period), while + limb, along with its complement trunk or torso, derives + from the stem (corporeal) body.

+

Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon automatically + functions as a seat. We see the awkward attempt of English to convey these jointly + dependent but mutually exclusive perspectives when comparing the sentences Please + sit down and Please be seated. Another example involves the word + happen or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real + meaning without the attendant implication of consequence or result, + the two being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable + as event or situation.

+

The Ithkuil word for hole illustrates another instance + of complementarity. Holes can be looked at from two different, but interrelated + perspectives: either as an opening connecting two different spaces (or access + point to a previously unavailable space, i.e., a pit), or as a discontinuity + in the surface or structural integrity of the dividing entity separating the + two realms. In other words, one can focus on the potential function or consequences + of the hole, or on the structural nature of the hole. Either of these two perspectives + represents a legitimate, but complementary way to consider a hole or puncture. + Thus, the Ithkuil word would have two derivative roots each indicating one of + these two perspectives. One such root would be used when saying There’s + a hole in your shirt, while the other would be used when saying She + saw me through a hole in the fence.

+

Ithkuil recognizes that such complementarity exists for virtually + any concept, in fact that it is one of the foundational principles of the universe + itself. No beam of light can be spoken of without implicit recognition of its + source. No signal can be described without accounting for the signaling device. + Indeed, in Ithkuil no river is without its channel, no surface without its firmament, + no message without its medium, no sense impression without its sense faculty, + no contents without their container, no occurrence without its consequence, + no memory without its present effect, no plan without its purpose, no music + without its playing, no relief without prerequisite deprivation, no pleasure + without its absence, no motion without space in which to move.

+

Other principles underlying Ithkuil word-derivation include + the interrelated principles of fuzzy logic, prototype theory, and radial categorization. + Incorporation of these principles into the architecture for word-formation allows + roots to be grouped into various types of affiliated sets, each of which then + functions as a conceptual gestalt, the individual members of which being marked + as having varying degrees and kinds of relatedness or similarity to a hypothetical + prototype member or archetype. Thus, Ithkuil is able to systematically derive + words such as crowd, mob, group, troop, club, association, assembly, and + gathering all from the single root-word person. Similarly, + words such as grove, orchard, forest, woods, jungle, and copse + can all be derived from the single root-word tree.

+

As one last example exemplifying the dynamism and conciseness + of Ithkuil lexico-semantics, consider the following list of English words and + phrases: drenched, wet, damp, moist, near-dry, dry, parched. Rather + than provide separate autonomous words for these concepts, Ithkuil recognizes + that these terms all indicate relative degrees of moisture along a continuous + range. Such continua would be addressed by a single root whose meaning more + or less corresponds to [DEGREE OF] MOISTURE to which an + array of simple suffixes would be added to specify the particular degree along + that range, all the way from bone dry (or parched) through + drenched to saturated. All such phenomena which Western languages + tend to semantically delineate into binary oppositions (e.g., hard/soft, + light/dark, shallow/deep, etc.) are recognized and lexified in Ithkuil + as single roots which then systematically use suffixes to specify the particular + degree along a continuous range.

+

The above paragraphs illustrate how Ithkuil is able to capture + and systematically present at the morphological level what other languages accomplish + haphazardly at the lexical level. By systematically finding and structuring + the covert dependencies and interrelationships between what are disparate words + in other languages, the hundreds of thousands of words in a language like English + are drastically reduced down to the 3600 word-roots of Ithkuil. This is morpho-lexical + efficiency on a grand scale. Nevertheless, by means of the matrix-like morphological + scheme previously described, each of these 3600 roots can in turn generate thousands + of permutations to convey complex and subtle semantic distinctions and operations + which dwarf the capacity of existing languages to convey without resorting to + cumbersome paraphrase. This is lexico-semantic and morpho-semantic efficiency + on an equally grand scale. Such a synergistic design for grammar lends a dynamism + that allows the Ithkuil language to describe reality to a minute level of detail + and exactitude despite a limited number of word-roots. This dynamism is visible + throughout this work, but is discussed in systematic detail in Chapter + 10: Lexico-Semantics.

+

 

+ + + + +

0.4 + Addressing the Vagueness Inherent in Natural Languages

+

To further illustrate the cognitive depth at which Ithkuil + operates, consider one of the most pervasive aspects of natural human languages: + semantic vagueness. For example, consider the following four English sentences:

+
+
+

(a) The boy rolled down the hill.
+ (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking.
+ (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday.
+ (d) There is a dog on my porch.

+
+
+

In examining these four sentences most native English speakers + would deny that any vagueness exists. This is because the vagueness does not + exist in terms of the overt meanings of the words themselves. Rather, the vagueness + lies at the nearly subconscious level of their grammatical (or syntactical) + relations and cognitive intent. For example, in sentence (a) we have no idea + whether the boy chose to roll himself down the hill or whether he was pushed + against his will. (In formal linguistic terms we would say it is unknown whether + the semantic role of the subject ‘boy’ is as agent or patient.) + And yet knowing which scenario is correct is crucial to understanding the speaker’s + intent in describing the action.

+

Imagine sentence (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking + being spoken as an answer to the question ‘Why does she seem so irritable?’ + In interpreting sentence (b), we have no idea whether the subject is indeed + a smoker or not; i.e., is the speaker offering this speculation because he/she + knows the subject to be a smoker, or as mere conjecture without knowledge one + way or the other whether the subject smokes or not?

+

Sentence (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday + illustrates four-way ambiguity. Joe’s failure to win the lottery could + be either because: the speaker knows Joe didn’t play; because the speaker + knows Joe did play but lost; because the speaker doesn’t know whether + Joe played or not and is simply voicing a conjecture; or because the statement + is an inference based on some indirect clue (e.g., since Joe showed up for work + today, he must not have won the lottery).

+

And while sentence (d) There is a dog on my porch seems + on its surface to be the most straightforward of the four, is the intent of + the speaker to simply describe and identify the participants to a scene, or + does she wish to convey the idea that the scene has personal significance to + her, e.g., because she has a phobia of dogs or has been waiting for a long-lost + pet dog to return home? In other words, the sentence itself does not convey + the intent behind the utterance, only the static description of the scene.

+

In all four instances, such vagueness exists unless and until + the audience can ascertain information from the surrounding context of other + sentences. This shows that, despite the fact that all four sentences are grammatically + well-formed English sentences whose words in and of themselves are unambiguous, + their grammar alone is insufficient to convey the cognitive information necessary + to fully comprehend the intent of the speaker’s utterance. This failure + of grammar to inherently convey the requisite information necessary to understand + a speaker’s cognitive intent is a functional pitfall of human language + in general which Ithkuil grammar has been designed to avoid. The Ithkuil equivalents + to the above four sentences would mandatorily convey all of the “missing” + information noted above without requiring any extra words not corresponding + to the English originals. The grammatical elements of the words themselves (word-selection, + declensions, conjugations, prefixes, suffixes, etc.) would convey all the elements + mentioned.

+

Similar examples can be given to show the extent to which natural + languages such as English must often resort to idiomatic expressions, metaphor, + paraphrase, circumlocution and “supra-segmental” phenomena (e.g., + changing the pitch of one’s voice) in their attempts to convey a speaker’s + intended meaning. Ithkuil grammar has been designed to overtly and unambiguously + reflect the intention of a speaker with a minimum of such phenomena.

+

 

+ + + + +

0.5 + Comparison to Other Constructed Languages

+

Those readers familiar with the history of artificial + language construction might think this endeavor belated or unnecessary, + in that logical + languages such as James Cooke Brown’s renowned Loglan (or its popular + derivative, Lojban) already exist. This serves to illustrate exactly what distinguishes + Ithkuil from such previous attempts. Loglan was published in the 1950s as a + spoken/written language based on symbolic logic (formally known as the first-order + predicate calculus), an algorithmic system of symbol manipulation devised by + mathematicians and logicians. As a result, one might think that such a language + is the most capable means of achieving logical, unambiguous linguistic communication. + However, Loglan and its derivatives are merely sophisticated tools for symbol + manipulation, i.e., the levels of language previously described as morphology + and syntax. It is not within the scope of such languages to address any reorganization + of the semantic realm. This means that symbolic logic simply manipulates arguments + which are input into the system, they do not analyze the origin of those arguments + in terms of meaning, nor are they capable of analyzing or formalizing the structure + of the cognitive or semantic realm of the human mind in terms of how meaning + itself is assigned to arguments. (Indeed, Lojban derives its roots via statistical + “sampling” of the most frequent roots in the six most spoken natural + languages, a method virtually guaranteed to carry over into the Lojban lexicon + all of the lexico-semantic inefficiencies previously described.) By not addressing + these components of language, Loglan and similar efforts fail to address the + inconsistencies and inefficiency inherent in language at the lexico-semantic + level. Ithkuil has been designed to systematically address this issue.

+

Other readers might think of international languages (or “interlanguages”) + such as Esperanto, Interlingua, or Ido, as being logical and efficient representations of language. + However, these languages are merely simplified, regularized amalgamations of + existing languages (usually Indo-European), designed for ease of learning. While + addressing many overt irregularities, inconsistencies, and redundancies of language + found at the morpho-phonological and morpho-syntactic levels, they do little + to address the problems found within the other components of language, especially + the lexico-semantic. For example, while Esperanto admirably employs systematic + rules for word derivation as knabo ‘boy’ versus knabino + ‘girl,’ it preserves the basic lexico-semantic categorization scheme + of Indo-European languages in general, rather than seeking opportunities to + expand such word derivation schemes into multidimensional arrays as will be + shortly illustrated for Ithkuil.

+

All in all, neither logical languages such as Loglan nor interlanguages + such as Esperanto, are designed specifically to achieve the purpose of cognitive + exactness and conciseness of communication which is the goal of Ithkuil. Actually, + Ithkuil might more readily be compared with the analytical + language of John Wilkins of the Royal Society of London, published in 1668, + in which he divided the realm of human conception into forty categories, each + containing a hierarchy of subcategories and sub-subcategories, each in turn + systematically represented in the phonological structure of an individual word. + For example an initial g- might stand for a plant, while go- + indicated a tree, gob- a particular class of tree, and gobo + a particular tree species. While unworkable in terms of specifics, Wilkins’ + underlying principles are similar in a simplistic way to some of the abstract + derivational principles employed in Ithkuil lexico-morphology and lexico-semantics. + Another comparable predecessor in a simplistic sense is the musical language, + Solresol, created by Jean François Sudre and published in + 1866.

+

 

+ + + + +

0.6 + The Uniqueness of Ithkuil

+

The above description demonstrates that Ithkuil is rather unique + in the niche it occupies in the array of both natural and invented languages. + The design of Ithkuil has slowly and painstakingly evolved from my early attempts + as a teenager (following my introduction to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and Charles + Fillmore’s seminal 1968 article on case grammar) to explore beyond the + boundaries of Western Indo-European languages to a complex, intricate array + of interwoven grammatical concepts, many of which are wholly of my own creation, + others of which have been inspired by such obscure linguistic sources as the + morpho-phonology of Abkhaz verb complexes, the moods of verbs in certain American + Indian languages, the aspectual system of Niger-Kordofanian languages, the nominal + case systems of Basque and the Dagestanian languages, the enclitic system of + Wakashan languages, the positional orientation systems of Tzeltal and Guugu + Yimidhirr, the Semitic triliteral root morphology, and the hearsay and possessive + categories of Suzette Elgin’s Láadan language, not to mention ideas + inspired by countless hours studying texts in theoretical linguistics, cognitive + grammar, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, linguistic relativity, semantics, + semiotics, philosophy, fuzzy set theory, and even quantum physics.

+

The Ithkuil writing system likewise derives from both original + and inspired sources: it employs a unique “morpho-phonemic” principle + of my own invention, its logical design borrows from the mutational principles + underlying the Ethiopic and Brahmi scripts, and its aesthetic visual design + bears a superficial resemblance to Hebrew square script and the various Klingon + fonts.

+

As for the name of the language, Ithkuil, it is an anglicized + rendering of the word , + whose approximate translation is ‘hypothetical language.’

+

This website provides a systematic presentation of the grammar + of the language. In addition to a description of the various components of the + grammar, the reader will find example phrases or sentences illustrating those + components. Each example comprises an Ithkuil word, phrase, or sentence written + in native Ithkuil script, accompanied by a Romanized transliteration, an English + translation (sometimes divided into a “natural” versus literal translation), + and a morphological analysis. The morphological analysis is presented serially, + morpheme-by-morpheme, using three-letter abbreviations or labels for Ithkuil + morphological categories. These labels are presented within the body of the + work in conjunction with the explanation of each morphological category. This + system is illustrated by the example below, where the labels OBL + and PRP refer to the OBLIQUE and + PROPRIETIVE noun cases respectively. (These noun cases + are explained in Chapter + 4):

+
+


+ têr hionn
+ title-OBL + father-PRP
+ ‘a father’s title’

+
+

This work is not meant as a primer or means of self-instruction + in speaking the language, a task beyond even its creator, given that Ithkuil + may be perhaps the most grammatically complex language ever devised. Simplicity + was not my purpose, but rather bridging the gap between extreme morphological + dynamism, the overt reflection of human cognitive processes via language, and + extreme morpho-semantic economy and efficiency. I believe I have achieved a + result which is close to the ideal I sought. I leave it to the reader to explore + that result.

+

I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil. I especially wish to thank Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of so many people. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian. My appreciation also to fellow linguist and conlanger David J. Peterson for bestowing upon Ithkuil the 2008 Smiley Award.

+

Smiley Award

+

I dedicate this work to my brother, Paul, in fond memory of + Kccöj, Mbozo, and our other made-up languages, and all + the fun times we had as kids learning about and playing with linguistics.

+

Proceed + to Chapter One: Phonology >>

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

+

 

+

 

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..a9baa2f --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html @@ -0,0 +1,2153 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 1: Phonology + + + + + + + +
+

Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 1: Phonology

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +

1.1 Note + On Orthography and Transliteration

1.2 Phonemic Inventory

1.3 Phonological Processes + and Rules

1.4 Phonotaxis

+
+

The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound + system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized + phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically + convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system + of Ithkuil is detailed in the sections below.

+

 

+
+ + + + +

1.1 NOTE ON + ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION

+
+

The native script used to represent Ithkuil is both alien and + complex (employing over 3600 characters). It is explained in Chapter + 11. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed + throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic + structure of Ithkuil words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in + transliterating the large number of phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ithkuil, + the following diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system: the + acute, grave and circumflex accents, the umlaut or dieresis, the cedilla, a + superposed dot, and the apostrophe. The uses of these diacritics are explained + in the sections below. Additionally, digraphs with a superscript letter h + are employed to represent various aspirated consonants.

+

 

+
+ + + + +

1.2 PHONEMIC + INVENTORY

+
+

In furtherance of morpho-phonological efficiency (one of the + language’s goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have + a large phonemic inventory, specifically 65 consonants and 17 vowels, illustrated + by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized + orthography. Because this is far more than most Western languages, Ithkuil has + many sounds alien to speakers of English or other Western languages. Consequently, + readers other than trained phoneticians (or perhaps speakers of such obscure + languages as Chechen or Abkhaz) will likely have difficulty pronouncing the + language accurately.
+

+

Tables 1(a) + and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory

+

Table 1(a): Consonantal + Inventory

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
PLOSIVES
AFFRICATES
+
Fricatives
Nasals
Taps/
+ Trills
Liquids
Approximants
 
plain
aspirated
ejective
plain
aspirated
ejective
 
un-
+ voiced
+voice
+

un-
+ voiced

+
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
+voice
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
un-
+ voiced
+voice
+voice
+voice
+voice
+voice
BILABIAL
p
b
p’
_
_
_
_
_
_
m
_
_
_
LABIO-VELAR
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
w
LABIO-DENTAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
f
v
_
_
_
_
DENTAL
t
d
t’
_
_
_
_
n
_
_
_
ALVEOLAR
_
_
_
_
c
c’
s
z
_
_
_
_
ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX
_
_
_
_
’
_
r
_
POST-ALVEOLAR
_
_
_
_
j
’
_
_
_
_
PALATAL
’
_
_
_
ç’
ç
_
_
_
y
VELAR
k
g
k’
_
_
_
x’
x
_
_
_
UVULAR
q
q’
_
_
_
’
_
_
_
_
PHARYNGAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
GLOTTAL
’
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
h
_
_
_
_
_
LATERAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
l
_
VELARIZED LATERAL
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
+

 

+

Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
FRONT
CENTRAL
BACK
unrounded
rounded
unrounded
rounded
unrounded
rounded
High
î
ÿ
_ +
ü
ï +
û +
Mid-High
i
_ +
_ +
_ +
_ +
u
Mid
+ ê
ø
_ +
_ +
ë +
ô
Mid-Low
e
ö
_ +
_ + _
_ +
o
Low
ä
_ +
a
_ +
â
_ +
+


+ 1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants

+

The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal + sounds of Ithkuil. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol + of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well + as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these + phonetic representation systems. Sound files of actual Ithkuil words have been + provided for those consonants which are uncommon or difficult to pronounce for + English speakers, as well as in other cases to compare and distinguish two similar + but distinct phonemes, e.g., k + versus , + or c vs. + + vs. , + etc.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
b
As in English. A voiced + bilabial unaspirated plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [b].
+
+
c
+

As in English bits. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [ts]. + X-SAMPA [ + t_s ]. Example sound files:
+

+
No English equivalent. Similar to the + sound immediately above except that the s-component of the affricate + is made up of the Ithkuil alveolar retroflex s-sound + (see below). This sound occurs in most Chinese languages, as well as the + Basque language, where it is spelled ts. A voiceless unaspirated + apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [ t_s` + ]. Example sound files:
+
+ + +
+ +
+
+
As in English chin + but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff + of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [ t_S + ]. Example sound files:       
+
+ + +
+ + +
+
+
ç
Like the initial sound in English human, + huge, hue, or the + sound in German ich. A voiceless dorso-palatal + non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [ç]. + X-SAMPA [C]. + Example sound files:
+ +
+
+
+
+
d
Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar + ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An unaspirated + voiced apico-dental plosive; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [d_d]. +
+
+
As in English this, + bathe, weather. A + voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [ð]. + X-SAMPA [D]. +
+
+
f
As in English. A voiceless labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [f]. +
+
+
g
Always as in English gag; + never as in ginger. A voiced dorso-velar unaspirated plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [g]. + Example sound file:       
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiced dorso-uvular + unaspirated plosive found in Inuit and several Paleo-Siberian languages + such as Chukchi and Nivkh. Similar to the hard g-sound above + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + The resulting sound has a characteristic “gulped” quality. + The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil q below; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [G\]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of x below. Can be approximated by putting the tongue + in the position to pronounce English g as in gag + then, without moving the tongue, trying to say ‘uh’ instead. + A voiced dorso-velar fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [G]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
+
h
As in English hall. + Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable + in Ithkuil. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [h]. + Example sound files:
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiceless + radico-pharyngal fricative found in Arabic and several Northeast Caucasian + languages. A deep raspy sound produced by pronouncing an h-sound + while constricting the pharynx and trying to press the root of the tongue + against the back wall of the pharynx. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [X\]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
j
As in English judge + but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. An unaspirated + non-labialized voiced lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [d_Z]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of Ithkuil + below. Found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled gy and + d´ respectively. Sort of like a g+y sound + as in English big year pronounced rapidly, with + the g-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate + as opposed to the soft palate. A voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive. + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [J\]. + Example sound files:
+ ‘day + (24-hour period)’
+
+
+
k
Similar to English k + but without aspiration. Like the k-sound of the Romance languages, + e.g., Spanish or Italian casa. A voiceless unaspirated + dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [k]. + Example sound files:
+
+
No English equivalent. Like a k-sound + but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced + farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, + not the soft palate as with English k. The result + should sound somewhat like a k+y as in backyard + when spoken rapidly. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [c]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
l
The “light” l-sound + of the Romance languages, or as in British English leader; + not the “dark” (velarized) l-sound of American English + lull. A voiced apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [l]. + Example sound files:
+ +
+
+
+
The “dark” (velarized) l-sound + of American English lull, not + the “light” l-sound of the Romance languages or British + English leader. A voiced velarized apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [5]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-bilateral fricative as found in Welsh llan. + Can best be approximated by putting the tongue in position as if to say + an l-sound, and while holding the position, make a forceful h-sound + instead; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [K]. + Example sound files:
+
+ + +
+
+
m
As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal + continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [m].
+
+
n
Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages, + not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant + obstruent; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [n_d].
+
+
The English ng-sound as in + song or ringer; NEVER + as in finger. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant + obstruent;. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [N].
+
+
p
Similar to English, but without aspiration. + As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [p].
+
+
q
No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American + Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated k-sound + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + IPA and X-SAMPA [q]. + Example sound file:
+
+
This sound is a combination of a heavily + aspirated and palatal Ithkuil (see + above) released laterally (i.e., along the two sides of the tongue) into + a voiceless lateral fricative (IPA []). + This sound occurs in some North American Indian and North Caucasian languages. + An aspirated voiceless palatal-lateral affricate. IPA []. + X-SAMPA [c_K_h]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
r
This sound is a single flap of the tongue + tip as in Spanish caro or pero. + When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish carro + or perro. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex + flap/trill; IPA [], + [r]. + X-SAMPA [4], + [r]. + Example sound files:
+ +
+
+
+
Pronounced similarly to the English + retroflex r-sound except that there is no lip-rounding and the + tongue is in direct contact with the alveolar gum ridge behind the upper + teeth, giving the sound an l-coloring. A voiced apico-alveolar + retroflex liquid continuant; the closest IPA symbol is [] + (a voiced rhoticized retroflex lateral approximant). (No X-SAMPA equivalent). + Example sound files:
+ +
+
+
+
No English equivalent. Like the throaty + or “gargled” r-sound found in colloquial French and + German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA []. + X-SAMPA [R]. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
s
As in English sister. + A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA + [s]. + Example sound file:
+
+
No English equivalent. The retroflex + s-sound heard in Castilian (but not Latin American) Spanish. + Also found in Basque, Catalan, and most Chinese languages. Similar to + an English s-sound, but with the blade of the tongue curved convexly + away from the roof of the mouth, as with an English r-sound, + so that the tongue curls back and touches the alveolar ridge. The result + should sound halfway between an English s and sh. A + voiceless apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [ s`]. + Example sound file:
+
+
+
š
As in English shoeshine + but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [S].Example + sound file:
+ +
+
+
t
Similar to English but without aspiration + and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against + the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless apico-dental + unaspirated plosive; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [t_d].
+
+
As in English thin, + bath. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [T].
+
+
v
As in English. A voiced labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [v].
+
+
w
+

As in English well, worry. + A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [w].
+

+
x
No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless + dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled x + in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish j. + Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce + a k-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing + an h-sound instead. Should be distinguished from + below; IPA and X-SAMPA [x]. + Example sound file:
+
+
No English equivalent. The rough voiceless + dorso-uvular fricative (or trill) found in German ach. + Can be approximated by means of a dry gargle without vocal chord vibration. + IPA []. + X-SAMPA [X]. + Example sound file:
+
+
y
As in English yet, + yam. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [ j + ]. Example sound file: +
+
+
No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to ç above. This is the “intensive” + y-sound heard in Castilian and some Latin American varieties + of Spanish. Like the sound in English yet, yam + but with the blade of the tongue held more closely to the hard palate, + so that audible friction occurs. A voiced dorso-palatal fricative; IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [j\]. + Example sound file:
+
+
z
As in English zoo, + wizard. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; + IPA and X-SAMPA [z]. + Example sound file:
+

No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil + + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative. IPA + []. + X-SAMPA [ z`]. + Example sound file: + +
+

The voiced counterpart of š + above. Similar to the sound in English pleasure + or leisure, but without lip-rounding. A voiced + lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [Z]. + Example sound file:
+ +
Like an English d+z + sound, as in roads, adze. + A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [dz]. + X-SAMPA [d_z]. + Example sound file: +
+
No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA []. + X-SAMPA [d_z`]. + Example sound file:
+
’
This sound is the glottal stop heard + between the two vowels in English oh-oh or as the sound heard + in most American English speakers’ pronunciation of the word fattening. + This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, + Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA []. + Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
+

1.2.1.1 Aspirated Consonants: The consonants + are + all unaspirated, i.e., without the accompanying puff of air characteristic of + English voiceless stops and affricates. In Ithkuil each of these has an aspirated + counterpart, pronounced like the unaspirated version but with a distinct expulsion + of air, more so than in English. These aspirated counterparts are written with + a following superscript h; thus: + Example sound files:

+
+

+
+ +
+
+ +

+
+

1.2.1.2 Ejective Consonants: The same eight + consonants immediately above also have ejective counterparts, which do not exist + in any major Western language, but are found in languages such as Armenian, + Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian + languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied + by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which + gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives + are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: . + Note: the lateral affricate + has an allophone (alternate pronunciation) as an ejective as well. Example sound + files:

+
+

+
+ +
+
+ +

+
+

In addition to the above ejectives, there are three additional + ejective consonants, all of them affricates, ç’, + x’, + and ’, + whose rather difficult and exotic pronunciations are described below.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ç’ +
This sound is a combination of Ithkuil + + + Ithkuil ç + (the voiceless palatal slit fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [’]. + X-SAMPA [c_C_>]. + Example sound file:
+
+
x’ +
This sound is a combination of Ithkuil k + + Ithkuil x (the voiceless velar fricative described + above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. + When pronounced properly, it should be a harsh, sudden, emphatic k-sound, + accompanied by a high-pitched sound of static, as if someone is verbally + imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [kx’]. + X-SAMPA [k_x_>]. + Example sound file:
+
’ +
This sound is a combination of Ithkuil q + + Ithkuil + (the voiceless uvular fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [q’]. + X-SAMPA [q_X_>]. + This sound is found in a few obscure Northeast Caucasian languages (e.g., + Dido, Archi). Example sound file:
+
+
+
+

1.2.1.3 Syllabic consonants. Six consonants, + , + can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of + syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions + such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ + (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants n + and l as in the second syllable of words like button and little. + Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words nda ‘no’, + and ndíghílii ‘sunflower.’ In Ithkuil, these + six syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant + as in + However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where + the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate + syllable. Examples: .

+

+

1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels

+

There are 17 vowels, all of which are pure sounds, not glided + into diphthongs as in English. These include the five primary vowels a, + e, i, o, u. + The vowel a is phonetically an unrounded central low vowel, + IPA [a], + as in Spanish or Italian. The vowels e and o + are similar to the vowels in American English let + and short, phonetically IPA [] + and [], + although both sounds are actually somewhat higher, being between low-mid and + mid in height. The vowels i and u are lower + than in Romance languages: i is about halfway between the vowels + in English pit and machine; + u is halfway between English cook + and kook. Sound files: a + e i o u

+

The vowel â is pronounced as in Western + U.S. all, IPA []; + ê and ô are mid-height, IPA [e] + and [o] + as in Spanish estos or in French + poésie; î and û + are high (i.e., fully closed) as in Spanish or Italian i and u, + IPA [i] + and [u]. + Example sound files: â + ê î ô û

+

The vowel ä is slightly higher than the + vowel in American English sat but not as high as in + set, IPA [æ^]. The vowel ö + is the rounded equivalent of e, that is, the vowel in French + boeuf or German könnte, + IPA [œ]. + The vowel ë is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American + English cut or nut, although, + more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel ô but without rounding + of the lips, a vowel which occurs in Estonian, IPA []. + The vowel ï is pronounced as an unrounded û, + an obscure vowel found in Turkish and Japanese, IPA . + The vowel ü is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel, + as found in Norwegian hus or the Highland Scottish + pronunciation of English book or good, + IPA []. + The vowel ø is the rounded equivalent of ê, + as in French feu or German schön, + IPA [ø]; + the vowel ÿ represents the front rounded vowel of French + du and German über, + IPA [y]. + Example sound files: ä + ë ï ö ø ü ÿ +

+


+ 1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions

+

Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation + of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that + phoneme occurs. These variances, while audible to a trained linguist, are often + indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these + allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional + role in the language. As an example, compare the two t-sounds in the + English words top and stop. + The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while + the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. + However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, + the difference in the two t-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers + of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages + where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other + Indic languages).

+

Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within + a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely + regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration + in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning + a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign + accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, + and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without + aspirating the initial t-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration + in Romance languages.)

+

The particular phonetic variants of a particular phoneme are + known as allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ithkuil are + as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
h
This phoneme is a simple + (bi-)glottal fricative as in English head when in a syllable-initial position + and in word-final position. However, at the end of a syllable when preceded + by a vowel and followed by another consonant, this sound approaches a + voiceless bilabial fricative, similar to the bilabial sound of Japanese + h as pronounced before u (usually transliterated into + Roman orthography as f). IPA []. +
+
hh
The geminated version of Ithkuil h is + pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is + completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along + their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre + to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English thin) + as well as the English f-sound, however there is absolutely no + contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound. + No IPA equivalent. Example sound files:
+
+
+
+
+
This aspirated lateral affricate is + in free variation with (i.e., may be alternately pronounced as) its non-aspirated + ejective counterpart (IPA []); + in word-initial position it is more common to pronounce it ejectively. + Example sound files:
+ +
+ + +
+
+
In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced + as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar + to the throaty r-sound found in colloquial French and German, + IPA []. + However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound + becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [].
+
+
w
Normally pronounced as a voiced labio-velar + approximant (i.e., labialized dorso-velar approximant) as in English wet + (IPA [w]), + when followed by the Ithkuil vowel û, this sound, + takes on even greater lip-rounding to become a voiced labio-velar fricative + (i.e., labialized dorso-velar fricative) (IPA []). +
+
+
+
w’
In this word-initial combination of + voiced labio-velar approximant followed by a glottal stop is found, the + w is pronounced followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, + Ithkuil ï, followed by the glottal stop (IPA []). +
+
+
+
y’
Similarly to the combination above, + this word-initial combination has its voiced dorso-palatal approximant + followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, followed by the glottal + stop (IPA []). +
+
+
+
+
bm, + dn, km, kn, pm, tn
+
 
When in word-initial position, the first + consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral + release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to + pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to + pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the + tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead. IPA []. +
+
+
hl, + hm, hn, h, + hw
+
+
Each of these consonant conjuncts, when + word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not + pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts + to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct, + i.e., IPA + To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce + an Ithkuil l, + m, n, n, r, + , + or w, + and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear h-sound + instead.
+

 

+ + + + +
1.3 PHONOLOGICAL + PROCESSES AND RULES
+

Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages + have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are + combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, + the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ithkuil + productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and + tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends.
+

+

1.3.1 Gemination

+

Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in + length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination + does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological + grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ + versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based + gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, + Finnish).

+

In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy + is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and + word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination + in Ithkuil:

+

1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination. All consonants + are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except + for y and w.

+

1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination. + The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, + are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: +

+
+

+
+

The consonant + can be geminated in word-initial position.

+

1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants. + Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite + duration), specifically are + simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated + r is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like + rr in Spanish or Italian. Example sound files:

+
+

+
+ +
+ +
+ +

+
+

The non-aspirated plosive consonants b, + d, g, + , + , + k, , + p, q, + and t, when + geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two d-sounds + in the English phrase bad dog when spoken rapidly. + Example sound file:

+
+

+

+
+

The aspirated plosives + are likewise held momentarily before release, the aspiration occurring upon + release, much like the two t-sounds in the English phrase hot + tar when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives k’, + ’, + p’, q’, and + t’ are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic + ejectivization occurring upon release. Example sound files:

+
+

+

+
+

The pronunciation of affricates () + when geminated depends on whether or not they are in word-final position. If + not in word-final position, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial + stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative + or sibilant portion. Aspiration or ejectivization, if present, occurs during + release of the plosive into the sibilant or fricative component, e.g., + is pronounced as IPA [ttš]. + For those affricates which can appear as word-final geminates (), + geminated pronunciation in word-final position is achieved by simply lengthening + the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of + each affricate). Thus, + in word-final position is pronounced as IPA [tšš], + + as IPA []. + Example sound files:

+
+

+
+ +
+ + +

+
+

1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates. + Single character consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g., + bb, dd, nn, šš. + Aspirated digraph-consonants have the first letter of the digraph written doubled + followed by a single superscript h, e.g., + Geminated ejective consonants are likewise written with the initial character + doubled followed by a single apostrophe, e.g., + Exceptions to this rule exist for the ejective affricates ç’, + x’, + and ’. + Because the non-apostrophed forms of these three characters do not correspond + to non-ejectivized versions of the apostrophed form, these geminates are written + as

+


+ 1.3.2 Pitch and Tone

+

Ithkuil is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other + Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages + and some American Indian languages. This means that pitch or tone of voice is + used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone + and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic + features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, + while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other + attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words + themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories).

+

There are five tones used in Ithkuil, one of which, mid-low + tone, is considered morpho-phonologically neutral. The other four tones are + falling, high, broken (i.e., mid to low to mid-low), and rising (i.e., mid-low + to mid-high) and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries + one significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously + carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed + syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid-low tone. Therefore, + the function of mid-low tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since + any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid-low. Like most tone languages, + the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual + speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
(mid-low)
falling
high
broken
rising
+

The four significant tones are indicated in the Roman transliteration + by small superscript symbols at the end of each word, as follows: falling tone + is unmarked, high tone is marked by a superscript hyphen (or macron), broken + tone by a superscript backslash, and rising tone by a superscript forward slash. + This is illustrated in the example words/sound files below.

+
+

+ + [falling tone]
+ + + [high tone]
+ + + [broken tone]
+ + + [rising tone]
+

+
+


+ 1.3.3 Syllabic Stress

+

Stress normally falls on the penultimate (next-to-last) + syllable but can shift to either the ultimate (last) syllable + of a word, to the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable, + and occasionally to the preantepenultimate (fourth-from-last) + syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations.

+

When transliterating Ithkuil into Roman characters, the number + of vowels in Ithkuil requires the use of diacritics due to the limited number + of Roman vowel characters. As a result, the orthographic representation of stress + using the system of romanization becomes complicated. It is explained as follows: +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1)All monosyllabic words are unmarked for stress.
2)The grave accent ( ` + ) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted, + e.g., in distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as au + and ei from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts aù + and eì.
3)Penultimate stress. Polysyllabic words having penultimate + stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing the dissyllabic + phonemes ì or ù as the penultimate + syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word iskoùt + (stress on the o), if adding the syllable -ma, + becomes iskoútma + (stress on the u).
4)

Ultimate stress. Polysyllabic words which have ultimate + stress indicate this in one of the following ways:

 
    +
  • the unmarked vowels a, e, i, + o, u, and the marked disyllabic vowels + ì and ù take an acute + accent, e.g., á, é, + í, ó, ú.
    • +
  • if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other + than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, or syllabic liquid + or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate + syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., ròihnäl.
    • +
  • If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs + in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then a grave accent over + the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress + (as the grave accent would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate + stress), e.g. òspätlök.
    • +
  • if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate + syllables already have diacritic marks (other than the grave accent) + then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., ksûtpäär. +
    • +
5)Antepenultimate stress. To show antepenultimate stress + (third syllable from the end):
 
    +
  • if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant) + does not carry a diacritic (other than the grave accent), it takes the + acute accent, e.g., áksiyor
    • +
  • if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave + accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack of acute accent on + the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate + stress, e.g., ëitlàrrun, + ôrümzìl. + (Note that the use of the grave accent over the i in + ôrümzìl + would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress, therefore + its presence implies antepenultimate stress).
    • +
  • if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules, + then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., öömoläk.
    • +
6)Preantepenultimate stress. To show preantepenultimate + stress (i.e., fourth syllable from the end) apply the same rules as for + antepenultimate stress above, but to the preantepenultimate syllable.
+

Note that the acute accent on the stressed second member of + the bi-syllabic geminate clusters + distinguishes them from their standard geminate counterparts . +

+

 

+ + + + +

1.4 PHONOTAXIS

+

In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, + and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to + what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or + word. This concept is called phonotaxis and such rules are + known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain + why sprelch could be a hypothetical word in English, while znatk + could not be, even though znatk is as easily pronounced by a linguist + as sprelch. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, + and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis

+

Equally important are the optional rules each language employs + to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics + or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly + responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” + of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are + described in the sections below.

+


+ 1.4.1 Syllable Structure

+

The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable + forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable, + or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are + shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents + a mandatory vowel or diphthong.

+

Table 2: + Syllabic Structure

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Syllable + Type
Structure
Examples
Consonantal + Word
C(C)(C) + where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless + fricative continuant
s, + h,, + ll, mm, pçç
Monosyllabic
(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
a, ui, öt, + isk, du, tuil, kleb, tliqs, pskarn, xxoršt
Word-initial
(C)(C)(C)V(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
uran, + tahin, ui’wá, + prinu, klatma, + xmoiskra, kstollap, + ltuirbis, mpeilt’um
Word-medial
-(C)(C)V(C)(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
kialun, + ruentik, isteixlam, + ïkspûzqai,
Word-final
-(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)- + or l, , + , + m, n,
lua, + antoi, tial, eifqés, + poxšurn, ultrönn, + +
+

The following rules apply:

+
+ +
+

1.4.2 Diphthongs

+

An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination + of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil diphthongs are + “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives + the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred + to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 24 diphthongs + in Ithkuil, described as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
ai + +
Pronounced as in Spanish + or Italian; like English i in white or ice. +
+
äi + +
No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English y-sound. +
+
ei +
As in Spanish or Italian; like English + ai in rain or ei in rein.
+
ëi + +
No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English y-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the i + in ice.
+
oi +
As in Spanish or Italian; as in English + boy or voice.
+
öi + +
No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English y-sound. + Somewhat like the French word oeil.
+
ui + +
As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of Spanish or Italian “pure” u + (i.e., without the glide into -w as in English rude) + + an English y-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this + diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the u-sound + is reduced to a w- (the result sounding like English wee). +
+
au + +
As in Spanish or Italian; like English + ou in loud or ow in cow.
+
äu + +
No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English w-sound. +
+
eu + +
As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of “pure” e (i.e., without + the glide into –y as in English they) + an English w-sound. +
+
ëu + +
No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English w-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word oh!. +
+
iu + +
No English equivalent; a combination + of the Ithkuil vowel i (which is more open than the Spanish + or Italian “pure” i (i.e., closer to English i + in bit) + an English w-sound.
+
ou + +
Like the o + w-glide + of English road or mode. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese + roupa.
+
öu + +
No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English w-sound. + Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the + word oh!.
_aï, + eï, ëï, iï, oï, uï + +
+
Each of these is a combination of a + vowel with the back central vowel ï. No English + equivalents, although the sound can be approximated by pronouncing the + first vowel followed by the velarized “dark” l-sound + of American English lull but without touching the tip of the + tongue to the gum ridge behind the upper teeth; the tongue tip should + remain low instead. The resulting diphthongs should sound somewhat like + English all, ell (as in bell), ull + (as in dull), eel, ole (as in pole), + and ool (as in tool), as pronounced by someone speaking + in an indistinct, slurred voice. For those familiar with IPA, these diphthongs + may be represented as
_äï, + öï, üï
As with the series of diphthongs immediately + above, these are combinations of the Ithkuil vowels ä, + ö, and ü with the back central + vowel ï. IPA
ae + +
No English equivalent. A combination + of Ithkuil a + ê. Sounds like + a more “open” version of Ithkuil ai. Tolkien’s + Sindarin language also has this diphthong.
+

All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are + pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing + the many two-vowel combinations beginning with u- and i- + into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a w-sound or y-sound. + This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives + the syllabic stress.

+


+ 1.4.3 Constraints on Vowels

+

All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts + previously mentioned can occur in any syllable in any position with the following + exceptions:

+ +

 

+

1.4.4 Constraints on Consonants

+ +

Table 3 below shows the permissible structures for word-initial + consonant conjuncts, while Table 4 shows the permissible structures for consonant + conjuncts in word-final position. Note that not all the possible conjuncts are + shown, merely examples of each type of combination. There are many combinations + of consonants permitted in Ithkuil which would never be allowed as conjuncts + in Western languages.

+


+ Table 3: Permissible Structure of Initial Consonant Conjuncts
+
+

+


+ Table 4: Permissible Structure of Word-Final Consonant Conjuncts

+

+


+ 1.4.5 Phonaesthetic Rules

+

Phonaesthetic rules refer to the generally applied rules and + preferences peculiar to each language for structuring the patterns of phonemes + for purposes of phonological euphony. The following such principles apply to + Ithkuil.

+ +

Proceed + to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >>

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

+

 

+

 

+


+

+


+

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch10-lexico-semantics.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch10-lexico-semantics.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..7ed5322 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch10-lexico-semantics.html @@ -0,0 +1,1444 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
10.1 Systemic Morphological + Derivation10.5 Lexical Generalization
10.2 Phonological Classification of + Roots 10.6 Lexical Differentiation
10.3 Dimensional and Descriptive Oppositions10.7 Comparison to Western + Categorization
10.4 Spatial Position + and Orientation 
+
+

The term lexico-semantics refers to the relationship + between the lexicon of a language (i.e., its root-words and word-stems) and + the various possible semantic categories created by the human mind. Every language + (and particularly every language family) divides the world up differently in + terms of what sorts of concepts are made into words and how the meanings of + those words reflect the reality around us. In other words, the lexico-semantics + of a language answers the questions what semantic concepts does this language + psycho-linguistically categorize into autonomous words and how are each of these + categories internally organized?

+

Lexico-semantics is extremely important in Ithkuil for two + related reasons:

+

1) Ithkuil morpho-phonology only allows for 3600 possible root + words, as explained in Chapter 2. This means that the concepts chosen to be + conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the widest range + of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework.

+

2) We have seen throughout this work how Ithkuil’s matrix-like + grammatical structure allows for an incredible amount of synergy in terms of + morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, emergent concepts from + word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent derivations. + In order to ensure the maximum amount of dynamism in deriving new concepts morphologically + from existing word-roots, it is important that those initial roots be carefully + selected in terms of meaning.

+

In this chapter, we will examine the many considerations that + go in to the assigning of concepts to those 3600 roots, in order to optimally + accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using the dynamics + of Ithkuil morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more + autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting + the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.”

+

We will start first with a review of key components in the + systemic design of Ithkuil morphology. This will be followed by sections on + those areas of Ithkuil lexico-semantics which are most profoundly distinct from + Western languages.

+

The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, + examining how Ithkuil lexico-semantics reinterprets certain concepts considered + “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.

+

 

+ + + + + +

10.1 SYSTEMIC MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATION

+

Ithkuil systematically uses its myriad of morphological categories + to derive secondary concepts from more basic concepts, often eliminating the + need for separate lexicalization, i.e., eliminating the need to create separate + word-roots for new but related concepts as is so often the case in Western languages. + We will explore this system of morphological derivation more closely, particularly + in regard to its universality across the spectrum of Ithkuil word-roots.

+


+ 10.1.1 Stem Derivation from Roots

+

We have already seen many applied examples of the above-described + concepts, particularly in Section + 2.3 et seq. regarding the use of three different sets of vocalic infixes + to a root to generate a trinary array of interrelated stems, as well as varying + the mutation patterns of those trinary sets to in turn derive two separate arrays + of complementary stems from the initial holistic array of stems. Through this + system of vowel patterns and mutation, we saw how a single root generates no + less than eighteen formative stems, each functioning as a noun or verb. This + is illustrated below using the example root h-f + ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’.

+

+

+

As described in Chapter 2, this hierarchical pattern of stem + derivation and division into complementary stems from a more basic or underlying + “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number + of word-roots necessary compared to Western languages, as words that are semantically + interrelated in a hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically + from a basic root, as opposed to being assigned separate word-roots as in other + languages. The above root h-f + demonstrates how concepts such come versus go + are expressed as complementary derivations of a single underlying concept TRANSLATIVE + MOTION. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective + are similarly patterned, e.g., lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take, etc.

+

Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation + from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” + classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. Biological + taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, as illustrated + below:

+

+

Using the nine degrees of the Stem + Specific Derivative + affix -V1t’ + from Sec. 7.7.13 on such a root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific + parts, products or derived resources such as a the milk, oil, meat, skin or + hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The Degree + of Maturity + affix -V0k + from Sec. 7.7.10 is also applied to indicate the developmental stage of the + animal.

+

A different pattern applies to individual animal species, first + dividing the two Forms (Designations) of the root into the animal itself versus + the animal as a resource, the holistic stems indicating first the generic species + then male versus female. The complementary stems then make the further distinction + between wild versus domesticated for the informal stem and between food/prey + and derived or processed products for the formal stem. The + affix is again used to specify parts or products of the animal, while the + affix distinguishes the developmental stages, providing derived equivalents + to words such as foal, fawn, lamb or cub, from horse, + deer, goat, or lion.

+


+ 10.1.2 The Use of Affixes

+

In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the 150-odd affix categories + can be used to generate both derivative concepts (e.g., xäl + ‘hill’ + V1x/7 + ‘very large’ + xälïx ‘very large hill’) as + well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning (e.g., xäl + ‘hill’ + V2x/7 + ‘very large’ + xälëx ‘mountain’). As an example, + here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes + from the stem köl ‘say something [i.e., + communicate a verbal message]’:

+
+
 
+
+
+

+
+


+ Similarly the use of the Consent , + Reason , + Expectation , + Deliberateness , + Enablement , + Agency/Intent + and Impact affixes + from Section 7.7.12 + in conjunction w/ Transrelative cases (Sec. + 4.3), provides a means for describing extremely subtle scenarios of causation, + willingness, enablement, hindrance, etc. which other languages can only capture + via long-winded paraphrase. Employing this array of affixes and cases, a sentence + such as The singer stopped the boys from playing around can be translated + into Ithkuil in many syntactically equivalent (but morphologically distinct) + ways to indicate whether the singer used physical force or persuasion to stop + the boys, whether she stopped them via an indirect enabling means (such as turning + out the lights), or whether it was the boys themselves who stopped upon hearing + her voice or seeing her beauty, or even by her mere presence interrupting them + (such as walking in on them inadvertently), as well as the degree of willingness + or consent with which they stopped. The following example sentence further illustrates + the complex detail which these suffixes make possible:
+

+
+


+
+ Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally + killed it without even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting + it out of the house.__________ + Listen:

+
+


+ The + affix from Sec. 7.7.9, + in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of English such + as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate + the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in Ithkuil this affix is productive + for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with Modality + categories (Sec. 5.5) and Modality + affixes (Sec. 7.7.11) + to extend the system of modalities, as illustrated by the following:

+
+
promise to + = + foreswear, vow never to
+ can (know how to) + + = be ignorant of
+ decide to + + = avoid
+ offer to + + = refuse to
+ agree upon/to + + = decline to/abstain from
+ like to + + = loathe
+ fear to + + = love to
+ need to + + = dispensable, unnecessary to, can dispense with
+
+

 

+

10.1.3 The Use of Configuration, Affiliation, and Context +

+

Each of these categories has means to generate amalgamate, + holistic, or emergent concepts from a more basic underlying stem.

+

10.1.3.1 Configuration: In Sec. + 3.1 we saw how applying each of the nine Configuration categories to a stem + often generates forms based on amalgamation of sets which require complete relexification + when translated into English. Examples are:

+
+

bone + skeleton
+ strut/girder + framework
+ component + system
+ ingredient compound
+ food + meal
+ tool toolset
+ do/perform coordinate
+ vehicle convoy
+ person + crowd masses
+ activity process.

+
+

10.1.3.2 Affiliation: In Sec. + 3.2 we saw how the four Affiliations can generate new concepts based on + delineations of purpose, benefit, or function. Examples include:

+
+

group team, +
+ grove orchard
+ assortment + junk
+ process plan

+
+

10.1.3.3 Context: In Sec. + 3.6.4 we encountered the AMALGAMATE context, which + serves to identify a stem specifically as a gestalt entity, composed of objective + and subjective/social elements or components which contribute to the overall + nature of the stem. Depending on the stem to which it is applied, the use of + the amalgamate can cause relexification in translating to English. Examples:

+
+

demeanor + personality
+ craftsmanship artistry
+ career livelihood
+ (one’s) past (one’s) + life
+ to look after/tend nurture

+
+

+

10.1.4 The Use of Designation and Version

+

In Section + 3.7 on Designation as well as Sec. + 5.3 on Version, we saw how both of these morphological categories create + distinctions in word-stems which usually require relexification in translation. + The following word pairs illustrate such relexification:

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
(the) past + historysee + observe
writings + literatureone + single/singular
wordplay + rhetorichear + listen
behavior + demeanordesire + request
wander + travelquery + research
eat + dineponder + analyze
containment + storagepath + route
+
+

Again we see that application of morphological categories + to word-stems serves to generate forms which substitute for lexical distinctions + in other languages, thus helping to reduce the size of the Ithkuil lexicon.

+
+
 
+
+ +

10.1.5 The Use of Phase and Extension

+

The use of the nine Phases, as explained in Sec. + 6.2, used in conjunction with the category of Extension (Sec. + 3.4) gives rise to an elaborate means by which to describe phenomena in + terms of duration, periodicity, repetition, iterativity, and cyclic phenomena. + When used in conjunction with the twelve Modulative affixes from Sec. + 7.7.7, the Iteration + and Repetition + affixes from Sec. 7.7.5 + and the Intensity + affix from Sec. 7.7.10, + Phase becomes an extremely powerful means to describe with great subtlety all + phenomena which display vibratory, oscillative, wavering, on-off, or variative + movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific application of the various + phases combined with the aforementioned affixes and other affix categories to + a single stem + ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following + English words:

+
+ + + + + + + +
acoustic
+ audible
+ auditory
+ bang
+ blast
+ boom
+ buzz
+ cacophony
+ calm
+ click
+ clickety-clack
+ clink
+ crack
+ crackle
+ crash
+ din
+ discord
+ dissonance
+ drone
+ echo
+ explosion		faint + sound
+ fizz
+ gag
+ grate
+ hiss
+ howl
+ hullabaloo
+ hum
+ hush
+ jangle
+ kerplunk
+ knock
+ loud(ness)
+ lull
+ moan
+ muffle
+ murmur
+ mute
+ noise
+ pandemonium
+ peal
+

pit-a-pat
+ plink
+ pop
+ quaver
+ quiet
+ racket
+ rap
+ rat-a-tat
+ rattle
+ raucous
+ resonant
+ reverberate
+ ring
+ roar
+ rumble
+ rush of sound
+ rustle
+ screech
+ shrill
+ silence
+ snap

sonorous
+ sound
+ staccato
+ stifle
+ strident
+ stutter
+ swirl
+ swish
+ tap
+ thump
+ tick
+ toot
+ twang
+ uproar
+ vibration
+ whir
+ whistle
+ whiz
+ whoosh
+
+

The same principles applied to other types of stems give rise + to a plethora of complex and subtle means for describing motions, paths, trajectories, + movement in situ, light emanation, reflection, consistency, texture, variation + in shape, visual complexity, etc.

+

 

+ + + + +
10.2 PHONOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROOTS
+

Many languages have class systems for both nouns and verbs, + in which a specific pattern of morpho-phonological markers are assigned to a + specified set of roots. Often, class membership is quite arbitrary as in the + three conjugational classes of Spanish, Italian, or French verbs. In other cases, + class membership roughly corresponds to an underlying semantic category, as + seen in the masculine versus feminine versus neuter class system of many languages. + Non-Western languages often delineate a greater number of classes determined + by categories of shape, purpose, socio-cultural factors, and other objective + or subjective semantic factors.

+

Ithkuil displays a pattern of 17 morpho-semantic classes for + its 3600 roots. In Ithkuil, class is delineated by the C2 + consonantal radical (see Sec. + 2.2.1), i.e., the C2 radical indicates + to which of the 17 classes a root belongs. In this manner, the consonant pattern + of an Ithkuil root always provides a clue as to general meaning of the root. + The seventeen Ithkuil classes with their corresponding C2 radicals are shown + in the table below.

+


+ Table 34: Ithkuil Morpho-Semantic Classes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CLASS
C2 MARKERS
SIGNIFICATION
1
s, s or + šnumerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics
2
 p, t, k + or q intellectual concepts, thought, ideas, propositions
3
c, + or concepts relating to change and causation
4
m, n or + + concepts relating to the physical attributes of organic matter
5
l, r or + + concepts relating to communication, learning and language
6
b, d, g + or concepts relating to the physical attributes of inorganic matter
7
 f, , + ç or spatio-dimensional concepts, form and motion
8
p, + t + or q + taxonomies of organic life
9
p’, t’, + k’ or q’taxonomies of physical substances
10
c’, ’ + or ’ relational concepts, identity, associations
11
c, + + or concepts relating to order, arrangement, configuration
12
, + ç’, x’ or ’ + socially or externally-induced affectations
13
v, , + + or personal affect, emotion, feelings, preferences
14
 z, or + ž concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations
15
, +   + or j + concepts relating to existence, state, occurrence, subjectiveness
16
x, , + h or concepts relating to individual volition and choice
17
, + , + ’ + or   temporal concepts
+ +

 

+ + + + +

10.3 DIMENSIONAL AND DESCRIPTIVE OPPOSITIONS

+

Another area of the lexicon where Western languages tend to + divide up reality into binary oppositions is the realm of spatial dimensions, + where pairs such as near/far, small/large, thin/thick, narrow/wide, tall/short, + light/heavy, hot/cold, etc. are commonplace. As with the perspective-based + oppositions seen in the preceding section, again Ithkuil lexico-semantics treats + such concepts in a wholly different way. Rather than lexicalize such concepts + as pairs of binary oppositions, Ithkuil delineates these qualities as varying + points along a continuous range. In other words, in Ithkuil you do not + say X is cold and Y is hot, but rather X has less temperature + and Y has greater temperature. Similarly, one does not say A is + near to me and B is far from me, but rather the distance from + me to A (or proximity of A to me) is less than the distance from me + to B (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for + the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ + becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ithkuil formative is ‘amount + of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western + descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ithkuil as + mere variance in the quantity of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, + or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum.

+ +

 

+ + + + +

10.4 SPATIAL POSITION AND ORIENTATION

+

Concepts of spatial position and orientation are expressed + very differently in Ithkuil as compared to Western languages such as English. + The three major differences are explained below, each of which will be explored + in detail in the sections which follow.

+

1) Ithkuil does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial + relationships, position, and orientation are designated by nominal/verbal formatives.

+

2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference + to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic + intent, Ithkuil subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexico-semantic + level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What + this means is that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional + reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance + is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in fact, + the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful + relationship (where a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), + the Ithkuil sentence will describe this function or purpose, not the spatial + relationship. For example, in answer to the question Where’s Billy? + an English speaker might give answers such as (a) He’s standing right + next to Sam, or (b) He’s in bed, or (c) He’s in + the bathtub. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only + the first is truly intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while + sentences (b) and (c) imply information that is, in fact, more relevant than + the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s + sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s + bathing.’ An Ithkuil speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) + in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question Where’s + Billy? is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position + in absolute space. If the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial + information, he/she would have asked the Ithkuil equivalent of What’s + Billy doing? or What’s happening with Billy? to which a + Ithkuil speaker would answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions + of (b) or (c), not their original versions.

+

3) Ithkuil utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative + spacial reference, not a relative one as found in most languages. Note the positional + ambiguity inherent in sentences such as He’s standing to the left + of the desk. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose + perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, + the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of + the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, + or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) + Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages employ a relative coordinate + system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. Ithkuil + spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective + of a participant (e.g., the speaker or addressee) or referent object (i.e., + the thing(s) whose position is being described), as opposed to the relative + coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ithkuil system allows listeners + to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) + in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal + perspective.

+


+ 10.4.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions

+

Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- + and three-dimensional space in different ways than in Western languages, Ithkuil + has no prepositions. Rather, Ithkuil utilizes formatives which describe a spatial + relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, + the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a + verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western + preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.” + The dynamics of such formatives become very apparent when combined with the + numerous verbal Conflation/Derivation + Format combinations which Ithkuil offers + the speaker (see Sec. 5.4).

+

 

+

10.4.2 Underlying Cognitive Purpose of an Utterance

+

Ithkuil grammar considers the functional relationship between + two objects to be primarily relevant, not their spatial orientation or position + relative to each other (or between an object and its background). When it comes + to describing an object against a background or the relationship between two + objects, Ithkuil grammar is more interested in answering the question How + do X and Y function relative to each other, rather than How are X and + Y positioned in space relative to each other?

+

For example: in uttering the English sentence The vase + is on the table, is the intention of the sentence to tell the listener + the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, + or to tell the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against + gravity) by the table? If the intention is the former, the corresponding Ithkuil + sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest + self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction + of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support + against gravity, the Ithkuil sentence would not utilize a spatial reference + at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as The table is supporting + the vase. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in + Ithkuil are used far less often than corresponding prepositions and spatial + constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the following examples + illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ + (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ithkuil + using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ENGLISH + SENTENCE
CONCEPT + CORRESPONDING TO 'IN(SIDE or INTO)'
NEAREST + TRANSLATION TO ITHKUIL EQUIVALENT
The man works in(side) that building.general locational + reference where idea of interiority or containment is incidentalThe man works at that building.
The book is in that box.physical containment + only with no specific purpose That box contains the book.
You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can.incidental, temporary, + or circumstantial constraint/holder to prevent spillage from gravityThe small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.
I poured soup in(to) the bowl.same as aboveI enabled the bowl to hold soup
We stayed in(side) due to the rain.shelter, containment + for purpose of protectionWe shelter ourselves from the rain.
He placed the sword in(side or into) its sheath.containment in fitted + covering for purposes of protectionHe sheathed the sword.
He stayed in(side) his room.containment for purpose + of privacyHe shuttered himself.
The tiger was kept in(side) a cage.containment to prevent + escapeThe tiger remained captured.
There are high concentrations of lead in(side) that + pottery.ingredient, composite + substance That pottery contains much lead.
Microchips can be found in(side) any machine these + days.inherent or integral + componentThese days, any machine incorporates microchips.
I put fuel in the gas tank.integral component + having function to hold or contain other componentI (re-)fueled the gas tank.
We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head.intangible containmentWe’ll never know her thoughts.
He has a tumor in(side) his pancreas.enveloped to inaccessible + depth by surrounding mediumHis pancreas “harbors” a tumor.
He hammered a nail in(to) the wall.fastening/connectingHe fastened the nail to the wall with a hammer.
The child tried putting the square block in(side or + into) the round hole.fitting together one + object to anotherThe child tried to fit the round hole and the square + block together.
+


+ This functional prioritization notwithstanding, Ithkuil is nevertheless + able, if necessary, to describe true spatial relationships and orientations + quite specifically. However, it does so in ways that are very unfamiliar in + terms of Western grammar. These are described in the following section.

+


+ 10.4.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates

+

While Western languages are capable of describing the physical + position and orientation of object in absolute terms (e.g., My hometown + is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N), it is not normal + to do so in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation + is normally relative, i.e., described from the dynamic perspective of the two + objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party observer (usually, + but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of + objects in my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, + phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue + is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ + and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information + without first having to establish a common frame of reference based on where + the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard (in order to interpret + what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing + relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), + perhaps even the orientation of the shape of the yard relative to some external + absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, E, + W).

+

In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ + change completely if I turn my body 180 degrees. Confusion also occurs when + I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of + the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left + side of the chair from the perspective of someone sitting in the chair?

+

Ithkuil avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute + coordinate system of spatial reference as opposed to a relative system (similar + in nature to the absolute system used in navigation based on the four cardinal + points.). Very few languages on Earth utilize such absolute systems to the exclusion + of relative systems. (Examples include Guugu Yimidhirr, an Australian aboriginal + language; Tzeltal, a Yucatec Mayan language; and Yurok, an Algonquian Indian + language of Northern California). Ithkuil utilizes three different absolute + coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. These + coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid + superimposed upon space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular + to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), + the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the direction of gravity (which + may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which + differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three + points of reckoning depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. + The three schemes are as follows:

+

1) Solar-based system. This is the standard + Ithkuil system of reckoning. The line of the Y-axis runs parallel to the rising + and setting points of the sun in mid-summer, with the vector oriented in the + direction of the setting sun. Note that the alignment of this Y-axis relative + to the X-axis is variable; i.e., the line connecting the rising and setting + points of the sun merely designate the direction of the Y-axis, not + it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships + can be made using a “quadrant locator” system based on this grid, + where any two objects can be made to lie within different quadrants relative + to each other (this will be illustrated below).

+

Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime + and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge + and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of + the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective + understanding of the orientation of the building/structure/room relative to + the solar-based Y-axis (i.e., everyone in the room can still tell the orientation + of the outdoor Y-axis, whether by sight through windows, or by noticing that + the length-width ratios of the room are aligned with the outdoor Y-axis).

+

2) Length vs. width of enclosed space or room. + In indoor situations where the orientation of the outdoor solar-based Y-axis + is unknown (or cannot be readily determined on a continuous basis as new speakers + enter the room), an arbitrary Y-axis is connoted by the length of the room in + a direction away from whichever end of the room displays a visibly unique feature + (e.g., the doorway, a window, an alcove, an imposing piece of furniture, a stage + or dais, etc.), this symbolically substituting for the position of the rising + sun. This is the coordinate system which would be employed in theaters, enclosed + banquet halls without windows, and cellars without windows or ready access to + outside orientation.

+

3) Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, + objects, or persons. This is similar to a Western relative system in + which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An Ithkuil + speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method + of reckoning. Nevertheless, it is possible to designate a personally defined + reckoning system using words to designate the origin point and direction of + the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on + a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between + the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the NAVIGATIVE + case (see Sec. 4.8.12). + The primary use for this system of reckoning is literary or narrative, such + as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in which he/she wishes + to describe spatial relationships solely within the context of the story in + order to convey a mental map or image of the goings-on to his/her audience.

+


+ 10.4.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects. + Using such a triaxial three-dimensional grid, Ithkuil then lexically divides + up space into “quadrants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” + of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight. (I know, I know, technically, I should use the term "octant", but considering the latter term refers to a seafaring navigational instrument, I will stick to the term "quadrant.")

+
+

+X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant + 1 = Root: pl - f
+ +X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2 = Root: - + f
+ +X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3 = Root: + r - f
+ +X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4 = Root: - + f
+ -X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5 = Root: + - f
+ -X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6 = Root: ps + - f
+ -X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7 = Root: ks + - f
+ -X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8 = Root: p + - f

+
+

There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above + where either one or two of the X/Y/Z values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent + English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight + down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight + up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc. The above quadrants are + indicated in the illustrations below.

+

Because the lateral alignment (but not direction) of the solar-based + X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each can be slid laterally relative to the + other axis), any two objects whose relative positions are to be described can + be made to fall within two different quadrants, as illustrated in figures A, + B, C and D below (Figure A represents the background context for which Figures + B, C and D present varying positional frames of reference).
+
+

+
+

+

 

+

+
+

 

+
+

+
+


+ It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional + grid that allows Ithkuil to easily describe the relative position of objects + in an absolute manner. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two objects + each fall into different quadrants, a series of quadrant-to-quadrant relationships + between the two objects can be lexified. Thus, each of the above roots has a + stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, designates a spatial relationship + between an object occupying that quadrant and a second object occupying any + of the seven other quadrants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call + each of these quadrant-to-quadrant static relationships a “positional + frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while + 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. + Used to mark the participant nouns with motion sentences described below.)

+

Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker + to describe exactly the spatial relationships between 2 objects in motion relative + to each other. This is done in Ithkuil by stating that two object are moving + from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by + “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, + not a specific location in space, it can be seen how such a simple formula easily + describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An Ithkuil speaker is describing + exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short sentence + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship the two objects have to start with, and + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship they will have when the motion is ended. + The root used to describe the motion indicates the nature of the motion in terms + of its smoothness, speed, etc.

+

To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing + where the speaker or addressee or third party is situated relative to the two + objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is added to the + sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) + which states the positional frame between that third party and the FIRST party + (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the + ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame + of the dog and ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog.

+

Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ithkuil can be + in describing relative position between objects in an absolute manner. This + is best illustrated by narrowly translating into English an Ithkuil sentence + which describes a three-party positional situation.
+

+
+


+

+
+

There is no way to translate this Ithkuil sentence into everyday + English except via inadequate approximation, thus: The woman stood still + as something made the boy run from ahead and above her, then past her, while + I watched them from behind and below. However, a more exact, narrow translation + of this sentence, capturing all of the positional/orientational specificity + of the original, would run as follows:

+
+

As the woman held still, something made the boy run from + a position above, ahead of, and to the right of her relative to the direction + of the sunrise-to-sunset vector, a plane perpendicular to it, and the axis + of gravity, toward a position still above, but behind and to the left of her + relative to the same directional vector, perpendicular plane and gravitational + axis, as I was watching them from below, behind, and to the right of her relative + to the same vector, plane, and axis.
+

+
+ +10.4.3.2 Object-Internal Shape and Orientation. Note that, in +addition the above concepts of a positional grid for locating objects in space +and in positional relation to each other, Ithkuil also employs a whole set of +vocabulary to describe the physical topology, shape and internal self-orientation +of an object by itself. These are similar to words such as “face, back, +front, sides, top, bottom, appendage, tail, arm, etc., although it should be noted +that the equivalent Ithkuil terms are wholly autonomous and bear no metaphorical +relationship whatsoever to anthropomorphic body parts. Therefore, the “legs” +of a chair correspond more accurately to its “supports” or “struts” +in Ithkuil, while the “face” of a blackboard would correspond to a +word translatable only periphrastically as “main functional surface” +or “primary interface area” (although note that even this paraphrase +cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme “-face”). +

 

+ + + + +

10.5 LEXICAL GENERALIZATION

+

In a word-for-word comparison to a Eurocentric vocabulary, + especially one as large as that of English, the Ithkuil lexicon appears very + overgeneralized in many respects. At first impression, it appears that shades + of meaning expressed by multiple words in English are expressed by only one + root in Ithkuil. As we have seen repeatedly throughout this work, this is primarily + due to the fact that shades of meaning for a single underlying cognitive concept + are normally differentiated at the morphological level in Ithkuil, as opposed + to the lexical. Nevertheless, there are several lexico-semantic areas where + Ithkuil truly does generalize in comparison to Western languages. This occurs + primarily where (1) Western vocabulary distinguishes separate lexemes for a + redundant concept based on different participants to, practitioners of, or manifestations + of that concept, and (2) where lexification is at an arbitrarily detailed or + particularized level. These topics are discussed in detail in the following + sections.

+


+ 10.5.1 Consolidation of Unnecessary Distinctions

+
As an example of lexical generalization in Ithkuil (or over-lexicalization + in English!), compare the following words for animal vocal sounds: meow, + bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray, etc. Each of these words mean merely to + make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ithkuil utilizes only + a single stem for this concept (essentially meaning vocal sound/vocalize + – from the same root which gives the stem for (human) voice), + based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or + moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate + lexically the innate vocal sound being made by an animal if the animal making + the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one might argue that English + allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in The + sergeant barked out orders to the platoon, or The baby squealed in + delight. Such constructions are perfectly captured in Ithkuil via the ESSIVE + and ASSIMILATIVE + cases, as in He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog, or The + baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight, or + via the manipulation of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see Sec. + 5.4).
+

Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem + in Ithkuil would be (1) herd, flock, pride, gaggle, etc.; (2) hair, + fur, fleece, coat, etc.; (3) skin, hide, pelt, pellicle, peel, rind, + lambskin, leather, integument, etc.

+

 

+

10.5.2 Translative Motion, Paths and Trajectories

+

By translative motion is meant the idea of an object moving + (or being moved) from one location to another. English is particularly rich + in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such an object, + not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, + but also the means of initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as to + toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run, or pass a ball or + other object. In reaching its destination, the object can fly, float, wing, + pass, arc, sail, plummet, drop, fall, thread, hop, leap, bounce, roll, zig-zag, + slide, glide, slither, or jump its way there.

+

As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ithkuil lexifies + concepts of translative motion with a focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, + not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. + Essentially, Ithkuil is less concerned with how the object gets there and is + more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For + example, look at the following two columns of English sentences :

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+

I tossed it into + the basket.

+
It sailed + into the basket.
+

I flung it into the + basket.

+
It flew into the basket.
+

I hurled it into + the basket.

+
It arced its way into + the basket.
+

I pitched it into + the basket.

+
It fell into the basket.
+
+

The sentences in the lefthand column + describes how I initiate the action while those in the righthand column describe + how the object moves. In Ithkuil the lefthand column of sentences would normally + all be translated by a single sentence narrowly translatable as I made it + end up inside the basket, while the righthand column of sentences would + all be translated by the exact same sentence minus the ERGATIVE + personal referent I, thus: It ended up inside the basket.

+

So where are the words translating the range of descriptive + nuance surrounding the means of sending it into the basket and the different + trajectories it takes there? In normal Ithkuil speech, such distinctions would + be considered irrelevant. This is because Ithkuil grammar questions all acts, + conditions and events as to their underlying cognitive purpose. For the above + sentences, Ithkuil views them as all having the same underlying purpose: to + express that I have caused an object to pass from a state of being in my alienable + possession to a state of being within the basket, by passing through the physical + space between me and the basket. Therefore there is only one translation for + the varying sentence pairs.

+

Before the reader begins to think that Ithkuil is incapable + of distinguishing the shades of meaning present in the above examples, it should + be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by additional affixes + and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to + indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ithkuil can + augment the sentence I made it end up inside the basket to include + affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes + indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly + translatable as Using my hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I + caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully inside the basket.

+

While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances + of English “flung,” Ithkuil first makes us stop and ask ourselves, + why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force + initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English + speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or + “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in + the above sentence, would his/her speaker be considered to have been given information + any less sufficient or essential for understanding the message and its purpose? + All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ithkuil lexico-semantics: if + a complex, highly detailed morphology already conveys a high degree of semantic + and cognitive nuance, why belabor the obvious by reinforcing such nuances at + the lexical level if the context and underlying cognitive purpose of the utterance + does not require it? Thus the Ithkuil language not only captures levels of cognitive + detail beyond the scope of Western languages, but it also allows the speaker + to avoid having to provide such detail when it is inessential.

+

 

+

10.5.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying + Processes

+

In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ithkuil perspective, + an example would be limp, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ + Ithkuil recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not + the condition per se that is relevant, but rather the manner in which + the condition causes the person to move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously + in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” + expectation of walking. Ithkuil speakers would consider English limp + to represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative + movement. To a Ithkuil speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. + The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping + or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” + is an underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity + which causes the person to move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead + of He has a limp because of his war wound, a Ithkuil speaker would + say He walks asymmetrically/irregularly because of his war wound.

+

To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when + dancing to rock music, has a tendency to jerk his/her head to the left at the + sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it ludicrous over-lexicalization + to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s + head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical + sentence She spreggles to rock music. Yet, from the Ithkuil standpoint, + there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” + and the actual word ‘limp.’

+

Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both + animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ithkuil has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ + ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ + or ‘paralysis.’ In Ithkuil, one simply says He can’t see, + She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t + move, or alternately His faculty of sight (or other sense or innate + faculty) doesn’t function/no longer functions. [Note: each of + these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, + case, voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, + whether temporary or permanent, whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally + caused or inherently developed, etc.]

+ +

 

+ + + + +

10.6 LEXICAL DIFFERENTIATION

+

While we have examined the many ways in which the dynamism + and logic of Ithkuil grammar eliminates whole swaths of equivalent English vocabulary, + there are, nevertheless, many concepts where Ithkuil provides autonomous lexical + roots and stems for which neither English nor other Western languages provide + similar words and must resort to paraphrase in order to translate. Such concepts + are particularly found in the realm of human emotions, social relationships, + functional interrelationships between objects, philosophy, psychology, and sensory + phenomena.

+

Underlying such differentiation is the idea that the Ithkuil + language is meant to reflect in linguistic terms as close a representation of + human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is possible + in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure + mathematical logic. Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded + in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented + in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language + which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require + many more words to describe that life than are commonly available in existing + human languages.

+ +

 

+ + + + +

10.7 COMPARISON TO WESTERN CATEGORIZATION

+

Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which + there is no exactly corresponding equivalent in Ithkuil. These include the concepts + embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ithkuil + has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” + or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership + equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ithkuil grammar + and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or + inherent existential possession as true semantic functional categories or fundamental + cognitive primitives.

+


+ 10.7.1 Translating “To Be”

+

Ithkuil grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, + at any and all moments, and on all scales large and small, in a state of flux. + The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately identified as + “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ithkuil grammar + has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or + “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that + are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different + from moment to moment, if only because the mere passage of time itself renders + the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. + Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” + anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” + or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something + else. Fundamental to Ithkuil grammar are the notions of function and purpose, + not mere description; results, not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. + This explains why there is no true distinction between nouns and verbs in Ithkuil, + both being mere differences in functional roles played by any given formative + concept whose underlying meaning is not inherently nominal or verbal, but rather + a conceptual primitive waiting to be manifested as either (1) a representation + of an action, process, or event, (i.e., a verb), or (2) as a concrete or abstract + entity that is representative of, or embodies the underlying concept (i.e., + a noun).

+

So, an Ithkuil speaker does not say I am John, She is a + cook, The leaf is green, Stan is ill, or Murder is wrong, but + rather One calls me John, She cooks [for a living], The leaf [currently] + manifests a green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease], and Murder + controverts morality.

+


+ 10.7.2 Translating ‘To Have’

+

In regard to “have” or “having,” Ithkuil + views the concept of possession as breaking down into more specific functional + states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation + to each other.

+


+ 10.7.3 Translating Questions

+

As was discussed earlier in Sec. + 5.1.6 on the INTERROGATIVE illocution, the Ithkuil + language does not have a way of forming questions. Instead, Ithkuil grammar + treats an interrogative as reflecting an underlying cognitive demand for information + and/or a validation of the truth or factuality of a statement. Therefore, a + specific kind of imperative command is employed, telling the addressee to provide + the required validation or information. In some instances, questions in Western + languages are rhetorical and in fact represent a request or command. As might + be expected, Ithkuil translates such rhetorical questions as the commands they + truly are. The following examples illustrate how questions are handled in Ithkuil.

+

Do you know the way to San Jose?
+ [= Validate whether you know the way to San Jose.]

+

Will you please leave me alone?
+ [= I request that you leave me alone.]

+

Will you sing us a song?
+ [= We request that you sing us a song.]

+

What is the square root of 400?
+ [= State the square root of 400.]

+

Do you speak Ithkuil?
+ [= Demonstrate that you can speak in Ithkuil.]

+

Which bird is the one that was injured?
+ [= Indicate which bird was injured.]

+

How old are you?
+ [= State the amount/number of years you have lived.]

+


+ 10.7.4 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections

+

As there are no interjections in Ithkuil, there are no true + equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ithkuil. Nevertheless, + there are abbreviated ways of answering the requests for information or commands + for validation that substitute for questions in Ithkuil. The closest approximations + are a few standardized sentences that answer commands using the validative mode. + These sentences translate in various ways, such as “It functions/happens/manifests + in that manner” or “It does not function/happen/manifest in that + manner”; or, “I can(not) validate that information based on... [state + evidence for validation].”

+

Observe how this operates in the following examples.

+

“Do you want to dance?” “No.”
+ [“State whether you will dance with me.” “I do not want to + dance with you.”

+

Ithkuil grammar also allows for the use of bias affixes (see + Sec. 6.6) to function + as autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to + interjections in Western languages. This phenomenon has already been discussed + in Section 8.6.2. + Additionally, Section + 8.4 described how affixual adjuncts may be used to convey information similarly + to autonomous interjections.

+


+ 10.7.5 Translating Metaphorically Structured Phrases

+

Ithkuil grammar recognizes that much of our understanding and + expression of everyday experience is structured in terms of metaphor and metonymy + (the latter being the reference to an entity by one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business). + Ithkuil allows for the overt designation of metaphorical concepts by several + means. These include the REPRESENTATIONAL + context, Conflation and Derivation, + the metonymic affix + -V0qt, + and the two part-whole + affixes -V0 + and -V0š.

+

+

Proceed + to Chapter 11: The Script > >

+

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch11-script.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch11-script.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..ab45469 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch11-script.html @@ -0,0 +1,1264 @@ + + + +A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 11: The Script + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 11: The Ithkuil Script

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
11.1 A “Morpho-Phonemic” + Script
11.2 Number of Characters
11.3 Physical Design of the Characters
11.4 How the Script Operates
11.5 Character Lists
+
+


+ The Ithkuil writing system, like the language itself, although + extremely complex in its structure and usage, is strictly logical and highly + efficient in its ability to convey information. In previous chapters we have + seen the high degree of detail and multi-level functionality and dynamism inherent + in the language’s morpho-phonology, morpho-syntax, and lexico-semantics. + The workings of the Ithkuil writing system are no different. For example, just + as the consonants and vowels of nominal and verbal stems can mutate into new + forms, so, too, do the characters of the Ithkuil script mutate into other forms + based on morpho-phonological rules.

+

 

+
+ + + + +

11.1 A “MORPHO-PHONEMIC” SCRIPT

+
+

Such dynamism in a language’s writing system can be achieved + because the Ithkuil script has the unique distinction of being “morpho-phonemic,” + i.e., the individual characters of the script do not merely convey phonemic + content like an alphabet or syllabary, but also convey morphological (grammatical) + information. Additionally, the phonemic and grammatical information conveyed + by a specific character changes depending on the position of that character + within a word. This dynamism allows individual Ithkuil words to be written with + a fewer number of characters than in alphabetic or syllabic writing systems, + particularly those words which are highly inflected and/or have multiple affixes. + As a consequence of such a system, however, it is impossible to learn how to + write in the script unless and until one is first familiar with the grammar + of the language. As an example, the following diagram presents an analysis of + the phonological and grammatical information contained in each written character + of the following Ithkuil sentence:

+ + + + + + + + + +
 
 
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+

+ 		+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
1
Consonantal + character, Grade 1, alternate form. Word-initial position implies C1 + phonemic Value = /l/. Alternate form shows word carries + ultimate stress. Phonemic value in conjunction with position preceding a + personal reference adjunct infix indicates word is a single-referent personal + reference adjunct.
+
2
Personal Reference + Adjunct infix character. Values: AFFECTIVE Case; Affix + Degree 1.
+
3
Consonantal character, + Grade 1, primary form. Position immediately following a personal reference + adjunct infix implies C2 phonemic Value = /’/. + Consonantal character being in this position in a single-referent adjunct + indicates character represents an affix rather than a case-marker.
+
+
4
Character is a composite + aspectual adjunct infix character with following values: INTUITIVE + validation; ALLEGATIVE sanction. Position relative + to previous characters indicates that it is part of a different word.
+
5
Vocalic character /â/, + Series A, primary but hook-reversed form. Position immediately following + an aspectual adjunct infix character indicates start of new word. Position + preceding two consonantal characters indicates word is a formative. Primary + form indicates NORMAL essence. Hook-reversed form + indicates a Form II stem, i.e., FORMAL designation. + Absence of dot diacritic indicates word carries falling tone.
+
6
Consonantal character, + Grade 1, primary form. Phonemic value: /q/. Position following + vocalic character and preceding another consonantal character indicates + it is a C1 radical. Adjacent “wedge” diacritic, + in absence of similar diacritic on either the preceding vocalic character + or the following consonantal character indicates STATIVE + conflation.
+
7
Consonantal character, + Grade 1, primary form. Phonemic value //. + Position indicates it is a C2 radical. Underposed + dot in absence of diacritic dot on preceding character indicates stem is + Pattern 1, Stem 3. Primary form in conjunction with primary form of preceding + character indicates word carries penultimate stress.
+
8
Consonantal character, + Grade 5, primary form. Position following a C2 radical + indicates a consonantal affix. Phonemic value /q’/. + Grade 5 = affix-degree 5. Absence of diacritic indicates affix-type 1, non-geminated.
+
9
Consonantal character, + Grade 5, primary form. Position following a C2 radical + indicates a consonantal affix. Phonemic value /d/. Grade + 5 = affix-degree 5. Absence of diacritic indicates affix-type 1, non-geminated.
+
+


+
+ ‘I feel that nowadays everyone everywhere is happy.’ +
+ _Listen! + +

+
+

Notice how the above analysis shows that the only purely phonemic + information given by the Ithkuil written characters in this sentence is for + /l/, /’/, + /â/, /q/, //, + /q’/ and + /d/. All remaining information represented by the characters + is wholly morphological, by which the reader “constructs” the pronunciation + of the sentence as a whole. Such is a morpho-phonemic script.

+

It is important to recognize that while the phonological component + of the Ithkuil script gives information as to the phonemes associated with the + stem and affixes of a noun or verb, it does not operate alphabetically to tell + the reader the specific pronunciation of a word. The reader must be familiar + with the grammar of the language in order to know how to interpret the phonological + component of the script (including the possibility of allowable alternative + pronunciations or transliterations). This morpho-phonemic principle can be illustrated + by showing how affixes to a noun or verb are represented in the script. The + Ithkuil translation of the English sentence I am a sufficiently large man + can be said in all of the following equivalent ways, due to the flexibility + of Ithkuil affixation rules (see Sec. + 6.5):

+
+ + + + + +

Ta + yâqomüxduï.
+ Ta yâqomüxiäd.
+ Ta yâqomduïxü.
+ Ta yâqomiädüx.
+ Ta xü’a + yâqomiäd.
+ Ta duï’a + yâqomxü.
+ Ta + duï’’üx + yâqom.
+ Ta xü’’iäd + yâqom.
+

+
+

+
+
+

Even though there are eight possible ways to say this sentence + in Ithkuil, they are all written the same, as shown above. This is because the + script does not indicate specific choices of alternatives in the position of + morphemes (phonological units having a particular semantic or grammatical function). + The first symbol of the phrase above indicates the initial consonant element + t- of the personal-reference adjunct tawa + (or ta), while the second symbol conveys OBLIQUE + case for the adjunct, interpretable as -a or –awa. + The third symbol represents the vocalic prefix â-, as + well as the form, tone, mode, and vocalic mutation series of the stem. The fourth + and fifth characters represents the C1 + and C2 consonants of the root respectively, + along with the mutational grade, stem number, vowel pattern, syllabic stress + and conflation information which transforms the initial â- + prefix to yâ-. The last two characters represent the + two affixes including their degree and affix-type.

+

It should be noted what the written form of this word does + not convey. It does not tell us what vowel is to be infixed between the C1 + and C2 consonant consonants (as this + is predictable based on the form, set, mutation series and vocalic pattern), + it does not tell us whether or how to pronounce the affixes as suffixes or prefixes + to the stem or in adjunct form, nor in which order to pronounce them. Consequently, + the script functions more like a template or code for the basic phonemes of + roots plus the grammatical information necessary for a speaker of the language + to interpolate these into actual spoken words. Note also that there is no space + between the two written words, as the third character, being a vowel character + following a specialized adjunct character, automatically indicates the beginning + of a new word.

+

While such a multi-functional system of writing is extremely + complex and impossible to use without a thorough understanding of Ithkuil morpho-phonology + and morpho-syntax, it makes for a very abbreviated written representation of + words, in that all parts of a spoken word whose phonological component is predictable + from the grammar, need not be written, while those parts of a word which are + not predictable can be represented by symbols which convey much more than a + sound, but rather also convey the grammatical information necessary to construct + the unwritten parts of the word. As a result, the script acts to “compress” + the written form of the language as opposed to the spoken form, much like computerized + “compression” software stores computer files in a space-saving manner + in which all components of a file whose construction is predictable based on + other components, can be eliminated in the stored version, and restored when + accessed. Similarly, the “compressed” form of words in the Ithkuil + written language are restored to full pronunciation when spoken or read.

+

 

+ +
+ + + + +

11.2 NUMBER OF CHARACTERS

+
+

The script is based on 252 core characters used to write both + formatives and adjuncts, plus 54 specialized combinatory elements used only + with adjuncts. Of the core characters, 48 of these represent vowel elements, + 60 represent consonantal elements, and 84 represent characters associated with + valence/version adjuncts. Each of the 48 core vowel characters has three modified + variants for a total of four variations, each of which then mutates into eight + other characters for a total of 864 vowel symbols. Each of the 60 core consonant + characters has one alternate version, this alternate and the original both mutating + into eight other forms for a total of 1080 consonant characters. The 54 combinatory + elements are divided into two sets of 27, each set comprised of three subsets + of nine components. A single component of each subset combines with a component + from the other two to render a tripartite composite, rendering a total of 789 + possible composite characters for each of the two sets. Combined with the 2028 + variations and mutations of the core characters, this renders a grand total + of 3606 characters. Additionally there are a few symbols which correspond roughly + to punctuation marks. A further set of numerical symbols will be discussed in + Chapter 12.

+

 

+ +
+ + + + +

11.3 PHYSICAL DESIGN OF THE CHARACTERS

+
+

The physical form of the characters in the script is based + on two different types of written strokes: straight “bar”-like elements, + and pointed sickle-like “hooks.” These bars and hooks are joined + to one another in a variety of angular “offset” connections. While + there can be a number of different bar-like elements comprising a given character, + only one arc or hook can occur in a character. These bars and hooks can be easily + discerned in the sample of Ithkuil writing shown here.

+
+
+
+


+

+
+

11.3.1 Character Archetypes and Derivation

+

The four primary character archetypes of the Ithkuil script + are as follows: ___ +

+

These can then be turned upside down, combine with each other, + and have their lines bent at angles to generate additional secondary archetypes:

+ +
+

+
+

From these archetypes, the thousands of remaining characters + are derived. Examples of some of the various patterns of derivation are shown + in the chart below:

+
+


+

+
+

11.3.2 Direction Of Writing

+

Up to this point example phrases and sentences in this work + have shown the script written in what appears as a familiar left-to-right horizontal + style. However, such a format is used only for brief autonomous phrases or sentences + which take up a single line. Similarly, the individual Ithkuil characters themselves + are normally written in this horizontal fashion when listed by themselves as + in the various tables throughout this chapter.

+ + + + + +
For passages taking up more + than one line, as in general narrative passages or “paragraphs,” + the script is normally written in a vertical boustrophedon fashion + (Greek for “as the ox plows”); specifically, it is written + in vertical columns starting at the upper left of a page, with the first + column being written top-to-bottom and each character oriented sideways + and opening downward, then reversing direction in the second column and + being written bottom-to-top with each character facing or opening upward. + Each line continues this “zig-zag” approach from the left + side of the page to the right, every other line running one direction + as opposed to the preceding and following lines. This is illustrated by + analogy with Roman letters to the left and can be seen in the sample of + an Ithkuil passage below.
+

 

+ + + + + + +
+
 

TRANSLITERATION:
+
+
+ _Listen! + +
+

+

TRANSLATION:
+ As our vehicle leaves the ground and plunges over the edge of the cliff + toward the valley floor, I ponder whether it is possible that one might + allege I am guilty of an act of moral failure, having failed to maintain + a proper course along the roadway.

+ +

 

+ + + + +

11.4 HOW THE SCRIPT OPERATES

+

As previously stated, writing Ithkuil requires a knowledge + of both the morpho-phonological and morpho-syntactical rules of the language. + Recall that Ithkuil has two parts of speech: formatives and adjuncts. The rules + for writing formatives are separate from the rules for writing adjuncts. We + will first examine the rules for writing formatives.
+

+

11.4.1 Writing Formatives

+

As described in Chapter + 2, formatives derive morphologically from a stem of the form C1ViC2, + where C1 is one of 60 consonantal radicals, + C2 is one of 60 consonantal radicals, + and Vi is a vocalic infix determined + by the Form, Pattern and Stem. Specifically each abstract semantic root generates + three Stems within two Modes, and each Stem in turn has two Forms and three + Patterns. For convenience, the following table, originally shown in Sec. + 2.2.3 is repeated here to illustrate these relationships.

+

Table 35: + Vocalic Infixes for Stems by Mode, Pattern & Form

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Primary + Mode
Secondary + Mode
Pattern + 1
Pattern + 2
Pattern + 3
Pattern + 1
Pattern + 2
Pattern + 3
Form + I
stem + 1
a
e
ä
aî
eì
aì
stem + 2
u
o
ö
uî
oi
uì
stem + 3
i
ë
ü
eî
oì
ëì
Form + II
stem + 1
â
ê
ae
aû
aè
aù
stem + 2
û
ô
ø
oû
où
ëù
stem + 3
î
ÿ
iu
eû
eù
iù
+

As shown in the above table and described in detail in Chapter + 2, it is the vocalic infix of a formative, not the consonantal radicals + that convey and differentiate the morphological components of Mode, Pattern, + Form and Stem. However, the Ithkuil script does not overtly represent symbols + for this vocalic infix. An Ithkuil formative (not including suffixes) is represented + by three characters: an initial vowel character whose phonological component + represents the initial Affiliation/Extension prefix (see Sec. + 3.4), plus characters representing the C1 and C2 + characters. Therefore it is these three characters which, in addition to their + phonological component, must convey the above-named morphological components, + additional morphological components of Focus and Conflation, as well as additional + phonological information such as tone and stress. The following paragraphs describe + how the Ithkuil script accomplishes these tasks.

+


+ 11.4.1.1 Representing C1 + Consonantal Radicals. Distinct written symbols exist for each of the + 60 C1 consonantal radicals. Just as each C1 + radical can mutate into one of eight other forms for a total of nine mutational + grades (see Sec 2.4), so these + 60 written characters can be mutated into eight other characters, each corresponding + to the nine mutational grades. This is illustrated below for the C1 + radical .

+

Standard Forms
+

+

Additionally, each C1 symbol pattern + has an alternate pattern, used under certain morphological circumstances described + later. The alternate pattern for the C1 radical + + is illustrated below.

+

Alternate Forms
+

+

Note the similarity of these alternate forms to the standard + forms. In the case of the C1 radical , + the alternate pattern is shown by a mere point-like extension at the base of + each character while the rest of the pattern remains identical. For all consonantal + characters, the nine grades of mutation are differentiated by variations in + the top “half” of the character, while alternate versions of characters + are shown in the bottom half of the character. For example, compare the standard + and alternate forms of + above with those of the C1 radical k + below.

+

Standard Forms
+

+

Alternate Forms
+

+

For formatives, one of these 120 symbols (the 60 C1 + radicals and their alternates) or their eight grades of variants will always + constitute either the first or second symbol of a word. For those formatives + where it is the second symbol, the first symbol will always be a vowel character. + Vowel characters are distinguished from consonantal characters because the former + always contain a sickle-like “hook” element while consonant characters + do not. Consequently, it is always possible to tell which is the C1 + symbol of a formative.

+

11.4.1.2 Representing C2 Consonantal + Radicals. As for symbols denoting the C2 consonantal + radical, they are the same 60 symbols (plus alternates and eight grades of variants) + used to represent C1 forms, however they do not necessarily + represent the same phonemic values as when used for C1 + forms. If we compare Tables 6 and 7 in Section + 2.4 we see that of the 60 C2 radicals in Grade 1, + only 24 of them can also be C1 radicals, and even these + 24 mutate in a completely different manner than their C1 + counterparts. In other words, the same written symbol often represents completely + different consonantal forms, depending on whether it is being used to represent + a C1 radical or a C2 radical. Thus, + for example, the written symbol for k + in Grade 4 will be interpreted as + if representing a C1 radical, but must be interpreted + as sk if representing + a C2 radical.

+

So how is the reader supposed to know if it is a C1 + versus C2 radical being represented? By the position of + the symbol in the word, i.e., whether it is the first consonantal symbol in + the word (indicating it is C1) or whether it is the second + consonantal symbol in the word (indicating it is C2). + The second consonantal symbol in a formative will always represent one of the + nine grades of a C2 consonantal radical. Let us illustrate + this principle by examples.

+ +
+

+
+

Note how it is mere position within the word that distinguishes + the interpretation to be given to what are otherwise identical written symbols, + allowing six phonologically different radicals to be represented by only three + different symbols. In this manner, Ithkuil can make do with symbols for C1 + radicals without requiring separate symbols for C2 radicals.

+

As for those C2 radicals in Grade 1 that + do not correspond to any C1 radicals in Grade 1 (i.e., + b, d, , + g, , + j, v, ), + Ithkuil represents these using C1 symbols as well. They + simply have completely different phonological values than for their usage as + C1 symbols. As an example, the C1 + symbol for šp + becomes the symbol for r + when representing a C2 radical. Again, it is mere position + in the word that clues the reader into interpreting the symbol as a C2 + radical, rather than C1.

+

11.4.1.3 Representing Pattern and Stem. The + three Stems and three Patterns associated with each root are shown by a specific + pattern of diacritic dots on the two radical consonants of the stem. This diacritic + pattern is distinguished both by the selection of which consonantal radical + is marked, as well as whether the diacritic is placed below the character or + alongside. This is illustrated in the table below.

+

Table 36: Diacritic Markings + for Displaying Pattern and Stem
+

+

 

+

11.4.1.4 Representing Stress. The four stress + patterns (see Sec. 1.3.3) are shown + by the four-way alternation between standard versus alternate forms of the two + consonant radicals, as previously described and illustrated in Sec. + 11.4.1.1. Therefore, if we represent the standard forms of the C1 + and C2 radicals as S and alternate forms + as A, and the initial vowel character as V, + the representation of the four stress patterns using the C1/C2 + sequence of characters is as follows:

+


+ Table 37: Pattern of Character Alternations Indicating Stress
+
+

+

11.4.1.5 Representing Vowels, Mode, and Form. + As we have seen elsewhere, the value of any vowel in an Ithkuil formative is + completely predictable based on the morphology of the formative itself, with + the exception of the vocalic prefixes used to show Affiliation, Extension and + Conflation (see Secs. + 3.2, 3.4 and + 5.4.1 respectively). Therefore, + it is unnecessary to represent vowels in a Ithkuil written word except for a + character representing the vocalic prefix which also conveys the additional + morphological information necessary to determine the vowels to be infixed elsewhere + within the stem. Consequently, a written Ithkuil formative will contain only + one symbol representing a vowel, and this symbol will indicate the vocalic prefix + (if any), as well as the Mode, the Form, the vocalic mutation series, and tone + of the word. The details of how this vowel symbol conveys this information is + described in the paragraphs below.

+

There are 24 possible vocalic prefixes to Ithkuil formatives + which indicate Affiliation and Extension for nouns or for the first of the seven + conflations for verbs. Consequently there are 24 basic vowel characters whose + phonetic value corresponds to these prefixes. These 24 characters in turn have + an alternate form called the secondary used to indicate the secondary mode of + the stem (i.e., corresponding to REPRESENTATIVE essence + as per Secs. 2.2.3 and 3.8.1). + Both primary and secondary forms in turn have “hook-reversed” forms, + i.e., forms identical to the primary and secondary forms, but with the sickle-like + hook portion of the character curved in the opposite direction; these hook-reversed + forms are used to indicate Form II of the formative, corresponding to the FORMAL + designation as explained in Secs. + 2.2.3 and 3.7. + The alternate and hook-reversed forms added to the 24 primary vowel characters, + renders 96 characters. These 96 in turn have eight modifications to indicate + the nine mutational series of a stem’s vocalic infix (see Sec. + 2.5), resulting in 864 vowel characters. One of these 864 vowel symbols + will always be the first character of an Ithkuil written formative. The following + table illustrates an example of the basic vowel character ä + with its mutations, along with its alternate and hook-reversed forms. Note that, + like consonantal characters, the top half of the character carries the distinctions + between the nine degrees of mutation.

+

Primary Form
+

+

Primary Form with + Reversed Hook
+

+

Secondary Form
+

+

Secondary Form with Reversed + Hook
+

+


+
+ 11.4.1.6 Representing Tone. + The four functional tones are indicated by patterns of diacritic dots written + in conjunction with the word-initial vocalic symbol as shown below.

+

Table 38: + Tone Diacritics
+

+


+ 11.4.1.7 Representing Conflation. Conflation is one of the + three morphological categories shown by the initial vocalic prefix to a verbal + formative, the other two being Affiliation and Extension. We have already seen + that the 24 Affiliation/Extension prefixes associated with nouns and the first + Conflation of verbs (the OPERATIVE) is shown by 24 autonomous + characters. The remaining six conflations are shown by a pattern of diacritic + marks placed alongside the vocalic prefix and the two consonantal radical characters. + The diacritic itself is a wedge-shaped mark ( + ) which changes to a short bar ( + or ) if replacing + a diacritic dot (indicating Pattern, Stem or Tone) already present. The pattern + is as follows:

+

Table 39: Diacritic Markings + for Displaying Conflation
+

+

 

+

11.4.1.8 Representing Affixes. Although every + affix to a formative generally has both a prefix and a suffix form, only the + suffix form is represented in the Ithkuil writing system, i.e., any consonantal + prefix to a formative in the spoken language appears as a suffix in the written + language. As detailed in Chapter 7, + the suffix consists of a consonant preceded by a vowel determined by one of + three affix-types and one of nine degrees. In writing, the 60 C1/C2 + characters are used to represent these affixes, each with its own independent + consonantal value when used as an affix. In other words, the phonemic value + associated with these 60 symbols when written as a suffix is independent of + their value when written as a C1 or C2 + radical. As with C1 and C2 representations, + the reader’s clue to interpreting the symbol as an affix is by position + within the word; the suffix will always be the third (or more) consonantal symbol + in a word. Note that affixes which contain geminated (i.e., doubled) consonants + (e.g., mm, + ss, + tt, + etc.) are shown by the character corresponding to their ungeminated form plus + an additional underposed dot, e.g., n nn + + .

+

Affix Degree. The nine affixual degrees associated + with a given consonantal affix category are represented by the same character + mutations used to show the nine grades of C1/C2 + mutation.

+

Affix-Type. Affixes containing Type-1 vocalic + infixes are unmarked. Affixes having Type-2 vocalic infixes are marked with + a diacritic dot alongside the letter. Affixes having Type-3 vocalic infixes + are marked with the wedge-shaped diacritic mark alongside the character (the + same mark used with C1/C2 radical + characters to show conflation). If a Type-3 affix character is geminated, this + gemination may be shown by modifying the wedge-diacritic to a short bar (as + explained above for Conflation) and deleting the underposed dot usually used + for gemination.

+

11.4.1.9 Representing Focus. POSITIVE + focus is shown by placing a special diacritic, an underposed vertical bar + under any available character in the word.

+

11.4.1.10 Representing Illocution. In Sec. + 5.1 we saw that Ithkuil indicates the morphological category of Illocution + primarily by a consonantal infix between the word-initial vocalic prefix and + the C1 consonantal radical. However, in Sec. 7.7.13 we + saw an alternative method of conveying Illocution using the ILL + suffix -V2, + used when the infixed form is not phonologically permissible. Generally, the + Ithkuil script conveys only the suffixed form. An exception is made however, + for the DIRECTIVE illocution, for which an optional “shortcut” + notation exists, consisting of placing a special diacritic, a horizontal bar + + under the C1 character.

+


+ 11.4.2 Writing Adjuncts

+

The rules for writing aspectual adjuncts and personal reference + adjuncts in Ithkuil script are distinct from writing formatives, employing a + different type of written symbol, specifically “composite” characters + made up of three separate character elements. Note that other adjuncts such + as combination adjuncts and affixual adjuncts are not represented autonomously + in the Ithkuil writing system, as these adjuncts exist purely for euphonic and + phonotactical considerations which are either optional, or where not optional, + predictable. Since combination and affixual adjuncts are alternative formats + for more standard morpho-phonological representations of these categories, they + are always represented in their standard formatting when written, regardless + of how they are interpreted in the spoken language.

+

11.4.2.1 Aspectual Adjuncts. These take the + written form of VP(Cb)CX, + where the first VP + represents the word-initial vocalic prefix indicating aspect, Cb + represents a Bias suffix from Sec. + 6.6.1 represented by a C1/C2 + character carrying its C1 phonological value (with the + glottal stop portion of the bias suffix is not represented), and the final CX + represents a specialized composite character explained below. Stress and tone + (indicating Mood) are shown by a specialized diacritic explained later below. + VP + utilizes primary vowel forms in both standard and hook-reversed forms, depending + on the specific phonological value of the vowel or diphthong. Any second aspect + shown in the adjunct is indicated by the VP + character as well, by means of its various mutations and secondary forms, as + follows: Series 2 through 9 of the primary character represent additional aspects + 1 through 8 as shown in Table + 19 of Sec. 6.4.1; Series 2 through 9 of the secondary form of the character + indicate additional aspects 9 through 16; Series 2 through 9 of the primary + character plus an underposed dot indicate additional aspect 17 through 24; Series + 2 through 9 of the secondary form of the character plus underposed dot indicate + additional aspects 25-32.

+

As detailed in Chapter 6, the CX + consonantal infix of an aspectual adjunct synthetically represents the three + morphological categories of Validation, Phase, and Sanction. Each of these categories + contain nine possible values for a total of 93 combinations, i.e., 789 possible + infixes. Rather than create 789 autonomous symbols to represent CX, + Ithkuil utilizes 27 character components (nine representing Validation, nine + representing Phase, nine representing Sanction) which are then combined into + one tripartite composite character. The general physical structure of this composite + character is as follows:

+

+

+

These twenty-seven component elements are shown below along + with three example composite characters, .
+
+
+ Tables 40, 41 and 42: Components + for Written Validation-Phase-Sanction Symbols
+
+

+


+ Stress and tone on an aspectual adjunct, indicating Mood, are shown by varied + patterns of diacritic dots on the tripartite composite character, as per the + following examples using the composite character .

+

Table 43: + Mood Diacritics
+
+

+

11.4.2.2 Personal Reference Adjuncts. As described + in Sec. 8.1, these + are of two types: single-referent and dual-referent. Single-referent adjuncts + have both a short form and a long form. The form of dual-referent adjuncts is + identical to the long form of the single-referent adjunct, with the addition + of suffixed elements. When representing these adjuncts in writing, it is always + the long form of the adjunct that is represented, regardless of whether the + speaker chooses to pronounce it as the short form. The morphological elements + of this long form are represented by the following combined formula, whose elements + are described in the list below:

+ +
+

(+(VB+Cw(+Ve + (+Cb)))

+
+

+ = optional vocalic prefix indicating the Configuration, Affiliation, Designation, + Focus and Essence of Referent 1, the values of which are given in Table + 25 from Sec. 8.1.2 and Table + 28 in Sec. 8.1.3.
+ + = the single or dual personal-referent consonantal infix from Sec. + 8.1.3, Table 30.
+ + = the vocalic case infix for Referent 1, as described in Section + 8.1.2 and whose values are summarized in Table 24 in that Section.
+ VB + = a vocalic infix indicating either the Designation and Context of Referent + 2 (labeled + in Sec. 8.1.3) + in a dual-referent adjunct, OR a vocalic + suffix indicating the Context of Referent 1 in a single-referent adjunct (labeled + + in Sec. 8.1.2), + OR the degree and affix-type of a formative + suffix in a single-referent adjunct (labeled + in Sec. 8.1.2). +
+ Cw + = a consonantal form representing either the consonantal case infix and Affiliation + for Referent 2 (described as + in Section 8.1.3 with values given in Table + 31) in a dual-referent adjunct, OR + the consonantal formative suffix of a Form 3 single-referent adjunct as described + in Sec. 8.1.2 and + labeled .
+ Ve + = a vocalic affix either showing the Context for Referent 1 in a single-referent + adjunct (labelled + in Sec. 8.1.2) + or showing Affiliation for Referent 2 in a dual-referent adjunct (labelled + in Sec. 8.1.3).
+ Cb + = one of the 48 consonantal Bias affixes from Table 20 in Sec. + 6.6.1.

+

The above combined formula, when represented in Ithkuil script, + is written as ((Cw(Cb)), + where each character is written as follows:

+

+ utilizes the characters for a, e, u + and i used with formatives depending on which of the four affiliations + is required, the nine mutations of each being used to show Configuration and; + for FORMAL designation, the hook-reversed forms of the + four vowel characters are used; for INFORMAL designation + plus POSITIVE focus, the characters for â, + ê, û and î + are used, their hook-reversed forms indicating FORMAL + designation. For REPRESENTATIVE essence, the above patterns + are used but with the vowel character in its secondary form.

+

+ utilizes the 60 C1/C2 consonantal + characters (in all nine degrees) interpreted as having their C1 + phonological value for each degree (e.g., the + value -xt-, + equivalent to x+ç, + would be written using the 5th degree mutation of the C1 + character for kt, + whose value is xt).

+

Before discussing the + + VB + character, we will discuss the representation of Cw, + Ve + and Cb.

+

The Cw + character utilizes the 60 C1/C2 + consonantal characters but interpreted as having their C2 + phonological value, unless the alternate form of the character is used, in which + case it has its C1 phonological value. The nine mutations + of which are used to represent either the Configuration of Referent 2, or the + affix-type of the formative suffix + (using mutations 1, 2, and 3). Note that if + is a glottal stop it is represented by an underposed dot to the + character rather than by a Cw + character.

+

Ve + is shown via the Cw + character, as follows: C = + a, C + = u, C + = â, C + = û.

+

Cb + is shown via the 60 C1/C2 characters, + interpreted as having their C1 phonological value

+

Stress is shown via the + character as follows: penultimate stress is unmarked; ultimate stress is shown + by employing the alternate form of the + character; antepenultimate stress is indicated by an underposed dot; preantepenultimate + stress by a combination of alternate form of the character and an underposed + dot.

+

Tone is indicated in the written personal reference adjunct + by means of the diacritic pattern from Sec. 11.4.1.6 + above, applied to the initial + character; in the absence of a + character, tone is indicated on the + character using the following diacritics: C + = falling, + C + = high, + C + = rising, + C + = broken.

+

+ + VB + is represented by a specialized vocalic character used only in personal reference + adjuncts. It consists of an upper and lower set of symbols which are essentially + a counting system indicating one of the 81 cases (see Chapter + 4). The two sets of symbols are bifurcated by one of nine horizontal bar-like + elements which represent VB + (NOTE: when VB + represents Vz + from Sec. 8.1.2, + only the first four of the nine bar elements are used). These symbols are shown + below along with a diagram showing the composition of three example + + VB + characters, respectively Case 1 with VB + =1, Case 23 with VB + = 5, and Case 50 with VB + = 8.

+

Tables 44, + 45 and 46: Components of Specialized Personal Reference Adjunct Symbols
+

+

+

11.4.2.3 Valence/Version/Conflation Adjuncts. + These are written per the formula (Vm)(CN)CV + where Vm + is the vocalic modality suffix from Sec. + 5.5, CN + is the consonantal derivation prefix from Sec. + 5.4.3, and CV + is a specialized character indicating both valence and version as per the table + below. Vm + is written using standard primary vowel characters; the use of secondary forms + indicates positive focus; the four tones indicated by series A through D mutational + forms. CN + is written using the 60 C1/C2 characters + with their C1 phonological value. In the absence of a + Vm + character, POSITIVE focus is shown using the alternate + form of the CN + character, while tone is shown by the first four mutational grades of the CN + character. Also, the CN + character may take an underposed bar diacritic ( + ) in the absence of Vm + in order to disambiguate it as being the suffix of a preceding formative. In + the absence of both a Vm + and CN + character, marked tone and focus can be shown using a placeholder Vm + character, the symbol for the ae + diphthong which otherwise does not occur with such adjuncts.

+

Table 47: + Valence + Version Characters
+

+

Format (Sec. + 5.4.2) is shown via diacritics to the above valence/version character, as + follows:

+

Table 48: + Format Diacritics
+
+

+

11.4.3 Word Boundaries, Punctuation and Foreign Transliteration

+

Because all formatives begin with a vowel symbol, and all written + adjuncts contain a specialized character, it is always possible to determine + where new words begin in a line of Ithkuil writing, obviating the need for a + blank space or other boundary between words. In turn, a blank space functions + to indicate a sentence boundary. And because Ithkuil morphology already indicates + within words themselves various attitudes, moods, and other information which + are normally indicated supra-segmentally in Western languages (e.g., by tone + or inflection of the voice, hyper-enunciation, etc.), symbols such as exclamation + points and question marks are likewise unnecessary. The only “punctuation” + symbols used are to show quotations of direct speech and phonetic transliteration + (as when spelling non-Ithkuil words and names). These two sets of symbols are + shown below. Note that the quotation marks are used only to indicate direct + speech; they are not used as in English to offset a word for emphasis or special + usage. The phonetic rendering marks indicate the word or phrase between the + marks is to be pronounced phonetically (i.e., alphabetically). When writing + alphabetically, consonantal characters carry their C1 + phonetic value; C2 phonetic values are shown by an underposed + dot. The secondary form of vowels are used to indicate the stressed syllable. + If desired, tone may be indicated on vowels using the same diacritic markings + as shown in Sec. 11.4.1.6 above.

+
+

+ [insert quote here]

+

+ [word to be pronounced alphabetically]

+
+ +

 

+ + + + +

11.5 CHARACTER LISTS

+

The following tables detail the characters of the Ithkuil script + along with the various phonemic values assigned to the symbol depending on the + character’s function within the word. The specific usages of the various + sets of vowels, their secondary forms, their hook-reversed forms, and the primary + versus secondary forms of consonant characters have been previously explained + above in Section 11.4.1 and its various sub-sections.
+
+ Table 49: SET 1 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
+

+

Table 50: SET 1 SECONDARY + FORMS
+

+

Table 51: SET 1 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
+

+

Table 52: SET 1 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
+

+

Table 53: SET 2 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
+

+

Table 54: SET 2 SECONDARY + FORMS
+

+

Table 55: SET 2 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
+

+

Table 56: SET 2 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
+

+

Table 57: SET 3 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
+

+

Table 58: SET 3 SECONDARY + FORMS
+

+

Table 59: SET 3 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
+

+

Table 60: SET 3 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
+

+

Table 61: SET 4 VOWEL CHARACTERS +
+

+

Table 62: SET 4 SECONDARY + FORMS
+

+

Table 63: SET 4 HOOK-REVERSED + FORMS
+

+

Table 64: SET 4 SECONDARY + HOOK-REVERSED FORMS
+

+

 

+

Table 65: PRIMARY CONSONANT + SYMBOLS
+

+

Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
+

+


+ Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
+

+

Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
+
+

+

Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
+

+

Table 65(continued): PRIMARY + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
+

+

 

+

Table 66: ALTERNATE CONSONANT + SYMBOLS
+

+

Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
+

+

Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
+

+

Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
+

+

Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
+

+

Table 66 (continued): ALTERNATE + CONSONANT SYMBOLS
+

+

 

+

Proceed + to Chapter 12: The Number System >>
+

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

+

 

+

 

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..aabc14d --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html @@ -0,0 +1,2137 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
2.1 Grammatical Typology2.5 Vocalic Mutation
2.2 Root and Stem Formation2.6 Parts of Speech
2.3 Semantic Instantiation of Stems2.7 Affixes
2.4 Consonantal Mutation2.8 Note On Terminology
+

Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., + singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.

+
+

 

+
+ + + + +

2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY

+
+

The general method in which a language structures its morpho-phonology + determines what is known as its grammatical type. There are generally four distinct + grammatical types: analytic, agglutinative, synthetic, and polysynthetic.

+

Analytic languages (also called isolating languages) + rely on separate individual function words such as prepositions, determiners + and auxiliaries to morphologically manipulate root nouns and verbs. Example + languages are Chinese and Vietnamese.

+

Agglutinative languages rely upon affixes (e.g., prefixes, + suffixes) added one-by-one onto roots to morphologically manipulate words. Example + languages are Turkish, Japanese, Swahili, and Esperanto.

+

Synthetic languages (also called fusional, flexional, + or inflecting languages) manipulate word roots via internal phonetic manipulation + and/or via affixes which function in multiple functional roles (known as “portmanteau” + affixes). Examples are Latin, Russian, and Sanskrit.

+

Polysynthetic (sometimes called incorporating) languages + generally do not have pre-designated words, but rather join together semantic-formative + elements in sequential fashion, each resulting “string” constituting + a single word conveying an entire sentence of information. Examples are Inuit + (Eskimo), Shawnee, and many other American Indian languages, as well as several + Paleo-Siberian languages.

+

Many languages rely upon a mixture of the above in their morpho-phonology. + For example, the Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian, etc.) are primarily + analytic, secondarily synthetic, and occasionally agglutinative. On the other + hand, English is primarily analytic, secondarily agglutinative, and occasionally + synthetic.

+

Ithkuil morpho-phonology is primarily synthetic and secondarily + agglutinative. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily via phonetic modification of the word stem itself and secondarily + via affixation. Specifically, Ithkuil morpho-phonology utilizes both consonantal + and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different + kinds of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.

+

For example, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the + Ithkuil word (Listen: + ). + The stem of this word, ciùk, + meaning ‘derived product of a ewe,’ has been completely transformed + into the nearly unrecognizable form , + all due to the systematic mutation of its consonants and vowels. To this stem, + are then added the prefix eu-, + an infix -w-, + and the affix -[V1]t’, + where [V1] represents a vowel increment to be determined + by other morphological factors. As a result the simple root is transformed into + a word containing no less than eleven morphemes (i.e., eleven semantically distinct + word-components). These eleven morphemes and the mutation and affixation process + by which they combine to create this word can be analyzed as follows:

+

+ =

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Morphological + Category
+
+
Specific + morpheme
Shown + by:
STEM:ciùk + < + root: c + + k + “sheep”
+ = “derived product of ewe” 		 
Perspective:ABSTRACT(preantepenultimate + stress)
Affiliation:COALESCENT(prefix eu- + in conjunction with TERMINATIVE extension)
Extension: + TERMINATIVE(prefix eu- + in conjunction with COALESCENT affiliation)
Configuration:COHERENT(Grade 7 mutation of + C1 radical)
Focus:POSITIVE FOCUS(-w- + infix immediately following C1 radical)
Designation:FORMAL(Form II of root-vowel + mutation)
Essence:REPRESENTATIVE(Secondary Mode of + root-vowel mutation)
Case:REFERENTIAL(Series E root-vowel + mutation + Grade 4 mutation of C2 radical)
Context:AMALGAMATE(high tone)
Affix:V1t’- + (8th degree) = specific derivation of stem (in this case: "ewe's wool") 
+
APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION: “concerning a hypothetical diminishing in everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing”
+
+

 

+ + + + +
+

2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION

+

All words in Ithkuil which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic or disyllabic stem, which + in turn derives from an semantically abstract root. This process + is explained in the sections below.

+


+ 2.2.1 The Root

+

The root in Ithkuil forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a combination + of two consonantal forms, C1 and C2, + each of which we will call a radical. Together they create an interfix, + that is, an affix consisting of two parts, between which some other morpho-phonological + element is infixed (i.e., inserted). We will see that it is vowels + that will be infixed between the two radicals, . These radicals can consist + of a single consonant or a biconsonantal conjunct (i.e., made up of two consonants). + There are 60 possible forms for C1 and + 60 possible forms for C2, giving a total + of 3600 possible roots. Examples of these C1 + + C2 radical interfixes are shown below.

+ + + + + + + +
+
p + + x
tr + + c’
ks + +
xl + +
+

The root is the basic semantic unit in Ithkuil. For example, + the radical interfix t+r + is a root whose semantic referent is NAME/DESIGNATION. + To generate functional word-stems (or simply stems) from the + roots, vowels are infixed into the C1+C2 + radical interfix. For example, a vowel such as a + would be infixed into the radical interfix t+r + to give the stem tar, + an Ithkuil word for ‘name.’ The manner in which such vowels are + infixed into radical interfixes to form stems is entirely systematic but quite + complex. It is described in the next several sections.

+


+ 2.2.2 The Stem

+

The Ithkuil semantic root described in the previous section, + in turn diversifies into stems which are the actual bases of words in Ithkuil. + Furthermore, the stems of each root in turn divide into different Forms, Modes + and Patterns, all of which change the actual vowels infixed into the root. These + different vowel patternings for each stem are used to help differentiate the + complex array of morphological categories available to any stem. The specifics + of how Form, Mode, and Pattern operate for each stem are discussed below.

+


+ 2.2.3 Pattern, Form, and Mode

+

There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ithkuil roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate Patterns, + which in turn come in two Forms. Furthermore, this array of + Pattern and Form is duplicated within a two-fold framework called Mode. + Thus, each stem has twelve different vowel patternings associated with it, as + shown in Table 5 below.

+


+ Table 5: Vocalic Infixes for Stems + by Mode, Pattern and Form

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Primary + Mode
Secondary + Mode
Pattern + 1
Pattern + 2
Pattern + 3
Pattern + 1
Pattern + 2
Pattern + 3
Form + I
stem + 1
a
e
ä
aî
eì
aì
stem + 2
u
o
ö
uî
oi
uì
stem + 3
i
ë
ü
eî
oì
ëì
Form + II
stem + 1
â
ê
ae
aû
aè
aù
stem + 2
û
ô
ø
oû
où
ëù
stem + 3
î
ÿ
iu
eû
eù
iù
+

The three patterns are labelled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a holistic stem and two complementary sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem spouse, with its two complementary + sub-stems husband and wife. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ithkuil systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ithkuil + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while + having such a small number of semantic word roots.

+

The two forms are labelled Form I and Form II. In Section + 3.7 we will see how Form is used to indicate a morphological category called + Designation. Designation is an important concept, in that, + like Pattern above, it operates to make morphological distinctions within a + stem that, in languages like English, often entail lexical differences, e.g., + the difference between English tool versus utensil.

+

Lastly, there are two modes, labelled Primary and Secondary. + Mode is used to signify a rather complex morphological category called Essence, + detailed in Section + 3.8. It differentiates “alternate” versions of entities within + hypothetical, imagined, or representational contexts, which would otherwise + be contradictory or nonsensical. An example would be the word ‘boy’ + in the sentence The brown-eyed boy had blue eyes (e.g., in the newspaper + account). A stem’s Essence category does not change its underlying meaning.

+

 

+ + + + +
+

2.3 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS

+

We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. First of all, because Mode distinguishes a morphological + category (Essence) that does not change a stem’s underlying meaning, it + will be ignored in the analysis below. We will start with the six stems (three + for each Form) associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.

+


+ 2.3.1 Holistic Stems

+

The three stems for Form I, Pattern 1, have the designated + vowels a, u, and i. Thus, + the previously mentioned root t+r + generates the following stems:

+
+

1. tar + ‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’
+ 2. tur ‘designation + or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’
+ 3. tir ‘a + (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary + or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’

+
+

The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying + root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem + 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation + of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible + manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem + 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of + Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship + between the individual stems for the root t+r + above with that of the Form I root x+n + (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below.

+
+

1. xan + ‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’
+ 2. xun ‘an + eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’
+ 3. xin ‘an + image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’

+
+

Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology. It should also be noted that the meanings given for the verb forms + above are approximate and incomplete, as we will see later that the exact meaning + of a verb form in Ithkuil is determined by the important morphological categories + of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see Section + 5.4).

+

Looking at the Form II counterparts of the above two roots + below shows a difference in meaning from the Form I stems as determined by the + morphological shift in Designation earlier described. While Form I implies a + temporary, contextual interpretation, Form II implies a permanent, authoritative + interpretation beyond the mere context of a specific utterance. Note that the + vowel infixes associated with the three stems of Form II are â, + û, and î, as shown above in Table + 5.

+
+

1. târ + ‘title; to (be) title(d)’
+ 2. tûr + ‘formal designation, label; to label’
+ 3. tîr + ‘formal role; to function in a formal role’

+

1. xân + ‘visual observation; to visually observe’
+ 2. xûn + ‘optical device; to use an optical device’
+ 3. xîn + ‘a rendered image; to render an image’

+
+


+ 2.3.2 Complementary Stems

+

Any Ithkuil stem is capable of being further broken down into + two complementary stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems.

+

By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil, + for example, words such as male, night, speech, sit, + and happen are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole.

+

Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male + has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) + from the underlying concept translatable as day (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of speak(ing) divides into complementary concepts + of talking (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus + saying/telling (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound). +

+

Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word happen + or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as + event or situation.

+

2.3.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by mutation of the holistic stem vowel from Pattern 1 into Pattern 2, e.g., + tal + tel, while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation + from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., tal + + täl. Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:

+

Form I examples:

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stemqum: + human being, person
1st + Comp. Stemqom: + male person
2nd + Comp. Stem qöm: + female person
  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stemklad: + flow of water
1st + Comp. Stem kled: + the water component of a flow of water
2nd + Comp. Stem kläd: + the channel or course of a flow of water
+
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stemtil: + an act of written composition; to compose something in writing
1st + Comp. Stemtël: + the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition
2nd + Comp. Stem tül: + the written content or message of a composition; to create written + content
  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stemxan: + sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing + seen)
1st + Comp. Stem xen: + an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see + with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting
2nd + Comp. Stem xän: + a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image
+


+ Form II examples:

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stemqûm: + an official
1st + Comp. Stemqôm: + male official
2nd + Comp. Stem qøm: + female official
  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stemklâd: + a river
1st + Comp. Stem klêd: + the water in a river
2nd + Comp. Stem klaed: + a riverbed
+
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stemtîl: + an act of creating a formal writing; to compose a formal written work
1st + Comp. Stemtÿl: + physical act of composing a formal written work; to physically write + a work
2nd + Comp. Stem tiul: + the content(s) of a formal written work; to create the content of + a writing
  + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Stemkâl: + an act of speech; to speak (i.e., the physical vocal production + + the communicative element)
1st + Comp. Stem kêl: + an act of talking (i.e., vocal production of words); to talk (i.e., + vocally emit words)
2nd + Comp. Stem kael: + spoken message; to say/tell (i.e., communicate via spoken words)
+


+ 2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is + counterintuitive to Western semantic notions.

+

For example, let us analyze the root h+n + ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages + would consider the concept parent as fundamentally opposite from the + concept child and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem han. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of han + is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for h+n + in Form I.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Holistic + Stem
1st + Complementary Stem
2nd + Complementary Stem
Stem 1han: + nuclear family member hen: + parenthän: + child
Stem 2hun: + male nuclear family member hon: + father hön: + son
Stem 3hin: + female nuclear family member hën: + mother hün: + daughter
+

Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ithkuil lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Holistic + Concept
Complementary + Concepts
eatingfoodingestion
think, act of thinkinga thought (thing considered)process of consideration
liquidfluid (= ontological nature)wet[ness] (=defining attribute)
measuring a measurementprocess of measuring
transference of possessiongivingtaking
traversal between pointscoming, arrival going, departure
commercial transaction buyingselling
+


+
+ 2.3.3 The Total Number of Stems

+

As each of the 3600 roots has six holistic stems (three in + each Form) and twelve complementary stems (six in each Form), there are a total + of 64,800 possible stems. We have begun to see how the dynamics of Ithkuil morphology + and morpho-semantics allow this limited number to permutate into a myriad of + imaginative and dynamic forms for application to any semantic context.

+

 

+ + + + +
+

2.4 CONSONANTAL MUTATION

+

Both of the consonantal radicals from Section + 2.3.1 above, C1 and C2, + are capable of undergoing mutation, that is, shifting to a different consonantal + form. The specific rules governing such mutation, however, are quite distinct + for C1 radicals as compared to C2 + radicals.

+


+ 2.4.1 C1 Mutation

+

As stated earlier, there are 60 forms for radical C1. + Each can mutate into eight other forms, giving a total of nine possible manifestations + of each C1 radical. These are labelled + Grade 1, Grade 2, etc., up to Grade 9. The nine grades of all 60 C1 + radicals are shown in Table No. 6 below. As examples, we can examine the nine + grades of the C1 radicals + k and pl:

+
+

k + g k’ + + kf km + + çk/k + çk’/k’

+

pl + bl pr + + p + + + + bw/by

+
+


+ Table No. 6: C1 + Mutation Patterns by Grade

+ + + + + + + + + +
+

 

+

2.4.2 C2 Mutation

+

As with C1, there are + 60 forms of the second radical, C2. These + in turn can mutate into eight other forms, for a total of nine possible forms + for each C2 radical. These are shown + in Table No. 7 below. As an example, note the mutations of the C2 + radical t: +

+
+

t + tt rt + + lt t + št + + sst

+
+

By combining the above mutational patterns for C1 + and C2, along with the various vocalic + mutational patterns we will explore in the next section, we can see that any + given stem can easily mutate into myriad forms which, on the surface, bear scant + visual (or phonetic) resemblance to the original stem.
+

+

Table No. 7: C2 + Mutation Patterns by Grade

+ + + + + + + + + +
+

 

+ + + + + +
+

2.5 VOCALIC MUTATION

+ +

In Section 2.2.3 above we saw how the + morpho-phonological distinctions of Mode, Form and Pattern are accomplished + by stem-specific vocalic infixes as illustrated in Table + 5. Like the consonantal C1 and C2 + radicals, each of these specific stem-infixes can in turn mutate into eight + variations for a total of nine mutations, termed Series A, Series B, Series + C, etc. (Note that the ninth series is termed Series J rather than Series I, + in order not to confuse the use of ‘I’ as a letter versus a Roman + numeral). Consequently each root has a total of 324 different vocalic infixes + depending on the Stem, Mode, Form, Pattern, and Series. These series of vowel + mutations are shown in Tables 8(a) through 8(f) below, with each table indicating + a different combination of Mode and Pattern.

+

Tables 8(a)-(f): Vocalic + Mutation by Stem, Mode, Pattern, Form and Series
+
+ Table 8(a): Primary Mode, Pattern + 1

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Series
+ A
+ B
+ C
+ D
+ E
+ F
+ G
+ H
+ J
Form
+ I
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
a
+ u
+ i
ai
+ ui
+ ei
a’(ï)
+ u’(ï)
+ i’(ï)
a’wï
+ u’wï
+ i’wï
a’wa
+ u’wa
+ i’wa
a’we
+ u’we
+ i’we
a’wi
+ u’wi
+ i’wi
a’wë
+ u’wë
+ i’wë
a’wo
+ u’wo
+ i’wo
Form
+ II
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
â
+ û
+ î
au
+ ou
+ eu
â’(ï)
+ û’(ï)
+ î ’(ï)
a’yï
+ u’yï
+ i’yï
a’ya
+ u’ya
+ i’ya
a’ye
+ u’ye
+ i’ye
a’yu
+ u’yu
+ i’yu
a’yë
+ u’yë
+ i’yë
a’yo
+ u’yo
+ i’yo
+


+ Table 8(b): Primary Mode, Pattern + 2

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Series
+ A
+ B
+ C
+ D
+ E
+ F
+ G
+ H
+ J
Form
+ I
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
e
+ o
+ ë
ia
+ io
+ ie
e’(ï)
+ o’(ï)
+ ë’(ï)
e’wï
+ o’wï
+ ë’wï
e’wa
+ o’wa
+ ë’wa
e’we
+ o’we
+ ë’we
e’wi
+ o’wi
+ ë’wi
e’wë
+ o’wë
+ ë’wë
e’wo
+ o’wo
+ ë’wo
Form
+ II
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
ê
+ ô
+ ÿ
ua
+ uo
+ ue
ê’(ï)
+ ô’(ï)
+ ÿ’(ï)
e’yï
+ o’yï
+ ë’yï
e’ya
+ o’ya
+ ë’ya
e’ye
+ o’ye
+ ë’ye
e’yu
+ o’yu
+ ë’yu
e’yë
+ o’yë
+ ë’yë
e’yo
+ o’yo
+ ë’yo
+


+ Table 8(c): Primary Mode, Pattern + 3

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Series
+ A
+ B
+ C
+ D
+ E
+ F
+ G
+ H
+ J
Form
+ I
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
ä
+ ö
+ ü
ea
+ ië
+ ëi
ä’(ï)
+ ö’(ï)
+ ü’(ï)
ä’wï
+ ö’wï
+ ü’wï
ä’wa
+ ö’wa
+ ü’wa
ä’we
+ ö’we
+ ü’we
ä’wi
+ ö’wi
+ ü’wi
ä’wë
+ ö’wë
+ ü’wë
ä’wo
+ ö’wo
+ ü’wo
Form
+ II
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
ae
+ ø
+ iu
oa
+ ëu
+ uë
ae’(ï)
+ ø’(ï)
+ iu’(ï)
ä’yï
+ ö’yï
+ ü’yï
ä’ya
+ ö’ya
+ ü’ya
ä’ye
+ ö’ye
+ ü’ye
ä’yu
+ ö’yu
+ ü’yu
ä’yë
+ ö’yë
+ ü’yë
ä’yo
+ ö’yo
+ ü’yo
+


+
+ Table 8(d): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 1

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Series
+ A
+ B
+ C
+ D
+ E
+ F
+ G
+ H
+ J
Form
+ I
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
aî
+ uî
+ eî
a’i
+ u’i
+ e’i
âì
+ ûì
+ êì
ai’wï
+ ui’wï
+ ei’wï
ai’wa
+ ui’wa
+ ei’wa
ai’we
+ ui’we
+ ei’we
ai’wi
+ ui’wi
+ ei’wi
ai’wë
+ ui’wë
+ ei’wë
ai’wo
+ ui’wo
+ ei’wo
Form
+ II
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
aû
+ oû
+ eû
a’u
+ o’u
+ e’u
âù
+ oî
+ êù
au’yï
+ ou’yï
+ eu’yï
au’ya
+ ou’ya
+ eu’ya
au’ye
+ ou’ye
+ eu’ye
au’yu
+ ou’yu
+ eu’yu
au’yë
+ ou’yë
+ eu’yë
au’yo
+ ou’yo
+ eu’yo
+


+
+ Table 8(e): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 2

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Series
+ A
+ B
+ C
+ D
+ E
+ F
+ G
+ H
+ J
Form
+ I
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
eì
+ oi
+ oì
i’a
+ i’e
+ i’o
îa
+ îo
+ îe
â’wï
+ ê’wï
+ ô’wï
â’wa
+ ê’wa
+ ô’wa
â’we
+ ê’we
+ ô’we
â’wi
+ ê’wi
+ ô’wi
â’wë
+ ê’wë
+ ô’wë
â’wo
+ ê’wo
+ ô’wo
Form
+ II
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
aè
+ où
+ eù
u’a
+ u’e
+ u’o
ûa
+ ûo
+ ûe
â’yï
+ ê’yï
+ ô’yï
â’ya
+ ê’ya
+ ô’ya
â’ye
+ ê’ye
+ ô’ye
â’yu
+ ê’yu
+ ô’yu
â’yë
+ ê’yë
+ ô’yë
â’yo
+ ê’yo
+ ô’yo
+


+
+ Table 8(f): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 3

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Series
+ A
+ B
+ C
+ D
+ E
+ F
+ G
+ H
+ J
Form
+ I
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
aì
+ uì
+ ëì
e’a
+ i’ë
+ ë’i
iê
+ îù
+ üa
û’wï
+ ø’wï
+ î’wï
û’wa
+ ø’wa
+ î’wa
û’we
+ ø’we
+ î’we
û’wi
+ ø’wi
+ î’wi
û’wë
+ ø’wë
+ î’wë
û’wo
+ ø’wo
+ î’wo
Form
+ II
stem 1
+ stem 2
+ stem 3
aù
+ ëù
+ iù
o’a
+ ë’u
+ u’ë
aê
+ üe
+ iû
û’yï
+ ø’yï
+ î’yï
û’ya
+ ø’ya
+ î’ya
û’ye
+ ø’ye
+ î’ye
û’yu
+ ø’yu
+ î’yu
û’yë
+ ø’yë
+ î’yë
û’yo
+ ø’yo
+ î’yo
+

 

+ + + + +

2.6 + PARTS OF SPEECH

+

Ithkuil has only two parts of speech: formatives and + adjuncts. While Ithkuil does employ words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term formative. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.6.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ithkuil, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.

+

Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will, of course, + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).

+


+ 2.6.1 Formatives

+

The stem formed as per the discussion in Section + 2.3 above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the formative. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative + klâd illustrated above in Section 2.3.2.1 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ithkuil formative exclusively into a noun or verb form + is arbitrary. For example, the following Ithkuil phrases can be translated using + either verbal predicates or purely nominal phrases:
+

+

+ ______Listen! +
+ ‘by the time of his death’ OR + ‘by the time he dies’

+


+
+ ‘the awful-smelling woman’ OR + ‘the woman smells awful’

+


+ + ______Listen! +
+ ‘what the eagle sees’ OR + ‘the eagle’s seeing something’

+


+ The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either spatially “reify” this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:

+
+


+

+
+

 

+

2.6.2 Adjuncts

+

Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”). +

+

Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, + most of which are described in detail in Chapter + 8: Adjuncts. These include:

+ +

 

+ + + + +
+

2.7 AFFIXES

+

+ Ithkuil, like English, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. The rules governing the formation of these affixes + are rather complex. The fundamentals are discussed below, while the actual affixes + themselves are explored later in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes.
+


+ 2.7.1 Consonant-based Affixes

+

Ithkuil makes a fundamental distinction between purely vocalic + affixes (i.e., containing no consonants) and affixes which are based on a consonant + (which may or may not contain vowels). In this section we will explore consonant-based + affixes.

+

Every consonant-based affix used with a formative is composed + of an invariable (i.e., non-mutating) consonant, but has a variable vocalic + form associated with it. The suffix form of a consonant-based affix is of the + form V+C (i.e., vowel + consonant), with an optional alternate + form of C+V when in word-final position and in certain other + circumstances. This word-final alternate form is explained in more detail in + Chapter 7. As for + the optional prefix form of consonantal affixes, this will also be discussed + in Chapter 7; the discussion below applies only to the suffix form of affixes.

+

While the consonantal portion of the affix is always invariable, + the vocalic portion mutates depending on two morphological factors known as + degree and affix-type. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for affix-type, + every consonantal-based V+C (or C+V) affix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before (or after) the invariable consonant + C. The three affix-types are labelled V1, + V2, and V3, + in reference to the vowel portion of the affix.

+


+ 2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting

+

In addition to the three affix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three affix-types. + Table 9 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each affix-type.

+

Under certain circumstances where the final stem consonant + and the consonant portion of the consonantal suffix can be conjoined without + causing confusion (i.e., where the conjoined consonants will not be mistaken + for a mutation of the final consonantal radical C2), + Ithkuil permits the option to reverse the order of the vowel and consonant of + the suffix. This alternate form is shown in the second column of the table for + each degree. In this alternate form, the vocalic portion follows, rather than + precedes the consonant portion of the suffix.

+

+

Table 9: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Affix Type

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Affix + Type 1: -V1C
Affix + Type 2: -V2C
Affix + Type 3: -V3C
standard + form
optional + reversed form
standard + form
optional + reversed form
standard + form
optional + reversed form
Degree + 1
-iC
-Cai
-îC
-Cëi
-ieC
-Caï
Degree + 2
-eC
-Cei
-êC / -eiC
-Ceu
-iëC
-Ceï
Degree + 3
-äC / -aeC
-Cia
-âC /-aiC
-Câ
-iuC
-Ciï
Degree + 4
-öC
-Cua
-øC / -euC
-Ciu
-ioC
-Coï
Degree + 5
-(a)C
-Ca
-uiC
-Cui
-iäC
-Cuï
Degree + 6
-üC / -ëuC
-Cü
-ÿC / -auC
-Cau
-uäC
-Cäi
Degree + 7
-ïC / -ëiC
-Cï
-ëC
-Cëu
-uoC
-Cöi
Degree + 8
-oC
-Coi
-ôC / -oiC / -ouC
-Cou
-uëC
-Cäu
Degree + 9
-uC
-Cu
-ûC
-Cû
-ueC
-Cöu
+

Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 10 below how these suffixes (and their alternate word-final forms) + would actually appear in conjunction with the stem rit:

+


+ TABLE 10: EXAMPLE OF ALTERNATION + OF VOWEL POSITION IN SUFFIXES

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Suffix: + -V1k
Affix + Type 2: -V2k
Affix + Type 3: -V3k
Degree + 1
ritik / ritkai
ritîk / ritkëi
ritiek / ritkaï
Degree + 2
ritek / ritkei
ritêk / riteik / ritkeu
ritiëk / ritkeï
Degree + 3
ritäk / ritaek / ritkia
ritâk / ritaik / ritkâ
ritiuk /ritkiï
Degree + 4
ritök / ritkua
ritøk / riteuk / ritkiu
ritiok / ritkoï
Degree + 5
ritk / ritak / ritka
rituik / ritkui
ritiäk / ritkuï
Degree + 6
ritük / ritëuk / ritkü
ritÿk / ritauk / ritkau
rituäk / ritkäi
Degree + 7
ritïk / ritëik / ritkï
ritëk / ritkëu
rituok / ritköi
Degree + 8
ritok /ritkoi
ritôk / ritoik / ritouk / ritkou
rituëk / ritkäu
Degree + 9
rituk / ritku
ritûk / ritkû
rituek / ritköu
+

Because the “reversed” -CV form of the suffix + reinforces a CVC syllabic structure for the stem syllable of the word, such + reversed word-final suffixes are common in Ithkuil (see + Sec. 1.4.5).

+

As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ithkuil to create a gradient system for all consonantal affixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + affix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated + with the nine degrees for the affix -V1d.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Degree
Suffix
Meaning
 
+ 1
-id / -daiwholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all
 
2
-ed / -deiway too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough
 
+ 3
-äd / -aed / -dianot enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]
 
+ 4
-öd / -duanot quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]
 
+ 5
-d / -ad / -daenough (of) / sufficient(ly)
 
+ 6
-üd / -ëud / -düa little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]
 
+ 7
-ïd / -ëid / -dïtoo / too much / over-[+verb]
 
+ 8
-od /-doiway too much / totally over-[+verb]
 
+ 9
-ud / -dunothing but / to the exclusion of all else
+


+ 2.7.3 Vocalic Affixes

+

Other than the stem-infixes previously discussed in Section + 2.3 et seq., the use of vocalic affixes (i.e., affixes based on vowels rather + than consonants) in Ithkuil occurs in several contexts — vocalic prefixes + to formatives, vocalic prefixes and suffixes to adjuncts, and the anaptyctic + affixes -ï-, and -a. Each of these contexts + is discussed below:

+

2.7.3.1 Vocalic Prefixes. Vocalic prefixes + are used with both formatives and adjuncts, and consist of either single vowels + or two-vowel conjuncts or diphthongs (e.g., a-, ui-, + ae-, ia-, ö-, eu-, + etc.). Additionally, these prefixes can take an initial w- + or y- increment. While these prefixes are often highly synthetic + morphologically (i.e., a single prefix can carry information for multiple grammatical + categories), they do not mutate. A word can take only one such prefix. The usage + and function of these vocalic prefixes will be discussed as they are encountered + in the chapters on morphology which follow.

+

2.7.3.2 Vocalic Suffixes. Purely vocalic suffixes + (other than the anaptyctic vowels discussed below) occur only in adjuncts, not + formatives. Like vocalic prefixes described immediately above, they can be highly + synthetic morphologically but do not mutate. Unlike vocalic prefixes, there + can be multiple vocalic suffixes on an adjunct, joined agglutinatively (i.e., + added on one after the other) with intervening consonantal affixes.

+

2.7.3.3 Anaptyctic Vowels + -ï- and -a. Sometimes the grammatical rules of a language require + a meaningless phonemic increment to be affixed to a word, whether as a prefix, + suffix, or infix. This is known as anaptyxis. As will be discussed in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes, an anaptyctic infix, -ï-, is used + in Ithkuil to separate consonantal prefixes from the C1 + stem consonantal radical wherever necessary for phonotactical euphony or to + prevent confusion in misinterpreting the prefix consonant(s) as part of the + C1 radical. For example, while the prefix + s- is phonotactically + permissible before the stem kaf, + the resulting word must be sïkaf, + not skaf, + as the latter is a completely different stem employing a C1 + radical sk-.

+

An anaptyctic vowel is also sometimes required in Ithkuil when + grammatical rules call for antepenultimate stress on a word (i.e., the third-from-last + syllable is stressed), but the word in question has only one or two syllables. + In such cases, the number of syllables must be increased to three. Sometimes + this can be done by restructuring any consonantal affixes the word may have, + but more often than not, anaptyctic vowels must be affixed. In this case the + anaptyctic vowel ï- can be prefixed to a word beginning + with a consonant (usually nominal formatives), and/or an anaptyctic vowel -a + can be suffixed to the end of a word, e.g., kfuil + ïkfùila. + This anaptyctic suffix -a is also required for phonotactical + euphony when grammatical rules require the mutation of the second radical C2 + to a form which is not permissible in word-final position, e.g., t + tt + as in reit + reitta.

+

 

+ + + + +

2.8 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY

+

While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ithkuil, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Ibero-Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity + of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.

+

Proceed + to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >>

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

+

 

+


+
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+
+

+

+

 

+

 

+

 

+

 

+

 

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch3-basic-morphology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch3-basic-morphology.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..3a2e8c7 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch3-basic-morphology.html @@ -0,0 +1,1798 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 3: Basic Morphology + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 3: Basic Morphology

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
3.1 Configuration3.5 Focus
3.2 Affiliation3.6 Context
3.3 Perspective3.7 Designation
3.4 Extension3.8 Essence
+
+


+ As previously discussed in + Section 2.6.1, the distinction between nouns and verbs common to most languages + is rather blurred in Ithkuil. All lexical stems in Ithkuil function equally + as nouns or verbs and share many of the same morpho-semantic features and categories. + This is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns and verbs as being + cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations + of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components + are space and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are + merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or + verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s + sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal formatives as + verbs when discussing their morphology.

+

All Ithkuil formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs, + inflect for nine Configurations, four Affiliations, + four Perspectives, six Extensions, two Focus + distinctions, four Contexts, two Designations, + and two Essences, and can take any of more than 1300 optional + affixes. These morphological categories are explained in the sections which + follow.

+

 

+ +
+ + + + +
+

3.1 CONFIGURATION

+
+

To understand the Ithkuil concept of enumeration and quantification + of nouns (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one must analyze + three separate but related grammatical categories termed Configuration, + Affiliation, and Perspective. These concepts + are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which + are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually made at the lexical + level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological as + in Ithkuil. In this section we will deal first with Configuration, followed + by Affiliation in Section 3.2 and Perspective in Section + 3.3.

+

Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity + or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, collections, + sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal + composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential + structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain + English sets of words.

+

Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a + single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of + trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a + plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees. + However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings + than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as + in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different + kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray + such as a ‘jungle.’

+

As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ + While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) + person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons + (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as + ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

+

Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further + configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships + between car versus convoy, hanger versus rack, + chess piece versus chess set, sentry versus blockade, + piece of paper versus sheaf, girder versus (structural) + framework, and coin versus roll of coins all exemplify + these principles.

+

Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary + sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two + identical referents as in a pair of eyes, however they are more often + opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in limbs, + ears, hands, wings, etc.

+

In Ithkuil, the semantic distinctions implied by the above + examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be + accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ + into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis + of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made + by means of Affiliation (see Section 3.2 below) and by + the use of specific affixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ + or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ + via Configuration, the Ithkuil words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ + ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation + and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using affixes are explored in + detail in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes.)

+

The nine configurations are the UNIPLEX, + DUPLEX, DISCRETE, + AGGREGATIVE, SEGMENTATIVE, + COMPONENTIAL, COHERENT, + COMPOSITE, and MULTIFORM. + The function and morphology of these categories are explained below.

+
+ + +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.1
UNI
The Uniplex
+
+

The UNIPLEX configuration is marked by + Grade 1 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a single, contextual embodiment of the stem concept, i.e., one whole contextual + unit of the basic nominal stem, e.g., a tree, a person, a screwdriver, a + grape, a hammer blow, a hole. With verbs the UNIPLEX + signifies a single, holistic act, state, or event, e.g., to be a tree, to + become a person, to use a screwdriver, to eat a grape, to strike (once) with + a hammer, to dig a hole.


+ +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.2
DPX
The Duplex
+
+

The DUPLEX configuration is marked by + Grade 2 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s + eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., it can also be used to describe any set of two + identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., a matched pair of + vases, a two-volume set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents. Thus, the + Ithkuil word for spouse inflected for the DUPLEX + configuration would translate as a man and wife or a married couple.

+

One context in which the DUPLEX appears + for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” + exemplified by English words such as bounce, flash, arc, + wag, swing, switch, breathe/respiration, + indeed, any concept which involves a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth, + in/out, empty/full, or on/off. Use of the DUPLEX in these + contexts implies a full cycling through the two complementary states involved. + For example the word for hammer blow inflected for the UNIPLEX + would signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected + for the DUPLEX signifies a single down-then-up cycle of + the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action + being divided by the impact.

+
+ + +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.3
DCT
The Discrete
+
+

The DISCRETE configuration is marked + by Grade 3 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units that are more or less identiform (each + having the same design or physical appearance). This grouping or set-nature + can be either spatial, as in a flock of gulls (flying together), or + temporal (i.e., sequentially repetitive or iterative) as in (a flock of) + gulls flying one after another. Further examples of English nouns or noun + phrases which would be translated using the DISCRETE are + a grove, a set of screwdrivers, a group of soldiers, a pile of leaves, a + bowl of grapes, a series of hammer blows, an area of holes. Thus, the Ithkuil + word for (identical) set would simply be the word for thing + or object inflected for the DISCRETE configuration. + Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a temporally + (i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of an additional affix, + -V1šk, + specifying which spacetime axis is implied. This affix is analyzed in Sec. + 7.7.13.

+

For verbs, the DISCRETE signifies a single + set of repetitions, whether spatially or temporally, viewed as a single holistic + event. The individual member components acts, states, or events within this + set can be either UNIPLEX, e.g., to take steps, to + flip through pages, to have spots, to dig holes in an area, or DUPLEX + in nature, e.g., to hammer, to spin, to breathe.

+

It should be noted that the Containment CNM + affix, -Vomt, + can be used with the DISCRETE, as well as most of the + following configurations, to designate specifically the type of container, holder, + or means of conveyance for a configurative set (e.g., a sack, package, jar, + bottle, pile, load, etc.)
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.4
AGG
The Aggregative
+
+

The AGGREGATE configuration is marked + by Grade 4 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and functions + like the DISCRETE above in referring to an associated + group or set of entities, except that the members of the configurational set + are not identical to one another. Examples of English words/entities which would + be translated using the AGGREGATIVE are a forest + (of different kinds of trees), a toolset, a citizens group, a mixed pile + of leaves, an assortment of animals, an area of different-sized holes, a series + of musical notes. With verbs, the AGGREGATIVE implies + a spatially or temporally repeated set of non-identical acts, events, or states + considered as a whole contextual unit. It would be used, for example, in translating + the sentence This morning I dug holes in my garden (i.e., of different + sizes).


+ + +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.5SEG The Segmentative
+
+

The SEGMENTATIVE configuration is marked + by Grade 5 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units, the individual members of which are + physically similar or identical and are either in physical contact with one + another, physically connected via some linking medium, or in sufficiently close + contact with one another so that the group moves or operates together. Examples + would be a web, a train of flatcars, a convoy of schoolbuses, a string of + pearls, a fall of leaves, a line of dancers, a parade of Barbie dolls (e.g., + coming off an assembly line). To illustrate the difference between this configuration + and the DISCRETE above, we saw that the word grape + in the DISCRETE would be translated as a serving of + grapes, while in the SEGMENTATIVE it would mean a + bunch of grapes (i.e., still connected to each other on a portion of vine). +

+

With verbs, the use of the SEGMENTATIVE + versus the DISCRETE implies that the repetitive/iterative + nature of the act, state, or event occurs naturally due to the contextual nature + of the precipitating event or agent. It would thus be used to distinguish the + fuselage of bullets from a machine-gun from the simple hail of bullets from + single-fire weapons. Likewise, it would distinguish The light is blinking + from The light is flashing, where blink implies the way + in which the source naturally emits light, while flash implies that + the light is being made to emit repetitive bursts of light.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.6CPN The Componential
+
+

The COMPONENTIAL configuration is marked + by Grade 6 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and operates + identically to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the + individual members of the configurational set are not physically similar or + identical to each other. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated + using the COMPONENTIAL are a freight train, a cascade + of (mixed) fruit (i.e., a continuous stream of fruit falling), a line of ticketholders, + a parade of floats, a pattern of musical notes. With verbs, the COMPONENTIAL + signifies a connected series of repetitions where the individual acts, events, + or states comprising the repetitive set are non-identical. It would distinguish + The light twinkled from The light was blinking.

+
+ + +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.7COH The Coherent
+
+

The COHERENT configuration is marked + by Grade 7 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and functions + similarly to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the individual + members of the configuration are connected, fused or mixed with one another + to form a coherent emergent entity, i.e., the total configuration of objects + constitutes an entirely new gestalt-like entity. Examples of English words which + would be translated using the COHERENT are a bookcase, + a phalanx, a xylophone.

+

In the realm of verbs, finding English translations illustrating + the COHERENT is difficult. If one can imagine the verb + to glow to mean a series of flashes blurred one into another to create + a continuous emanation, then glow versus flash might suffice. + Perhaps a better illustration would be the difference between to buzz + from to make a set of repeating noises.

+
+ + +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.8CST The Composite
+
+

The COMPOSITE configuration is marked + by Grade 8 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and operates + the same as the COHERENT above except that the individual + members of the configurational set are not identical or physically similar to + one another. Examples of words/concepts that would be translated using the COMPOSITE + are a building (= a constructional set of walls, floors, doors, windows, + etc.), a communications array, a conspiracy, a jungle thicket. Thus + the Ithkuil words for recipe, skeleton, and melody would simply + be the words for ingredient, bone, and musical note + inflected for the COMPOSITE configuration. For verbs, + the COMPOSITE versus COHERENT distinction + would distinguish to rumble from to buzz, or to glitter + from to glow.

+
+ + +
+ + + + + + + +
3.1.9MLT The Multiform
+
+

The MULTIFORM configuration is marked + by Grade 9 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and is + the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent. + The MULTIFORM serves to identify the noun as an individual + member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates + in non-traditional logic, describing a set whose individual members do not all + share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there + may be one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining + attributes of the set exclusively and exactly, other members of the set may + vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical + resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. Indeed, some members of the set may + display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype + of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient + overlap” between members of differing sets.

+

It is difficult to accurately translate into English without + resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ithkuil easily expresses + using the MULTIFORM. For example, the Ithkuil word for + ‘tree’ inflected for the MULTIFORM configuration + would mean something like a group of what appear to be trees, or better + yet, a group of tree-like objects (i.e., some being trees, and others + seeming less like trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity + of membership varies by different degrees in comparison to an archetypical member + of the set can be expressed using the MULTIFORM. For examples, + the Ithkuil word for library would simply be a word meaning something + like work (i.e. thing authored/composed) inflected for the MULTIFORM, + signifying a hodge-podge assortment of writings and compositions (e.g., including + books, pamphlets, notebooks, ledgers, formulas, letters, journals, recordings, + magazines, etc.). Other example concepts translatable using the MULTIFORM + would be a rag-tag group of people, an incoherent pattern, lives in flux.

+

With verbs, the MULTIFORM implies that + the individual repetitions comprising an act, state, or event have varying degrees + of spatio-temporal similarity to each other. A few English verbs such as fluctuate, + sputter or flicker capture this sense.

+

 

+
+ + + + +
+

3.2 AFFILIATION

+
+

While the category of Configuration from the preceding section + distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set in terms + of physical characteristics, physical attributes or physical connections, the + category of Affiliation operates similarly to distinguish the member relationships + in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically + in conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship + between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the meanings of nouns or verbs + in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into + English.

+

Returning to our earlier example of the word tree, + we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes a grove in + the DISCRETE configuration. The word grove implies + that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in + regard to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may + be planted by design, in which case they become an orchard. We saw + how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed a + forest. However, such assortments can become wholly chaotic, displaying + patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming + a jungle.

+

As another example, we saw how the word person becomes + group, or gathering, both of which are neutral as to subjective + purpose or function. However, applying a sense of purposeful design generates + words such as team, while the absence of purpose results in crowd.

+

There are four affiliations: CONSOLIDATIVE, + ASSOCIATIVE, VARIATIVE, and COALESCENT. + Affiliation is marked by a word-initial vocalic prefix which varies depending + on the extension of the formative, as well as being dependent on the format + for verbs (see Sections 3.4 and 5.3 for an explanation of these respective categories). + For nouns, these prefixes are shown in Table 11 in Section + 3.4 on Extension. For verbs, these prefixes are shown in Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1. The details of each affiliation are explained below.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.2.1 CSL + The Consolidative
+

The CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring + set where the function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable, + irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the ASSOCIATIVE + affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively + defined by human design. Examples are tree branches, a grove, a mound of + rocks, some people, the clouds.

+

The CONSOLIDATIVE is also the affiliation + normally applied to nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration + when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the UNIPLEX + specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept + of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, + a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf. With verbs, the CONSOLIDATIVE + would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral + as to purpose or design.

+

For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

+
+ + + + + + + + + +
3.2.2
ASO
The Associative
+

The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective + function, state, purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the + Ithkuil word for soldier in the DISCRETE configuration + and comparing its English translations when inflected for the CONSOLIDATIVE + affiliation (= a group of soldiers) versus the ASSOCIATIVE + (= a troop, a platoon). It is this CONSOLIDATIVE + versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction, then, that would distinguish + otherwise equivalent DISCRETE inflections of the Ithkuil + word for tree by translating them respectively as a grove versus an + orchard.

+

The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation can also + be used with nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration to signify + a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. + For example, the word person inflected for the UNIPLEX + and ASSOCIATIVE would translate as a single-minded + person. Even nouns such as rock, tree or work of + art could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as a well-formed + rock, a tree with integrity, a “balanced” work of art.

+

With verbs, the ASSOCIATIVE signifies + that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The CONSOLIDATIVE + versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction could be used, for example, + with the verb turn in I turned toward the window to indicate + whether it was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside.

+

For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

+
+ + + + + + + + + +
3.2.3
VAR
The Variative
+

The VARIATIVE affiliation indicates that + the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function, + state, purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees + (i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, purpose, etc.) or at + complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the VARIATIVE + would not be used to signify opposed but complementary differences among set + members (see the COALESCENT affiliation below). It would + thus be used to signify a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering, + a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of + books, a collection in disarray. It operates with nouns in the UNIPLEX + to render meanings such as a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock, + a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation.

+

With verbs, the VARIATIVE indicates an + act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that + those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably + be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in She bought the house + for various reasons or My being at the party served several purposes. + With non-UNIPLEX configurations, the use of the VARIATIVE + affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using + the SEGMENTATIVE configuration such as The light is + blinking in conjunction with the VARIATIVE would + mean that each blink of the light signals something different than the preceding + or following blinks.

+

For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

+
+ + + + + + + + + +
3.2.4
COA
The Coalescent
+

The COALESCENT affiliation indicates + that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship + with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. + This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of + other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For + example, the Ithkuil word translating English toolset would be the + word for tool in the AGGREGATIVE configuration + (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the COALESCENT + affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function + in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example + would be the Ithkuil word for finger inflected for the SEGMENTATIVE + configuration and the COALESCENT affiliation, translatable + as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the SEGMENTATIVE + to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further + example would be using the COALESCENT with the word for + (piece of) food to signify a well-balanced meal.

+

The COALESCENT naturally appears most + often in conjunction with the DUPLEX configuration since + binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical + binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image + distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. + Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g., + one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the COALESCENT + affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., one’s left and + right eye functioning together).

+

With verbs, the COALESCENT signifies + that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which + make up a greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structure + onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work together in + complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for + example, to distinguish the sentences He traveled in the Yukon from + He ventured in the Yukon, or I came up with a plan versus + I fashioned a plan.

+

For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in Section 3.4 below for nouns and Table 14 in Section + 5.4.1 for verbs.

+

 

+ + + + +
+

3.3. PERSPECTIVE

+

+ Perspective is the closest Ithkuil morphological category to the Number and + Tense categories of other languages (e.g., singular/plural and past/present/future). + However, the correspondence is only approximate because Perspective does not + specifically address the quantity to which a formative is instantiated within + a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the + manner in which it is spatio-temporally instantiated. Specifically, + Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded” + contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation), + 2) an unbounded entity (i.e., manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible), + 3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as + a spatio-temporally neutral abstraction. How this works requires separate explanations + for nouns and verbs.
+

Perspective with Nouns. What Perspective means + for nouns is that, in addition to merely indicating whether a given spatial + context contains one or more than one, it also specifies single versus multiple + manifestations in time, as well as along an axis of concreteness versus abstraction. + Complicating the picture is the fact that the categories of Configuration and + Affiliation (see Secs. 3.1 + and 3.2 above) already + contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe + multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular” + and “plural” have been avoided.

+

Perspective with Verbs. For verbs, the aspect + of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative + context but rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” + i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole + within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” + categories of Western languages. In Ithkuil, the notion of linearly progressive + time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified, + if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see Sec. + 6.4).

+

There are four perspectives in Ithkuil: MONADIC, + UNBOUNDED, NOMIC, and ABSTRACT. + They are shown morpho-phonologically by shifts in a formative’s syllabic + stress patterns. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is detailed + below.


+ + + + + + + + + +
3.3.1
M
The Monadic
+

The MONADIC signifies a bounded embodiment + of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant + a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted + in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless being contextually + viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived + to exist within a literal or figurative psychologically uninterrupted boundary. + This is important, since configurations other than the UNIPLEX + technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking + place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container, + corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or + psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, specifically + the “present” (which in Ithkuil might be better thought of as the + “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). + This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for + nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ithkuil considers nouns as spatially + reified concepts while considering verbs to be their temporally “activized” + counterparts (see Section 2.6.1).

+

Thus, using the word tree for example, while there + might be many trees present in terms of number, the MONADIC + implies they form only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category + is manifested. Using the AGGREGATIVE configuration as + an example, the MONADIC would mean there is only one AGGREGATIVE + set of trees, i.e., one forest.

+

At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective + that Ithkuil makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” + (or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between + those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., one apple, four boys, several + nations), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., water, + sand, plastic, air, laughter). All nouns are countable in Ithkuil in that + all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations + of certain Ithkuil nouns must often be “contextual” rather than + literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable + context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a + puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”

+

With verbs, the MONADIC superficially + corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories + except in a habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed + by the MONADIC means that the act, state, or event is + temporally contiguous and accessible from the point of view of the present context. + It would be used to describes an act, state, or event which:

+ +

By “accessible past” or “accessible future” + is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present + at the time and the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically + contiguous, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now as + one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected + predictions, or historical reports. Conversely, “inaccessible” would + mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which + he/she knows only from memory, reports, or predictions.

+

The MONADIC is marked by penultimate + stress on the noun or verb (i.e. stress on the second-to-last syllable).


+ + + + + + + + + +
3.3.2
U
The Unbounded
+

The UNBOUNDED signifies “unbounded + embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun + or verb manifests itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary, + i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, + the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member + nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a non-monadic + (i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient + translation into English would be to use the plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps + of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would + be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and + another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’ +

+

For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the + psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible + from the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which:

+ +

If necessary to specify whether the UNBOUNDED + is referencing the past versus the future, additional aspectual markers can + be employed (see Sec. 6.4 + on Aspect). Note that, even more so than with the MONADIC, + translation of the UNBOUNDED into Western languages is + subjective, as the translation must necessarily convey linear tense information + which is not conveyed by the Ithkuil original.

+

The UNBOUNDED is shown by ultimate syllabic + stress (i.e., on the final syllable).


+ + + + + + + + + +
3.3.3
N
The Nomic
+

The NOMIC refers to a generic collective + entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative + set throughout space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context). + Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in particular, + this category is mutually exclusive from the MONADIC or + UNBOUNDED. For nouns, the NOMIC + corresponds approximately to the several constructions used for referring to + collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences The dog + is a noble beast, Clowns are what children love most, There + is nothing like a tree.

+

With verbs, the NOMIC designates an action, + event, or situation which describes a general law of nature or a persistently + true condition or situation spoken of in general, without reference to a specific + instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible instances + or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of + expressing such generic statements, generally using the simple present tense. + Examples of usage would be The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele + is sickly, In winter it snows a lot, That girl sings well.

+

The NOMIC is shown by antepenultimate + stress (i.e., on the third-from-last syllable).

+


+ + + + + + + + + +
3.3.4
A
The Abstract
+

Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes + such as -hood or -ness, the ABSTRACT transforms a configurative + category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless + context. While only certain nouns in English can be made into abstracts via + suffixes, all Ithkuil nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into + abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., + grove + the idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book + everything + about books, having to do with books, involvement with books.

+

With verbs, the ABSTRACT is used in verbal + constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship + of the action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable, + similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund form (used as substitutes + for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences: + Singing is not his strong suit; It makes no sense to + worry about it; I can't stand her pouting. As + a result, the ABSTRACT acts as a "timeless" + verb form which, much like these English infinitives and gerunds, operates in + conjunction with a separate main verb in one of the other three perspectives. + The ABSTRACT is often used in conjunction with certain + modalities and moods of the verb (see Sec. + 5.5 on Modality and Sec. + 6.5 on Mood) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which + the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or unknowable.

+

The ABSTRACT is marked in either of two + ways: (1) by preantepenultimate stress, i.e., on the fourth-to-last syllable, + or (2) by a combination of ultimate stress plus the addition of an anaptyctic + vowel -ï- or -a- in any morpho-phonologically + permissible position of the word (as previously described in Sec. + 2.7.3.3). This extra vowel can be placed at any position within the word + except within the stem, as long as the vowel does not lead to confusion or ambiguity + in interpreting the phonological boundaries of any other suffixes to the stem. + (Note that in word-final position, only anatyctic -a, not -ï, + is permitted.)

+

 

+ + + + + +
+

3.4 EXTENSION

+

Extension is another Ithkuil morphological category for which + there is no exact equivalent in other languages. It applies to all formatives + and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms + of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. There are six extensions: DELIMITIVE, + PROXIMAL, INCEPTIVE, TERMINATIVE, + DEPLETIVE, and GRADUATIVE, shown + by a vocalic prefix to the formative in conjunction with Affiliation for nouns + (see Sec. 3.2 above) and Affiliation plus Format for verbs + (see Section 5.4 on Format). + The table below shows these prefixes for nouns. The prefixes for verbs are shown + in Table 14 in Section 5.4. + How Extension operates is explained in detail following the table.

+


+ Table 11: Word-Initial Affiliation/Extension + Prefixes for Nominal Formatives

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
+
+
+
AFFILIATION
+
+
+
+
+
+
EXTENSION
DEL
PRX
ICP
TRM
DPL
GRD
DELIMITIVE
PROXIMAL
INCEPTIVE
TERMINATIVE
DEPLETIVE
GRADUATIVE
CSL
CONSOLIDATIVE
(a-)*
â-
ai-
au-
ä-
ö-
ASO
ASSOCIATIVE
u-
û-
ui-
iu-
ü-
ë-
VAR
VARIATIVE
e-
ê-
ei-
eu-
ëi-
ëu-
COA
COALESCENT
i-
î-
o-
ô-
ae-
ea-
+ +* This a- prefix is optional +if the nominal versus verbal status of the formative can be determined from other +morphological elements or if the meaning of the phrase or sentence is clear regardless +of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
+

+

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.4.1
DEL
The Delimitive
+

The DELIMITIVE extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with + clear spatio-temporal boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion, + edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It can be + considered the neutral or default view, e.g., a tree, a grove, a set of + books, an army. To illustrate a contextual example, the English sentence + He climbed the ladder would be translated with the word ladder + in the DELIMITIVE to show it is being considered as a + whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is + being considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, e.g., She diets + every winter (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet).

+ + + + + +
The DELIMITIVE can be thought + of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite beginning and ending points, + beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. The graphic to + the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in + the DELIMITIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the + spatio-temporal “present”).
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.2
PRX
The Proximal
+

The PROXIMAL extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the + portion, duration, subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand. + It would be used to translate the words tree, journey, and + ladder in the sentences That tree is hard there (e.g., in + the spot where I hit against it), She lost weight during her journey, + or He climbed on the ladder (i.e., it is not relevant to the context + to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences, + the PROXIMAL does not refer to a specific or delineated + piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder, but rather to the fact that + delineated boundaries such as the ends of the ladder or the entirety of the + tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this + extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which + is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the + act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a diet + every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not + the total time spent dieting from start to finish).

+

+ + + + + +
The graphic to the right illustrates + the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the PROXIMAL + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.3
ICP
The Inceptive
+

The INCEPTIVE extension focuses on the + closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion + of a noun or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. It would + be used in translating the nouns tunnel, song, desert, + daybreak and plan in the following sentences: We looked + into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song (i.e., from the + first few notes), They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait + for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). + In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ + or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s + starting to molt, or She goes on a diet every winter.

+ + + + + +
The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the INCEPTIVE + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.4
TRM
The Terminative
+

The TERMINATIVE extension focuses on + the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without + focusing on the preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would + be used in translating the words water, story, and arrival + in the sentences There’s no water (i.e., we ran out), I like + the end of that story, and We await your arrival. With verbs, + it is illustrated by the sentences It finished molting or She’s + come off her diet.

+ + + + + +
The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the TERMINATIVE + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.5
DPL
The Depletive
+

The DEPLETIVE extension focuses on the + terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus + is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the + at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). + Essentially, it applies to any context involving actual or figurative fading. + It would be used in translating the words water, strength, + and twilight in the sentences He drank the last of the water, I + have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight. With verbs, + it is exemplified by the phrases to wind down, to fade out, to disappear + gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’s eating less and less + these days.

+ + + + + +
The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the DEPLETIVE + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.4.6
GRD
The Graduative
+

The GRADUATIVE extension is the inverse + of the DEPLETIVE, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” + or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words darkness, + wonder, and music in the following sentences: Darkness + came upon us, I felt a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first. + With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as to fade in, to + start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., She’s + been eating more and more lately.

+ + + + + +
The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun in the GRADUATIVE to the + context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
+

+

+

3.4.7 Examples of Configuration, Affiliation, and Extension

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
‘piece of clothing’ ‘set/suit of clothes’ ‘hand’ ‘pair of hands’
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
‘oak tree’ ‘trailing edge of an oak forest’ ‘upland’ ‘foothills’
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + +
‘something yellow’ ‘a mess of varying yellow things as far as the eye can see’
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
+ +
‘clown’‘running
+ stride’ 		‘Something makes the group of running clowns begin stumbling’ + or
+ ‘The group of clowns are made to begin stumbling as they run.’
+ _______________________________Listen! +
+
+
+
+ + + + + +
+

3.5 FOCUS

+

Focus, is a two-way, positive versus negative distinction labeled + +FC FOCUSED and -FC + UNFOCUSED which is applicable to all formatives, whether + functioning as nouns or verbs. The concept of semantic focus refers to what + information in an utterance is to be considered new information as opposed to + background context. The specifics are explained below and are best understood + through various English illustrations.

+

In any given discourse (i.e., a contextual series of utterances + such as a conversation, a story, an account of an event, etc.), any single sentence + of that discourse will likely make reference to previously mentioned material + as background, as well as present new material to further the purpose of the + discourse. Semantic focus refers to those elements of a sentence which constitute + new material within an actual or implied discourse. For example, the sentence + My dog jumps through hoops could function as an answer to several different + questions such as 1) What tricks can your dog do?, or 2) Does your + dog do anything with hoops? or 3) Do you know of anyone’s pet + that jumps through hoops? or even 4) What’s up with you? + In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’ + would have semantic focus while the dog is background material. In answering + the second question, the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have + focus while both the dog and the hoops would be background material. In answering + the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus + while jumping through hoops would be backgrounded. Lastly, in answering the + fourth sentence, no element in the sentence has focus over any other, as all + elements present previously unknown material within the context of the discourse. + In general, English conveys focus by a shift in vocal inflection (tone and pitch + contours) to provide emphasis.

+

Focus does not necessarily require a full discourse to have + semantic relevance; it can occur within a single autonomous sentence, in which + case the background discourse is implied. For example, a person might spontaneously + begin a conversation with the same sentence: My dog jumps through hoops. In + English, the speaker might use vocal inflection to emphasize what elements convey + semantic focus versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.” + Or, the speaker might say the sentence in a neutral tone of voice, essentially + inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in + responding, e.g., Oh, you have a dog? or Oh, does he do any other + tricks? or Oh, do you use metal or plastic hoops? or an equally + neutral response such as Oh, you don’t say?

+

Ithkuil uses the Focus category to accomplish the same options + that such vocal inflections accomplish in English. Any formative or formatives + within an Ithkuil sentence can be marked as FOCUSED to + convey semantic focus. The UNFOCUSED option operates as + the opposing neutral default condition. Focus can be used to subtly distinguish + what in Ithkuil would otherwise be identical sentence. For example, compare + the following two English sentences:

+
+

After I shopped, I went home.
+ I shopped before I went home.

+
+

Both sentences indicate two sequential events: shopping, then + going home. The difference between them is one of focus. In the first sentence, + I went home has semantic focus, as that is the new information being + conveyed, while in the second sentence it is I shopped that has focus. + In Ithkuil, both sentences would be translated as (First) I shopped then + went home, the only distinction being the +FC FOCUSED + distinction applied to the verb phrase went home in the first sentence, + and to the verb shopped in the second sentence.

+

As a further examination of Focus, compare these two very similar + English sentences:

+
+

Mother entered the room and turned on the lights.
+ Mother entered the room and she turned on the lights.

+
+

In the first sentence, the absence of the reduplicative pronoun + ‘she’ before ‘turned’ implies that the entire sentence + is to considered as one reported event with no particular element having the + focus. In the second sentence, however, the reduplicative ‘she’ + implies the sentence is to viewed as two separate events, the first reported + as background, the second having the focus. (For example, one might utter the + second sentence as a complaint about the lights being turned on.) The Ithkuil + equivalents to these sentences would contain no such pronoun distinction. Instead, + the nuances of the second sentence would be conveyed by marking the equivalent + of the verb form as FOCUSED.

+

Finally, Focus functions to disambiguate sentences such as + Chicago defeated Oakland, too, which means either (1) ‘Chicago + was one of the teams that defeated Oakland,’ or (2) ‘Oakland was + one of the teams that Chicago defeated.’ Ithkuil would mark one team name + or the other as FOCUSED to show which of these two meanings + is implied.

+

The UNFOCUSED attribute is morpho-phonologically + unmarked in Ithkuil, i.e., it is indicated by the absence of any overt change + in the phonological structure of a formative, or by any affix or adjunct. The + FOCUSED attribute is shown in one of three ways for formatives:

+ +

 

+ + + + +
+

3.6 CONTEXT

+

Context is yet another morphological category with no equivalent + in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or aspects + of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There + is no way to show this in translation other than by paraphrase. There are four + contexts: the EXISTENTIAL, the FUNCTIONAL, + the REPRESENTATIONAL, and the AMALGAMATE, + marked by each of the four tones on the formative. They are explained and illustrated + below.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.6.1 EXS  The Existential
+

+ The EXISTENTIAL context is marked by falling tone on the + formative. It focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically + objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, + beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the EXISTENTIAL + is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The EXISTENTIAL + serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective + entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun + or verb.
+

For example, consider the sentence A cat ran past the doorway. + If the Ithkuil words corresponding to cat, run, and doorway + are in the EXISTENTIAL, then the sentence merely describes + an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature + of the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that + two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial relationship to each other; + those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely + conveys the nature of the spatial relationship.

+
+ + + + + + + + +
3.6.2FNC  The Functional
+

+ The FUNCTIONAL context is marked by high tone on the formative. + It focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas, + attitudes, beliefs, opinions, convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit, + etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that + the noun has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose. +
+

For example, in our previous sentence A cat ran past the + doorway, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into + the FUNCTIONAL, the ‘cat’ no longer simply + identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) + significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could + get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with + mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ + now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. + Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the FUNCTIONAL + now implies the furtive nature of the cat.

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
3.6.3RPS  The Representational
+

+ The REPRESENTATIONAL context is marked by rising tone. + It focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym*, in that it indicates + that the formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other + concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical + connotations of the English sentence That pinstripe-suited dog is checking + out a kitty, can be equally conveyed in Ithkuil by inflecting the words + for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the REPRESENTATIONAL + context. The REPRESENTATIONAL is one of several ways that + Ithkuil overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from + a grammatical standpoint).
+

* Metonymy + is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or + phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The + orders came from the White House,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell + the cook the ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person + as in ‘You-know-who just showed up.’
+
+

+ + + + + + + +
3.6.4AMG  The Amalgamate
+

The AMALGAMATE context is marked by + broken tone. It is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western + linguistic perspective. It focuses on the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like, + componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective + totality is derived synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the + interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static momentary + appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun + and any interactions and relationships it has (whether past, present or potential) + within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting + the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, + psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with + the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, + intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels. + Thus the AMALGAMATE version of our sentence The cat + ran past the doorway would take on quite melodramatic implications, with + the cat being representative of everything about cats and all they stand for, + the doorway as being representative of the nature of doorways as portals of + change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while + the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of + movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc.

+

 

+
+ + + + + +
+

3.7 DESIGNATION

+

Designation is a somewhat subjective category, + with no equivalent in Western languages. Previously mentioned briefly in Sec. + 2.3, it refers to a two-fold distinction in a formative regarding its contextual + status, authority, permanence, or extra-contextual relevance. The two designations + are the INFORMAL and the FORMAL, + explained below.
+

+ + + + + + + +
3.7.1
-FR
  The Informal
+

The INFORMAL designation is marked by + Form I of vocalic mutation (see Section + 2.2.3). It indicates that the noun or verb in question does not exist in + a necessarily permanent state, or is to be considered only for the duration + of the context in which it is spoken, with any lasting effect, influence or + permanency beyond the context being either absent, unknown or irrelevant.
+

+ + + + + + + +
3.7.2
+FR
  The Formal
+

The FORMAL designation is marked by Form + II of vocalic mutation (see Section + 2.2.3). The FORMAL imparts a sense of permanency + and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or institutional + manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if + the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’ + ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the INFORMAL + would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and + ‘archetype’ in the FORMAL.

+

The FORMAL achieves several subtle purposes + from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ithkuil words would translate + the same in English no matter which designation (e.g., to hurt, to float, + breath, to fall, shade, sleep, cough), many stems would have different + translations in English depending on their designation. For example, the stem + qum with the + affiliated meanings person + group gathering + + throng, etc. in the INFORMAL designation would change + to the following series of approximate translations when placed in the FORMAL + designation: official + team association/congregation + + masses, etc.

+

Further examples of lexical shifts in translation due to INFORMAL + FORMAL designation are listed below:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 to grow something + to cultivatewander + travel
 obtain/get + procure/requisitionlake + reservoir
 (natural) holder + containersee + observe
 to create + construct/buildheap + pile
 animal + domesticated animala thought + an idea
 natural environment “man-made” + environmentawareness + consciousness
 [natural] exchange + trade/commercehouse + home
 assortment of animals + zoo collection grouping + set
 to group/gather + collectwall + barrier
 get some exercise + to work outplacidity + peace
 problem situation + crisisto populate + to settle
+

As can be seen from the above list, the exact interpretation + of Designation for each word-root is specific to each word-root, depending on + its associated semantic context.

+

 


+ + + + + +
+

3.8 ESSENCE

+

Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which + has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference to + various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English + sentences:

+
+

1a) The boy ran off to sea.
+ 1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.

+

2a) The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow.
+ 2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist.

+
+

Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences + in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences + (1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized + contexts for these sentences that they make any sense. For example, (1b) would + make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the + plot for a story, while (2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store + owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is now no longer there.

+

Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world + meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog, + but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being + used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative + mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where + events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative + versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is + essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western + languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated + by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called + “modal” verbs of English, e.g., must, can, should, etc. + as seen in the following:

+
+

3) You must come home at once.
+ 4) That girl can sing better than anybody.
+ 5) We should attack at dawn.

+
+

Each of the above three sentences describe potential events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For example, + in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home + is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl may never sing a single note ever + again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether + any attack will actually occur.
+

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
3.8.1
NRM
  The Normal
 
RPV
 The Representative
+

The Ithkuil category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world + actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. The + two essences are termed NORMAL and REPRESENTATIVE, + the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns and verbs, the + latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly, + Ithkuil allows a speaker to express any noun or verb as referring to a real-world + versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from + an explanatory context.

+

Essence is morpho-phonologically marked by primary versus secondary + mode of vocalic mutation, as previously described in Sec. + 2.2.3 and fully illustrated in Sec. + 2.5. The NORMAL is marked by the primary mode while + the REPRESENTATIVE is marked by secondary mode.

+


+ 3.8.2 Examples of Essence in Use

+

_Listen! +

+


+

+

 

+

Proceed + to Chapter 4: Case Morphology >>

+

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or + excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

+

 

+

 

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..686f61e --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html @@ -0,0 +1,2517 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 4: Case Morphology + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 4: Case Morphology

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
4.1 Semantic Role Vs. Positional + Slot 4.6 The Adverbial Cases
4.2 Morpho-Phonological Markers for + Case 4.7 The Sub-Relative Cases
4.3 The Transrelative Cases4.8 The Spatial Cases
4.4 The Associative Cases4.9 The Temporal Cases
4.5 The Appositive Cases 
+
+

In this chapter, we analyze one additional morphological category: + Case. Like the eight categories analyzed in the previous chapter, and unlike + other languages, the category of Case applies to all formatives in Ithkuil, + i.e., to both nouns and verbs alike. However, the syntactical context in which + Case operates is sufficiently dissimilar for nouns and verbs to warrant separate + analysis. In this chapter, we will analyze the case morphology of nouns alone. + The use of Case with verbs will be analyzed in Section + 5.7.

+

Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek + or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to + a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its + phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays + in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence + It was me she saw, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed + to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ + distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object + of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence Der + Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the + man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ + distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) + from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ + (accusative case).

+

The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the + notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, + there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether + a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. + In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute + for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases. + The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in + order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and + the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known as its declensions. +

+

There are 81 cases in Ithkuil, falling into seven categories: + Transrelative, Associative, Appositive, Adverbial, Subrelative, Spatial, and + Temporal. Case operates differently in Ithkuil than in most human languages, + being based in lexico-semantics as opposed to morpho-syntax. This is explained + below in Section 4.1.

+

Note that in regard to gender categories from other languages, + Ithkuil has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, etc.), + although word-roots do fall into one of 17 morpho-semantic classes (see Sec. + 10.2). However, there is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological + concord of any kind between a noun and other words or morphological elements + in a sentence, i.e., there is none of the required matching of masculine or + feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and adjectives + as seen in most Western languages.

+

+

+

 

+
+ + + + +

4.1 + SEMANTIC ROLE VERSUS POSITIONAL SLOT

+
+

In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level + of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct + object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is + ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role + can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:

+
+

(1a) John opened the door with the key.
+ (1b) The key opened the door.
+ (1c) The wind opened the door.
+ (1d) The door opened.

+
+

In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, + i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their + semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, + John, the key, the wind, and the door. Yet + it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated + in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence + (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that + the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while + in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role + in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. + As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first + three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role + in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a + change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ + in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ + in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), + yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role + of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in + (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act + of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a + subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of + the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while + being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed + choice to initiate such action.

+


+ 4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role

+

The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot + (i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate semantic + role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between + sets of sentences like those above. In Ithkuil, however, the case of a noun + is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the + sentence relative to the verb. These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental + or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns + in other languages. Thus Ithkuil noun declension more accurately reflects the + underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western + grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little + meaning or applicability in Ithkuil grammar.

+

The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ithkuil. + They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” + of Western languages:

+

AGENT: The animate, (and usually conscious + and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing + a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence + (1a) above.

+

FORCE: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an + act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.

+

INSTRUMENT: The noun which functions as the + physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ + in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.

+

PATIENT: The noun which undergoes a change + in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or + by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.

+


+ 4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles

+

Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects + in Western languages exist in Ithkuil as overt noun cases. These include the + roles of ENABLER, EXPERIENCER, STIMULUS, RECIPIENT, and CONTENT, and are explained + below using the following set of sentences as illustrations.

+
+

(2a) Mary hits the children.
+ (2b) Mary entertains the children.
+ (2c) Mary sees the children.
+ (2d) Mary tells the children a story.
+ (2e) Mary wants children.

+
+

Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary + is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object + (except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns + are entirely different in each of these five sentences. Beginning with Sentence + (2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the + children who obviously function in the role of PATIENT. Thus (2a) is identical + to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct object. +

+

In Sentence (2b) however, Mary entertains the + children, there is a subtle distinction. At first we might consider Mary + an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become + entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result + (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. + In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, + but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a + sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like + a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or + behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen + to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting + change in the children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the + children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is termed an + ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained + or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or + consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves + unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, + a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS. + Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory + perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and + pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and + autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations + (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).

+

This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence + (2c) Mary sees the children, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes + an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other + words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever + a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ + does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” + (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the + “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action + at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. + In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” + as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction + to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled + states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such + as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are + categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role + in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo + any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not + in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being + seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of + sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, + the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting + originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun + participant.

+

In Sentence (2d) Mary tells the children a story, + Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the + telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, + or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing + RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western + languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract + referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.

+

The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence + (2e) Mary wants children, where they function as the “object” + of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children + undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s + desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory + referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, + being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation + similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, + Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.

+

 

+
+ + + + +

4.2 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL + MARKERS FOR CASE

+
+

Case is shown in many different ways in Ithkuil depending on + whether the case is being shown in conjunction with a formative or a personal + reference adjunct (explained in Sec. + 8.1). For nouns, case is shown via a combination of vocalic mutation of + the stem-vowel and mutation of the second consonantal radical, C2. + The permutations of the nine series of vocalic mutation, along with the nine + grades of C2 consonantal mutation, combine to correspond + to the 81 cases. The particular mutational patterns are given in the sections + below as each case is described. Case markers for personal reference adjuncts + will be shown later in Section + 8.1.

+

We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases + in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects” + and “objects” in Western languages.

+

 

+
+ + + + +

4.3 THE TRANSRELATIVE CASES

+
+

The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify + nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms + would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and + most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these + cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in Sec. + 4.1 above. The eleven transrelative cases are the OBLIQUE, + ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, + ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, and SITUATIVE. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of these cases in use are provided in Section 4.3.12.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.1
OBL
The Oblique Case
+
+

The OBLIQUE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. As described above in Section 4.1.2, the OBLIQUE + identifies the semantic role of CONTENT, whether it is something given to a + RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g., + a memory recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used + in translating sentences such as Sam gave me a book, The + child likes cereal. It is also the case associated with + existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb + ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description + of a noun as in the English sentences That boy is blind + or The house was built of wood. The OBLIQUE, + being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun + (i.e., the form in which the noun would be listed in a dictionary).

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.2
ABS
The Absolutive Case
+
+

The ABSOLUTIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the ABSOLUTIVE + identifies the semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator + is a different party than the patient who undergoes the resulting action. Note + that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need + not be overtly expressed. Examples of English sentences translatable using the + ABSOLUTIVE would be The boy hit the girl, + She forced him to do it, The bird fell from + the sky, The prisoner died during the gun battle.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.3
DAT
The Dative Case
+
+

The DATIVE case is marked by Series C + vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DATIVE has two functions in Ithkuil. + Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving + and telling, i.e., the semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via + an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or + the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ithkuil + uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference + to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences + such as We're giving you a present, Jason lent a dollar + to his sister, Please grant me a wish, The + student has three books, Those mountains have a mysterious + quality.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.4
ERG
The Ergative Case
+
+

The ERGATIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ERGATIVE identifies the semantic + role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which initiates a tangible action undergone by another + party (the PATIENT), as described in Section 4.1.1. + Note that sentences involving an ERGATIVE agent need not + overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable + using the ERGATIVE would be The boy + hit the girl, She forced him to do it, That murderer + kills for fun.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.5
EFF
The Effectuative Case
+
+

The EFFECTUATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The EFFECTUATIVE identifies the noun + acting in the semantic role of ENABLER, as described in Section + 4.1.2 above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events, + ultimately resulting in a final event. An example would be pulling out the plug + of a filled bathtub thereby causing it to empty. This case should therefore + be carefully distinguished from the ERGATIVE case. Ergatively + marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action + directly initiated by the agent, whereas EFFECTUATIVE + nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in the + Ithkuil translation of the sentence The clown emptied the blood from the + tub, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by means of the ERGATIVE + case, or as an ENABLER using the EFFECTUATIVE case. The + former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would + mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate + the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to + pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating + the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’

+

Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the affix + -V1.k + to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this affix, sentences + can be produced which specify whether the enablement is via giving of consent + or permission, by persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a + hindrance, or even by inaction. This affix is explored fully in Sec. + 7.7.12.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.6
IND
The Inducive Case
+
+

The INDUCIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INDUCIVE identifies a noun which + undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the noun is a PATIENT of an agential + action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does + not necessarily imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It + would be used in sentences such as The boy jumped, He + sang, The dog barked all night, or She + danced to the music, in which the party initiating and performing the action + are one and the same.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.7
AFF
The Affective Case
+
+

The AFFECTIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The AFFECTIVE denotes a noun whose + semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described previously in Section + 4.1.2, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled) + experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result + of an external stimulus. Examples of such states would be automatic sensory + experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, + blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; + automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising + one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state + such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, + anxiety, etc.

+

Example sentences requiring the use of the AFFECTIVE + case would be The baby is coughing, The lightning startled + her, Mortimer loves his vittles, Uncle + Davey slept till noon, My back itches me.

+

Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about + by the noun undergoing it, the INDUCIVE case would be + used, since the noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce + the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence The children + smiled with glee (marked using the AFFECTIVE) + with The children smiled on cue (marked using the + INDUCIVE).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.8
INS
The Instrumental Case
+
+

The INSTRUMENTAL case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. As described previously in Section 4.1.1, + the INSTRUMENTAL denotes a noun which functions as the + INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing + about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples + of usage would be She killed him with a knife, The man + tripped over my foot, The password got him + inside. The INSTRUMENTAL is also used to mark translations + of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the + instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare I pressed the button with + my finger with My finger pressed the button, + both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s + missing agent, I.

+

Note that the INSTRUMENTAL does not translate + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied + by’ (see the COMITATIVE case below in Sec. + 4.6.9) as in She arrived with her father. Nor is it used to show + the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the + sentence He cooks with tomatoes (see the COMPOSITIVE + case in Sec. 4.5.8), it is not the tomatoes that cook + the food, therefore the INSTRUMENTAL would not be used, + whereas in He fueled the fire with wood it is the wood that fuels the + fire, thus requiring the INSTRUMENTAL case.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.9
ACT
The Activative Case
+
+

The ACTIVATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ACTIVATIVE identifies a noun engaged + in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, + creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially + be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated + by the sentence Frank must go to Chicago, in which no actual travel + to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence + Mother needs to rest, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both + sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains + an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar + hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences The students want + you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay. + Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” + verbs such as want, need, can, must, etc.

+

Notice that the subject of these English sentences (Frank, + Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) are functioning neither as AGENTS + nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify + as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects + are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, + needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, + such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” + the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence Sam wants Shirley + to love him, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked + as EXPERIENCERS using the AFFECTIVE case. Consequently, + Ithkuil uses the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the subject whose + mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized + situation. All of the subjects in the example sentences from the previous paragraph + (i.e., Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) would be so marked. + In Sec. 5.5 we will see how the + ACTIVATIVE is used in conjunction with a morphological + category for verbs termed Modality to create such hypothetical states and situations.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.10
DER
The Derivative Case
+
+

The DERIVATIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DERIVATIVE serves two functions + in Ithkuil. Firstly, it identifies an inanimate FORCE of nature (as described + in Sec. 4.1.1) or abstract causative situation which + causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an action, as in The wind + blew down the door, or Fame threatened his freedom. + The use of the DERIVATIVE instead of the ERGATIVE + or the EFFECTUATIVE denotes that such inanimate agential + forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or willingly initiate + actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the + resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force + or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, + a noun in the DERIVATIVE can often be translated using + phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result + of.’ Nouns in the DERIVATIVE can also appear in + appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun + in the DERIVATIVE denotes the abstract cause or reason + for the other noun, e.g., the danger of fame, love’s + heartache, wind song.

+

The second function of the DERIVATIVE + case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS + of an affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in + The coffee smells good, I saw her today, + She hates that boy, Victor coughed from the gas, + We laughed at his jokes, That song makes me + cry. Ithkuil grammar views the stimulus of an experiential state as having + a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as + in the above examples); this explains why the DERIVATIVE + case serves to indicate both functions.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.3.11
SIT
The Situative Case
+
+

The SITUATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The SITUATIVE identifies a noun as + the background context for a clause. It is similar to the DERIVATIVE + case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship + between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. + It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the + following examples:

+
+

Because of war, our planet will never + be able to join the Federation.
+ Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption + of our children.
+ Using my plan, we will defeat the enemy.

+
+


+ 4.3.12 Examples of Transrelative Cases in Use

+

_Listen! +

+

+

+


+
+

+


+

+

4.3.13 Specialized Affixes Used to Expand the Functionality of the Transrelative + Cases

+

It should be noted that Ithkuil provides an array of affixes specifically designed + to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one of the Transrelative cases + to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal + relationships between participants to a verb in an Ithkuil sentence. These affixes + include the Consent + affix, the Reason + affix, the Expectation + affix, the Deliberateness + affix, the Enablement + affix, the Agency/Intent + affix, and the Impact + affix. These affixes are detailed in Section + 7.7.12 and discussed further in Section + 10.1.2.

+

 

+ + + + +

4.4 THE ASSOCIATIVE CASES

+

Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually + have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show + varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing + relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences: +

+
+

the man’s hat = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]
+ the man’s house = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]
+ the man’s arm = part of his body [inalienable component]
+ the man’s brother = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]
+ the man’s happiness = he feels happy [affective experience]
+ the man’s rescue = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ + purpose]
+ the man’s gift = the gift is for him [benefaction]
+ the man’s gift = the gift is from him [source]
+ the man’s world = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective + association]
+ the man’s team = the team he is associated with [interactive + mutual association]
+ the man’s story = the story about him [topical reference]
+ the man’s painting = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]
+ the man’s command = his being a commander [role or function]

+
+

In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, + e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the + one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do + the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ + one he is giving or receiving? Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature + of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed + by the seven Associative cases. The other sorts of relationships shown above + are handled by other types of cases (see Sections 4.5 + and 4.6 below).

+

The Associative cases make a distinction between alienable + versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether + the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. + These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many + American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor + noun, not the possessed. The seven Associative cases are the POSSESSIVE, + PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, ORIGINATIVE, PRODUCTIVE, and INTERPRETATIVE. + Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil + examples of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.4.8.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.1
POS
The Possessive Case
+
+

The POSSESSIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The POSSESSIVE is used to refer to + a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another + noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether + by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in + any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two + can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, + or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent + separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used + to translate English phrases such as his coat (e.g., + the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), the + boy’s book (e.g., the one in his hand), Father’s + chair (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant). +

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.2
PRP
The Proprietive Case
+
+

The PROPRIETIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROPRIETIVE identifies a noun having + alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual + control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, + law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The + two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship + cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration, + convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the + POSSESSIVE above, we can analyze the connotative difference: + his coat (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether + he is wearing it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., + the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the + one assigned to him).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.3
GEN
The Genitive Case
+
+

The GENITIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The GENITIVE is used to refer to a + noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or + association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent + or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) + bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s + doors, the child’s father, the essence of that + woman.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.4
ATT
The Attributive Case
+
+

The ATTRIBUTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ATTRIBUTIVE is used to refer to + a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective + (see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another + noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, + whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: + his pain, Mother’s guilt, the + child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s + happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my + needs.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.5
OGN
The Originative Case
+
+

The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative source of another, e.g., the man’s + story (i.e., the one he told), our gift (i.e., + the one we are giving), water from the river, the fruit + of the tree.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.6
PDC
The Productive Case
+
+

The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator, + author or originator of another noun, e.g., the girl’s + poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue + (i.e., the one I sculpted).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.4.7
ITP
The Interpretative Case
+
+

The INTERPRETATIVE case is marked by + Series G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun + acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the + noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, + as exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, + our world, life as seen by children. +

+


+ 4.4.8 Examples of Associative Cases in Use
+
+

+

Listen! +

+

+

+

_Listen! +

+

 

+ + + + +

4.5 THE APPOSITIVE CASES

+

The Appositive cases refer to a group of eleven cases which + modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually adjacent + noun. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, + we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in cat + box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man, etc., or joined by the word + ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., box of coins, dreams + of youth, sounds of laughter. The eleven Appositive cases are the APPLICATIVE, + PURPOSIVE, INHERENT, CONDUCTIVE, MEDIATIVE, CONTRASTIVE, PARTITIVE, COMPOSITIVE, + CORRELATIVE, INTERDEPENDENT, and PREDICATIVE. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.5.12.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.1
APL
The Applicative Case
+
+

The APPLICATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which + represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. + As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for + the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be + a cup for coffee (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), + a box for tools (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold + tools), a room for changing. Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE + can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” + cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” + book = ‘a book used as a projectile.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.2
PUR
The Purposive Case
+
+

The PURPOSIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PURPOSIVE identifies a noun which + characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The PURPOSIVE + is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that + the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or + in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another + noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual + instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended + use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or + ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately + an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would + be a coffee cup, a toolbox, a litter + box, a trashcan.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.3
INH
The Inherent Case
+
+

The INHERENT case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INHERENT case identifies a noun + being used to characterize or define the identity or intrinsic nature of another + in a subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic manner. English phrases + which would be translated using this case are years of wonder, + the Clown Planet, life blood, city of + evil, a dangerous situation (i.e., a situation + characterized by danger).

+

Note that in the above examples, the noun in the INHERENT + would be inflected either for the NOMIC or the ABSTRACT + perspective (see Sections + 3.3.3 and 3.3.4) + to show that the relationship involves a collective entity (e.g., Clown + Planet = planet of all clowns) or that the relationship is abstract, subjective + or symbolic (years of wonder = years that make one feel a sense of + wonder). However, when a noun in the INHERENT case is + inflected for a concrete perspective, i.e., either the MONADIC + or the UNBOUNDED, then it takes on the rather different + function of stating the actual existential identity (literally or figuratively) + of the other noun and would be equivalent to the English construction ‘that/which/who + is (a/the)…’ as in the man who is president, the woman who is + my wife, the house that is a model, a machine that is a vehicle, the teacher + who is her father, those trees that are larches. Through use of the INHERENT + case and the MONADIC/UNBOUNDED perspectives, + these phrases would be rendered into Ithkuil phrases that would correspond literally + to the sometimes awkward, even semantically anomalous English phrases ‘the + president man,’ ‘the my-wife woman,’ ‘the model house,’ + ‘the vehicle machine,’ ‘the her-father teacher,’ ‘the + larch trees.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.4
CNV
The Conductive Case
+
+

The CONDUCTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONDUCTIVE identifies the meaningful + or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship + signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains + to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English + phrases translatable using this case are a circus clown, + a mountain man, a feeling of loneliness, the + Mafia’s world, a realm of fear, my + life achievement, childhood memories, Let’s + discuss the morality of war.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.5
MED
The Mediative Case
+
+

The MEDIATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The MEDIATIVE indicates the physical, + psychological, or figurative medium through which another noun or event takes + place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as a radio + announcement, arrival by water, a letter bomb, + air mail, achieving ecstasy through sex, I + showed her my love with chocolate. It should be distinguished + from the INSTRUMENTAL case (see Section 4.3.8 above), + which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a + causative action. For example, in the sentence Call him on the phone!, + translating the phrase on the phone into the INSTRUMENTAL + case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call + him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE case + would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.6
CRS
The Contrastive Case
+
+

The CONTRASTIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONTRASTIVE identifies a distinguishing + characteristic of another noun, i.e., that feature which distinguishes it from + other possible candidates within the given context. It would be used in translating + phrases such as the green bottle (e.g., as opposed + to the blue one); the science text (e.g., versus the + religious text); my statue (i.e., a statue of me); + I want your recipe for stew, not soup; + Don’t worry, it’s a pet snake.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.7
PAR
The Partitive Case
+
+

The PARTITIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. When used in conjunction with another noun, the PARTITIVE + indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two + nouns, e.g., a cup of coffee, a box(ful) of books, + a train(load) of refugees. When used alone, it signifies + that the context of the phrase or sentence involves only a portion of the noun, + rather than the whole noun, e.g., I ate some bread, Pour + (some) water down my back.

+

The PARTITIVE is also used to mark a + noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., three boxes, + two clowns, twenty words. This usage + is analyzed in detail in Chapter + 12, where we will see that, in Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e., + full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, + a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not + say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps + more eloquently, “a box trio.”

+

The PARTITIVE case is also used in constructing + words for Ithkuil numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed + in Chapter + 12 on enumeration.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.8
CPS
The Compositive Case
+
+

The COMPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The COMPOSITIVE identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is + made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be That + statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) + coins, We were caught in a web of lies, I use a wooden + ladder, It was a house of cards, Three suits + comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups.

+

The COMPOSITIVE is also used in conjunction + with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing + or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be She likes to + cook with tomatoes, He reads by candle(light), + That child goes through four sets of clothes a day, My uncle + satisfied his sweet tooth with three chocolate bars.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.9
COR
The Correlative Case
+
+

The CORRELATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CORRELATIVE is used to indicate + an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another + noun or verb. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ + ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association + with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as career + goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, + The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, + Our next topic is sex and (or in) art + (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Note that the CORRELATIVE + case would often be used to translate constructions for which English often + uses an adjective, e.g., spatial coordinates, the political + economy.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.10
IDP
The Interdependent Case
+
+

The INTERDEPENDENT case is marked by + Series J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTERDEPENDENT identifies a noun + which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship + with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal + in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within + it’s natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, + an army general, the blood in my veins, the + driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his + team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case + does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the GENITIVE + case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, + or the leaves of a tree.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.5.11
PRD
The Predicative Case
+
+

The PREDICATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PREDICATIVE identifies a noun which + constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), + or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by + the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying + on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, + a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, + Can success supported by murder be sustained?

+

The PREDICATIVE should be distinguished + from Transrelative cases such as the DERIVATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL, + in that the PREDICATIVE does not denote a cause, merely + the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to + translate anxiety based on terror, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ + or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in + the phrase an attitude fueled by greed, the attitude derives from or + results from greed, but is not relying on it.

+


+ 4.5.12 Examples of Appositive Cases in Use

+


+ ____________________________________________________Listen! +

+


+

+ + + + +

4.6 THE ADVERBIAL CASES

+

The Adverbial cases function similarly to adverbial phrases + in Western languages (usually beginning with an adverbial conjunction), to provide + additional contextual information to a verb. The fourteen Adverbial cases are + the ESSIVE, ASSIMILATIVE, FUNCTIVE, TRANSFORMATIVE, REFERENTIAL, + CONSIDERATIVE, CLASSIFICATIVE, DEFERENTIAL, COMITATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE, UTILITATIVE, + BENEFACTIVE, TRANSPOSITIVE, and COMMUTATIVE. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.6.15.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.1
ESS
The Essive Case
+
+

The ESSIVE case is marked by Series A + vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ESSIVE identifies the role or name + by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ + in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would + be used in translating the English sentences They called him a clown, + The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider + you our only hope.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.2
ASI
The Assimilative Case
+
+

The ASSIMILATIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical + consonant. The ASSIMILATIVE identifies a noun used as + a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a + verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in + the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of + usage are She sings like a bird, As children they + seemed to me.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.3
FUN
The Functive Case
+
+

The FUNCTIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in -ly + or the adverbial use of with, identifying the manner in which an action, + event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to + characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately + by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would + be: She dances gracefully (i.e., in a manner characterized + by grace), The boys ate with gusto, That clown is speaking + nonsense, Father speaks with such fortitude.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.4
TFM
The Transformative Case
+
+

The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by + Series D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome + or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ + or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone + some transformation. Example usages would be The house burned to + ashes, The clown reached a state of tranquility, The + clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank + himself to death.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.5
REF
The Referential Case
+
+

The REFERENTIAL case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The REFERENTIAL identifies a noun functioning + as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ + ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ + ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ + Examples of use would be a song of love; As for + those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; + His attitude toward women.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.6
CSD
The Considerative Case
+
+

The CONSIDERATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONSIDERATIVE identifies a noun + as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs + or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according + to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion + of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s + a coward; He’s leaving town as per orders from the court; + You were arrested pursuant to law; According to our + teacher, humans are descended from apes.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.7
CLA
The Classificative Case
+
+

The CLASSIFICATIVE case is marked by + Series G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CLASSIFICATIVE identifies a noun + as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various + English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are + Place them in groups of three, The workers arranged the + tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can + you count by fives?, I will sort them by color.

+

The CLASSIFICATIVE is also used to identify + a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing + the manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time + periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature + of an event. Examples would be Month by month, their departure + crept closer; Year after year, I see more and more clowns; + Day in, day out, he’s always working; + The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, bag upon bag; + Patient by patient, the nurse administered injections.

+

Note that the CLASSIFICATIVE would not + be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used + to translate the sentence One bomb after another fell on the city. + Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations + of the noun (see Sec. + 7.7.4).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.8
DFR
The Deferential Case
+
+

The DEFERENTIAL case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DEFERENTIAL translates the English + phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or + ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is + paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would + be He remained silent for her sake, They went on with the + ceremony out of respect for the families, They dressed in robes + because of tradition.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.9
COM
The Comitative Case
+
+

The COMITATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish + or Estonian, the COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’ + in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in The + child went with the clown to the party. Like English ‘with,’ + the COMITATIVE does not imply that the conjoined noun + is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb + as the head noun. For example, in the sentence My father was walking with + a loaf of bread, the loaf of bread is not considered to be itself walking. +

+

It should be noted, however, that the COMITATIVE + is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two + nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences They danced + with each other or Mother wants to talk with you. These would + be translated using the RECIPROCAL valence of the verb, + explained in Section 5.2.4. + This distinction is illustrated even more clearly by comparing the following + two sentences; the first would be translated using the COMITATIVE, + the second would not: This man fought with my father (e.g., alongside + him during the war) versus This man fought with my father (e.g., they + had a fight with each other).

+

Note also that the COMITATIVE is not + used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by + means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as I + cut the meat with a knife. As previously discussed in Section + 4.3.8, instrumentality is indicated by use of the INSTRUMENTAL + case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed + in undertaking an act, as in He catches his fish with worms for which the COMPOSITIVE + case is used.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.10
CNJ
The Conjunctive Case
+
+

The CONJUNCTIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONJUNCTIVE translates English + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., + to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary + activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the COMITATIVE + above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the walking with + a loaf of bread example from above, it would be incorrect to use the CONJUNCTIVE + case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate + the usage, consider the sentence I’m with the brigade. Translating + ‘brigade’ using the COMITATIVE would mean + that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ + while using the CONJUNCTIVE would mean ‘I’m + a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE + would be used are They skate with the best team, That teacher works well + with children.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.11
UTL
The Utilitative Case
+
+

The UTILITATIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in + the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ + where it refers to actual use in progress as in A man with a gun + ran into the room. It should be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL + (see Sec. 4.3.8) in that the latter indicates the implement + used to accomplish an action, while the UTILITATIVE identifies + a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish + a stated action. For example, compare the sentence The man with + an umbrella was pushing a stroller in the rain (UTILITATIVE) + with The man pushed a stroller in the rain with an umbrella + (INSTRUMENTAL). The first sentence implies the man was + pushing a stroller with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the + rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the stroller. + Another way to translate the UTILITATIVE would be to use + an English gerundial construction as in A gun-wielding + man ran into the room or An umbrella-toting man pushed + a stroller in the rain.

+

Besides the INSTRUMENTAL, the UTILITATIVE + should likewise be distinguished from the COMITATIVE case + above, in that the COMITATIVE merely indicates accompaniment, + while the UTILITATIVE indicates use in progress. For example, + the sentence Go sit next to the girl with the book, + if translated using the COMITATIVE would merely identify + a girl who has a book in her visible possession, while with the UTILITATIVE + it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.12
BEN
The Benefactive Case
+
+

The BENEFACTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The BENEFACTIVE identifies a noun for + whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the BENEFACTIVE + is similar to the DATIVE, except that the BENEFACTIVE + implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the + recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or + consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ + Examples of usage are a toy for the children, We threw + him a party, Go to the teachers’ + lounge.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.13
TSP
The Transpositive Case
+
+

The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution + of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense + of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead + of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are + The boss made the speech for me, She went up into the attic + for her brother (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.6.14
CMM
The Commutative Case
+
+

The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The COMMUTATIVE translates English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in You + paid too much money for that dress, She kills for thrills.

+


+ 4.6.15 Examples of Adverbial Cases in Use
+
+
+ ___________________________Listen! +

+


+

+ + + + +

4.7 THE SUBRELATIVE CASES

+

The Subrelative cases comprise eleven cases which place a noun + in a subordinate context to the main sentence, much like subordinate conjunctions + in Western languages. In fact, these cases are used far more frequently with + verbal clauses than with nouns, creating what are known as “case-frames” + (to be discussed in Sec. 5.7), + the Ithkuil functional equivalent to Western subordinate clauses. The eleven + Subrelative cases are the ABESSIVE, CONVERSIVE, CONCESSIVE, EXCEPTIVE, + ADVERSATIVE, PROVISIONAL, POSTULATIVE, SUPPOSITIVE, DEPENDENT, COMPARATIVE, + and AVERSIVE. Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of the cases in use are given + in Sec. 4.7.12.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.1
ABE
The Abessive Case
+
+

The ABESSIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ABESSIVE is essentially the opposite + of the COMITATIVE, translating the English ‘without’ + or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not + having’ as in a day without rain or a treeless + plain. As noted in the next section below on the CONVERSIVE + case, it is not used to translate ‘without’ when + it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome as in I can’t go on without love.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.2
CVS
The Conversive Case
+
+

The CONVERSIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONVERSIVE is used in conjunction + with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered + a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where + it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the + conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition + ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense + does not correspond to its usual ABESSIVE usage in Sec. + 4.7.1 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by + such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if + it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ + Example of usage: Without peace, this society is doomed; + If not for the rain, we would have had a good time.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.3
CON
The Concessive Case
+
+

The CONCESSIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun, + situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result + which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, + conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ + ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ + ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: In spite of + his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, + I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), + they are welcome, Although foreigners, we will let them attend + the meeting.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.4
EXC
The Exceptive Case
+
+

The EXCEPTIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The EXCEPTIVE indicates a noun, situation, + or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main + clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ + or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: She loves everybody except + clowns; I like all animals, excluding dogs; He eats + almost anything but (not) spinach.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.5
AVS
The Adversative Case
+
+

The ADVERSATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ADVERSATIVE indicates a noun which + has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. + In verbal frame adjuncts it identifies the situation which had been expected + in contrast to what actually takes place. This is translatable by the English + phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘as opposed to,’ e.g., Instead + of rain, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, as opposed to + a maid.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.6
PVS
The Provisional Case
+
+

The PROVISIONAL case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which + the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required + condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the + main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided + (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ + or ‘but only if,’ e.g., Provided [there’s] food, + I will attend the meeting; We will fight only in case of war.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.7
PTL
The Postulative Case
+
+

The POSTULATIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The operates somewhat similarly to the PROVISIONAL + above, except that the POSTULATIVE implies a causal or + consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s) + and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, + situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, + but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated + by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in + case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where + it means ‘whether’ as in I don’t know if it’s warm + enough, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality + (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). + Examples of usage: If [there’s] snow, I’m not + going out; In case of fire, flee; If friend, + welcome them, if foe, kill ’em.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.8
SUP
The Suppositive Case
+
+

The SUPPOSITIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The SUPPOSITIVE identifies a noun as + a hypothetical supposition being offered for comment. It is somewhat similar + to the SITUATIVE case (see Section + 4.3.11 above), except that the noun is functioning purely as a supposition, + not as an actual context. The SUPPOSITIVE can be distinguished + from the PROVISIONAL and the POSTULATIVE + cases above, in that the latter two cases describe pre-conditions for a following + clause where the pre-condition is either preclusive or a known possibility. + The SUPPOSITIVE presents only a hypothetical possibility + whose likelihood of becoming or describing reality is either unknown or unknowable. + There is no equivalent English construction which expresses this distinction. + The following sentences represent approximate English translations of what would + be identical Ithkuil sentences except for the three different case declensions + of the word for ‘weather’:

+

PROVISIONAL: We’re packing + umbrellas, but only in case of bad weather (i.e., umbrellas + will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).
+ POSTULATIVE: We’re packing umbrellas in + case of bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation + for the possibility of bad weather).
+ SUPPOSITIVE: We’re packing umbrellas supposing + [there’s] bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed + even though we don’t know how the weather will be).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.9
DEP
The Dependent Case
+
+

The DEPENDENT case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DEPENDENT translates the English + phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which + the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be Depending + on the rain, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, depending + on her attitude.

+

The DEPENDENT should be distinguished + from the PREDICATIVE case in Sec. + 4.5.11, in that the former denotes contingency, while the PREDICATIVE + denotes reliance.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.10
CMP
The Comparative Case
+
+

The COMPARATIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being + compared and contrasted to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as + compared to,’ ‘as opposed to.’ With verbal case-frames (see + Sec. 5.7) it would translate as + ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). + Examples are She chose the red one as opposed to the blue one, + Sam drives a van as compared to Joe, who prefers a truck.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.7.11
AVR
The Aversive Case
+
+

The AVERSIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a + source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions + such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in + avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see Sec. + 5.7) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage + are She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled + by night to avoid the sun.

+

 

+

4.7.12 Examples of Subrelative Cases in Use

+


+ ____________________________Listen! +
+
+
+

+


+

+ + + + +

4.8 THE SPATIAL CASES +

+

As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ithkuil. + While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque + and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional + relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished + in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be + inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, + there are twelve cases corresponding to certain types of common spatial relationships. + These are the LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, + PROLATIVE, PERLATIVE, PERVASIVE , PERIPHERAL, INTEGRAL, POSITIONAL, and + NAVIGATIVE. Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided + in Sec. 4.8.13.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.1
LOC
The Locative Case
+
+

The LOCATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The LOCATIVE signifies general static + position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable + by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ + or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., in that building, by + the wall, on the street, at my house.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.2
ORI
The Orientative Case
+
+

The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ORIENTATIVE identifies the noun + (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” + of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable + into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ + in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., + He jumped in feet-first, The car rolled backward. + The ORIENTATIVE allows for the extension of this concept + to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., He walked “butt-ward” + down the street (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading + the way).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.3
PSV
The Procursive Case
+
+

The PROCURSIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROCURSIVE identifies a noun (often + a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point, + interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction + with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun usually appears + in either the ALLATIVE or POSITIONAL + case (see Sections 4.8.4 and 4.8.11 below). Examples of use would be They + collided sideways, She turned her back on + him, The chair “faced” the doorway (i.e., + The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.4
ALL
The Allative Case
+
+

The ALLATIVE case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. When used in the context of explicit or implied directional + motion, the ALLATIVE signifies the direction of motion, + translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ + in English. Note that the ALLATIVE in no way implies that + the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion + or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be I wandered + eastward, The little girl ran toward me, Throw + the rock at that clown!, We headed for home.

+

When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the ALLATIVE signifies a directional orientation of a + noun relative to another, e.g., He turned his back on me, + The upstairs bedroom faces the yard, It’s alongside the + desk (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk)

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.5
ABL
The Ablative Case
+
+

The ABLATIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion, + the ABLATIVE signifies the general directional origin + of movement away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin + or departure. Examples would be He came out of the east, + She walked here from (the direction of) the river.

+

When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the ABLATIVE signifies a reverse directional orientation + of one noun relative to another, e.g., He faced away from me.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.6
PLT
The Prolative Case
+
+

The PROLATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROLATIVE indicates either a position + or a path of linear movement along, across, or through a one-dimensional linear + medium or a two-dimensional quasi-planar surface, the position or movement being + between one point and another, without implying origination at one point or + destination at another, e.g., He passed through a tunnel, + She’s standing along the highway, I’ll walk across + the patio, He pushed his way through the crowd, The + vessel traversed the (surface of the) ocean.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.7
PEL
The Perlative Case
+
+

The PERLATIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERLATIVE is identical to the PROLATIVE + above, except that the implied position or path of movement between implied + points is through or within a three-dimensional volume or medium, e.g., Baboons + chase each other through the trees, We escaped under + the ocean, The probe explored the nebula (i.e., + while passing through it), The vessel traversed the (depths of the) + ocean.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.8
PRV
The Pervasive Case
+
+

The PERVASIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERVASIVE signifies position or + path of movement among, within, or throughout the contextual medium, e.g., among + the grounds, throughout the stadium, within the crowd.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.9
PRH
The Peripheral Case
+
+

The PERIPHERAL case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERIPHERAL signifies position or + path of movement in a area surrounding, around, or along the periphery of a + noun, e.g., around her head, on all sides of it, surrounding the yard.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.10
INT
The Integral Case
+
+

The INTEGRAL case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTEGRAL identifies the noun which + is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. It + should be distinguished from the ABLATIVE above, in that + the ABLATIVE implies position or path of motion away from, + whereas the INTEGRAL merely presents a locational context + as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise similar + noun. Examples of usage would be Fix the kitchen sink! + (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), Desert rocks are so + beautiful (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert + or rocks still present in the desert), Northern women are + easy-going.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.11
PSN
The Positional Case
+
+

The POSITIONAL case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The POSITIONAL identifies a noun relative + to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial + orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater + sense once one realizes that, in Ithkuil, most one-to-one spatial relationships + are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the + right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, the POSITIONAL + case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples + of how it would be used are I’m standing four feet north of + the desk, The one hanging above the boxes looks fresh, + It lies at a 30° angle relative to the tree.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.8.12
NAV
The Navigative Case
+
+

The NAVIGATIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The NAVIGATIVE identifies the noun + relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event + takes place. This is particularly important, as we will see in Section + 10.4.3 that Ithkuil modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors + of movement or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as + the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be I looked down + the street, We aligned it perpendicular to the path of the + sun, He crossed the room diagonally (i.e., walked + diagonally relative to the long axis of the room.)

+


+ 4.8.13 Examples of Spatial Cases in Use
+
+
+ _________________________Listen! + +

+


+

+ + + + +

4.9 THE TEMPORAL CASES

+

The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In + many respects, Ithkuil analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly + in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases + as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ + and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear + using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ + ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the + CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, + POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, SIMULTANEITIVE, + ASSESSIVE, and LIMITATIVE. Following are explanations + of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases + in use are provided in Sec. 4.9.16.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.9.1
CNR
The Concursive Case
+
+

The CONCURSIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal + locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during + or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered + a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be He prays during + lunch, She studied hard last night, I won’t + visit until then (i.e., during that period in time).

+
+

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.9.2
ACS
The Accessive Case
+

The ACCESSIVE case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The is similar to the CONCURSIVE, except + that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly delimited + period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something + occurs. Examples of usage would be Dinner will be served at sunset; + When (i.e., at the moment that) you hear his voice, + call in the clowns; Upon impact, both cars were accelerating.

+
+

+
+

+ + + + + + + +
4.9.3
DFF
The Diffusive Case
+

The DIFFUSIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The DIFFUSIVE is yet another temporal + locative similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time + period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on + the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase + ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be + Most cars had tail fins in those days; I was abroad during + that era; At the time of his death, the number of + clowns was increasing; Over the past several seasons, your + talent has matured.

+
+

+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.9.4
PER
The Periodic Case
+

The PERIODIC case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PERIODIC identifies the span of + time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This + case should be distinguished from the CONCURSIVE above, + in that the periodic specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions, + or durationally extended acts or states take place, whereas the concursive signifies + a contextually single holistic event. Examples would be He wrote the novel + in six months, These clowns can corrupt your child within + a few days, The woman has been ill a lot this year, + For the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating.

+
+

+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.9.5
PRO
The Prolapsive Case
+

The PROLAPSIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROLAPSIVE signifies the duration + of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case + should be distinguished from the PERIODIC above, in that + the PROLAPSIVE specifies the actual duration of the act, + condition, or event, whereas the PERIODIC merely specifies + a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, + or event occurs. Examples would be He prayed through lunch, + While he was dying, the number of clowns increased, It rained + all night, It took three days for the fever + to break, She sang for an hour.

+
+

+
+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.9.6
PCV
The Precursive Case
+

The PRECURSIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PRECURSIVE identifies a point in + time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred before the war, It rained prior + to his appearance, There will be a presentation preceding the + banquet.

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.9.7
PCR
The Postcursive Case
+

The POSTCURSIVE case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The POSTCURSIVE identifies a point + in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This + situation occurred after the war, It rained subsequent + to his appearance, There will be a presentation following the + banquet.

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.9.8
ELP
The Elapsive Case
+

The ELAPSIVE case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ELAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, + condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ + Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going + back three generations, women could not even vote.

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.9.9
ALP
The Allapsive Case
+

The ALLAPSIVE case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ALLAPSIVE identifies the amount + of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of + a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be Four years + from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, + clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little + did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man.

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
4.9.10
INP
The Interpolative Case
+

The INTERPOLATIVE case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The INTERPOLATIVE is used within the + context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the + duration of each repetition. Examples of usage are We heard several five-second + snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals of several + seconds; She gets recurring migraines, each lasting hours.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.9.11
EPS
The Episodic Case
+
+

The EPISODIC case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The EPISODIC identifies a contextually + recurring time-period. Examples of usage are The man talks with his mother + every three days; Each year, I travel to the + Clown Planet; He works nights; By day, she + is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.9.12
PRL
The Prolimitive Case
+
+

The PROLIMITIVE case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The PROLIMITIVE defines a point in + time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e., + the time by which some act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would + be By the time of your graduation, I want you out of the + house; Please be on board by midnight; By the time + of the raid, there was nothing left to steal.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.9.13
SML
The Simultaneitive Case
+
+

The SIMULTANEITIVE case is marked by + Series D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The SIMULTANEITIVE identifies a noun + signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion. + Examples would be I was in class at the same time as his accident, + I worked a side-job concurrent to the strike, She laughed simultaneously + with my coughing fit.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.9.14
ASS
The Assessive Case
+
+

The ASSESSIVE case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The ASSESSIVE specifies the unit of + time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to + English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be My lawyer + charges by the minute, He publishes several books each + year, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles per hour.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
4.9.15
LIM
The Limitative Case
+
+

The LIMITATIVE case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 + radical consonant. The LIMITATIVE signifies a event culminating + an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time + for.’ Examples of usage are He arrived in time for dinner, + Be inside the Big Tent in time for the clowns.

+


+ 4.9.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use

+


+ ___________________________Listen! +
+

+

+

+

+

Proceed + to Chapter 5: Verb Morphology >>

+

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+
+©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author +and this website. +

 

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+

+

 

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5a-verb-morphology1.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5a-verb-morphology1.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..49dace0 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5a-verb-morphology1.html @@ -0,0 +1,2992 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 5: Verb Morphology + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + Adjuncts
+

 

+

Chapter 5: Verb Morphology

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
5.1 Illocution
5.2 Valence
5.3 Version
5.4 Conflation, Derivation and Format
Chapter + 5 Continued: Sections 5.5 through 5.7
+
+

The Ithkuil verbal formative (termed “verb” in + this chapter for simplicity’s sake) is the workhorse of the language, + inflecting for twenty-two different morphological categories. These include + the eight categories shared by all formatives and already discussed in Chapter + 3: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension, Focus, Essence, + Context, and Designation. Additionally the following + fourteen categories apply solely to verbs: Illocution, Valence, Version, + Conflation/Derivation, Format, Modality, Level, Case-Frame, Validation, Phase, + Sanction, Aspect, Mood, and Bias. The verb can also + theoretically take any number of the over 1300 affixes available to formatives. + Such affixes are analyzed in Chapter + 7.

+

The full structure of a Ithkuil verbal formative is tripartite, + i.e., having three distinct words, these being an aspectual adjunct, + a conflation (or valence) adjunct, + and the verb itself. In simple sentences, either or both of + the two adjuncts may be missing. The following extreme example of a fully inflected + Ithkuil verb illustrates all 22 morphological components of the tripartite structure:

+ + + + + + + +
 
____
+ + + + + + +
+

A highly stilted but approximate English translation of the + above, capturing as many of the nuances of the Ithkuil phrase as possible, would + be: ‘…despite apparently being on the verge, contrary to the + allegation, of just so happening to want to succeed in vowing to maybe return + periodically to the honorable practice of superlative architecture for others + to follow by example’

+

In this chapter we will examine eight of the 14 morphological + categories particular to verbal formatives. The six categories specific to aspectual + adjuncts will be described in Chapter + 6.

+

 

+ + + + +

5.1 + ILLOCUTION

+

Illocution refers to what in linguistics is usually termed + types of speech acts, i.e., the general purpose of a statement such as whether + it is an assertion, a command, a declaratory pronouncement, a question, a warning, + etc. This is a category which is not generally marked within Western languages + in any consistent grammatical sense, the nearest equivalent grammatical category + usually being Mood. In Ithkuil, Mood (which will be discussed in Chapter + 6) functions in a much narrower grammatical range than in Western languages. + When the moods of Western language actually relate to types of speech acts, + the equivalent function in Ithkuil is shown by the category of Illocution.

+

There are seven illocutions in Ithkuil: ASSERTIVE, + DIRECTIVE, COMMISSIVE, EXPRESSIVE, + DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE and ADMONITIVE. + They distinguish the type of speech act being performed by the speaker, with + a specific focus on the type of commitment being made on the part of either + the speaker or the hearer to the truth or purpose of the utterance. They are + marked by a consonantal affix to the verb which immediately follows the Affiliation/Extension/Conflation + prefix (see Section 5.4.1) and precedes the C1 + radical consonant. The illocutions and their prefixes are described below.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.1
ASR
The Assertive
+
+

The ASSERTIVE illocution is unmarked + by any affix. The ASSERTIVE is used to express propositions + which purport to describe or name some act, event, or state in the real world, + with the purpose of committing the hearer to the truth of the proposition. Thus, + an utterance in the ASSERTIVE illocution is one that can + be believed or disbelieved, and is either true or false. Such utterances would + include general statements, descriptions, and explanations.

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
5.1.2
DIR
The Directive
+

The DIRECTIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -’- (i.e., the glottal stop). For stems whose + C1 radical is a single stop or affricate consonant (i.e., + + plus corresponding ejectives or aspirates) in mutational grades 1 through 8, + this illocution is shown by gemination of the initial consonant of C1 + consonantal form rather than by a glottal stop (e.g., aqqwet, + not a’qwet). + The DIRECTIVE illocution is for the purpose of committing + the hearer to undertake a course of action represented by the proposition, where + the proposition describes a mental wish, desire, or intention on the part of + the speaker. Thus, an utterance in the DIRECTIVE is one + that is neither true nor false because it is not describing something that purports + to exist in the real world; rather, it describes an act or situation which can + potentially be made real, i.e., that can be fulfilled or carried out. Such utterances + include commands, orders, and requests and would generally be marked in Western + languages by either the imperative, optative, or subjunctive moods. The commitment + on the part of the hearer is not belief or disbelief, but rather whether to + obey, comply with, or grant.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.3
CMV
The Commissive
+
+

The COMMISSIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -n- + (with alternative affixes -m- + or -- + where euphonically appropriate). Preceding a C1 form beginning + with -n-, + -r-, or --, + the affix -m- + is used. The COMMISSIVE illocution is similar to the DIRECTIVE + above, except that the listener and the speaker are the same person, i.e., the + statement is a wish or command directed at oneself as in a promise, vow, pledge, + oath, contract, or guarantee.

+

 

+ + + + + + + +
5.1.4
EXP
The Expressive
+

The EXPRESSIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -f-, + with alternate forms -- + or -z- where + euphonically appropriate or where necessary to avoid confusion with a geminated + C1 form (i.e., azvar + and afar + rather than afvar + and affar). + The EXPRESSIVE is used for various types of specialized + utterances where the truth-value of the proposition is taken for granted and + the commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of acceptance or non-acceptance. + Such utterances include welcomes, offers, congratulations, condolences, and + apologies.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.5
DEC
The Declarative
+
+

The DECLARATIVE illocution is marked + by the affix -ç- + with alternate forms -p-, + -t- or -k- + where euphonically appropriate and/or to avoid confusion with a geminated C1 + consonantal form. The DECLARATIVE is used for utterances + whose purpose is to themselves effect a change upon the real world, based upon + convention, cultural rules, law, subjective authority, or personal authority + or control of a situation. The commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of + recognition or non-recognition. Such utterances include declarations, announcements, + proclamations, and various “performative” expressions. Certain languages + mark this function of a verb using a mood known as hortative. Examples would + be: I dub thee “Clown Master”!, The king will hear all grievances + at noon each day, This court is now in session, We hereby declare this treaty + null and void!

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.6
IRG
The Interrogative
+
+

The INTERROGATIVE illocution is marked + by the affix -r- + with alternate form -n- + used where euphonically appropriate and/or to avoid confusion with a geminated + C1 consonantal form. The INTERROGATIVE + is used for utterances corresponding to questions in other languages. Questions, + as such, do not exist in Ithkuil. All inquiries and interrogatives are treated + as a type of directive in which the speaker tells the addressee to validate + the truth of an assertion or provide missing information specified by an interrogative + affix to a formative, i.e., when using the INTERROGATIVE, + one is not asking Would you like to dance with me? Rather, one is expressing + what can only be translated either a specialized command (State whether) + you will dance with me or a specialized assertion (I inquire whether) + you will dance with me. One does not say What’s your name?, + but rather Tell me your name.

+

Indeed, Ithkuil has no words corresponding to the English words + ‘question’ or ‘ask,’ the nearest equivalents being derived + from the words for ‘investigation’ and ‘determine.’ + Consequently, there is no question mark used at the end of the sentence, nor + does the pitch of the voice rise as is usual with Western languages when asking + questions. The commitment on the part of the listener in regard to the INTERROGATIVE + is one of compliance or non-compliance in divulging the information sought, + and the truth value of the utterance is neutral pending the reply.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.1.7
ADM
The Admonitive
+
+

The ADMONITIVE illocution is marked by + the affix -l- + with alternate forms -- + or -- + used where euphonically appropriate and/or to avoid confusion with a geminated + C1 consonantal form. The ADMONITIVE + is used for admonitions and warnings, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘(I) caution you lest…,’ ‘(I) warn you against…,’ + or ‘Be careful not to….’ The utterance is neither true nor + false because it describes only a potential act or situation which may occur + unless avoided. The commitment on the part of the hearer is to assess the degree + of likelihood of the potentiality, followed by a choice whether to heed or ignore/defy + the utterance.

+


+ 5.1.8 Examples of Illocution in Use

+
+


+ ___Listen! +

+
+

 

+ + + + +

5.2 VALENCE

+

In Ithkuil, the term Valence is used to refer + to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given + verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by + another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, + or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs + of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” + verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ithkuil explicitly + shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate + the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1a) I found an old man.1b) I found an empty can.
2a) I threw the ball at Sam.2b) I threw the ball at the window.
3a) I performed in front of her.3b) I performed in front of the wall.
+

Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate + object of the verb (an old man, Sam, and her), while the second + member of each pair has an inanimate object (an empty can, the window, and + the wall). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below: +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1c) I met an old man.1d) * I met an empty can.
2c) I threw Sam the ball.2d) * I threw the window the ball.
3c) I entertained her.3d) * I entertained the wall.
+

The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these + pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why?

+

The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except + that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been + replaced by the semantically similar meet, throw, and entertain. + Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears + unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” + i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, + whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that + the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can + find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even + being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without the old man also + meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if + I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected to participate by + catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re + asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating + in the situation by observing me.

+

The participatory relationship involving the second party of + a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship + (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb + ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship + as in the sentence I met the old man (i.e., and so he met me) or in + verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We + love each other. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in I + played along with him (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship + as in I threw Sam the ball (i.e., and so he caught it).

+

Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is + the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ithkuil into + the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely + explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ + ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform + are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly + specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as find/meet, + throw at/throw, perform/entertain, etc.

+

In Ithkuil, co-activity is explicitly shown morphologically, + and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are + systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus + co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monoactively + as well as co-actively.

+

There are fourteen valences in Ithkuil: the MONOACTIVE, + PARALLEL, COROLLARY, RECIPROCAL, COMPLEMENTARY, NONRELATIONAL, DUPLICATIVE, + DEMONSTRATIVE, RESISTIVE, IMITATIVE, CONTINGENT, PARTICIPATIVE, INDICATIVE, + and MUTUAL. Valence is shown by the initial vocalic affix + to a type of adjunct known as either a valence adjunct or a conflational adjunct, + depending on whether the verb manifests a derivative conflation (explained later + in Sec. 5.4). For now we will concentrate solely on the + valence adjunct form. Thirteen of these fourteen vocalic prefixes signify co-active + relationships while the first constitutes a neutral valence corresponding to + monoactivity. The initial prefix also indicates the additional morphological + category of Version, a separate morphological category described + later in Section 5.3.

+

The form of a valence adjunct is Vv + + , + where Vv is the vocalic prefix signifying + the valence and version of the verb. These prefixes are shown below in Table + 12. Following the table are explanations of each valence. It should be noted + that placement of a glottal stop infix -’- between the + Vv prefix and + assigns positive focus +FC to the main verb.

+


+ Table + 12: Valence / Version* Prefixes
+
+
+ * see Section 5.3 below + for an explanation of Version

+


+ The fourteen valences are explained as follows:
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.1
MNO
The Monoactive
+
+

The MONOACTIVE valence is the default + valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second + party is implied.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.2
PRL
The Parallel
+
+

The PARALLEL valence indicates that a + second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children all sang + together, We both went jogging on the parkway.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.3
CRO
The Corollary
+
+

The COROLLARY valence is similar to the + PARALLEL, except that the second party engages in related + activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. + It would be used in translating sentences such as The children played in + the yard (i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or The + band played my favorite song (implying that not everyone in the band was + playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed + to playing an instrument).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.4
RCP
The Reciprocal
+
+

The RECIPROCAL valence indicates identical + activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial + phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in They + looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.5
CPL
The Complementary
+
+

The COMPLEMENTARY valence indicates that + the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. + By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the + first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., + the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences + such as The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, + The clown read the children a story, where ‘played catch’ implies + the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the + woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, and ‘read’ + implies a reader and an audience.

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.6
NNR
The Nonrelational
+
+

The NONRELATIONAL valence indicates that + a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., + an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify + this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause + such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in He shaved + while she did something else. The way an Ithkuil sentence would utilize + this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, + ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL + valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one + thing while the other did something else.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.7
DUP
The Duplicative
+
+

The DUPLICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the + sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, + then you draw the same picture), They both read that book (i.e., first + one, then the other), I bought a new car (i.e., and now someone else + is buying a new car, too).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.8
DEM
The Demonstrative
+
+

The DEMONSTRATIVE valence indicates that + the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what + to do. Thus an Ithkuil sentence constructed as We played chess with + the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I + showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They + fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.9
RES
The Resistive
+
+

The RESISTIVE valence indicates that + the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity + of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the + adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases + such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as We took the + children to see the clowns anyway (i.e., they didn’t want to go), + They fed me liver just the same (i.e., I can’t stand liver), + Nevertheless, he told us the story (i.e., despite our not wanting to + hear it).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.10
IMT
The Imitative
+
+

The IMITATIVE valence indicates that + the second party mimics, imitates, or attempts to duplicate the activity of + the first party. The Ithkuil sentence The clown juggled three balls for + the child in the IMITATIVE valence implies that the + child attempted to juggle the balls as well.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.11
CNG
The Contingent
+
+

The CONTINGENT valence indicates that + the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, + the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ithkuil sentence + I started the campfire for my friend in the CONTINGENT + implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked + the food.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.12
PTI
The Participative
+
+

The PARTICIPATIVE valence indicates that + the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable + by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ithkuil sentence + They raced in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They + each took part in the race.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.13
IDC
The Indicative
+
+

The INDICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s + activity. Thus the sentence I looked at her in the INDICATIVE + would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ + while the sentence I spoke to them would mean ‘They gleaned what + I really meant from my words.’

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.2.14
MUT
The Mutual
+
+

The MUTUAL valence indicates that both + parties alternate performing an activity, as in She and I take turns cleaning + or They both alternate teaching the beginning and advanced classes.

+


+ 5.2.15 Examples of Valence in Use

+


+ + Listen! +
+

+

+

 

+ + + + +

5.3 VERSION

+

Version refers to a six-way aspectual distinction indicating + whether the verb refers to an act, event or state which is goal- or result-oriented, + and/or whether it has been successfully actualized subsequent to one’s + initial intention. Like many Ithkuil morphological categories, version addresses + semantic distinctions which are usually rendered by lexical differentiation + (i.e., word choice) in other languages.

+

Version is shown by one of six forms of the vocalic valence + prefix to a conflational adjunct as previously discussed and shown in Sec. + 5.2, Table 12). The six versions are PROCESSUAL, COMPLETIVE, + INEFFECTUAL, INCOMPLETIVE, POSITIVE + and EFFECTIVE. They are explained below.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.1
PRC
The Processual
+
+

The PROCESSUAL describes all acts, conditions, + or events which are ends in themselves and not goal-oriented, i.e., are not + focused on an anticipated outcome or final purpose toward which a progressive + effort is being made. It is the default or neutral version and is shown by the + first form of the valence prefix (as shown in Table 12) + or, where there is no conflational or valence adjunct, is unmarked.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.2
CPT
The Completive
+
+

The COMPLETIVE describes acts, conditions, + or events which achieve, or are intended to achieve, an anticipated outcome, + i.e., which are oriented toward the achievement of some purpose, outcome, or + final state. Such a distinction is usually handled by word choice in Western + languages. The dynamism of version can be seen in the following comparisons:

+
+

PROCESSUAL + COMPLETIVE

+

hunt + to hunt down
+ to be losing + to lose
+ to study + to learn
+ to be winning + to win
+ to strive for + to accomplish, achieve
+ to risk + to defeat the odds; win
+ to work + to build, construct, make
+ to displace; infiltrate + infest, to take over; vanquish
+ to pour out + to drain
+ to remove (incrementally) + to eliminate
+ to increase + to maximize
+ to read + to read to the end; finish reading
+ to decrease + minimize
+ to flank + to surround
+ to enlarge + to make gigantic
+ to spread upon or over + to cover, engulf, envelop
+ to shrink + miniaturize
+ to chase + to catch up to
+ to eat eat + all up
+ to pursue + to capture
+ to compete + to win
+ to be pregnant + to give birth
+ to throw at + to hit (with a throw)
+ to run low on + to run out of, deplete
+ to grow + to grow up
+ to use use + up
+ to possess, hold to keep
+ to tear/ rip + to tear/rip up or to pieces
+ to join together + to unify
+ to accelerate, speed up + to achieve maximum speed
+ to pour into + to fill (up)
+ to bleed + to bleed to death
+ to run to + run all the way
+ to descend, go down + to get to the bottom
+ to brighten + to illuminate
+ to decelerate, slow down + to stop
+ to search for, seek + to find
+ to polish + to burnish
+ to practice + to perfect
+ to darken + to make dark
+ to ascend, rise + to reach the top
+ to explore + to discover

+ +
+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.3
INE
The Ineffectual
+

This version, the INEFFECTUAL, and the + next, the INCOMPLETIVE, operate in parallel fashion to + the PROCESSUAL and the COMPLETIVE + versions respectively but are specific to acts, events, or states initially + expressed (whether explicitly or implicitly) as unrealized intentions, attempts, + desires, needs, etc., often in conjunction with a modality affix to the verb + (see Sec. 5.5). Such “unrealized” + verbs are exemplified in the following sentences: I want to dance, She needs + to work, I tried to finish, She must find him, I choose to celebrate. Each + of these sentences in itself does not specify whether the action was “realized” + or not, i.e., just because I want to dance doesn’t necessarily mean that + I actually do dance; her need to work doesn’t tell us by itself whether + she in fact will work, etc.

+

The INEFFECTUAL version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” PROCESSUAL + verb is unsuccessful. Thus the sentence I want to dance in the INEFFECTUAL + would be translated as I want to dance but I’m not going to, + while the sentence I tried to eat in the INEFFECTUAL + means I tried to eat but couldn’t.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.4
INC
The Incompletive
+
+

The INCOMPLETIVE version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” COMPLETIVE + verb is unsuccessful. It functions identically to the INEFFECTUAL, + except that it refers to a verb that is result/goal-oriented, as illustrated + in the comparative chart shown above for the COMPLETIVE + version. Thus, the sentence I tried to eat in the INCOMPLETIVE + means I tried to eat all of it but couldn’t.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.5
PST
The Positive
+
+

Complementing the INEFFECTUAL, the POSITIVE + version indicates an intention brought to reality. Thus the sentence I want + to dance in the POSITIVE would be translated as I + want to dance and so I’m going to, while the sentence I tried + to eat in the POSITIVE means I succeeded in eating + something.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.3.6
EFC
The Effective
+
+

Likewise, the EFFECTIVE version complements + the INCOMPLETIVE, indicating the same successful effort + implied by the POSITIVE version, only applied to goal-/result-oriented + verbs. Thus I wanted to finish in the EFFECTIVE + implies that the desire was successfully carried out; I tried to eat + in the EFFECTIVE means I succeeded in eating it all + up.

+


+ 5.3.7 Examples of Version in Use

+
+

+
+ Listen! + +
+

+
+

 

+ + + + + +

5.4 CONFLATION, DERIVATION + AND FORMAT

+

Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings + into a single verb, a process termed conflation. This is illustrated + in the following English sentences:

+
+

1. He bicycled south. = He traveled south by bicycle.
+ 2. She dolled herself up. = She made herself look as pretty as a + doll.
+ 3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the + books on the shelf/shelves.
+ 4. Slide me a beer. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the + bar).

+
+

The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry + inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and + giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random + and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English to bicycle + in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to + make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the + verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but + rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means + ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ + or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first + three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does slide + in sentence (4).

+

As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” + way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, + placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary + sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our + four sentences above as follows:

+
+

He [1: + (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle]
+ = He bicycled south.

+

She [1: + (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll]
+ = She dolled herself up.

+

They [1: + (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves]
+ = They’re shelving the books.

+

[1: (GIVE+imperative)] + a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me
+ = Slide me a beer.

+
+

Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown + by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb + and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English + must learn that to hand means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, + but to shoulder does not mean to GIVE by MEANS of + one’s shoulder.

+

Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity + for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack + of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use + when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form. For example, imagine + an English speaker using a new verb form such as ‘to apple,’ as + in Let’s ‘apple’ today. Would this mean to pick + apples?, to eat apples?, to plant apples?, to bake apples?, to buy apples?, + to turn something into an apple?, to wear apple-related clothing? Without + a standardized system of conflation, the meaning of such a form could only be + learned from hearing others using it in context.

+

Ithkuil systemizes verb conflation into a complex, productive + scheme, in which a verb can convey any of eight covert senses, called formats, + which can then conflate with seven primary overt senses and 245 derivative overt + senses to theoretically yield 2016 possible semantic combinations. In this manner + the Ithkuil verb corresponding to English to shelve, can by systematic + conflation be made to indicate meanings as diverse as:

+ + + + + + +

+ 		to build shelves
+ to be a shelf
+ to make straight as a shelf
+ to remain a shelf
+ to seem like a shelf
+ to support on a shelf
+ to compare shelves
+ to reserve a shelf 		to convey with a shelf
+ to make as long as a shelf
+ to cover with shelves
+ to arrange on shelves
+ to place on a shelf
+ to hurt someone with a shelf
+ to push using a shelf
+ to exchange for a shelf
+

Note, however, that being completely systematic for all verbs, + the Ithkuil conflation system generates forms which, for any particular verb, + will often be semantically questionable, even anomalous, e.g., to travel + by shelf, to taste of shelves, to make as warm as a shelf, to spend time as + a shelf, etc. (The fact that such semantically anomalous forms are morphologically + permissible presents no problem from a logical perspective and is inherent in + human language, as exemplified in English by morphologically permissible but + semantically anomalous forms such as ‘re-laugh’ or ‘co-beer.’)

+

The specifics of primary conflation, format, and derivative + conflation are detailed in the following sections.

+

 

+

5.4.1 (Primary) Conflation

+

Primary Conflation, which we will hereafter simply termed Conflation, + refers to seven overt senses with which the main verb conflates. These conflations + are shown in conjunction with Affiliation and Extension by a vocalic prefix + to the main verb. We previously encountered these prefixes for nouns in Table + 11 of Sec 3.4. + Here, these prefixes are expanded to include the seven primary conflations. + The senses of the seven conflations are explained in Table 13 below, while the + prefixes themselves are shown in Table 14.

+


+ Table 13: Conflations

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
LABEL
CONFLATION
MEANING
OPR
OPERATIVETo perform the action + of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function
STA
STATIVEStative manifestation, + i.e. to be in a (temporary) state; does NOT mean “be” in the + sense of copula identification as in “I am John”
MNF
MANIFESTIVETo manifest or be identified + as a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the “be” + copula of identification in Western languages
DSP
DESCRIPTIVEDescriptive manifestation, + i.e., to appear or manifest in the manner of; this sense is the nearest + Ithkuil equivalent to English adjectives
ATV
ACTIVEEither action or motion + in situ, i.e., action performed or movement in place (as in shaking, + spinning, wagging, jumping, etc.)
PSN
POSITIONALPosition or location, + i.e. to be situated in a location/position in space
ICH
INCHOATIVETransformation from + one state to another or formation of an identity
+


+
+ Table 14: Conflation Prefixes + by Extension & Affiliation
+
+
+ * This a- prefix is optional if the + nominal versus verbal status of the formative can be determined from other morphological + elements or if the meaning of the phrase or sentence is clear regardless of + knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
+

+

5.4.2 Format

+

As described above, any conflated verb carries both an overt + sense and a covert sense. The covert sense constitutes the format + of the verb. Format is shown by variation in the - + suffix to a valence adjunct, as previously described in Sec. + 5.2. The eight formats are explained in Table 15 below along with + their respective suffixes to a valence adjunct.

+

The astute reader may have noted in Table 14 above that the + prefixes for the OPERATIVE conflation are the same as + the default (i.e., “conflation-less”) Extension/Affiliation prefixes + for nouns previously shown in Table 11 of Sec. + 3.4. One may ask, then, how one knows whether or not these particular prefixes + are meant to show OPERATIVE conflation on a formative. + The answer is that, in the absence of one of the formats below, the prefixes + do not indicate such conflation.

+


+ Table 15: Format Suffixes to Valence/Version Adjuncts

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
LABEL
FORMAT
SUFFIX
EXPLANATION (COVERT + SENSE OF VERB)
SCH
SCHEMATIC
-
Indicates that the + verb specifies the manner of the conflated primary sense, e.g., I’m + speeding through the book = reading speedily; Clouds blanketed + the city = cover like a blanket
ISR
INSTRUMENT-ATIVE
-
Indicates the means, + cause, or instrument of causation of the conflated primary sense, e.g., + I clubbed him = I hit him with a club; She drove him there + = She transported him there by driving
ATH
AUTHORITIVE
-
Indicates that the + verb specifies the indirect/enabling cause or circumstance which gives rise + to the conflated primary sense, e.g., He sang her cares away = + his singing allowed her to forget her cares
PRC
PRECURRENT
-
Indicates that the + verb specifies an initial event immediately preceding or continuing on into + the conflated sense, where the overt sense is not the cause of the conflated + sense, i.e., the conflated sense would have occurred anyway, e.g., I + bought some lunch (conflated sense: EAT)
RSL
RESULTATIVE
-
Indicates that the + verb specifies the concurrent result of the conflated sense, i.e., an event + which occurs in conjunction with the conflated sense but is also caused + by it, e.g., The plane crashed into the water (conflated sense: + FLY)
SBQ
SUBSEQUENT
-
Indicates that the + verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect result or purpose (not the + concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., I’ll look in + on the stew (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen])
CCM
CONCOMITTANT
-
Indicates that the + verb specifies an incidental simultaneous event having no causal relationship, + e.g., She wore jeans to church (conflated sense: GO); He sweated + through her recital (Conflated sense: LISTEN)
OBJ
OBJECTIVE
-
Indicates that the + verb specifies the Patient (see Sec. + 4.1.1) of the underlying conflated sense, e.g., She dusted + the table (conflated sense: REMOVE); They fish that river each + spring (conflated sense: GATHER/COLLECT)
+


+
+ 5.4.3 Derivation and Conflation Adjuncts

+

In addition to the seven primary conflations signified by vocalic + prefix to the verb, there are 245 additional overt conflation senses which utilize + the same seven verbal prefix patterns in conjunction with an additional conflation + adjunct preceding the verb. Because these 245 conflations are derived by adding + a special adjunct to the verb along with the same verb prefixes of the seven + primary conflations, they are called derivations, to distinguish them from the + seven conflations. Note that when a derivation is present (evidenced by a conflation + adjunct), it is the derivation that determines the conflative meaning of the + verb, not the conflation shown by the main verb.

+

The conflation adjunct used with these derivations is the same + adjunct as the valence adjunct already analyzed in Section + 5.2. By adding an additional consonantal prefix and the consonantal format + suffix from Sec. 5.4.2 above, we generate the following + formula:

+

CN + + VV + CK, where:

+

VV = A vocalic prefix + signifying the valence and version of the verb, as previously described in Sections + 5.2 and 5.3 above and shown in Table + 12. In its basic form, VV always + begins either with a vowel, w + vowel, or y + vowel.

+

CN = A single consonant + form signifying a pattern of derivative conflation, whose exact meaning is dependent + on which of the seven primary conflation patterns is shown by the vocalic prefix + of the verb itself. For example, where CN + is p, + the actual conflationary meaning differs depending on whether the main verb + shows the OPERATIVE, STATIVE, MANIFESTIVE, DESCRIPTIVE, ACTIVE, + POSITIONAL or INCHOATIVE pattern. + Additionally, each CN has three variations + depending on whether VV above begins + with a vowel, begins with w- or with y-. Where + Vv begins with a vowel, the first form of CN + (labelled CN1) is used; where Vv + has an initial w-, the second form of CN + (labelled CN2) is used and the initial + w- to Vv is dropped; where Vv + begins with y-, the third form of CN + (labelled CN3) is used and the initial + y- to Vv is dropped.

+

For example, the forms of CN + = p + are as follows: CN1 = p, + CN2 = b, + and CN3 = p’. + Thus, combining CN = p + with the valence adjunct forms ei, + wei, + and yei + we get the following results:

+ + + + + + +
p + + ei + = pei
p + + wei + = bei +
p + + yei + = p’ei
+


+ CK = One of the eight format suffixes + shown in Sec. 5.4.2 above, indicating the covert sense + of the conflated verb.

+

Examples of basic conflation adjuncts are bram, + téu, + wiu, + llëu, + and cÿua. +

+

The following tables show the CN + prefixes and the overt senses associated with these derivations.

+


+ Tables 16-1 through 16-40: + Derivations

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
CN1
 +
CN2
 +
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
+
p
+
+
b
 +
p’
OPERATIVEdo, undertake, take on
STATIVEmentally envision
MANIFESTIVEbe in a certain position, put, place
DESCRIPTIVEfeel, emote
ACTIVEattend to, deal with
POSITIONALtranslative motion; move from one place to another
INCHOATIVEhappen, occur, take place
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
t
d
t’
OPERATIVEuse, utilize
STATIVEstay, remain
MANIFESTIVEcomprise, make up, include
DESCRIPTIVEresemble (physically)
ACTIVEact, function
POSITIONALarrange, set up
INCHOATIVEmake, create
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
’
OPERATIVEget, induce to
STATIVEdepend upon
MANIFESTIVEmodel, emulate
DESCRIPTIVEresemble (behaviorally)
ACTIVEtouch, feel
POSITIONALdistribute
INCHOATIVEbuild, construct
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
k
g
k’
OPERATIVElet, permit, allow
STATIVEthink, speculate
MANIFESTIVEorganize, coordinate
DESCRIPTIVEresemble (physically and behaviorally)
ACTIVEhandle, manipulate
POSITIONALdisseminate, distribute
INCHOATIVEdevelop into
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
q
q’
OPERATIVEhave (someone do something)
STATIVEanalyze, reason
MANIFESTIVEhave order, delineate
DESCRIPTIVEhave three-dimensional form or shape of
ACTIVEstrike, impact, hit
POSITIONALcontain
INCHOATIVEgrow, raise
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
f
v
p
OPERATIVEpersuade, cajole
STATIVElearn, study
MANIFESTIVEsubstitute (identity)
DESCRIPTIVEhave or take shape, form or outline of, e.g., the posse ringed them in
ACTIVEshake, spasm
POSITIONALenclose
INCHOATIVEstrive, pursue
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
t
OPERATIVEinfluence
STATIVEremember
MANIFESTIVEplay role of, act as
DESCRIPTIVEtexture
ACTIVEtouch
POSITIONALinhabit, store
INCHOATIVEameliorate, repair, fix
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
OPERATIVEurge, motivate
STATIVEsee
MANIFESTIVEdeclare, pronounce
DESCRIPTIVEcompare
ACTIVEderive
POSITIONALinundate with, overwhelm
INCHOATIVEstrengthen
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
x
k
OPERATIVEhint at, suggest
STATIVEhear
MANIFESTIVEpresent
DESCRIPTIVEimpute, ascribe
ACTIVEgather, collect
POSITIONALshelter
INCHOATIVEenhance, improve
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
l
q
OPERATIVEattract
STATIVEsmell, have odor of
MANIFESTIVEexemplify, provide model for
DESCRIPTIVEimitate, mimic, act like
ACTIVEkill
POSITIONALrelease, let out
INCHOATIVEopen, reveal (physically make visible/available)
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
m
mm
hm
OPERATIVEobey, comply
STATIVEtaste
MANIFESTIVEintroduce
DESCRIPTIVEbe similar, have similarity
ACTIVEregulate, establish rule
POSITIONALtraverse, follow path, go
INCHOATIVEto (be) open, to (be/set) ajar
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
n
nn
hn
OPERATIVEsubstitute (use)
STATIVEsense, intuit
MANIFESTIVEembody, example of
DESCRIPTIVEmean, signify
ACTIVEembellish, decorate
POSITIONALjourney
INCHOATIVEclose, seal, hold fast
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
l
ll
hl
OPERATIVEplay, recreate
STATIVEalive, living
MANIFESTIVEmark, reference
DESCRIPTIVEpoint out, indicate
ACTIVEactivate, turn on
POSITIONALconvey, transfer, transport
INCHOATIVEfind, discover
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
l
l
h
OPERATIVEwork, toil
STATIVEhave aura or air of
MANIFESTIVEexplain, show how
DESCRIPTIVEwave
ACTIVEprove, demonstrate
POSITIONALlift, ascend, raise
INCHOATIVEreveal (figuratively), let know
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
h
hh
OPERATIVEcommand
STATIVEbe ill, be sick
MANIFESTIVEsupport (figurative)
DESCRIPTIVEimbue with
ACTIVEcreate art, compose
POSITIONALlower, descend
INCHOATIVEjoin, connect
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
r
rr
hr
OPERATIVEpractice, rehearse
STATIVEinjury, be injured
MANIFESTIVEprocure, obtain
DESCRIPTIVE(de)limit, constrain
ACTIVEconsume, use (up)
POSITIONALpush, contact
INCHOATIVEestablish, ordain, to found
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
h
OPERATIVEchoose, select
STATIVEengage in
MANIFESTIVEacknowledge
DESCRIPTIVEdifferent(iate)
ACTIVEfollow/disciple
POSITIONALpull, draw
INCHOATIVEfuse, blend, mix
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
OPERATIVEtry out, ‘taste’
STATIVEplease, enjoy
MANIFESTIVEvisit
DESCRIPTIVEhave height, be tall
ACTIVEmanage, oversee
POSITIONALdestination
INCHOATIVEilluminate
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
s
z
ss
OPERATIVEprobe
STATIVEpass time
MANIFESTIVEhost
DESCRIPTIVEhave width, be wide
ACTIVErelieve of, strip of
POSITIONALoriginate (from)
INCHOATIVEdetermine, ascertain
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
OPERATIVEfacilitate
STATIVEoccupy space, ‘cover’
MANIFESTIVEproject, emanate
DESCRIPTIVEhave depth, be deep
ACTIVEsurrender, succumb
POSITIONALarrive
INCHOATIVEbe new
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
OPERATIVEsupport (physically)
STATIVEvalue, have value
MANIFESTIVEhonor, respect
DESCRIPTIVEhave length, be long
ACTIVEexperiment, test
POSITIONALspread, overtake
INCHOATIVEreact
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
c
c’
OPERATIVEally (with)
STATIVErelish, adore
MANIFESTIVEsanction
DESCRIPTIVEhave volume, have size
ACTIVEcover, apply
POSITIONALconceal, hide
INCHOATIVEenlarge, increase
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
’
OPERATIVEdo right, best thing
STATIVEexperience, undergo
MANIFESTIVEemphasize
DESCRIPTIVEhave weight or mass
ACTIVEuphold, preserve
POSITIONALseek, search, look for
INCHOATIVEshrink, decrease
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
j
’
OPERATIVErespond, reply
STATIVEbehave
MANIFESTIVEencounter
DESCRIPTIVEbe rectilinear, be squarely aligned
ACTIVEmaintain
POSITIONALcircle, revolve, orbit
INCHOATIVEclean
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
pl
pr
bl
OPERATIVEspeak, talk
STATIVEimply
MANIFESTIVEreserve
DESCRIPTIVEcritique, criticize
ACTIVEexplore
POSITIONALexchange for
INCHOATIVEheal, treat
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
tl
tr
dl
OPERATIVEhail, acknowledge
STATIVEdistinguish
MANIFESTIVEwrite
DESCRIPTIVEteach, train
ACTIVEentertain
POSITIONALread
INCHOATIVEhelp, aid
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
kl
kr
gl
OPERATIVEhunt
STATIVEprotect, keep safe
MANIFESTIVEprovide
DESCRIPTIVEbe fair, be just
ACTIVEdominate
POSITIONALremove, rid
INCHOATIVEensure, certain
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
fl
fr
br
OPERATIVEharm, damage
STATIVEnurture, succor
MANIFESTIVEundermine
DESCRIPTIVEbe unfair or unjust
ACTIVEcounteract
POSITIONALtrap, catch
INCHOATIVEruin, break, render useless
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
l
r
dr
OPERATIVEconduct, hold (e.g., a meeting)
STATIVEhang, suspend
MANIFESTIVEcarry
DESCRIPTIVElearned in
ACTIVErender harmless, subdue
POSITIONALset aright, position optimally
INCHOATIVEcook, prepare food
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
xl
xr
gr
OPERATIVEgive
STATIVEflap
MANIFESTIVEobsession
DESCRIPTIVEcharacterize
ACTIVEtake
POSITIONALbe upright, vertical
INCHOATIVEgenerate, give rise to
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
sl
sr
zl
OPERATIVEwear
STATIVEsecure, lock
MANIFESTIVEstudy
DESCRIPTIVEsuffer
ACTIVEbring
POSITIONALbe horizontal, be flat
INCHOATIVEdraw forth, bring out
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
l
r
l
OPERATIVEhold
STATIVEopine
MANIFESTIVEtolerate
DESCRIPTIVEargue
ACTIVEsend
POSITIONALbe perpendicular, be at right angle to
INCHOATIVEapproach
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
l
r
l
OPERATIVEharass, bother
STATIVElay, lie
MANIFESTIVEhide
DESCRIPTIVEendanger
ACTIVEassault, attack
POSITIONALavoid
INCHOATIVEtreachery
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
ks
+
gz
kst
OPERATIVEcommit immoral act
STATIVEcommit error
MANIFESTIVEdote upon
DESCRIPTIVEtrick, pull a ruse
ACTIVEillegal act
POSITIONALrun
INCHOATIVEbandy, play with
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
ps
+
bz
pst
OPERATIVEreward
STATIVEprepare, make ready
MANIFESTIVEextract, take out of
DESCRIPTIVEceremony/ritual
ACTIVEcurtail, stop
POSITIONALlinger, hang around
INCHOATIVEsubsidize
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
st
+
sn
st’
OPERATIVEwaste
STATIVEmake difficult, trouble
MANIFESTIVEcircumvent, hinder
DESCRIPTIVEbe or act belligerently, be hostile
ACTIVEimpede, block
POSITIONALset foot in or upon, enter into or onto, be in presence of
INCHOATIVEeat/ingest
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
CN1
CN2
CN3
CONFLATION PREFIX
+ OF MAIN VERB
CONFLATIVE MEANING + OF DERIVATION
sp
+
sm
sp’
OPERATIVEpractice, perform practice of
STATIVEdisregard
MANIFESTIVEjoke, play around, have fun with
DESCRIPTIVEridicule, make fun of
ACTIVEviolate
POSITIONALtrespass
INCHOATIVEalign, be in alignment
+


+
+ 5.4.4 Examples of Conflation, Derivation and Format in Use

+


+ __Listen! + +

+

Chapter + 5 continued >>

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + Adjuncts
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt + any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

+


+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

 

+

 

+

 

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..3c3c6bb --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html @@ -0,0 +1,1597 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 5 (Continued): Verb Morphology + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 5 (continued): Verb Morphology

+
+ + + + + + + + + + +
5.5 Modality
5.6 Level
5.7 Case-Frame
+
+
+
+ + + + +

5.5 MODALITY

+
+

Modality corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., can, may, must, should, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as to want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that, etc. However, + in Ithkuil, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see Sec. + 3.8) and the Perspective (see Sec. + 3.3) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the ACTIVATIVE + case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. + 4.3.9). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows:

+

As we saw in Sections + 3.8 and 4.3.9, + it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the + psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in + the following sentences.

+
+

1) You must come home at once.
+ 2) That girl can sing better than anybody.
+ 3) Our troops should attack at dawn.
+ 4) Mother needs you to come with her.
+ 5) The teacher requests that I dance for you.
+ 6) The man believes clowns are dangerous.

+
+

Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.

+

Because the clauses following the verbs must, can, should, + need, request, believe, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see Sec. + 3.4) and the REPRESENTATIVE essence (see Sec. + 3.8). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns + you, girl, troops, mother, teacher, and man in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see Sec. + 4.3.9). It should be noted that not all Ithkuil modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence She + chose to move to Australia, the verb chose signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the move to Australia + clause would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective but + would not be marked in the REPRESENTATIVE essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ithkuil modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.

+

There are 30 modalities in Ithkuil. Modality is marked by a + word-final vocalic suffix to a conflational or valence adjunct (see Secs. + 5.2 and 5.4). + In the absence of a conflational or valence adjunct, this vocalic suffix can + stand alone as an autonomous word, functioning as a modality adjunct. + The thirty modalities and their respective suffixes are described below.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.1
DES
The Desiderative
+
+

The DESIDERATIVE more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in The teacher wants the students to study hard. It is marked + by adding the suffix -a to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.2
ASP
The Aspirative
+
+

The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc. It is marked by adding the suffix -ü to a conflational + or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.3
EPC
The Expectative
+
+

The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in He expected her to be beautiful, + or I imagine he’s reached his destination. It is marked by adding + the suffix -ï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.4
CRD
The Credential
+
+

The CREDENTIAL corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in I think she has two sons, or + We believe the earth to be round. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as I think she’s pretty. It is marked by adding + the suffix -u to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.5
REQ
The Requisitive
+
+

The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in I request his presence at the banquet, + or I’d like you to visit your father. It is marked by adding + the suffix -â to a conflational or valence adjunct.
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.6
EXH
The Exhortative
+
+

The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in I demand you return my book + or Let the gates be opened! It is marked by adding the suffix -û + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.7
OPR
The Opportunitive
+
+

The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in Can we pass by our old house when we visit town? or + Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all. It + is marked by adding the suffix -ai to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.8
CPC
The Capacitative
+
+

The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in Can she sing opera? or He could run + like the wind. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in He speaks French like + a native [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so]. It is marked by adding the + suffix -ei to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.9
PRM
The Permissive
+
+

The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs can/could/be able or may/might where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert; or Could I talk to you? It is marked by adding the suffix + -oi to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.10
PTN
The Potential
+
+

The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area, or That man could fly into rages for no reason. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in It rains unpredictably in the Northwest. It is marked by adding + the suffix -ëi to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.11
CLS
The Compulsory
+
+

The COMPULSORY corresponds to the English + modal verbs must or have to/had to in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in You must get up now, or I had to attend the ceremony. + It is marked by adding the suffix -ui to a conflational or + valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.12
OBG
The Obligative
+
+

The OBLIGATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs should, ought to, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel, or It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns. It is marked by adding the suffix -iu + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.13
IMS
The Impositive
+
+

The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as be supposed to, be expected to, or be to + which impose an expectation upon a party, as in You’re supposed to + smile when introduced, or He is to give a speech at the banquet. + It is marked by adding the suffix -au to a conflational or + valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.14
ADV
The Advocative
+
+

The ADVOCATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as suggest that or propose that which advocate + a position, as in I suggest you study harder or They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere. It is marked by adding the + suffix -ia to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.15
ITV
The Intentive
+
+

The INTENTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as intend to, plan on or shall which + convey an intention, as in The girls plan on travelling to Europe, + or I shall see to it. It is marked by adding the suffix -ou + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.16
ANT
The Anticipative
+
+

The ANTICIPATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to look forward to or to eagerly await + which convey positive anticipation, as in We look forward to the clowns coming + to town. It is marked by addition of the suffix -eu to a conflational + or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.17
DSP
The Dispositive
+
+

The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English + expression to be willing to, conveying willingness as in He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns. It is marked by addition + of the suffix -äi to a conflational or valence adjunct. +

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.18
PRE
The Preparative
+
+

The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English + expressions be ready to or be prepared to, indicating readiness, + as in She’s ready to host the party, or They are prepared + to endure harsh weather. It is marked by addition of the suffix -öi + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.19
NEC
The Necessitative
+
+

The NECESSITATIVE corresponds to the + English expressions need to or be necessary to, indicating + necessity, as in You need to do something about those clowns in the yard, + or It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities. It is marked + by addition of the suffix -ëu to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.20
DEC
The Decisive
+
+

The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in Peter decided to cook + breakfast or Colleen chose to visit the clowns. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -aï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.21
PTV
The Proclivitive
+
+

The PROCLIVITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as tend to, be apt to, or be prone to, indicating + tendency, as in The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs, or Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women. It is marked by addition + of the suffix -eï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.22
VOL
The Voluntative
+
+

The VOLUNTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as offer to or volunteer to, indicating an act of offering + as in The foreman offered to put poison in my beer, or Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -iï to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.23
ACC
The Accordative
+
+

The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English + expression agree to, as in Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show. It is marked by addition of the suffix -oï + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.24
INC
The Inclinative
+
+

The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as to feel like or be up for, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in He’s up for going to the shindig, + or Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake. It is marked by + addition of the suffix -öu to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.25
CML
The Compulsive
+
+

The COMPULSIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as feel driven to or feel a need to, indicating + compulsion, as in Jack feels driven to hunt wolverines, or My hairdresser + feels a need to date bikers. It is marked by addition of the suffix -uï + to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.26
DVR
The Divertive
+
+

The DIVERTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as like to, or enjoy, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in Boys like to dream about cars, or My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump. It is marked by addition of the suffix + -äu to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.27
DVT
The Devotive
+
+

The DEVOTIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as be devoted to or be committed to, indicating devotion + as in Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town, + or They were devoted to rooting for the losing team. It is marked by + addition of the suffix -ëï to a conflational or valence + adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.28
PFT
The Preferential
+
+

The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English + expressions such as prefer, or would rather that, indicating + preference as in He’d rather work by himself, or Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food. It is marked by addition of the suffix + -ua to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.29
IPS
The Impressional
+
+

The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English + expressions such as have an impression that, have a hunch that, or + feel that, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic, or Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -üa to a conflational or valence adjunct.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.5.30
PMS
The Promissory
+
+

The PROMISSORY corresponds to English + expressions such as promise, or swear that, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in She promised that her son would visit my daughter, + or Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient. It + is marked by addition of the suffix -iù to a conflational + or valence adjunct.

+


+ 5.5.31 Examples of Modality in Use

+
+

+ _Listen! + +
+
+
+

 

+
+

 

+ + + + + +
+

5.6 LEVEL

+

Level corresponds roughly to what is known + as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate + degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -er and + -est seen in great-greater-greatest. Ithkuil incorporates + degrees of comparison morphologically into its valence scheme by means of tone + of the conflational adjunct (or valence or modality adjunct). Specifically, + the four tones are used to show four different comparisons, each of which is + termed a level of the verb. These levels are the INDETERMINATE, + EQUATIVE, SURPASSIVE and DEFICIENT, + and are explained below.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.1
IDT
The Indeterminate
+
+

Shown by low or falling tone of the conflational, valence or + modality adjunct. The INDETERMINATE is the default level + and indicates either 1) that no comparison is being made between the first party + and the second party, 2) that the degree of comparison between the first party + and the second party is unknown or irrelevant, or 3) that comparison is inapplicable + because the verb is monoactive (i.e., there is only one party participating).

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.2
EQU
The Equative
+
+

Shown by high tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The EQUATIVE level indicates that the first party + performs its “half” of the action equally well in comparison to + the second party. It corresponds to the English construction ‘as [well] + as’ as in She sings as well as I do or He reads as fast as + you do.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.3
SUR
The Surpassive
+
+

Shown by rising tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The SURPASSIVE level indicates that the first + party manifests a state or performs an action to a greater degree or extent + than the second party. It functions equivalently to English -er as + in I ran farther than he. It also corresponds to the English verbal + prefix out- as in I out-sang him (i.e., I sang longer or better + than he), although the SURPASSIVE is more flexible than + the English construction, as it can be used with any of the thirteen valences + of the verb. For example, when used with the NONRELATIONAL + valence for a verb such as ‘laugh,’ it would translate something + like I laughed more/harder than anyone did anything else. It can even + be used with the MONOACTIVE valence, indicating that the + party performed the action superlatively and no one else did. For example, the + sentence I laughed in the MONOACTIVE valence + and SURPASSIVE level would translate as something like + I was the only one laughing and my laughter was superlative.

+

The SURPASSIVE can also be used to translate + the English -est superlative construction, as in She is the nicest + (of all) by simply naming a contextually universal second participant to + the verb, i.e., She “out-nices” everyone else.

+

 

+
+ + + + + + + +
5.6.4
DFT
The Deficient
+
+

Shown by broken tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The DEFICIENT level corresponds roughly to the + negative comparative less in English as in This test is less difficult, + as well as the verbal prefix under- as in He under-performed tonight. + Like the other levels, it can be used with any valence of the Ithkuil verb to + indicate that the performance or state of the first participant to a co-active + verb is worse or less than that of the second participant. It would thus render + sentences corresponding to She “under-danced” tonight (i.e., + she didn’t dance as well as she might have) or The boy “under-weighs” + the girl (i.e., he weighs less than her).

+


+ 5.6.5 Examples of Level in Use

+
+

+ __Listen! + +
+
+
 
+

+
+ + + + +
+

5.7 CASE-FRAME

+
+

Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically + embedded within other sentences, a process termed subordination. + In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause + or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ + ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ + or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by + whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or + gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated + in the following sentences:

+
+

The dog that ate my hat belongs to + them.
+ I want him to stop shouting.
+ The committee voted to fire the superintendant.
+ We demand (that) you give us equal pay.
+ Although he’s a college graduate, he acts like a child.
+ This is the slot through which the letter is passed.
+ In case you’re unaware, I’ll be leaving next + month.
+ The boy walking toward us is my nephew.

+
+

The Ithkuil equivalent to relative or subordinate clauses is + known as a case-frame, or simply, frame. Conceptually, + the sentence to be embedded is simply treated as a noun participant to the main + verb of a sentence and is therefore marked for case like any other noun. For + example, take the following two sentences:

+ +
+

She and I were working together.
+ The two nations were at war.

+
+

Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal + context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating + the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ + as in She and I were working together while the two nations were at war. + Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional + phrase, as in She and I were working together during the time (that) the + two nations were at war.

+

In Ithkuil, temporal context for a sentence may be provided + by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the CONCURSIVE + (see Sec. 4.9.1). A word + such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the + CONCURSIVE case to create a sentence corresponding to:

+
+

She and I were working together during the summer.
+ She and I were working together at the time of the famine.

+
+

Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ + are placed in the CONCURSIVE case, so an entire sentence + such as The two nations were at war can be placed in the CONCURSIVE + case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words, + Ithkuil treats the entire subordinate sentence as a noun phrase to be declined + into any required case. That is the purpose of a frame, to place sentences into + noun cases. By doing so, Ithkuil accomplishes the same task for which Western + languages use relative and subordinate conjunctions. In theory, any sentence + can be placed into any of the 81 cases and inserted into another sentence wherever + a simple noun might be placed in the sentence using that same case.

+


+ 5.7.1 Placement of Frames

+

To construct a case-frame, the second-order sentence (i.e., + the sentence to be subordinated) is placed in the main sentence at the point + where a noun declined for the required case would appear. Unlike the usual verb-final + word order of main sentences in Ithkuil, a case-frame usually has its verb appear + as the first element of the case frame. This is to easily recognize the beginning + of the case frame. The actual case of the sentence is indicated in the verbal + formative in the same way as for nominal formatives, i.e., by mutation of the + stem vowel and mutation of the C2 radical consonant. Table + 17 below offers a review of these mutations for each of the 81 cases. If inserted + into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame should + be a noun (or a personal reference adjunct – see Sec. + 8.1) and carries a special affix which signifies the end of the frame if + this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside + the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main + sentence.

+


+ Table 17: Case-Frame Markers + (Mutation by Vowel Series and C2 Grade)

+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Label
Case
Series
+ & Grade
1
OBL
Oblique
A1
2
ABS
Absolutive
B1
3
DAT
Dative
C1
4
ERG
Ergative
D1
5
EFF
Effectuative
E1
6
IND
Inducive
F1
7
AFF
Affective
G1
8
INS
Instrumental
H1
9
ACT
Activative
J1
10
DER
Derivative
H2
11
SIT
Situative
J2
12
POS
Possessive
A2
13
PRP
Proprietive
B2
14
GEN
Genitive
C2
15
ATT
Attributive
D2
16
OGN
Originative
E2
17
PDC
Productive
F2
18
ITP
Interpretative
G2
19
APL
Applicative
A3
20
PUR
Purposive
B3
21
INH
Inherent
C3
22
CNV
Conductive
D3
23
MED
Mediative
E3
24
CRS
Contrastive
F3
25
PAR
Partitive
G3
26
CPS
Compositive
H3
27
COR
Correlative
J3
28
IDP
Interdependent
J4
29
PRD
Predicative
J5
30
ESS
Essive
A4
31
ASI
Assimilative
B4
32
FUN
Functive
C4
33
TFM
Transformative
D4
34
REF
Referential
E4
35
CSD
Considerative
F4
36
CLA
Classificative
G4
37
DFR
Deferential
H4
38
COM
Comitative
A6
39
CNJ
Conjunctive
B6
40
UTL
Utilitative
C6
+ 		+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Label
Case
Series
+ & Grade
41
BEN
Benefactive
D6
42
TSP
Transpositive
E6
43
CMM
Commutative
F6
44
ABE
Abessive
A5
45
CVS
Conversive
B5
46
CON
Concessive
C5
47
EXC
Exceptive
D5
48
AVS
Adversative
E5
49
PVS
Provisional
F5
50
PTL
Postulative
G5
51
SUP
Suppositive
H5
52
DEP
Dependent
G6
53
CMP
Comparative
H6
54
AVR
Aversive
J6
55
LOC
Locative
A7
56
ORI
Orientative
B7
57
PSV
Procursive
C7
58
ALL
Allative
D7
59
ABL
Ablative
E7
60
PLT
Prolative
F7
61
PEL
Perlative
G7
62
PRV
Pervasive
H7
63
PRH
Peripheral
J7
64
INT
Integral
G9
65
PSN
Positional
H9
66
NAV
Navigative
J9
67
CNR
Concursive
A8
68
ACS
Accessive
B8
69
DFF
Diffusive
C8
70
PER
Periodic
D8
71
PRO
Prolapsive
E8
72
PCV
Precursive
F8
73
PCR
Postcursive
G8
74
ELP
Elapsive
H8
75
ALP
Allapsive
J8
76
INP
Interpolative
A9
77
EPS
Episodic
B9
78
PRL
Prolimitive
C9
79
SML
Simultaneitive
D9
80
ASS
Assessive
E9
81
LIM
Limitative
F9
+
+

In general, the perspective of the verb in + the secondary sentence operates independently from that of the main verb, however, + it is also common for the perspective of the verb in the secondary sentence + to be placed in the ABSTRACT, which has the effect of + deferring all Perspective + information about the verb to the main verb, similarly to the way English subordinate + clauses using gerunds and infinitives defer all tense information to the main + verb of the sentence.

+

Here is an example Ithkuil sentence containing a case frame:

+
+

+ _Listen! + +
+
+
 
+

5.7.2 Reinterpreting the Notion of a Relative Clause

+

There is no direct equivalent in Ithkuil to the relative clauses + of Western languages. Ithkuil treats such clauses the same as subordinate clauses + using case-frames as described above. However, the manner in which this is done, + while ultimately logical, is somewhat complex and confusing from a Western perspective. + Therefore, to analyze how Ithkuil reinterprets Western relative clauses into + subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative + clauses in Western languages such as English.

+

A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies + or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types + of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent). + The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.

+

RESTRICTED CLAUSE
+ (1) Lions that like chasing their tails can be seen at + any circus.
+ (2) That book (that) I just finished reading was written + by a priest.

+

UNRESTRICTED CLAUSE
+ (3) Lions, which like chasing their tails, can be seen + at any circus.
+ (4) That book, which I just finished reading, was written + by a priest.

+

In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing + their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, + not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just + finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered + by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked + about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the + speaker was referring to.

+

Note the difference in meaning, however, when comparing the + first two sentences to the third and fourth sentences. In the third sentence, + the speaker implies that all lions chase their tails regardless of whether they + are in the circus. In the fourth sentence, the identity of the book is already + known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts + about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author. + Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing + by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ + or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in + a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immediately before and + after the clause.

+


+ 5.7.2.1 Restricted Clauses. Ithkuil treats the above notions + about relative clauses in a different way. We will first analyze how Ithkuil + creates equivalents to restricted relative clauses. This can best be approached + by analyzing the underlying sentences which give rise to the main and relative + clauses. Analyzing Sentence No. 2 above, it can be broken up into two discrete + sentences:

+

That book was written by a priest. (= A priest wrote that + book.)
+ I just finished reading that book.

+

In Ithkuil, the sentence which will be functioning as the + main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence + is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on + what semantic role, i.e., case (see Chapter + 4) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference + of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that + book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See Sec. + 4.1.2), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the ABSOLUTIVE + subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template + ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the OBLIQUE + case (See Section 4.3.1). + Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the common point of + reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of + the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have + the two sentences as:

+
+

A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-H. +

+
+

The ‘-H’ in the second sentence + above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common + reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ithkuil inserts the + second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the + semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked + by the OBLIQUE case (see Sec. + 4.3.1).

+
+

A priest wrote [OBL]. I just finish + reading that book-H.

+
+

As described in Sec. 5.7.1, the verb + of the secondary sentence is moved to the beginning of the case-frame and takes + the relevant case marker (OBLIQUE).

+
+

A priest wrote I just finished reading-OBL + that book-H.

+
+

Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest + literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: A priest wrote + what I just finished reading, that book. However, this is how Ithkuil translates + the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’

+

Two observations can be noted from the Ithkuil sentence. First + of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” + Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, + there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types + of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged + (or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence, + the exact same way that subordinate clauses are constructed in Ithkuil. Therefore, + as was previously stated, Ithkuil makes no distinction between subordinate and + relative clauses.

+

Similarly, the other example sentence from above, Lions + that like chasing their tails can be seen at any circus would become in + Ithkuil: At any circus one can see certain lions-H + like to chase-OBL their tails. A literal + translation into English would be: At any circus one can see (that) certain + lions like chasing their tails.

+


+ 5.7.2.2 Unrestricted Clauses. As for independent or unrestricted + clauses, as shown in example sentences (3) and (4) earlier, Ithkuil treats these + differently still. In Western languages, an unrestricted clause does not help + to identify a noun or provide a context for it, but simply adds additional information + about an already identified noun. Thus, unrestricted relative clauses serve + a wholly different cognitive-semantic purpose than restricted clauses, a fact + hidden by their nearly identical surface structures. Ithkuil acknowledges this + profound difference at the overt sentence level by not subordinating any clause + at all. Rather, the two sentences are given co-equal status as main clauses + and simply joined by a coordinating affix. Thus sentences (3) and (4) from earlier + become:

+
+

One can see lions at any circus and they like chasing + their tails.
+ A priest wrote that book and I just finished reading it.

+
+


+ 5.7.2.3 Use of the INHERENT Case In Lieu of Simple + Relative Clauses. In Section + 4.5.3 we analyzed how MONADIC or UNBOUNDED + nouns in the INHERENT case take on a special function + of existential identification corresponding to the English phrase ‘that/which/who + is/are…’ to render forms structured as “the my-wife woman,” + meaning ‘the woman who is my wife.” This construction allows a “short-cut” + way of rendering what in English would be simple relative clauses involving + descriptive identifications, eliminating the need in most cases to resort to + a case-frame. For example, the sentence The man who came to dinner is my + father is rendered as The “my-father” man came to dinner, + where the noun father would be in the INHERENT plus POSITIVE + focus (see Sec. + 3.5) to indicate that it is the new information being conveyed by the speaker, + i.e., to distinguish it from the reversed focus of The man who is my father + came to dinner.

+


+ 5.7.3 Examples of Case-Frames in Use
+
+
+ _Listen! + +
+

+

+

 

+
+
Proceed + to Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology >>
+
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

+

 

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..26ef5c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html @@ -0,0 +1,2006 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
6.1 Validation6.4 Aspect
6.2 Phase6.5 Mood
6.3 Sanction6.6 Bias
+
+

In this chapter, we examine six additional morphological categories + which apply to verbal formatives: Validation, Phase, Sanction, Aspect, + Mood and Bias. Like the categories of Valence, Version, + Conflation/Derivation, Format, Modality and Level in the previous chapter, these + six categories are manifested within the morpho-phonological structure of a + specialized adjunct, in this instance called an aspectual adjunct. +

+

The structure of an aspectual adjunct is (CB-)VA-CX-(VS-(CB)) + where VA and Vs are + vocalic affixes indicating aspect, Cx is a consonantal infix + indicating validation, phase and sanction, and CB + is an optional consonantal prefix or suffix indicating Bias. Mood is indicated + by the tone and stress pattern of the adjunct as a whole. VA + represents either a single vowel, diphthong, or dissyllabic two-vowel combination + (e.g., -ia-, -ua-); and Cx represents a single- or dual-consonant + conjunct (e.g., -k-, -tt-, + -šp-). Not all parts of this archetypical structure may + manifest themselves in any given aspectual adjunct. For example, some adjuncts + may show only aspect or mood, some show validation or phase only, or any combination + of these categories. These variations are described below.

+
+
    +
  1. If an aspectual adjunct is being used to show Validation, Phase, and Sanction + only (i.e., it is not showing Aspect), it takes the form a + Cx + (+ a), where Cx represents a single, geminate, + or biconsonantal consonantal form as described above. The a- + prefix distinguishes the word as an aspectual adjunct, and the (+ + a) suffix is present if necessary to comply with Ithkuil phonological + constraints (see Sec. 1.4.1). + There are 81 Cx affix representing a combination of one + of nine validations with one of nine phases, each of which in turn mutates + into eight additional forms depending on which of nine sanctions applies + to the associated verb (see Sec. 6.3 below on Sanction). + These affixes are shown in Table 18 below. Examples. ar, + ac, axx, aks, akká, amra.
    +
    2. +
  2. If an aspectual adjunct shows a single aspect, it takes the form VA + + Cx (+ a), where Va is the vocalic aspectual prefix followed by + the consonantal Cx affix (i.e., the validation-phase-sanction + affix). Examples: eur, + oks, iakka.
    +
    3. +
  3. If an aspectual adjunct shows two aspects, it takes the form VA + + Cx + Vs, that is two aspectual vowel forms, the first in as a + prefix, the second as a suffix, separated by the validation-phase-sanction + consonantal affix. Examples: eurai, + òksëi, iakkua.
    4. +
+
+

Having explained the structure of the aspectual adjunct, we + now turn to an explanation of the six morphological categories it manifests.

+ +

 

+ + + + +
6.1 VALIDATION +
+

Technically, Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. However, Validation imparts more than + simply the evidential verifiability of a statement; it also operates in conjunction + with Mood (see Section 6.5 below) to indicate the precise + factuality of a statement, i.e., to what extent it is likely or certain that + the statement is, in fact, valid or real. We will see that Ithkuil moods generally + indicate the factuality of a statement as being either certain or uncertain. + Validation in turn “fine tunes” this distinction into levels of + nuance, corresponding to various English phrases which convey the specific validity + of a statement, e.g., “must be so, likely that, unlikely, perhaps, supposedly, + presumably, apparently” etc. The nine validations are CONFIRMATIVE, + REPORTIVE, INTUITIVE, INFERENTIAL, PRESUMPTIVE, CONJECTURAL, TENTATIVE, PUTATIVE + and HORTATIVE. As explained above, they are shown in conjunction + with the categories of Phase and Sanction (see Secs. 6.2 + and 6.3 below) by means of the Cx consonantal affix to + an aspectual adjunct. The values for these infixes are shown in the tables below. + The specific usage of each validation is explained following the tables.

+


+ Tables + 18 (a – + i): Cx Affixes By Validation, Phase and Sanction

+


+ Table 18(a): Cx Affixes for + the Confirmative Validation

+

+


+ Table 18(b): Cx Affixes for the Reportive Validation

+

+


+ Table 18(c): Cx Affixes for the Intuitive Validation

+


+

+

Table 18(d): Cx Affixes for + the Inferential Validation

+


+

+

Table 18(e): Cx Affixes for + the Presumptive Validation

+


+

+

Table 18(f): Cx Affixes for + the Conjectural Validation

+


+

+

Table 18(g): Cx Affixes for + the Tentative Validation

+


+

+

Table 18(h): Cx Affixes for + the Putative Validation

+


+

+

Table 18(i): Cx Affixes for + the Hortative Validation

+

+

The nine validations are explained as follows:
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.1
CNF
The Confirmative
+
+

The CONFIRMATIVE indicates that a statement + is based on facts actually perceived by and/or personally known to the speaker. + It can be considered the “default” validation, in that it can be + unmarked (i.e., the aspectual adjunct can be deleted) if the other categories + shown by the adjunct are likewise in their default modes and there is no aspect + being conveyed.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.2
RPT
The Reportive
+
+

The REPORTIVE validation indicates that + the statement, while not personally known or perceived by the speaker, is assumed + true based on evidence considered trustworthy by the speaker, such as direct + testimony of a trusted party or knowledgeable source based on that party’s + or source’s personal knowledge or observation. If necessary, this degree + of factivity can be translated into English by the terms ‘most likely’ + or ‘probably.’
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.3
ITU
The Intuitive
+
+

The INTUITIVE validation indicates that + the statement is based on the speakers own intuition, instinct or “gut” + feeling. This can be translated by English phrases such as ‘I feel that…’ + or ‘I’ve got a feeling that….’
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.4
INF
The Inferential
+
+

The INFERENTIAL validation indicates + that the statement is essentially an inference by the speaker based on circumstantial + evidence only. This can be conveyed in translation by phrases such as ‘(it) + must (be that)…,’ or ‘must have’ as in the sentences + I must be dreaming or It must have rained last night.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.5
PSM
The Presumptive
+
+

The PRESUMPTIVE validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, and the fact that the + statement is potentially verifiable. If necessary, this degree of factivity + can be translated by the English phrases ‘presumably (so) or ‘apparently + (so).’
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.6
CNJ
The Conjectural
+
+

The CONJECTURAL validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, however its verifiability + is either unlikely or unknown. Perhaps most easily translated into English simply + by ‘may’ or ‘might,’ or more exactly by ‘allegedly’ + or ‘purportedly.’
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.7
TEN
The Tentative
+
+

The TENTATIVE validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source, or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker; however, the statement is potentially verifiable. Can be approximately + translated by English ‘supposedly.’
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.8
PUT
The Putative
+
+

The PUTATIVE validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker, and verifiability of the statement is either unlikely or unknown. Can + be approximately translated by English ‘must not (have)…,’ + ‘must not be…,’ or ‘not likely to….’ Thus + the sentence overtly structured as He caught the bus in time but marked + for the PUTATIVE would actually translate as He must + not have caught the bus in time.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.1.9
HOR
The Hortative
+
+

The HORTATIVE validation indicates that + the validity of the statement is assumed false but that the speaker wishes it + to be true. It corresponds to various exhortations such as ‘if only…,’ + ‘I wish that…’ or ‘Were that….’

+


+ 6.1.10 Examples of Validation in Use

+
+

+ ___Listen! + +
+
+
+

+
+ +

 

+
+ + + + +

6.2 PHASE

+
+

Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an + act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive + manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena + that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, + alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of + Extension, previously described in Sec. + 3.4, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative + pattern of a state, action or event. The nine phases are the CONTEXTUAL, + PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE, + and FLUCTUATIVE. They are marked by one of nine patterns + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, depending on the validation and sanction + of the verb as previously described in Section 6.1 and + shown in Tables 18(a) through 18(i). The nine phases + are explained in the following sections.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.1
CTX
The Contextual
+
+

The CONTEXTUAL is the default phase, + describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not + instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual + duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can + be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., + —
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.2
PUN
The Punctual
+
+

The PUNCTUAL describes an act, condition, + or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as + an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between + two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It + can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.3
ITR
The Iterative
+
+

The ITERATIVE refers to a momentary or + instantaneous event, like the PUNCTUAL above, which repeats + itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe + light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, + the whole comprising a single CONTEXTUAL event.

+

Visual representation: • + • • •

+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.4
REP
The Repetitive
+
+

The REPETITIVE refers to a relatively + brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the CONTEXTUAL + phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being + honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual + representation: — — + — —
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.5
ITM
The Intermittent
+
+

The INTERMITTENT is similar to the ITERATIVE + above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a PUNCTUAL + event, however, unlike the ITERATIVE, the duration of + time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would + be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping + of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc. +

+

Visual representation: — + • — • — + • — •
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.6
RCT
The Recurrent
+
+

The RECURRENT is to the REPETITIVE + as the INTERMITTENT is to the ITERATIVE. + It indicates a slow repetition of a CONTEXTUAL event, + where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. + Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl. +

+

Visual representation: —— + ——— + ——— + ——— + —
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.7
FRE
The Frequentative
+
+

The FREQUENTATIVE indicates an iterative + occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, + the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. Examples + would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short + bursts of a jackhammer.

+

Visual representation: ——• + • •— + • • + •— + • • + •— + • • + •
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.8
FRG
The Fragmentative
+
+

The FRAGMENTATIVE indicates a random + pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL + event.

+

Visual representation: ——• + •— + • • + • ——• + • —• + • • + • •—— + • —• + •
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.2.9
FLC
The Fluctuative
+
+

The FLUCTUATIVE indicates a random pattern + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of + birds in the wild, etc.

+

Visual representation:—— + • • —— + • — + • •— + ——• + • — • + • • —• + •— + —— • — + • •

+

 

+

6.2.10 Examples of Phase in Use

+
+
+

+ _Listen! + +
+
+
+
+
+

+


+

+
+ +
+ + + + +

6.3 SANCTION

+
+

The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related + purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener + should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance + is a neutral proposition or assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption, + a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.

+

There are nine sanctions: the PROPOSITIONAL, + EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE, + and AXIOMATIC. Sanction is shown by the mutational grade + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, as shown in Table + 18 in Sec. 6.1 above, the specific affix value being dependent on the validation + and phase of the verb. Each sanction is explained in the sections below.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.3.1
PPS
The Propositional
+
+

The PROPOSITIONAL sanction is either + unmarked (where there is no aspectual adjunct), or marked by Grade 1 mutation + of the Cx affix. It is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents + a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a + statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. + Example of such statements would be That is a mountain, or I’m + hungry.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.3.2
EPI
The Epistemic
+
+

The EPISTEMIC sanction is marked by Grade + 2 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance as being a statement + of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention + (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human + knowledge. An example would be That mountain is Mount Fuji or The + U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.3.3
ALG
The Allegative
+
+

The ALLEGATIVE identifies an utterance + as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + or refutation. Examples would be That mountain is beautiful or No + one in the United States goes hungry.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.3.4
IPU
The Imputative
+
+

The IMPUTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective + or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a + sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be He knows + how to drive [e.g., because he owns a car] or She can’t be hungry + now [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant].
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.3.5
RFU
The Refutative
+
+

The REFUTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic + in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically + objective fact.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.3.6
REB
The Rebuttative
+
+

The REBUTTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based + on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief, + or interpretation.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.3.7
THR
The Theoretical
+
+

The THEORETICAL identifies an utterance + as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.3.8
EXV
The Expatiative
+
+

The EXPATIATIVE identifies an utterance + as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.3.9
AXM
The Axiomatic
+
+

The AXIOMATIC identifies an utterance + as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential + fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be Gravity + is ubiquitous, or Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food.

+


+ 6.3.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use

+
+

+ _Listen! + +
+
+
+

+
+ +

 

+
+ + + + +

6.4 + ASPECT

+
+

Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + (as with Perspective in Sec. + 3.3), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects, each + shown by a vocalic prefix to an aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be shown + by a vocalic suffix. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial + phrases used in English.

+


+ 6.4.1 Aspect Prefixes and Suffixes

+

As explained above in Sec. 6.0, each + aspect is represented by a single vocalic form, appearing as a prefix in an + aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be associated with the verb, in which + case it appears as a vocalic suffix to the adjunct. The form of the adjunct + is Vp-Cx-(Vs), where Vp is the prefixed form + of the first aspect, Cx is the consonantal validation-phase-sanction + infix, and Vs, if present, is the suffixed form of the second + aspect.

+

Each prefix has seven alternate forms for a total of eight + forms whose use is explained in Sec. 6.4.2 below. The first form of the prefix + is the default form. The suffix form of each aspect has but one form. The values + of these prefixes and suffixes is shown in Table 19 below.
+

+

Table + 19: Aspectual Prefixes (Vp) and Suffixes (Vs)

+

+


+ 6.4.2 Using Aspect Prefixes to Express Format for Primary Conflations

+

The eight forms of each aspect prefix are used as an alternate + way of indicating Format (See Sec. + 5.4.2) in the absence of a conflation (or valence) adjunct. Because they + also show Valence, Version and Modality, it is common to use conflation adjuncts + with an Ithkuil verb; however, where there is no modality, the verb displays + conflation (see Sec. 5.4.1) + but no derivation, and the version and valence have default values, the conflation + adjunct can be eliminated and the verb’s format can be indicated by forms + 1 through 8 of the aspect prefix to the verb’s aspectual adjunct. Thus, + in the sentence , + the conflation adjunct + indicating INSTRUMENTATIVE format for the ACTIVE + conflation shown by the main verb, can instead be shown by changing the prefix + â- + on the aspectual adjunct to wâ- + and eliminating the conflation adjunct, thus:

+


+ Wâloi  uatumul.
+ +
+ ‘The motion being caused by means of an asteroid is indeed recurring’ + OR
+ ‘What’s indeed happening is a recurrence of motion using an + asteroid.’

+


+ 6.4.3 Explanation of Aspect Categories

+

The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below.

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.1
RTR
 RETROSPECTIVE
+ This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create + various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the MONADIC, + the RETROSPECTIVE can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the UNBOUNDED, + the RETROSPECTIVE is equates with the English simple past + tense. With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + verb.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.2
PRS
 PROSPECTIVE
+ Like the RETROSPECTIVE above, this aspect operates in + conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense + categories. With the MONADIC, the PROSPECTIVE + equates with the English future tense. With the UNBOUNDED, + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, it + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.3
HAB
 HABITUAL
+ When used with the MONADIC perspective, this aspect conveys + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the + UNBOUNDED, the English ‘used to’ construction + offers an equivalent translation, as in She used to come see me on Wednesdays.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.4
PRG
 PROGRESSIVE
+ This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + in Spanish.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.5
IMM
 IMMINENT
+ Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in I + think Carl is about to cry.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.6
PCS
 PRECESSIVE
+ Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in We just + saw a clown in the toy store.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.7
REG
 REGULATIVE
+ Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event + over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + the new bridge.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.8
EPR
 EXPERIENTIAL
+ Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + as in Does he ever shut up? Note the EXPERIENTIAL + does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + in Ever does he seek his destiny nor as an adverb of mere emphasis + as in Was she ever tired.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.9
RSM
 RESUMPTIVE
+ Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously + ceased, as in The girl resumed singing, or He is starting to laugh + again.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.10
CSS
 CESSATIVE
+ Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + as in They stopped dancing at midnight.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.11
RCS
 RECESSATIVE
+ Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased + then resumed, as in Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy + a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.12
PAU
 PAUSAL
+ Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with + her friends.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.13
RGR
 REGRESSIVE
+ Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event + after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The REGRESSIVE + should be distinguished from the RESUMPTIVE above, which + merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change + of state or situation. An example would be Mr. Yates returned to golf after + recovering from his stroke.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.14
PCL
 PRECLUSIVE
+ Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + etc. as in Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.15
CNT
 CONTINUATIVE
+ Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.16
ICS
 INCESSATIVE
+ Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in They danced the night away or They’ve been battling + on and on since last year.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.17
PMP
 PREEMPTIVE
+ Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.18
CLM
 CLIMACTIC
+ Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’ +
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.19
PTC
 PROTRACTIVE
+ Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. + If used with the CONTEXTUAL or PUNCTUAL + phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the PROTRACTIVE + conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: It + rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a + long time coming.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.20
TMP
 TEMPORARY
+ Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable + only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in This will be sufficient + for now or For the time being you’ll have to drink water. +
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.21
MTV
 MOTIVE
+ Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence + of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in + Dad’s off hunting or They went off to cavort with the clowns. +
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.22
CSQ
 CONSEQUENTIAL
+ This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event + despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in She went + ahead and bought the furniture or I decided to go there anyway. +
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.23
SQN
 SEQUENTIAL
+ This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single + event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English + use of ‘off’ as in He's checking off each item as it is inventoried, + or The sheep died off from the disease.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.24
EPD
 EXPEDITIVE
+ Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English + ‘hurry (up)’ as in Hurry up and finish or They ate + in a hurry.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.25
DSC
 DISCLUSIVE
+ Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.26
CCL
 CONCLUSIVE
+ Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in I ended up crashing the car + or He drank to the point where he passed out.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.27
CUL
 CULMINATIVE
+ Similar to the CONCLUSIVE above, but with a focus on the + eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series + of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the CONCLUSIVE + aspect above: In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.28
IMD
 INTERMEDIATIVE
+ Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point + along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.29
TRD
 TARDATIVE
+ Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens + in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source + of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.30
TNS
 TRANSITIONAL
+ Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in I’m planning to take up golf.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.31
ITC
 INTERCOMMUTATIVE
+ Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + as in The boy threw it back or She stared back at the men ogling + her.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.4.3.32CSM CONSUMPTIVE
+ Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in Mother spends her life + worrying or He’s pining away.
+


+ 6.4.4 Complementary Aspects Appearing in the Same Adjunct

+

Note that, while any aspectual adjunct can show two different + aspects, several aspect categories above operate as complements to each other. + For example, the PROSPECTIVE aspect complements the RETROSPECTIVE + aspect, both being essentially opposites. Such complementary aspects normally + don’t appear in the same adjunct together. If they do appear in the same + adjunct, they are interpreted as not applying to the same verb, i.e., the first + aspect (shown by the prefix) applies to the adjacent verb, while the second + aspect (shown by the suffix) applies to the next verb in the sentence. Such + combinations of complementary aspects within a single adjunct can be considered + an optional “shortcut” to utilizing a separate aspectual adjunct + with the second verb.

+


+ 6.4.5 Using Aspect Prefixes to Show Focus

+

All of the aspectual prefixes shown in Table + 19 above can in turn take an initial prefix y- + (or yï- + before a w-) + to show that the associated verbal formative has semantic focus (as described + in Sec. 3.5), i.e., + it is an alternate to the usual -w- + infix to the formative previously described in Sec. 3.5. Examples: êstiu + yêstiu, + iwuil yiwuil, + wïttu + yïwïttu.

+

This y- + (or yï-) + prefix can in turn be augmented to yï’ + (spelled y’ + before a vowel but still pronounced yï’) + to indicate that the semantic focus instead applies to the aspectual meaning + indicated by the aspectual prefix. Examples: êstiu + y’êstiu, + iwuil + y’iwuil, wïttu + yï’wïttu.

+


+ 6.4.6 Examples of Aspect In Use

+
+
+ ________________Listen! + +
+
+

 

+
+ +

 

+
+ + + + +

6.5 MOOD

+
+

Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example + moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., Go now!, Sing it for + us! ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., She would travel + if she could), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., + I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here), and hortative (indicating + exhortations, e.g., May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!).

+

We have already seen in Section + 5.1 above that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages + correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically + where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ithkuil, moods + simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance + is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether + the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance + (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality + of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders eight moods in Ithkuil, + shown by stress and tone of the aspectual adjunct accompanying the verb.

+

The eight moods are FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE, + SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE, and ASCRIPTIVE. + These are described in the sections below.
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.1
FAC
The Factual
+
+

The FACTUAL mood is shown by penultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood signifies that the + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality + is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. As described + above, the actual interpretation (and translation) of any statement in the FACTUAL + mood is subject to whatever specific nuances of attitude, perspective, and evidence + are imparted by the particular bias and validation associated with the verb. + Examples:

+

His kids are ill. [i.e., it is known he has kids and + it is known they are ill]

+

We’re taking a walk later on. [i.e., it is our + intention and we have the opportunity to do so]
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.2
SUB
The Subjunctive
+
+

The SUBJUNCTIVE mood is shown by ultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the + factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the + particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition + is true. Examples:

+

Maybe his kids are ill. [i.e., it is known that he + has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]

+

We may take a walk later on. [i.e., it is known that + the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose + to]
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.3
ASM
The Assumptive
+
+

Shown by penultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood functions identically to the FACTUAL + except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore + conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to + the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:

+

His kids’ll be ill OR + If he has kids, they are ill. [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, + but if he does, they are certainly ill.]

+

We’ll take a walk later on [i.e., if we can] + OR We intend to take a walk. + [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.4
SPE
The Speculative
+
+

Shown by ultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement + itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + Compare the examples below to those above:

+

Maybe his kids are ill [i.e., it is unknown if he + has kids but if he does, they may be ill].

+

We may take a walk later on [i.e., it is unknown whether + we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether + we will choose to].
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.5
COU
The Counterfactive
+
+

Shown by penultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific + translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with + the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

+

His kids would be (would have been) ill [i.e., if + he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].

+

We would take (would have taken) a walk later on [i.e., + it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.6
HYP
The Hypothetical
+
+

Shown by ultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is + false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if + a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject + to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the + examples below to those above.

+

His kids might’ve been ill [if he had kids, + but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].

+

We might’ve taken a walk later on [i.e., but + we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.7
IPL
The Implicative
+
+

Shown by penultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between + the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect + chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below.

+

His kids are (must be) ill [i.e., as implied by some + other fact such as his staying home from work].

+

If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk + later on OR She’s wearing + a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on [i.e., + the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.5.8
ASC
The Ascriptive
+
+

Shown by ultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual adjunct. + The ASCRIPTIVE mood functions identically to the IMPLICATIVE + immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from + the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples:

+

His kids may be ill [i.e., as implied by some other + fact such as his staying home from work].

+

If she wears a blue dress, we might be taking a walk later + on OR She’s wearing a + blue dress, so that means we might be taking a walk later on [i.e., the + dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility].

+


+ 6.5.9 Examples of Mood in Use

+
The following examples compare the seven non-FACTUAL + moods applied to the same sentence:
+
+


+

+


+

+


+

+


+

+

+
+

+

+
+

+

+

+
+

 

+
+ + + + +

6.6 BIAS

+
+

Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which + often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation + (previously discussed in Sec. 6.1), often triggering a + translation change as well.

+


+ 6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage

+

Bias is shown in any one of four ways:

+
+
    +
  1. as a word-initial consonantal prefix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal + stop is infixed between the prefix and the adjunct, e.g., n’urs, + ss’illui
    +
    2. +
  2. as a word-final consonantal suffix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal + stop is infixed between the adjunct and the suffix, e.g., ursau’n, + illui’ss
    +
    3. +
  3. as a consonantal infix to an aspectual adjunct, which substitutes this + consonantal infix for the Cx consonantal infix of the adjunct; this infix + always ends in -w, e.g., utwa, + enkwoi
    +
    4. +
  4. as a word-initial consonantal prefix to formative if the formative begins + with a vowel; a glottal stop is infixed between the prefix and the formative, + e.g., n’exalt, ss’imlatku
    5. +
+
+

These prefix, suffix, and infix forms are shown in Table 20 + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms + described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.

+


+ Table 20: Morpho-Phonological + Markers for Bias
+
+
+

+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.1
ASU
 ASSURATIVE
+ This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by ‘I told you so!’ or ‘You see?!’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.2
HPB
 HYPERBOLIC
+ This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in I + so don’t care! or That is totally not what I wanted. The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.3
COI
 COINCIDENTAL
+ This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in I happened to run into Jane or It + just so happens that I’m busy. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.4
ACP
 ACCEPTIVE
+ This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.5
RAC
 REACTIVE
+ This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.6
STU
 STUPEFACTIVE
+ This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.7
CTV
 CONTEMPLATIVE
+ This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.8
DPV
 DESPERATIVE
+ This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.9
RVL
 REVELATIVE
+ This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.10
GRA
 GRATIFICATIVE
+ This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.11
SOL
 SOLICITIVE
+ This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence So dance already! +
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.12
SEL
 SELECTIVE
+ This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.13
IRO
 IRONIC
+ This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.14
EXA
 EXASPERATIVE
+ This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.15
LTL
 LITERAL
+ This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.16
CRR
 CORRECTIVE
+ This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.17
EUP
 EUPHEMISTIC
+ This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.18
SKP
 SKEPTICAL
+ This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.19
CYN
 CYNICAL
+ This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.20
CTP
 CONTEMPTIVE
+ This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.21
DSM
 DISMISSIVE
+ This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.22
IDG
 INDIGNATIVE
+ This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.23
SGS
 SUGGESTIVE
+ This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’
+
+ + + + + + + +
6.6.1.24
PPV
 PROPOSITIVE
+ This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences How about going for a stroll?, We + could meet behind the barn if you want, or You can sit on my lap. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’
+

 

+

6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use
+

+
+

+ __Listen! + +
+
+ +

 

+

Proceed + to Chapter 7: Using Affixes >>

+

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

+

 

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes1.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes1.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..43b5631 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes1.html @@ -0,0 +1,1423 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 7: Using Affixes + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 7: Using Affixes

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
7.1 Distinction in Suffixes + by Affix-Type7.5 Morpho-Phonological + Rules for Suffixation
7.2 Suffixes Modifying Other Suffixes7.6 Rules for Optional + Prefixation
7.3 The Five Affix Classes7.7 List of Affixes
7.4 Personal Reference SuffixesSec. + 7.7 Continued
+
+


+ All Ithkuil formatives are capable of taking various consonant-based + affixes. Like affixes in other languages, these are used to modify the stem + in a variety of ways and to derive new concepts. In Ithkuil, such affixes usually + appear as suffixes (i.e., are added sequentially following the stem), however, + it is possible for Ithkuil affixes to optionally appear as prefixes (i.e., added + on to the front of a stem) under certain circumstances. It is for this reason + these morphological elements are referred to as affixes and not more specifically + as prefixes or suffixes. Nevertheless, the rules for prefixation of Ithkuil + affixes are subordinate and secondary to the rules for suffixation. Therefore, + in the following discussion I will first describe the rules for using Ithkuil + affixes as suffixes, followed by a section on the options for prefixation.

+

The morpho-phonological structure of suffixes (how they are + formed from consonants and vowels) has already been briefly discussed in Section + 2.7. This chapter will describe the actual function of the particular affixes + themselves.

+

There are 153 different consonantal suffix categories, each + of which divides into the nine degrees previously discussed in Section + 2.7.2 giving a total of 1377 distinct suffixes. As described in that section, + each degree of a suffix has a distinct meaning, often representing a point along + a continuum in terms of how much or how little the underlying semantic sense + of the affix category is being manifested by the particular formative.

+

It is important to remember that, since all morpho-semantic + stems are both nominal and verbal in meaning, all suffixes to a stem have both + a nominal and a verbal meaning. Therefore, the choice whether to translate the + suffixes below into their nominal or verbal meaning is entirely dependent on + the morpho-syntactical structure of the word within the context of its use in + a phrase or sentence as a whole.

+

We have seen in Section + 2.7 that consonantal suffixes fall into three affix-types, each having nine + degrees. It is the combination of affix-type and degree which determines the + vowel infix which accompanies each consonantal suffix. For example, the suffix + -nt of Type 1 takes the following forms for its nine degrees: + -int, -ent, -änt, -önt, (a)nt, + -ünt, -ïnt, -ont, -unt. Compare this to the same affix -nt + of Type 2, whose nine forms are: -înt, -ênt, -ânt, + -ønt, -uint, -ÿnt, -ënt, -ônt, -ûnt; and + the suffix -nt of Type 3, whose nine forms are: -ient, + -iënt, -iunt, -iont, -iänt, -uänt, -uont, -uënt, -uent. + These vowel infixes for suffixes are shown in Table 21 below (this table already + appeared in Chapter 2 as Table 9; it is repeated here for convenience).

+

+

Table 21: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Affix Type

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
Affix + Type 1: -V1C
Affix + Type 2: -V2C
Affix + Type 3: -V3C
standard + form
optional + reversed form
standard + form
optional + reversed form
standard + form
optional + reversed form
Degree + 1
-iC
-Cai
-îC
-Cëi
-ieC
-Caï
Degree + 2
-eC
-Cei
-êC / -eiC
-Ceu
-iëC
-Ceï
Degree + 3
-äC / -aeC
-Cia
-âC /-aiC
-Câ
-iuC
-Ciï
Degree + 4
-öC
-Cua
-øC / -euC
-Ciu
-ioC
-Coï
Degree + 5
-(a)C
-Ca
-uiC
-Cui
-iäC
-Cuï
Degree + 6
-üC / -ëuC
-Cü
-ÿC / -auC
-Cau
-uäC
-Cäi
Degree + 7
-ïC / -ëiC
-Cï
-ëC
-Cëu
-uoC
-Cöi
Degree + 8
-oC
-Coi
-ôC / -oiC / -ouC
-Cou
-uëC
-Cäu
Degree + 9
-uC
-Cu
-ûC
-Cû
-ueC
-Cöu
+

+

NOTE: For convenience’ sake, when referring to a particular + affix of specific type and degree, we will use the notation in the paragraph + above, followed by a slash and a number indicating the degree. Thus, the affix + -nt of Type 1 and 4th degree will be written -V1nt/4, + while the affix -r of Type 3 and 8th degree would be written + -V3r/8, and so forth.

+ +

 

+
+ + + + +

7.1 DISTINCTION IN SUFFIXES BY + AFFIX-TYPE

+
+

The meaning and usage of each affix by type is particular to + each individual affix. For example, some affixes of Type 1 have a completely + different meaning than their Type 2 or Type 3 counterparts, while other affixes + can be used as both Type 1 or Type 2 with the affix having the same meaning + but conveying a different effect on the overall connotation of the word to which + they are affixed. Still other affixes retain their meaning across all three + affix types but again convey a different overall connotation on the words to + which they are affixed.

+

For example, the Type 1 suffix -ej (or -jei), + i.e., -V1j/2, means ‘hardly any + (of)…’ as in the word qumjéi ‘hardly + any persons,’ while its Type 2 counterpart -êj + (or -jeu), i.e., -V2j/2, + has the completely different meaning of ‘somewhat like/sort of like…’ + as in qumjéu ‘sort of like some persons.’ + Compare this, however, to the Type 1 suffix -up (or -pu), + i.e., -V1p/9, and its Type 2 counterpart + -ûp (or -pû), i.e., -V2p/9, + which both mean ‘exactly similar to…/identical…,’ the + difference in usage being that the Type 1 affix conveys merely a circumstantial + or incidental similarity, while the Type 2 suffix implies that the similarity + is an integral aspect of the word. In English, such a distinction would most + likely be conveyed by using a different word. For example, note the difference + when we add these two suffixes to the Ithkuil word qum ‘person’: + qumpu means ‘identical-looking person,’ whereas + qumpû means ‘twin.’ In this way, we can say + that the suffix -Vp with Type 1 vocalic infixes conveys a circumstantial + application of its meaning to a stem, while with Type 2 vocalic infixes, it + conveys a derivational application of its meaning (i.e., wholly new concepts + or words are derived from the stem).

+ +

 

+
+ + + + +

7.2 SUFFIXES MODIFYING OTHER SUFFIXES

+
+

In addition to the patterns of suffix usage described above, + there is another class of suffixes which not only can be used to distinguish + a circumstantial versus derivational aspect like -Vp above, + but can also be used to modify an adjacent suffix rather than the stem. This + is somewhat analogous to the way that adverbs can be used to modify descriptive + adjectives in English. For example, in the phrase suddenly blue sky, + it is the blueness that is sudden, not the sky. In Ithkuil, certain suffixes + can be used to modify another suffix (usually the one following, unless there + are only two affixes on the stem, in which case the suffix order is irrelevant); + this is done by using Type 3 vocalic infixes. For example, the suffix -Vd/5, + which means ‘enough / sufficient(ly),’ can be used both circumstantially + (using Type 1 infixes) and derivationally (using Type 2 infixes) to modify a + stem, or can be used to modify only the adjacent suffix (using Type 3 infixes). + This is illustrated below:

+

qumad (or qumda): ‘a + sufficient person’ (i.e., one able to perform the task at hand)
+ qumuid (or qumdui): ‘a recruit’ + (i.e., one able to meet performance or entry requirements)
+ qumüxduï (or qumiädüx): + ‘a sufficiently large person’ (where suffix -V1x/6 + = ‘large’)

+ +

 

+
+ + + + +

7.3 THE FIVE AFFIX CLASSES

+
+

All in all, there are five different patterns in which the + meanings/functions of affixes are distributed. There are those like -ej + and -êj above where the Type 1 meaning/function is completely + different than that of Type 2. We will label these classes of affixes V1C + affixes and V2C affixes respectively, + as they represent two totally independent affixes.

+

Additionally there are those like -up and + -ûp which are essentially a single affix with one meaning/function + that alternates between Type 1 and Type 2 infixes to distinguish a circumstantial + versus a derivational aspect in the stem to which they are affixed. We will + label such affixes V0C suffixes.

+

Then there are suffixes like -(a)d/-uid/-iad + shown above which alternate the circumstantial/derivational distinction using + Type 1 versus Type 2 infixes, but then go a step further by using Type 3 vocalic + infixes to indicate modification of an adjacent suffix; we will label these + V3C suffixes.

+

Lastly there is a class of suffixes labeled VSC + suffixes; this class of suffix operates like a V1C + suffix (i.e., an independent affix which modifies the stem circumstantially, + but not derivationally) but then also uses Type 2 infixes to apply the same + meaning to the adjacent affix, similarly to the use of Type 3 infixes for V3C + suffixes.

+

These five classes of affixes are summarized below:

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
V1C
Takes Type 1 vocalic infixes only. + Can be either circumstantial or derivational in meaning (but not both), + depending on the particular affix.
V2C
Takes Type 2 vocalic infixes only. Can be either + circumstantial or derivational in meaning (but not both), depending + on the particular affix.
V0C
Takes both Type 1 and Type 2 vocalic infixes. Use + of Type 1 infix means affix applies circumstantially to the particular + instance of the stem; use of Type 2 infix means the affix is derivational + and generates an emergent concept for the stem constituting a new semantic + whole.
VSC
Takes both Type 1 and Type 2 vocalic infixes, but + use is circumstantial only, not derivational. Use of Type 1 infix means + affix aplies the stem; use of Type 2 infix means the affix applies to + the adjacent affix only.
V3C
Same as V0C + affixes where Type 1 infix operates circumstantially and Type 2 infix + operates derivationally; but also takes Type 3 vocalic infixes which + function to modify an adjacent affix (as with VSC + suffixes when using Type 2 infixes)
+
+

 

+
+ + + + +

7.4 PERSONAL REFERENCE SUFFIXES

+
+

There is one additional class of suffixes which must await + analysis until the next chapter on adjuncts. In Sec. + 8.1 we will encounter a type of adjunct known as a personal reference adjunct + which roughly corresponds to the function of personal pronouns in Western languages. + These adjuncts come in two types: single-referent and dual-referent. We will + see that the 46 single-referent adjuncts have corresponding suffix forms which + utilize Type 3 vocalic infix patterns, and that the nine degrees associated + with each suffix correspond to nine specific nominal cases (specifically the + seven Associative cases described in Sec. + 4.4 and two of the Appositive cases described in Sec. + 4.5). These suffixes will be discussed in detail in Sec. + 8.1.5.

+ +

 

+
+ + + + +

7.5 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL RULES + FOR SUFFIXATION

+
+

When adding suffixes to a stem, several factors affect how + suffixation takes place. For example, when adding the 5th degree suffix -(a)s + to the stem ruk, one cannot simply append the suffix directly + as in ruks because the resulting final consonant combination + of -ks would be misinterpreted as the Grade 4 mutation of the + C2 radical s (i.e., the reader would + misinterpret the word to be based on the stem rus instead of + ruk). In this case, there are two options. The suffix can take + its optional vowel component, giving rukas, or the suffix can + be reversed to give ruksa. Such reversals are permitted under + certain circumstances such as when the suffix is word-final, as is the case + here. An astute reader may be wondering at this point, wouldn’t the -ks- + conjunct in ruksa once again be mistaken for the Grade 4 mutation + of s as it was in ruks? In this case, the + answer is no because there is no other reason for the final -a + to be there. In words where a final vowel appears for no possible reason, then + it means it is the vocalic portion of a “reversed” suffix. However, + one must be certain there is not another reason for the final vowel. For example, + in the word ïruksá, one might be tempted to interpret + the final vowel as being the vocalic portion of a reversed -(a)s + suffix, however, in fact this word represents the word rus + with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical s, declined into the + ABSTRACT perspective, a morphological category shown by + ultimate stress plus the addition of an anaptyctic (i.e., “extra”) + vowel, in this case, the word-initial ï- (see Secs. + 2.7.3.3 and 3.3.4).

+


+ 7.5.1 Multiple Affixation

+

When adding two or more suffixes to a stem, the suffixes generally + can be added to the stem in any order desired, with the exception of suffixes + which modify an adjacent suffix (i.e., VSC + suffixes utilizing Type 2 vocalic infixes and V3C + suffixes utilizing Type 3 vocalic infixes). Such suffixes must immediately precede + the suffix they are modifying, unless they are in word-final position, in which + case they modify the immediately preceding suffix.

+


+ 7.5.2 Reversal of Suffixes

+

As mentioned above, the form of a suffix can be optionally + reversed from vowel+consonant to consonant+vowel under certain circumstances. + The main reason for reversing suffixes is for euphonic purposes to preserve + a CVC format for the stressed syllable whenever possible (see Sec. + 1.4.5). We have seen in the example ruksa above, that such reversals are + possible when a suffix is in word-final position if it will not cause confusion + regarding interpretation of any resulting consonantal conjunct. The same is + true of suffix reversals within a word as well, i.e., the reversal is permissible + as long as the reversal does not cause ambiguity in interpreting which vowels + go with which consonant, or that a resulting consonant conjunct is misinterpreted + as a biconsonantal suffix form or C2 radical. For example, + the stem peix plus the two suffixes -(a)r + (-V1r/5) and -uic (-V2c/5) + can be realized either as peixruic, peixarcui, peixuicra, peixcuira, + peixracui or peixuicar . However, the stem stis + plus the two suffixes -(a)k and -(a)t (-V1k/5 + and -V1t/5) can only be realized as stisatka, + stisatak or stisakat, since the forms stiskat, + stistak, or stisakt could be respectively + misinterpreted as stisk+at, stist+ak, and + stis+akt.

+ +

 

+
+ + + + +

7.6 RULES FOR OPTIONAL PREFIXATION

+
+

Under a certain narrow range of circumstances, a formative + may have one consonantal affix appear as a prefix to the stem rather than being + suffixed. The sole reason for doing so is for euphonic purposes, either to decrease + the number of syllables or to avoid euphonically awkward combinations of consonants + and vowels among the suffixes to the stem. Because of the morpho-phonological + restrictions on consonantal prefixation as described below, prefixes are uncommon. +

+

The rules for optional prefixation depend on whether or not + the formative has a word-initial vocalic prefix (i.e., the Affiliation/Extension + [+ Conflation] prefix as described in Sections + 3.2, 3.4, and + 5.3. These two possibilities + are each detailed in the sections which follow.

+


+ 7.6.1 Prefixation Rules for Formatives Without Vocalic Prefixes

+

If the formative is a noun with no word-initial vocalic Affiliation/Extension + prefix, then the consonant is placed in word-initial position before the C1 + radical. If the resulting consonantal conjunct (with the C1 consonantal form) + is phonaesthetically impermissible or it causes ambiguity over the interpretation + of C1 (i.e., the prefix + C1 conjunct + could be misinterpreted as one of the mutational grades of that or a different + C1 radical), then an anaptyctic vowel -ï- + must be inserted between the prefixed consonant and the C1 + consonant. For example s + kuil becomes sïkuil, + not skuil, since the sk- initial conjunct + of the latter would be misinterpreted as the C1 radical + of an entirely different stem.

+

As for the vocalic portion of the affix (the portion which + indicates which of nine degrees is to be associated with the affix), the vocalic + portion is suffixed to the stem in word-final position (and therefore its word-final + form) in a manner so that it cannot be ambiguously interpreted as being associated + with another suffix. Thus kuil + es, if prefixed, + becomes sïkuilei. For prefixed consonants which do not + cause confusion over the interpretation of the C1 radical, + these can be directly adjoined to the C1 radical, preceded + by a word-initial ï- if phonaesthetically necessary, e.g., + guil + uj becomes jguilu, + while kuil + up becomes ïpkuilu. +

+

Note that forms such as sïkuilei and + ïpkuilu above are considered highly affected morphological + forms, since their “standard” forms are far more euphonically desirable + (i.e., kuiles and kuilpu). In such cases, + these “affected” prefixed forms have the rhetorical effect of emphasizing + or highlighting the affix as having exaggerated significance.

+


+ 7.6.2 Rules for Formatives With Vocalic Prefixes

+

For formatives that are either verbs or nouns with a vocalic + Affiliation/Extension prefix, the rules for consonantal prefixation are more + constrained, as no forms using an anaptyctic vowel are permitted. The consonantal + affix is infixed between the word-initial vocalic prefix of the formative and + the C1 radical. This is only permissible if the infix + does not cause ambiguity in interpretation of the resulting consonant conjunct, + i.e., it will not be confused with either a different radical or an Illocution + affix (see Sec. 5.1). The + vocalic portion of the consonantal affix which indicates the degree of the affix + is suffixed in word-final position so that it cannot be ambiguously interpreted + as being associated with another suffix. Thus, for example, woikâl + + uc becomes woickâlu. If placement + of the vocalic suffix indicating degree results in ambiguity as to which consonantal + affix it applies to, then prefixation of the consonantal affix is not permitted. + For example, the form ébdortui would be impermissible + because it is ambiguous as to whether the word is equivalent to édorta+bui, + édora+(a)t+bui, or + édora+tui+(a)b.

+ +

 

+
+ + + + +
+

7.7 LIST OF AFFIXES

+
+

The 153 affix categories are given in the sections which follow. + Each affix indicates which of the five classes of affixes it belongs (V1C, + V2C, V0C, VSC, + or V3C), + the consonant-form associated with it, its overall function, its three-letter + label used in morphological analysis, and the meaning or translation of each + of its nine degrees. For most degrees, a nominal and verbal meaning is given. +

+


+ 7.7.1 Demonstrative Affixes

+

These affixes correspond to various determiners and modifying + adjectives in English having to do with denoting or identifying a noun within + a larger context or discourse.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1kt
DEF
Degree Of Definiteness
Degree 1any (number + of) [random selection - NOT quantitative/partitive “any”]; in + any manner
Degree 2almost + any; in almost any (number of) way(s)
Degree 3some X + or other; in some way or other
Degree 4some certain + X ; in some certain way [identity unknown]
Degree 5this X + or that; a certain X or more; in this way or that [identity almost known + – choices limited]
Degree 6a certain + / a particular; in a certain or particular way [identity ascertainable]
Degree 7presumably + this/that; apparently this X ; in that way presumably [tentatively identified] +
Degree 8 this/that/said; + in said manner/(in) that way [identity known]
Degree 9at hand/under + discussion/this one now/instant; in this manner [identity = present context]
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2kt
INL
Degree Of Discretion
Degree 1announced/advertised/heralded; + w/ public disclosure
Degree 2open & + well-known; with full public knowledge
Degree 3open/public; + for all to see/publicly/openly
Degree 4shown, + open, or available by request/ by request
Degree 5semi-public(ly), + exclusive(ly)
Degree 6own/personal; + personally
Degree 7own private; + privately
Degree 8 secret; + secretly
Degree 9confidential/classified
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1
INL
Degree Of Inclusion
Degree 1not a(ny), + not one, no X whatsoever, none of X; in no such manner
Degree 2hardly + any, barely any X; in hardly any such manner
Degree 3some few/a + few certain … ; in a few certain ways
Degree 4some (of)/certain + . . .; in certain ways
Degree 5several + / more than a few / various / in various ways / in several different ways
Degree 6a significant + portion of/a fair number of; in a fair number of ways
Degree 7most/in + most ways
Degree 8 almost + every; in almost every way
Degree 9each/every; + in each way
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2
EXT
Exactness of Identity / Identity As a Referent Or Standard
Degree 1nothing + like that X; nothing like that ; in no way similar
Degree 2somewhat + like that X; somewhat so
Degree 3nearly + or almost that X; nearly or almost so
Degree 4just about + . . . / for all intents and purposes
Degree 5kind of + / type of / this sort of; typically
Degree 6such (a); + in such a manner
Degree 7clear (case + of); clearly / certainly / indeed[in negative sentences = no way / at all]
Degree 8 just like + that; just so, thus(ly)
Degree 9the exact + X / the very (one); exactly thus / exactly so
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0s
FAM
Degree Of Familiarity
Degree 1unknowable + / alien; unable to even try X-ing
Degree 2totally + unfamiliar; totally unaccustomed to X-ing
Degree 3unfamiliar; + unaccustomed to X-ing
Degree 4somewhat + unfamiliar; somewhat unaccustomed to X-ing
Degree 5only just + (recently) familiar; only just recently familiar to X-ing
Degree 6somewhat + familiar; somewhat accustomed to X-ing
Degree 7familiar/known; + accustomed to X-ing
Degree 8 well-known + / utterly familiar with / ingrained; inherently accustomed or used to X-ing
Degree 9intimate + with; intimately involved with / intimately accustomed to
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0p
SIM
Degree Of Similarity
Degree 1opposite; + as different as possible / at the other extreme
Degree 2completely + different/dissimilar; in a totally different or dissimilar way
Degree 3rather + different / barely similar / almost completely different or dissimilar; + in an almost completely different way
Degree 4other [=different]; + in another [=different] way
Degree 5somewhat + different, only superficially similar; somewhat differently
Degree 6similar + in the ways that count/similar down deep, some sort of X; similarly at deep + level
Degree 7(somewhat) + similar, only superficially different, sort of like, something like, X-like; + similarly
Degree 8 very similar; + very similarly
Degree 9[exactly + the] same, indistinguishable from; in the [exactly] same way
+

 

+

7.7.2 Deictic Affixes

+

Deictic affixes refer to the grammatical process of deixis, + the act of pointing to or pointing out. The affixes correspond to the different + variants of the concepts of ‘here’ and ‘there.’ In Ithkuil, + distinctions are made in these affixes as to whether a referent is near the + speaker, near the listener, distant from both, whether it is observable or accessible, + and in some case, whether it is alienable or inalienable (i.e., whether the + entity can be separated from the associated person).
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1’
DEX
Deixis Categories
Degree 1yonder + / way over there somewhere / a long way away (not near anyone) [inaccessible + or unobservable]
Degree 2over there + somewhere (by third party) [inaccessible or observable]
Degree 3there somewhere + (by listener) [inaccessible or observable]
Degree 4here somewhere + (by speaker] [inaccessible or observable]
Degree 5here (by + speaker and accessible]
Degree 6here with + us (by speaker and listener and accessible]
Degree 7there [by + listener and accessible]
Degree 8 there (by + third party, but accessible to speaker and listener)
Degree 9yonder + / way over there [not near any party but accessible]
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2’
DXX
More Deixis Categories
Degree 1spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [inaccessible]
Degree 2spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [inaccessible]
Degree 3spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over the place / here + and there [inaccessible]
Degree 4spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker / all over / here & there + [observable but inaccessible]
Degree 5spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [inalienable]
Degree 6spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all throughout speaker / enveloping speaker + [alienable]
Degree 7spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about speaker/all over the place / here + and there [accessible]
Degree 8 spread + out/ everywhere / scattered all about listener / all over the place around + listener [accessible]
Degree 9spread + out/ everywhere / scattered yonder / all over out there [accessible]
+

 

+

7.7.3 Sequential Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1nn
SEQ
Numerical Sequence
Degree 1first / + initial; first(ly) / first of all
Degree 2second; + secondly
Degree 3third; + thirdly
Degree 4still near + the beginning / not yet halfway
Degree 5the middle + one, in between (sequentially)/ just about halfway there
Degree 6nearing + the end
Degree 7third from + last; antepenultimately
Degree 8 next to + last; penultimately
Degree 9last / + final; last(ly) / finally (in terms of sequence)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2nn
SQT
Sequence Relative to Present Context
Degree 1immediately + beforehand / first
Degree 2one before + preceding
Degree 3the former; + primarily
Degree 4two before + preceding
Degree 5current/at + hand; now/currently / at the moment [in sequence of events]
Degree 6second + one after next
Degree 7the latter; + secondarily
Degree 8 one after + next
Degree 9next / + following; then / next
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0c’
SQC
Sequence of Cause and Effect
Degree 1originating; + originally / in the first place / initially / at the outset
Degree 2preliminary; + preliminarily
Degree 3preparatory + / in preparation for / getting ready to
Degree 4awaited; + waiting to/ waiting for [focus on imminency or sequential position, NOT + on anticipation]
Degree 5precursor + to; but just beforehand
Degree 6based on + the preceding and setting the stage for what follows
Degree 7eventual + / at last; at last / finally (result)
Degree 8 following + /...which follows; then subsequent to that / following that...
Degree 9subsequent + / consequent; then / so / thus / therefore
+

 

+

7.7.4 Coordinative Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1w
+ or -V1y
COO
Adjunctive Coordination
Degree 1in conjunction + with / combined with / including X
Degree 2and / also + / additionally/ furthermore/ moreover/ what’s more
Degree 3 . . . + and so forth / and so on / and all that/ and whatever else
Degree 4and at + the same time / and simultaneously
Degree 5and [all + in a series]
Degree 6or [potentially + inclusive] = and/or
Degree 7either + . . . or [exclusive or] / or else
Degree 8 . . . or + something else / or whatever / or whatever else
Degree 9either + . . . or [exclusive or in a series]
+

Degree 2 of this affix is used with FOCUS (see Sec. + 3.5) to disambiguate a sentence like Our team defeated their team, too + [is our team on a winning streak or is their team on a losing streak?]
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1rr
CTR
Contrastive Coordination
Degree 1still / + nevertheless / however — (despite seemingly inherent conflict or contradiction)
Degree 2besides + / not just . . . but also / in addition to X… also
Degree 3even / + or even / … still [e.g., thicker still]
Degree 4or [= otherwise]
Degree 5as opposed + to / but not
Degree 6but [qualifying]
Degree 7however + / on the other hand — (simple difference in expected outcome, no inherent + conflict)
Degree 8 but (rather) + [= substitute]
Degree 9just in + case / should the need arise
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2rr
DST
Distributive Coordination
Degree 1applying + to each equally [unfairly]
Degree 2applied + selectively by decision/preference [unfairly]
Degree 3respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [unfairly]
Degree 4selectively + at random [unfairly]
Degree 5respectively + [= applied in the sequentially spoken order]
Degree 6selectively + at random [fairly]
Degree 7respectively + (=to each) but in differing amounts [fairly]
Degree 8 applied + selectively by decision/calculation [fairly]
Degree 9applying + to each equally [fairly]
+ +

 

+

Chapter + 7 continued >>

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt + any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution + to the author and this website.

+

 

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes2.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes2.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..0ac88a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes2.html @@ -0,0 +1,5667 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 7 (Continued): Using Affixes + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 7 (continued): Using Affixes

+


+ 7.7.5 Temporal Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
TPI
Impact or Duration Over Time
Degree 1immediate + / at this instant / for this moment; momentary
Degree 2temporary + / for right now / for the moment; temporarily / in the meantime [duration + of context. recent]
Degree 3short term/for + now; in the short term/for now/ / for the immediate future [hours to days]
Degree 4for the + meantime / for the meanwhile [days to weeks to months]
Degree 5for a while + / for some time to come [months to several years]
Degree 6for the + foreseeable future [years to decades]
Degree 7long term/in + the long run; over the course of time [over the course of a lifetime, decades + to centuries]
Degree 8 through + the ages / over the course of the ages [centuries to millenia]; permanent
Degree 9ever-present + / eternal / constant / incessant / neverending; from now on / eternally + / all the time / for all time
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0ll
FRQ
Degree Of Frequency
Degree 1never
Degree 2rare / + hardly ever / once in a great while; rarely / almost unheard of
Degree 3infrequent; + seldom / infrequently
Degree 4now and + then / from time to time / off and on / every so often / now and again occasionally + / sometimes
Degree 5frequent; + frequently / often
Degree 6usual; + usually / customarily / generally
Degree 7almost + always / rarely fail to / routinely
Degree 8 ever-faithful + / unwavering; always / every time / without fail / like clockwork / never + fail to
Degree 9constant + / continuous; constantly / continuously / all the time
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1z
TPR
Temporal Placement/Reaction/Viewpoint
Degree 1wistfully + looking back / in the (good) old days [with longing]
Degree 2in hindsight + / looking back
Degree 3upon further + consideration/upon reflection
Degree 4initial; + at first/initially / at first blush / at first glance
Degree 5now that + the moment has come / now that the time is here / now that the deed or event + is at hand
Degree 6any moment + now; on the verge of; just about to
Degree 7imminent(ly) + ; very soon
Degree 8 soon [w/ + anticipation]
Degree 9someday. + . . / one day [with longing]
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0q’
TPP
Temporal Position Relative to Present
Degree 1in the + remote past, once upon a time
Degree 2past/former/previous; + once [e.g., I was young once], a long time ago
Degree 3recent; + recently
Degree 4. . . just + past / just (happened)
Degree 5present/current/present + day; now / at present / presently / currently
Degree 6imminent; + just about to / about to / on the verge of
Degree 7forthcoming + / soon to arrive; soon
Degree 8 future + / -- to be / --to come / eventual(ly); someday...
Degree 9in the + remote future / far in the future / long after we’re gone
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
ATC
Degree Of Anticipation
Degree 1long-awaited + / long looked for
Degree 2eagerly + awaited; can’t wait for / dying to
Degree 3anticipated + / awaited; in anticipation of / look forward to
Degree 4up for + / up to
Degree 5await / + wait to / wait for / waiting to
Degree 6ambivalent + about ; could take or leave it
Degree 7not looking + forward to
Degree 8 dreaded; + dread X-ing
Degree 9long-dreaded; + dread the day when
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2z
LAT
Degree Of Lateness/Earliness
Degree 1way too + early / way too soon
Degree 2too early + / too soon
Degree 3a little + early / a bit soon
Degree 4almost + late / not a moment too soon
Degree 5just in + time / sharp / on the dot
Degree 6a little + late
Degree 7late
Degree 8 too late
Degree 9way too + late
+

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3nt
ITN
Degree Of Iteration
Degree 1just once + / once only
Degree 2again / + once more / one more time / re-
Degree 3again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on habit, not periodicity]
Degree 4again and + again / keep X-ing over and over [focus on periodicity, not habit]
Degree 5irregular, + unpredictable ; at irregular or unpredictable intervals
Degree 6[cyclic] + return of... / ...once again; return to / …back again [e.g., summer’s + back]
Degree 7intermittent; + intermittently / at regular intervals
Degree 8 repetitive + / repeating; repeatedly
Degree 9constantly + cycling or repeating / continuously or perpetually repeating / constant, + eternal, perpetual repetition of
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
RPN
Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set + Members
Degree 1slow-paced + repetition at regular intervals
Degree 2slow-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
Degree 3slow-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
Degree 4mid-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
Degree 5mid-paced + repetition at regular intervals
Degree 6mid-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
Degree 7fast-paced + repetition at mixed intervals
Degree 8 fast-paced + repetition at irregular intervals
Degree 9fast-paced + repetition at regular intervals
+

 

+

7.7.6 Quantifying Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-VS
DGR
Exactness of Degree
Degree 1unknowable + degree or amount of
Degree 2unknown + degree or amount of
Degree 3almost + impossible to determine degree of
Degree 4nowhere + near the desired degree of
Degree 5hard to + pinpoint / hard to determine / difficult to determine
Degree 6fluctuating, + ever-changing (amount of); to changing/fluctuating degree or extent of
Degree 7vaguely + around / vaguely in the range of / somewhere around / loosely in the vicinity + of
Degree 8 approximate(ly) + / somewhere around / just about; or something like that / …or so
Degree 9exact/specific; + exactly / specifically / on the dot / sharp / to the letter
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1ss
PTW
Contiguous Portion of the Whole
Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
Degree 3few / a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite; a lot / very much / to + a large extent
Degree 7a whole + lot of / a verly large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
Degree 8 most of + / mostly
Degree 9 every + / all (of)/whole; entirely/in its entirety
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2ss
PTT
Non-Contiguous (i.e., Intermixed) Portion of the Whole
Degree 1no amount + of / none (of)
Degree 2a very + few / a tiny amount of / a tiny number of; only a tiny bit / a tiny bit
Degree 3 few/a + little / a bit; a little / a bit
Degree 4some, any + [= some of] / some of or any of the / a portion; partially / to some extent
Degree 5a fair + number of / a fair amount of / pretty (+adj.) / fairly (+adj.) / rather + / somewhat; more or less / to a fair extent
Degree 6much / + many / (such) a lot of / very / quite (a); quite /; a lot / very much / + to a large extent
Degree 7a whole + lot of / a very large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible + amount / so much…; so
Degree 8 most of + / mostly
Degree 9every / + all (of) / whole; entirely / in its entirety
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-Vomt
CNM
Type of Container/Packaging/Conveyance/Holder
Degree 1jar/pot + of X [storage + containment]
Degree 2dispensor-type + container/package, e.g., tube, barrel, bottle for multiple use
Degree 3can/tin/bottle/sealed + pouch [= storage + packaging + protection/preservation]
Degree 4carton/box/basket + [= temporary containment]
Degree 5natural + or generic mass containment/packaging/holder (e.g., a loaf of bread, a lump + of clay)
Degree 6satchel, + pack of [= for personal conveyance/moving]
Degree 7pile of, + load of [= in context of conveyance/moving or bulk storage]
Degree 8 X-ful of + [+ Partitive], e.g., a roomful of clowns, a skyful of clouds, a treeful + of leaves, a spoonful
Degree 9embodiment/manifestation + of abstract essence, e.g., a life form [= an embodiment of life]
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3d
SUF
Degree Of Sufficiency
Degree 1none at + all; not…at all
Degree 2way too + little / woefully insufficient / way too few; not...anywhere enough / totally + under-[+verb]
Degree 3not enough + / insufficient / too few; not...enough / insufficiently / under-[+verb]
Degree 4not quite + enough / slightly insufficient; not...quite enough / a bit insufficiently + / slightly under-[+verb]
Degree 5enough + (of) / sufficient; enough / sufficiently
Degree 6a little + too / a little too much; a little too much / slightly over- [+verb]
Degree 7too / toomuch; + too much / too many / over- [+verb]
Degree 8 way too + / way too much; way too much / totally over- [+verb]
Degree 9inundated + with; to the exclusion of all else / to the point that X overwhelms or takes + over
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3b
EXN
Degree or Extent
Degree 1none (at + all); to no extent at all
Degree 2tiniest + part of / a bit of; to smallest extent / hardly / barely
Degree 3only a + part of / only some of; to some extent / partially / partly / somewhat
Degree 4less than + usual / below normal; less so than usual/ to a lesser degree or extent than + usual
Degree 5the normal, + expected or usual amount (of)
Degree 6more than + usual / above normal; more so than usual; to a greater degree or extent + than normal
Degree 7way more + than usual / way above normal or expected; to a much greater degree or extent + than normal
Degree 8 almost + as much as possible / near(ly) maximum
Degree 9total, + -ful; to greatest extent / maximum / maximal; maximally / at full capacity, + e.g., She bought out the store.
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-VSšq
EXD
Dynamically Changing Degree or Extent
Degree 1less and + less / fewer and fewer / ongoing decrease in; decreasingly
Degree 2a lot fewer + / a lot less (of); a lot less
Degree 3fewer / + less (of); less
Degree 4a little + less (of) / a bit less (of); a little less / a bit less
Degree 5a fluctuating + amount or degree of; to a fluctuating degree or extent
Degree 6a little + more (of) / a bit more (of); a little more / a bit more
Degree 7more (of); + more
Degree 8 a lot more + (of); a lot more
Degree 9more and + more / continuing increase in / increasingly more / ever-increasing
+

This affix is used with all vector-like or gradient concepts. When used with + the COMPLETIVE version, degrees 1 and 9 imply attainment + of a change in state, e.g., sleepiness + sleep.

+


+ 7.7.7 Modulative Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-Vons
RCO
Recoil in place (spring back; snap back; fall back into place)
-Von
TFI
Back & forth; to & fro in place (e.g., pendulum, wagging tail)
-Vonš
TFV
Back & forth over linear vector (e.g., snake-like; zig-zag)
-Vonz
CRI
Cycle or circular motion in place (spin, revolve)
-Von
CRV
Cycle or circular motion over linear vector (e.g., train wheels, bike + wheels)
-Vo
MDL
Random pattern of modulation (unpredictable/irregular movement pattern)
+

These affixes operate in conjunction with Phase (see + Sec. 6.2) to describe contexts involving recoil, spring motion, oscillative, + cyclic, reflective or vibrative motion, using the following degrees:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1not enough
Degree 2hardly + at all
Degree 3to a small + degree
Degree 4to a less + than normal degree
Degree 5to the + normal / standard / usual degree
Degree 6to a greater + than normal degree
Degree 7to a large + degree
Degree 8 to a very + large degree
Degree 9too much + / overly
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3g
FLC
Degree of Fluctuation/Stability
Degree 1inherently + and consistently unstable and random to a high degree
Degree 2highly + variable/random fluctuation or instability
Degree 3moderately + variable/random fluctuation or instability
Degree 4increasing + fluctuation or destabilization in pattern
Degree 5tending + toward fluctuations and periods of instability
Degree 6decreasing + fluctuation or instability in pattern = increasing stability
Degree 7moderately + stable and lacking in fluctuations
Degree 8 complete + lack of fluctuation or instability; highly stable
Degree 9inherently + and consistently stable
+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-VSf
ICR
Increase
-VSftDCRDecrease
-VShtICDIncrease then Decrease
-VSkfDCIDecrease then Increase
-VSqIDRRandom/Varying Increases and Decreases 
+

Used with the following degrees, the above five affixes operate to expand Phase + into showing increases or decreases (or wavering) of intensity of an action + during its duration.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1so slowly + as to seem immovable
Degree 2very slowly
Degree 3slowly
Degree 4somewhat slower than + normal
Degree 5normal/usual/standard + speed
Degree 6somewhat faster than + normal
Degree 7fast/quickly
Degree 8 very rapidly
Degree 9so rapidly as to be + unable to follow
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0fs
MVT
Degree of Stillness/Movement
Degree 1unmovable + – integrated
Degree 2unmovable + due to mass
Degree 3not easily + moved
Degree 4inclined + to stillness
Degree 5holding + still
Degree 6moving + around slightly, stirring
Degree 7moving + around in one place
Degree 8 moving + around, agitated
Degree 9highly agitated, unable to keep still
+


+
+
+ 7.7.8 Qualifying Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0x
SIZ
Degree of Size
Degree 1too small
Degree 2very small/ + very little/ miniscule/ tiny/ itty-bitty;in a very small manner; barely/hardly
Degree 3small/little
Degree 4a little + on the small size / undersized / petite
Degree 5a little + on the large size / oversized / jumbo
Degree 6big/large; + in a large manner
Degree 7very big/very + large; in a very large manner
Degree 8 enormous(ly) + / huge(ly) / humoungous(ly) / gigantic(ally)
Degree 9too big + / too large / too huge; in too large a manner
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
SCO
Dynamic Change of Size
Degree 1smallest + single manifestation of / particle of
Degree 2runaway + shrinkage of / rapid disappearance or diminishment of
Degree 3solitary + / only / sole / lone / unaccompanied; alone / by -self / on his own / unaccompanied + / solely
Degree 4decreasing + / de-escalating / shrinking
Degree 5compact/concentrated; + in efficient or compact way [e.g., canyon + gorge]
Degree 6expanded/enhanced; + in expanded or enhanced way [e.g., canyon + rift valley]
Degree 7growing, + increasing, escalating
Degree 8 runaway + / runaway growth, increase or expansion of
Degree 9synergistic + expansion e.g., hit (+ RCP valence) + fight
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0h
AFT
Degree of Affect
Degree 1cute/darling + / in a cute or darling manner
Degree 2too cute + / schmaltzy / in a maudlin way
Degree 3kitschy + / quaint(ly)
Degree 4dear, endearing(ly)
Degree 5lovely + / elegant
Degree 6esteemed
Degree 7imperious + / royal / most high / most excellent / revered
Degree 8 too grand + / too imperious
Degree 9great / + grand; in a great / grand / grandiose manner
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
QUA
Degree of Quality, Effectiveness or Adequacy
Degree 1too poor(ly); + too badly
Degree 2very bad(ly) + / very poor(ly) / very inadequate(ly) / intolerable / intolerably / terrible + / terribly
Degree 3bad / poor + / inadequate; badly / poorly / inadequately / wanting / lacking
Degree 4not-so-good + / could be better; somewhat poor(ly) or bad(ly) / somewhat wanting or lacking + / below average
Degree 5not-so-bad + / average; could be worse; so-so / somewhat well / OK, I guess / adequate(ly) + / acceptably
Degree 6good/effective; + well/effectively/ more than adequate / above-average
Degree 7very good + / very effective(ly) / very well
Degree 8 excellent(ly) + / superb(ly) / outstanding(ly)
Degree 9astounding(ly) + / amazing(ly) great or well / unbelievably excellent / absolutely superb(ly) + / unsurpassable(ly)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0c
UNQ
Degree of Specialness or Uniqueness
Degree 1vulgar, + trashy, too cheap / in a vulgar or trashy manner
Degree 2cheap, + tasteless, gaudy, gauche / in a cheap, gaudy, gauche or tasteless manner
Degree 3run of + the mill / unexceptional / average / commonplace / ordinary; in a commonplace + or unexceptional manner
Degree 4somewhat + ordinary / somewhat common(place)
Degree 5somewhat + special / somewhat out of the ordinary / interesting(ly) / intriguing(ly) + / eye-catching / appealing(ly)
Degree 6special; + epecially
Degree 7extraordinary + / highly unusual; extraordinarily
Degree 8 (one and) + only/unique; in the only way / uniquely / unparallelled
Degree 9marvelous + / wonderful / wondrous / awesome / awe-inspiring
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
CNQ
Degree of Consequentiality, Finality or Irrevocability
Degree 1inconsequential/sham/having + no effect; like it didn’t even happen/with no effect
Degree 2relatively + inconsequential / having little effect / easily reversible or undone / to + little effect / minor / to minor degree
Degree 3somewhat + inconsequential/having only some effect/reparable/reversible/to some effect + / somewhat minor
Degree 4not so + minor / somwhat significant degree / reversible with effort / having a somewhat + significant impact or effect
Degree 5consequential + / having a fair effect / reversible only with concerted effort / to good + effect
Degree 6Overall + / signifcant degree of; all in all / for the most part/to great effect / + on the whole
Degree 7virtually + total/near total; nearly for good/almost completely
Degree 8 utter / + complete / total; altogether / completely / for good / utterly / irrevocably + for all intents and purposes
Degree 9for all + time / forever / finally
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0q
NTR
Degree of Notoriety, Acceptance, Respect, Honor
Degree 1pariah-like + / ostracized; in an alienating or self-ostracizing manner
Degree 2infamous; + infamously
Degree 3frowned-upon + / disapproved ; in a manner guaranteed to arouse disapproval
Degree 4tolerated; + in a tolerated manner
Degree 5common + / customary / expected / accepted; in an common, customary, expected, or + accepted manner
Degree 6notorious(ly)
Degree 7well-known + / well-liked / well thought of; in a totally appropriate way / in a manner + befitting a gentleman or lady
Degree 8 respected + / honored; respectfully / honorably
Degree 9highly + praised / highly honored / highly esteemed / highly respected / most excellent + / most honorable
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0t
APR
Degree of Contextual Appropriateness
Degree 1contemptable(-ly) + / utterly inappropriate(ly)
Degree 2scandalous(ly) + / trashy(-ly) / inappropriate(ly)
Degree 3 ill-mannered + / boorish(ly) / improper(ly) / tasteless(ly)
Degree 4eyebrow-raising + / questionable(-ly)
Degree 5somewhat + improper(ly) / unorthodox(ically)
Degree 6acceptable(-ly) + / adequate(ly)
Degree 7appropriate(ly) + / proper(ly) / correct(ly)
Degree 8 utterly + appropriate(ly), very proper(ly); strictly correct(ly)
Degree 9stuffy + / orthodox / old-fashioned; utterly predictable(ly)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
HRC
Position on Social, Occupational, or (Para-) Military Hierarchy
Degree 1bottom + rung / the “dregs”
Degree 2rank & + file
Degree 3lower echeleon
Degree 4lower-mid
Degree 5mid-level
Degree 6upper mid
Degree 7upper echeleon
Degree 8 senior
Degree 9head / + chief / top / executive
+

This affix, for example, would be used to distinguish the names of the various + ranks within a military or paramilitary organization such as private, corporal, + sergeant, lieutenant, etc. all the way up to general and supreme + commander.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
FRM
Degree of Formality
Degree 1too casual + / overly casual
Degree 2very casual
Degree 3casual
Degree 4somewhat + casual
Degree 5neither + casual nor formal
Degree 6somewhat + formal
Degree 7formal
Degree 8 very formal
Degree 9too formal + / overly formal
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0j
TYP
Degree of Typicalness
Degree 1unique + / never-before-seen / one of a kind / shocking
Degree 2original + / avante-garde; surprising(ly) / innovative(ly)
Degree 3atypical(ly) + / unusual(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + atypical(ly) or unusual(ly)
Degree 5garden + variety / run-of-the-mill / typical(ly)
Degree 6expected + / common; in a commonplace manner
Degree 7disappointingly + typical; very typically
Degree 8 unoriginal + / mundane; in an uninspired way
Degree 9stereotyped + / stereotypical(ly)
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
PTY
Degree of Prototypicalness
Degree 1very dissimilar + to prototype, very atypical member, closer to members of different set
Degree 2dissimilar + to prototype, atypical member
Degree 3having + noticeable dissimilarities from prototype
Degree 4somewhat + dissimilar to prototype
Degree 5having + unknown degree of closeness or similarity to prototype
Degree 6adequately + similar to prototype
Degree 7as close + to prototype as is typically found
Degree 8 as close + to prototype as possible
Degree 9prototype/archetype/model +
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0’
ITG
Degree of Intelligence Manifested
Degree 1dumb / + stupid / assinine; idiotic(ally) / moronic(ally)
Degree 2foolhearty + / foolish(ly)
Degree 3ill-conceived(ly) + / (in a) poorly thought out (way)
Degree 4naïve(ly) + / simplistic(ally)
Degree 5well-intentioned + but ill-conceived / reckless(ly); risky
Degree 6well-reasoned + / intelligent(ly)
Degree 7innovative(ly) + / daring [based on analysis and judgement]
Degree 8 ingenious + / brilliant
Degree 9wise(ly); + [V2c’ = ‘philosophical(ly)]
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
MDN
Degree of Age or Modernity
Degree 1prehistoric + / proto-
Degree 2ancient
Degree 3old (first) + / archaic
Degree 4classic(al) +
Degree 5old-fashioned; + in the old-fashioned way
Degree 6“yesteryear”; + in the era just passed; in the previous zeitgeist
Degree 7modern, + contemporary, present-day
Degree 8 innovative + / trailblazing; innovatively, trailblazingly, cutting-edge
Degree 9avant-garde +
+

 

+

7.7.9 Modifying Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-VSr
NA1
Negation/affirmation of all morphological components
-VSl
NA2
Negation/affirmation of stem + affixes but not adjunct information
-VS
NA3
Negation/affirmation of all morphological components except Modality
-VS
NA4
Negation/affirmation of all but aspectual or Modality information
+

The above four affixes are used to affirm or negate a formative. Because much + of the information associated with an Ithkuil formative is carried in adjuncts, + the above affixes are used to indicate exactly which morpho-semantic information + is being affirmed or negated. For example, in English the sentences I don’t + want to stop eating, I want to not stop eating, and I want to stop not eating + mean different things. The above four affixes are used with the following degrees. +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1on + the contrary…most cerainly does NOT/is NOT [absolute negation]; no + X whatsoever; absolutely not = emphatic negation/denial
Degree 2on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [absolute negation contrary to expectation]
Degree 3on the + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [relative negation contrary to expectation]
Degree 4no; not + [absolute negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (because I’m + not in the race)
Degree 5no; not + [relative negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (although I am in + the race)
Degree 6almost + / near(ly)
Degree 7hardly + / barely
Degree 8 …does + (too) / is (too) [= simple affirmation contrary to expectation]
Degree 9…is + indeed / does indeed / most certainly is / most certainly does [emphatic + affirmation]
+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
DEV
Degree of Development
Degree 1reversal + or undoing of process = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
Degree 2reversal/undoing + of process in large chunks = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’
Degree 3reversal + little by little / a little at a time = entropic change in / slowly falling + apart / unravelling
Degree 4moribund + / stagnant; in a moribund or stagnant manner
Degree 5well-maintained + / well-kept / “healthy”; keep X going / maintain X-ing
Degree 6one by + one / one at a time / one after another
Degree 7little + by little / a little at a time / bit by bit / a piece at a time
Degree 8 by leaps + and bounds / in large amounts at a time
Degree 9complete + achievement now irreversible / set in stone
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3pt
REA
Degree of Genuineness or Veracity
Degree 1real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed [affirmation + contrary to suggestion otherwise]
Degree 2real / + actual / true / genuine; truly, genuinely, really, actually, indeed
Degree 3apparent + / seeming / looks like a; apparently / appears to have / seems to have
Degree 4suspicious-looking + / ”fishy” seeming; presumably /allegedly / gives the appearance + of having
Degree 5ersatz + / facsimile; as an equivalent to
Degree 6substitute + / replacement / proxy / fill-in / placeholder; as a substitue or proxy for
Degree 7fake / + pretend / mock; pretend to, fake X-ing
Degree 8 imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing
Degree 9imaginary + / unreal / made-up ; imagine X-ing, not really X-ing [contrary to suggestion + otherwise]
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3k
SCS
Degree of Success versus Failure
Degree 1total failure + in; completely fail to
Degree 2failed, + would-be; unsuccessfully, fail to
Degree 3= INEFFECTUAL + or INCOMPLETIVE version (see Sec. 5.3)
Degree 4certain + to be a failed / certain to fail in
Degree 5marginally + successful(ly) / barely, hardly [in terms of adequacy or success]
Degree 6certain + to be a successful ; certain to succeed in
Degree 7= POSITIVE + or EFFECTIVE version (see Sec. 5.3)
Degree 8 successful(-ly + completed); successfully
Degree 9overwhelmingly + successful(ly)
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1v
CAP
Degree of Potential or Capability
Degree 1utterly + incapable / completely lacking in all necessary abilities or capacities
Degree 2underqualified; + almost totally lacking in necessary abilities or capacities
Degree 3lacking + in certain key capabilities; mostly inadequate to task
Degree 4possible + but less than likely due to underdeveloped capabilities
Degree 5unknown + if capable or not
Degree 6somewhat + capable / has possible potential to perform
Degree 7sufficiently + capable / adequate potential to perform
Degree 8 fully capable; + well within abilities
Degree 9overly + qualified; more capable than necessary or required
+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2v + *
PRB
Degree of Probability or Likelihood
+ * This affix takes a -V3 affix form to apply its meaning + to an adjacent suffix only.
Degree 1impossible + / hopeless / lost cause
Degree 2almost + no chance of / virtually impossible
Degree 3highly + unlikely
Degree 4unlikely + / improbable(ly)
Degree 5possible; + possibly
Degree 6hopeful(ly) +
Degree 7probable; + probably
Degree 8 highly + probable / highly likely / certain to be a. . . certain to
Degree 9forgone + conclusion that / in the can / done deal
+

 

+

7.7.10 Adverbial Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
STR
Degree of Physical Strength Possible or Used
Degree 1barely + / hardly / very weak(ly)
Degree 2weak(ly) + / to small degree
Degree 3soft(ly) + / guarded(ly)
Degree 4measured(ly)
Degree 5somewhat + strong(ly) / somewhat powerful(ly)
Degree 6adequately + strong; with adequate strength
Degree 7strong(ly) + / powerful(ly)
Degree 8 very strong(ly) + / very powerful(ly)
Degree 9with maximum + power
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3ç
FRC
Degree of Physical Force Exerted
Degree 1too light(ly) + / too soft(ly) / too delicate(ly)
Degree 2light as + a feather/ baby soft; extremely delicately or lightly or softly
Degree 3light/soft/hardly + a; softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
Degree 4somewhat + on the light or soft side; somewhat softly / lightly / delicately / gingerly
Degree 5neither + soft(ly) nor forceful(ly); with the right touch
Degree 6somewhat + violent(ly) / somewhat forceful(ly)
Degree 7violent/forceful + / rough; violently / with force / roughly
Degree 8 very violent(ly) + / very forceful(ly) / very rough(ly)
Degree 9too violent(ly) + / too forceful(ly) / too rough(ly)
+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3sk
ITY
Degree of Speed (i.e., Intensity of Movement or Change)
Degree 1too slow(ly)
Degree 2very slow(ly) +
Degree 3slow(ly) +
Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
Degree 5at just + the right speed or intensity
Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly); at fast pace
Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0st
SPD
Degree of Speed (i.e., Velocity = Distance Over Time)
Degree 1too slow(ly) +
Degree 2very slow(ly) +
Degree 3slow(ly) +
Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly)
Degree 5at just + the right speed
Degree 6somewhat + fast / somewhat quick(ly) / somewhat rapid(ly)
Degree 7fast / + quick(ly) / rapid(ly); at fast pace
Degree 8 very fast + / very quick(ly) / very rapid(ly)/; at fast pace
Degree 9too fast + / too quick(ly) / too rapid(ly); at fast pace
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
CFD
Degree of Forthrightness, Confidence or Humility
Degree 1

too + meek(ly) / too submissive(ly) / too obedient(ly) / too docile(ly)

+
Degree 2very meek(ly) + / very submissive(ly) / very obedient(ly) / very docile(ly)
Degree 3meek(ly) + / submissive(ly) / obedient(ly) / docile(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + meek(ly) / somewhat submissive(ly) / somewhat obedient(ly) / somewhat docile(ly)
Degree 5properly + humble / properly forthright ; with proper degree of humility or forthrightness
Degree 6somewhat + confident(ly) / somewhat strong(ly) / somewhat definite(ly) / somewhat definitive(ly) + or authoritative(ly)
Degree 7confident(ly) + /strong(ly) / definite(ly)/ definitive(ly) / authoritative(ly)
Degree 8 very confident(ly) + / very strong(ly) / very definite(ly) / very definitive(ly) / very authoritative(ly)
Degree 9over-confident(ly) + / too strong(ly) / too definite(ly) / too definitive(ly) / too authoritative(ly)
+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
EFI
Degree of Efficiency or Efficacy
Degree 1destructively + wasteful / disastrous(ly) / accomplishing the opposite of intention / making + things worse
Degree 2very wasteful + / accomplishing nothing / making a mess of it
Degree 3wasteful + / accomplishing little
Degree 4somewhat + wasteful / accomplishing somewhat less than expected
Degree 5adequate(ly) + [in terms of efficiency]
Degree 6rather + efficient(ly) / fairly efficient(ly) / accomplishing somewhat more than + expected
Degree 7efficient(ly) + / with little or no waste(d effort)
Degree 8 extremely + efficient(ly) / with no waste(d effort) whatsoever
Degree 9a synergy + of… / sum beyond total of parts / a synergistic composite of ; to + X synergistically
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3q
ERR
Degree of Correctness versus Error
Degree 1totally + wrong / totally mis- or mal-; totally in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
Degree 2wrong/incorrect(ly) + / mis- / mal- ; in error / erroneous(ly) / incorrect(ly)
Degree 3fairly + wrong / fairly incorrect(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + wrong / more wrong than right
Degree 5so-so; + barely adequate(ly) / barely correct(ly)
Degree 6somewhat + right / more right than wrong
Degree 7fairly + right / fairly correct(ly)
Degree 8 right / + correctly
Degree 9totally + right / totally correct(ly) / totally well-X’d
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0k
MAT
Degree of Maturation
Degree 1undeveloped + / immature(ly) / seed / embryo
Degree 2under-developed + / newborn [stage, not age] / seedling / baby
Degree 3growing + / budding / youthful / young
Degree 4maturing + / developing / getting stronger or bigger or more complex or sophisticated
Degree 5fully developed + / fully mature(d) / robust / ripe
Degree 6overly + developed / overripe / showing signs of wear and tear / stressed / under + stress / fatigued
Degree 7declining/fading; + trail off/fade / getting softer or weaker / faded / decrepit / has-been + / past one’s prime
Degree 8 disintegrating + / utterly deteriorated / beyond repair or rehabilitation / irreparable / + dying
Degree 9dead / + defunct / disintegrated
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0z
SBT
Degree of Subtlety
Degree 1too subtle(ly) +
Degree 2very subtle(ly) +
Degree 3subtle(ly) +
Degree 4somewhat + subtle(ly)
Degree 5somewhat + unsubtle(ly)
Degree 6unsubtle(ly) + / lumbering(ly) rather obvious/ fairly blatant / belabored ; belabor / lumber + along X-ing
Degree 7obvious(ly) + / blatant(ly) / exaggerated(ly)
Degree 8 very obvious(ly) + / very blatant(ly)
Degree 9over-the-top + / in-your-face / to obvious(ly) / too blatant(ly)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1kš
DRC
Degree of Directness
Degree 1too indirect(ly)
Degree 2very indirect(ly) +
Degree 3indirect(ly) +
Degree 4somewhat + indirect(ly)
Degree 5somewhat + direct(ly)
Degree 6fairly + direct(ly) / rather direct(ly)
Degree 7direct(ly) + / straightforward
Degree 8 very direct(ly) + / very straightforward
Degree 9too direct(ly) + / painfully straightforward
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0mš
SUD
Degree of Suddenness
Degree 1too slow(ly) + in happening, too long in X-ing, overdue, delayed
Degree 2very slow(ly) + in happening or developing
Degree 3slow(ly) + ; long in developing or happening
Degree 4somewhat + slow(ly) ; somewhat long in developing or happening
Degree 5taking + just the right amount of time to develop or occur
Degree 6somewhat + immediate / somewhat sudden; somewhat imediately / somewhat suddenly
Degree 7immediate + / sudden; imediately / suddenly
Degree 8 very immediate + / very sudden; very imediately / very suddenly
Degree 9too immediate + / too sudden; too imediately / too suddenly
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
PCN
Degree of Care, Precision or Scrutiny
Degree 1utterly + sloppy(ily) / totally careless(ly)
Degree 2 very sloppy(ily) + / very careless(ly)
Degree 3 sloppy(ily) + / careless(ly) / with poor attention to detail
Degree 4somewhat + sloppy(ily) / somewhat careless(ly)
Degree 5less than + careful(ly) / with only some degree of care
Degree 6somewhat + careful(ly) / fairly precise(ly)
Degree 7precise(ly) + / careful(ly) / detailed
Degree 8 extremely + precise(ly) / with great care or precision or scrutiny / meticulous(ly)
Degree 9overly + precise(ly) / ‘nit-picky’ / with too much scrutiny / overly + meticulous(ly)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2kš +
CNC
Degree of Concern or Consideration
Degree 1…the + hell…! / what the hell . . . / . . . who cares
Degree 2self-centered(ly) + / without thought or concern for others
Degree 3at the + very least / at the least level of concern required
Degree 4 without + concern / indifferent(ly) / without consideration / unconcerned(ly) / thoughtless(ly)
Degree 5reluctant(ly)
Degree 6at best + / with the most concern one can muster
Degree 7concerned(ly) + / with concern / with consideration for others
Degree 8 very concerned(ly) + / highly concerned(ly) / with great concern or consideration for others
Degree 9overly + concerned(ly) / worrisome(ly) / with too much concern or consideration for + others / altruistically
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
SPH
Degree of Sophistication
Degree 1too crude(ly) + / too primitive(ly)
Degree 2very crude(ly) + / very primitive(ly)
Degree 3crude(ly) + / primitive(ly)
Degree 4somewhat + crude(ly) / somewhat primitive(ly)
Degree 5with expected/normal + degree or level of sophistication
Degree 6somewhat + sophisticated or refined
Degree 7 sophisticated + or refined
Degree 8 very sophisticated + or refined
Degree 9too sophisticated + or refined
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0çt
CVT
Degree of Covertness versus Overtness
Degree 1too secretive(ly) + / overly covert(ly)
Degree 2very secretive(ly) + / highly covert(ly) / hidden / well behind the scenes
Degree 3secretive(ly) + / covert(ly) / behind the scenes / between the lines / under the table / + “back-room”
Degree 4somewhat + secretive(ly) / somewhat covert(ly)
Degree 5not too + secretive(ly) / not so open(ly)
Degree 6somewhat + open(ly) / somewhat “up front”
Degree 7open(ly) + / overt(ly) / “up front” / out in the open / honest / forthcoming(ly)
Degree 8 very open(ly) + / very overt(ly) / very “up front” / flaunting(ly) / brutally + honest
Degree 9too open(ly) + / too overt(ly) / overly flaunting(ly) / vulgar(ly)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
EFT
Degree of Effort
Degree 1too difficult + / overly difficult
Degree 2very difficult + / so difficult
Degree 3strained + / difficult; strain to / with difficulty / struggle to / to work at X-ing + / to X hard
Degree 4somewhat + difficult / not that easy
Degree 5neither + easy nor difficult
Degree 6somewhat + easy; not so difficult
Degree 7 easy / + certain / unhindered / with ease / without resistance / effortlessly
Degree 8 very easy + / so easy
Degree 9too easy + / overly easy
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0m
DSG
Degree of Design or Purposefulness
Degree 1purposeless(ly) + /random(ly) / utterly unorganized / chaotic(ally)
Degree 2haphazard(ly) + / without plan or guidance/ disorganized(ly) / poorly planned
Degree 3 fairly + haphazard(ly) / not well-planned / not well-organized
Degree 4somewhat + haphazard(ly) / somewhat disorganized
Degree 5slightly + disorganized / less than well-planned
Degree 6somewhat + organized / somewhat well-planned
Degree 7organized(ly) + / purposeful(ly) / well-planned
Degree 8 very organized + / very structured
Degree 9too organized + / overly structured / “anal(ly)”
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3sq
DCS
Degree of Decisiveness, Commitment or Emphasis
Degree 1indecisive + / meandering; indecisively / first one way then another
Degree 2wishy washy + / flaky
Degree 3some sort + of / some kind of / sort of (like) / ”kind of”; in a way / halfway + / does and doesn’t
Degree 4apparent(ly); + seeming(ly)
Degree 5mere(ly) + / only (a); merely / only
Degree 6deliberate + / decisive; deliberately / decisively / purposefully
Degree 7a real + / certainly a ; really / certainly [emphasis, not genuineness or veracity]
Degree 8 the (one); + in the only way that counts
Degree 9what (a) + ...!; how . . .! ; Boy! Did (does) X ever …
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3št
CTN
Degree of Contrariness to Expectation(s) or Shift in Subject
Degree 1but X would… + / if things were otherwise X WOULD… / on the contrary, X WOULD [affirmation + of hypothetical contrary to statement/suggestion otherwise
Degree 2but / X + DOES/IS . . . / on the contrary … [affirmation of fact contrary to + suggestion or statement otherwise]
Degree 3like it + or not…/ well, as much as we didn’t want to think it would happen...
Degree 4against + expectation or belief ‘… after all’ ‘well, what + do you know…X!’
Degree 5a genuine + / real / true ; really do, [contrary to expectation]
Degree 6as a matter + of fact
Degree 7‘at + least/at any rate’
Degree 8 ‘by + the way/ just to mention’
Degree 9not to + change the subject but…/ sorry to change the subject, but…/ + I don’t mean to change the subject, but…
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3’
PHY
Degree of Physical Control
Degree 1uncontrolled/helpless(ly) + ; without control/ out of control
Degree 2almost + completely out of control / almost totally helpless
Degree 3losing + control / losing the ability to…
Degree 4insufficiently + trained in...
Degree 5amateur(ishly) + / superficially able to…
Degree 6learn(ing) + to… / begin(ning) to be able to…
Degree 7w/ growing + proficiency or expertise (in)
Degree 8 proficient(ly)
Degree 9in full + control / expert(ly)
+

+

7.7.11 Modality Affixes

+

Many of these correspond to the vocalic modality suffixes used with valence + or conflation adjuncts (see Sec. 5.5). The nine degrees associated with each + affix allow a speaker control over the extent to which the modality category + should apply to the utterance. These affix forms function, then, as an alternative + to adjunct forms for greater nuance in the applicability of the modality category + and to apply them to nouns. The nine degrees of each affix are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1not at + all
Degree 2to too + little a degree; to an insufficient degree
Degree 3hardly + at all
Degree 4to a small + degree
Degree 5to a fair + degree/somewhat
Degree 6fairly + much/more so than not
Degree 7very much + so / decidedly so / to a great degree
Degree 8 too much + so / to too great a degree
Degree 9to the + exclusion of all else / without consideration for anything else
+

The specific modality affixes are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3bb
resigned to
-V3dd devoted; committed to / devoted to
-V3 desired / sought-after; want to
-V3 attempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt to
-V3çç +  capable, able; can / able to / capable of
-V3cc knowledgeable; can = know how to / familiar with
-V3ff mandatory; must / have to
-V3xx required; should / be to
-V3 expected; be supposed to
-V3hh intended; mean to / intend to / shall
-V3gg chosen, selected; choose to / elect to
-V3 …on impulse; feel like X-ing
-V3  promised; promise to
-V3 well-liked; like (to)
-V3 feared; fear (to)
-V3 willing; willing to
-V3 prepared / ready; prepared to/ready to
-V3 necessary / needed; need to
-V3 Daring; dare to
-V3hq decided-upon; decide to
-V3pf offered/offer of; offer to
-V33t aided / assisted; help to / aid in X-ing
-V3hk not unexpected; be prone to / be apt to / tend to
-V3ç’ +  agreed-upon; agree to
-V3x’ +  responsible for/in charge of
-V3 remember to
-V3 feel a need to / feel one should / feel one must / feel driven to
-V3 to guess or think [that]…
-V3’ +  available; available to/for
-V3kk potential; can = have potential to
-V3tt +  permitted; can = permitted to
-V3qq +  hoped-for; hope/wish to
-V3pp X by inclination; be inclined to
+

+

7.7.12 Agential/Participant Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0n
AGC
Degree of Agency
Degree 1[AGENT] + = one who forces/causes
Degree 2[ENABLER] + = one who enables to happen
Degree 3[INFLUENCE] + = one who persuades/influences
Degree 4ENABLER + BY PERMISSION] = one who permits/allows/lets happen
Degree 5[PATIENT] + = one who does/is made to do
Degree 6[EXPERIENCER] + = one who undergoes/experiences
Degree 7[INSTRUMENT] + = instrument which causes
Degree 8 [STIMULUS] + = one whose status is as stimulus of affective experience
Degree 9[SOURCE] + = that which gives rise to, provides underlying reason for, source of
+

This affix and the following identify a formative as filling a specific semantic + role corresponding in many cases to the semantic roles discussed in Sections + 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. In + several instances, these affixes would translate the English “agentive” + suffixes -er, or -or.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0m
ROL
Role
Degree 1that which + contains or functions as the enclosure / container / house / shelter of + or for
Degree 2that which + results from
Degree 3 [RECIPIENT] + = one who receives / has / "-ee"
Degree 4one who + is / acts as / functions as
Degree 5one who + is characterized by / described by...
Degree 6one who + is similar to/functions or acts similarly to
Degree 7one whose + responsibility is / who is responsible for / runs the business of (operationally + speaking)
Degree 8 one who + constructs / makes / creates
Degree 9one who + manages / oversees / supervises / coordinates / runs the business of (managerially + speaking)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0p
UTE
Utilitative or Enabling Means
Degree 1

tool/device/apparatus + specifically designed for X-ing

+
Degree 2medium + by/through which one X’s
Degree 3conduit-like + tool/apparatus for X-ing
Degree 4natural/standard + body part for X-ing
Degree 5object + employed circumstantially as implement for X-ing
Degree 6covering/protective + element employed to allow/permit X-ing
Degree 7enabling + element/device/apparatus to allow/foster X-ing
Degree 8 environment/situaton/circumstances/setting + which allows/fosters X-ing
Degree 9FORCE which + causes/permits X-ing
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0ž
CNS
Degree of Consent
Degree 1deliberately + without consent of knowledge
Degree 2without + consent or knowledge as a precaution or “for their own good”
Degree 3without + consent or knowledge due to circumstances
Degree 4with their + knowledge but w/o consent; against their will
Degree 5consent + obtained under pressure, threat, coercion
Degree 6w/ reluctant + consent
Degree 7willingly; + with full consent
Degree 8 with enthusiastic + approval and support
Degree 9at their + request
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0t
MEC
Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ +
Degree 1the body’s + natural method of doing so (e.g., on foot, by hand, etc.)
Degree 2a manually + manipulated generic tool or implement
Degree 3a specialized + tool for that specific purpose or activity
Degree 4a machine + or via mechanical means or process
Degree 5 a virtual, + electronic means or via engineering
Degree 6mental + power, force of will, concentration
Degree 7a redirection + or collation of energy specially applied
Degree 8 a collective + pooling of manual labor resources
Degree 9a collective + pooling of electronic/mechanical/engineering resources
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
BOD
Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
Degree 1

a hand

+
Degree 2an arm
Degree 3a foot
Degree 4a leg
Degree 5one’s + eyes
Degree 6both legs
Degree 7both feet
Degree 8 both arms
Degree 9both hands
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0mp
DBI
Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ +
Degree 1

a finger

+
Degree 2a thumb
Degree 3a knee
Degree 4one’s + head
Degree 5one’s + teeth
Degree 6one’s + lips
Degree 7one’s + tongue
Degree 8 one’s + elbow
Degree 9one’s + fingers
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
SOC
Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ +
Degree 1via lackeys, + grunt labor, go-fors or henchmen
Degree 2by coercion, + threat, blackmail
Degree 3 “fronts”, + or disguised go-betweens
Degree 4indirectly + through actions of others (unbeknownst to them)
Degree 5indirectly + through actions of others (with their knowledge)
Degree 6by leveraging + existing resources / personnel (deploying existing methods in a new application)
Degree 7via a proxy + or proxies
Degree 8 hired help + or staff
Degree 9by delegation + of task to experts
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0šš
RSN
Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action +
Degree 1for evil + or perverse reasons
Degree 2for foolish + or naïve reason
Degree 3due to + deception by another
Degree 4due to + faulty information provided by another [no deception intended]
Degree 5due to + or based on faulty perception or misinterpretation of information or evidence
Degree 6despite + negative circumstances or reasons not to
Degree 7for no + reason
Degree 8 for appropriate + reasons / for good reason
Degree 9for virtuous, + healthy reasons
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0t
XPT
Expectation of Outcome
Degree 1shockingly + unexpected; without precedent or rumour
Degree 2surprise + X / unexpected X; completely by surprise/ completely unexpected(ly)
Degree 3manage + to X despite inadequacy of preparation or effort
Degree 4manage + to X despite misguided or misdirected preparation or effort
Degree 5managed + to X despite hindrance(s) or obstacles; hard-won
Degree 6manage + to X due to hindrances or obstacles being overestimated; easier than thought + to be
Degree 7manage + to X due to excellent preparation / planning / execution
Degree 8 completely + as expected / totally as anticipated / as predicted
Degree 9pat; outcome + pre-ordained or predetermined
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V3t
DLB
Degree of Deliberateness/Agency
Degree 1accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) and unaware of consequences
Degree 2unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to and unaware of consequences
Degree 3accidental(ly) + / inadvertent(ly) but now aware of consequences
Degree 4unintended + / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to but now aware of consequences
Degree 5unforseeable + / unpredictable; unforeseeably / unpredictably
Degree 6without + realizing or considering potential consequences
Degree 7thinking + one can get away without reaping consequences / furtive(ly)
Degree 8 realizing + potential risks or consequences / cognizant of potential risks or consequences
Degree 9intentional(ly) + / deliberate(ly) / on purpose / by choice; choose to
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0mz
MOT
Degree of Self-Conscious Deliberation or Motivation
Degree 1affected, + ostentatious; affectedly/ostentatiously
Degree 2self-conscious(ly) +
Degree 3guilty + / guiltily
Degree 4half-hearted(ly) +
Degree 5against + better judgement / can’t help but / can’t help it
Degree 6ingrained, + by upbringing
Degree 7learned + / habitual; by habit / trained to
Degree 8 natural(ly) + / un-self-conscious(ly)
Degree 9autonomic + / unaware, automatic
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V11k
ENB
Degree of Enablement
Degree 1by inadvertent + gesture/word/sign taken as order or permission
Degree 2by granting + of permission
Degree 3by cajoling + or persuasion
Degree 4by direct + request or imploring
Degree 5by direct + order based on one’s real or perceived authority
Degree 6by inadvertent + removal of hindrance
Degree 7by inadvertent + action that initiates a chain of events
Degree 8 by deliberate + removal of hindrance
Degree 9by deliberate + action that initiates a chain of events
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0ms
AGN
Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness
Degree 1with the + anticipated max. resulting effect possible
Degree 2with the + anticipated resulting effect to a high degree
Degree 3with the + anticipated resulting effect to a moderate degree
Degree 4with the + anticipated resulting effect but only to a marginal, superficial or baredly + noticable degree
Degree 5with no + noticeable effect or resulting change
Degree 6with only + marginal, superficial, or barely noticeable effect or resulting change unanticipated
Degree 7with moderate + effect or resulting change — unanticipated
Degree 8 with the + resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated
Degree 9with the + max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V21k
IMP
Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome
Degree 1target + can do nothing - utterly inevitable
Degree 2target + chooses to do nothing - resigned to fate
Degree 3target + tries to prevent/avoid but fails
Degree 4target + tries to prevent/avoid and does so partially or mitigates impact somewhat
Degree 5target + tries to prevent/avoid and succeeds
Degree 6target + helps/enables outcome inadvertently
Degree 7target + helps/enables outcome against own interest (i.e., without thinking)
Degree 8 target + helps/enables outcome intentionally despite negative consequences
Degree 9target + helps/enables outcome intentionally for own benefit
+

 

+

7.7.13 Miscellaneous Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1_’
TPF
Topic, Frame and Focus
Degree 1[sentence + topic]
Degree 2[end of + frame]
Degree 3[head of + relative clause]
Degree 4[sentence + topic + head of relative clause]
Degree 5[end of + frame + head of relative clause]
Degree 6[sentence + topic + end of frame]
Degree 7[sentence + focus + end of frame + head of rel. clause]
Degree 8 [sentence + focus]
Degree 9[sentence + focus + end of frame]
+

The various functions of the above affix are explained in Sec. + 3.5 on Focus, Sec. 5.7 on + Frames, and Sec. 9.2 on pragmatic roles + including Sentence Topic.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2_’
SWR
Switch Reference & Obviative Specification (For an explanation + and illustration of this affix, see Sec. + 8.1.1.7 and Sec. + 8.1.4)
Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
Degree 5first referent + mentioned
Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0s
PLA
Place, State, Setting Where…
Degree 1place where + one learns to
Degree 2place where + one does, performs, carries out X
Degree 3place where + one obtains
Degree 4place where + one stores or inventories
Degree 5place where + one keeps or shelters
Degree 6place where + one sees or views
Degree 7natural + habitat or environment of
Degree 8 place where + one deals with/ treats/ confronts
Degree 9place where + one feels affected by
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1mm
APT
Aspects
Degree 1yet, still
Degree 2‘even’ + as in “I don’t even like them” = in the least bit, to + the slightest extent
Degree 3Contemplative: + upon reflection/ in hindsight
Degree 4upon deep + introspection / following careful consideration or meditation on the matter
Degree 5on first + blush / at first / upon initial impression / [my] first thought is/was…
Degree 6natural(ly) + / obvious(ly) / clear(ly) [in terms of naturalness, not blatancy]
Degree 7Experiential: + ever
Degree 8 Regressive: + return to previous state
Degree 9Protractive: + over a long period of time / long-delayed
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2mm
TEM
Alternative Temporal Aspects
Degree 1Inceptive: + begin to / start to
Degree 2Resumptive: + begin again / start again / resume
Degree 3Continuative: + keep on / still / continue / stay / yet
Degree 4Incessative: + to X away / not stop
Degree 5tire of + X-ing / get tired of X-ing / become weary of X-ing
Degree 6Cessative: + stop / discontinue / cease
Degree 7 Pausal: + take a break from [stop with intention to re-sume]
Degree 8 Recessative: + stop again
Degree 9Terminative: + finish / complete
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1
DRV
Format/Derivation Alternates
Degree 1Instrumentative + Format
Degree 2Authoritative + Format
Degree 3Precurrent + Format
Degree 4Resultative + Format
Degree 5Derivation: + translative motion
Degree 6Subsequent + Format
Degree 7Concommitant + Format
Degree 8 Objective + Format
Degree 9Derivation: + attend to, deal with
+

The above affix forms function as alternates to the Format infix of a conflation + or valence adjunct (see Sec. 5.4.2). The SCHEMATIC format + is considered the default and therefore has no affix. Additionally, two of the + affixes refer to two common derivations (see Sec. 5.4.3).
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2
ILL
Illocution/Mood/Validation Alternates
Degree 1Directive + Illocution
Degree 2Commissive + Illocution
Degree 3Expressive + Illocution
Degree 4Declarative + Illocution
Degree 5Interrogative + Illocution
Degree 6Admonitive + Illocution
Degree 7Subjunctive + Mood
Degree 8 Inferential + Validation
Degree 9Hortative + Validation
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
PTF
Part/Whole Functional Metaphors
Degree 1engine + / motor / heart / pump / core / driver mechanism
Degree 2brain / + computer / chip / instruction set
Degree 3input / + feeder / access point
Degree 4exit point + / anus / exhaust / tailpipe / smokestack / vent
Degree 5wing/ arm + / branch / extensor / manipulator
Degree 6support + / leg / stand / base
Degree 7skeleton + / frame
Degree 8 wiring + / conduits / plumbing
Degree 9sensor + / eye / ear / antennae
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0š
PTG
Part/Whole Gestalt Componential Metaphors
Degree 1“base”portion + (e.g., upper arm)
Degree 2“extension” + portion (e.g., forearm) or “flange”
Degree 3“trunk” + or central bulk portion
Degree 4middle + or divisional segment or joint
Degree 5top/upper + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
Degree 6bottom/lower + component relative to gravity or natural vector of movement
Degree 7side/flank/ + lateral component
Degree 8 “head” + extension or main interface area
Degree 9extension/”arm”
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0qt
MET
Metonymic Categories
Degree 1part for + whole
Degree 2producer + for product
Degree 3object + used or owned for user/owner
Degree 4controller + for controlled
Degree 5institution + for people responsible
Degree 6place for + inhabitants/occupants
Degree 7place for + event
Degree 8 place for + institution
Degree 9attribute + or characteristic for owner
+

Metonymy is the reference to an entity via one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business.
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1t’
SSD
Stem-Specific Derivatives
Degree 1derivative + 1
Degree 2derivative + 2
Degree 3derivative + 3
Degree 4derivative + 4
Degree 5derivative + 5
Degree 6derivative + 6
Degree 7derivative + 7
Degree 8 derivative + 8
Degree 9derivative + 9
+

This affix is used to distinguish particular instantiations of a more generic + entity; their meaning is semantically specific to the particular stem.
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2t’
SBS
 Subset of Configurative Set
Degree 1single + specific member (random, i.e., any given member)
Degree 2natural + first level subset, e.g., a cell among a network, a clique within a + club, a row of an orchard
Degree 3natural + 2nd level subset, e.g., a section of a network, a subcommittee within + a club, a section of an orchard
Degree 4complex + natural system or pattern within a set (e.g., the circulatory system, + the heating system)
Degree 5subset + of set (unknown if natural or select subconfiguration)
Degree 6complex/circumstantial + select pattern/arrangement within a set (e.g., the parts/things of a + house damaged by fire)
Degree 72nd level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select section of trees of an + orchard
Degree 8 first level + subset (externally determined), e.g., select rocks from a pile, select + trees of an orchard
Degree 9single + select member (externally determined)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1k’
ATN
Degree of Attention or Determination
Degree 1concentrate + fully upon; pay utmost attention to
Degree 2concentrate + to point of distraction, to be ‘lost’ in X-ing
Degree 3pay strict + attention to
Degree 4determined + to
Degree 5pay attention + to; attend to; be careful that you…; heed
Degree 6keep an + eye on
Degree 7take some + notice of
Degree 8 barely + notice; take little notice of
Degree 9ignore + completely
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1šk
DPR
Dispersion or Separability of a Configurative Set
Degree 1in total + contact / contiguous mass of; pile, “ball of…”
Degree 2non-contiguous + but closely connected, interlinked, each linked to adjacent via connecting + medium (like web); cluster
Degree 3connected + via intervening central medium (like a vine or branches); bunch
Degree 4not physically + connected but with immediate accessibility and knowledge of other member + actions
Degree 5scattered + - contact with nearest member possible but less possible with others
Degree 6“virtual” + association only
Degree 7temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at long intervals
Degree 8 temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at frequent intervals
Degree 9temporal + (iterative) set – iteration at very short, immediate intervals / one + after another
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V1nd
SEP
Spatio-Temporal Separability of a Configurative Set
Degree 1

Logical + connectedness only (spatial)

+
Degree 2Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned far away from another
Degree 3Loosely + integrated spatially – one positioned a little ways away from another
Degree 4Well-integrated + spatially – one positioned right next to or behind another
Degree 5Both spatially + and temporally well-integrated (one right after another)
Degree 6Well-integrated + temporally – one right after the other
Degree 7Loosely + integrated temporally – one a little while after the other
Degree 8 Loosely + integrated temporally – one a long while after the other
Degree 9Logical + connectedness only (temporal)
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0k
SDP
Subset of Duplex Set
Degree 1first, + top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + upper lip, inhale/inhalation, left hand)
Degree 2beginning + or leading “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
Degree 3middle + section of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of + a duplex event or object
Degree 4ending + or trailing “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object
Degree 5midpoint, + peak, or lull between the 2 halves of a duplex set or pair
Degree 6beginning + or leading “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
Degree 7middle + section of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing “half” of + a duplex event or object
Degree 8 ending + or trailing “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object
Degree 92nd, bottom, + back, righthand or trailing “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + lower lip, exhale/exhalation, right hand)
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0xt
NEW
Degree of Newness/Revision
Degree 1new = original + new, i.e., never before seen
Degree 2new = never before seen within current context, e.g., a new student
Degree 3new = role, i.e., never functioning/existing in this capacity/manner before
Degree 4new/other = replacement + new
Degree 5new/other = additional instance + new
Degree 6new/other = revision + additional
Degree 7new/other = revision + replacement
Degree 8 new/other/different = different, not seen/used before within current context; status as addition/replacement unknown
Degree 9new/other/different = different + new; status as addition/replacement unknown
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0 ln
SPR
Spread/wake/trail/area/expanse created by passage of entity
Degree 1quasi-linear “trail” or wake left behind on path of linear movement; trail or wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., slime trail left by snail, footprints left on snow, mowed down foliage left by moving convoy, etc.)
Degree 2quasi-linear spread of entity stretching behind linearly moving “head” (e.g., a line of soldiers put in place to create a front, a line left on a piece of paper as written by an ink pen, path of a ball of string or skein of yarn as it unravels while rolling down an incline)
Degree 3quasi-linear trail/wake/spread left behind passage as line of demarcation/boundary/barrier
Degree 42-d quasi-planar wake left behind on path of movement; wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., aftermath of a forest fire, cleaned area of dirty floor or wall after it has been wiped by a mop or dustcloth)
Degree 52-d quasi-planar spread stretching behind moving front (e.g., area of spreading flames in a forest fire, area being inundated by a flood, area of a wall being covered up by plaster by workmen, coating of an apple dipped in chocolate, area of floor covered up by a rug)
Degree 62-d quasi-planar wake/spread left behind passage as area of demarcation/zone/restricted area
Degree 73-d volume left behind a moving front; volume is not composed of or inundated with the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., area left behind the passage of a tidal wave, column of superheated air left behind the passage of a rocket
Degree 8 3-d volume inundated by spread of moving front (e.g., spread of a gas within a room, area inundated by fog, volume of a container taken up by substance placed/poured/stuffed into it)
Degree 93-d volume left behind passage of moving front as volume/spatial area of demarcation/zone/restricted space
+

The above affix distinguishes movement of an entity from the “trail” or spread left behind, e.g., movement which leaves behind a wake or affected area; used with motion roots as well as roots designating shapes/forms. Use of the above suffixes in conjunction with the various roots pertaining to paths of translative movement allows for very nuanced translations of English words such as surround, cover, inundate, enclose, expand, spread out, encompass, etc.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0 ld
TRA
Degree of Shift/Change/Transition (used for both spatial and temporal contexts)
Degree 1sharp break, sudden shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another with no discernible transition period/zone (i.e., point-like/instantaneous transition)
Degree 2disjointed/non-contiguous/non-continuous break/shift from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 3extremely brief/small/barely discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 4somewhat brief/small/discernible transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 5normal/standard/expected transition period or zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 6somewhat variable/changing/fluctuating transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 7highly variable/chaotic transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 8 smooth, gradual transition period/zone from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
Degree 9very gradual/almost imperceptible rate/degree of change/transition from one state/form/shape/set of circumstances to another
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0 lm
NNN
N-numbered angles/facets/faces/sides/points/forms
Degree 1uneven /assymmetrical n–sided 2-D obtusely angled form (e.g., quadrilateral, pentagonoid, hexagonoid
Degree 2uneven/assymetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation
Degree 3uneven/assymetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
Degree 4uneven/assymmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., n-hedron-like solid)
Degree 5having n number of 3-D projections/spikes/pointed surfaces
Degree 6symmetrical n-faced 3-D solid (e.g., tetrahedron, dodecahedron)
Degree 7symetrical n-faceted 3-D solid
Degree 8 symetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation (can be used with numbers as low as 2, which would refer to an elongated diamond shape)
Degree 9symmetrical n–sided 2-D form (e.g., square, pentagon, hexagon)
+

The above affix is used with the number stems (see Chapter 12) to provide words for forms, shapes, and solids bearing a distinct number of angles, points, sides, facets, etc.

+


+ 7.7.14 Locational Affixes

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0çç
LCT
Locational Quadrant Markers for Object Being Located (These + affixes will be explained and illustrated in Chapter + 10.)
Degree 1+X / +Y + / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant 1
Degree 2+X / +Y + / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2
Degree 3+X / -Y + / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3
Degree 4+X / -Y + / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4
Degree 5object + at rest relative to other object
Degree 6-X / +Y + / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5
Degree 7-X / +Y + / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6
Degree 8 -X / -Y + / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7
Degree 9-X / -Y + / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0p’
PRX
Degree of Proximity
Degree 1too close +
Degree 2 as close + as possible without contact
Degree 3 very close + to
Degree 4close to +
Degree 5somewhat + close to
Degree 6not very + close to / somewhat far from
Degree 7far from + / distant from
Degree 8 far away + / very far from
Degree 9too far + away
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V0
CTC
Degree of Contact
Degree 1melded + with / blended with / fused
Degree 2inseparable(ly) + / locked together / bonded
Degree 3linked + / attached / connected / joined
Degree 4touching + intimately / touching all over / in close contact with
Degree 5deliberately + touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
Degree 6deliberately + touching at one spot or place
Degree 7casually + or incidentally touching at several spots or places or over a fair area
Degree 8 casually + or incidentally touching at one spot or place
Degree 9barely + touching / hardly touching at all / touching at one small spot
+

 

+

+ Proceed to Chapter 8: + Adjuncts >>

+

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+
+©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author +and this website.
+

+

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..480bd6c --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html @@ -0,0 +1,1421 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 8: Adjuncts + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 8: Adjuncts

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
8.1 Personal Reference + Adjuncts 8.4 Affixual Adjuncts
8.2 Subsidiary Adjuncts8.5 Alternate Indicators + for Vocalic Mutation
8.3 Combination Adjuncts8.6 Additional Information + on Bias
+
+


+ The notion of adjuncts was introduced in Section + 2.6.2. We have already discussed some details of various kinds of adjuncts: + valence adjuncts and conflation adjuncts were introduced in Secs. + 5.2 and 5.4, modality + adjuncts were mentioned in Sec. 5.5, + and aspectual adjuncts were described in Chapter + 6. In this chapter, more information is given about these adjuncts and several +additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

+

 

+
+ + + + +

8.1 PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS

+
+

The first type of adjunct we will analyze are those relating + to personal reference. By “personal reference” is meant the grammatical + description of nouns by abbreviated forms of reference. In most languages, this + is accomplished by means of personal pronouns (e.g., English he, she, it, I, + you, him, her, mine, ours, etc.). Generally, personal pronouns are distinguished + by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) and case (e.g., compare English + we, us, and ours). Ithkuil accomplishes the equivalent function by means of + personal reference adjuncts, of which there are two types: single-referent and + dual-referent.

+

Like all adjuncts in Ithkuil, personal reference adjuncts are + highly synthetic in their structure, comprised of at least two morphemes and + usually more. Before we examine the componential structure of personal reference + adjuncts themselves, we must first introduce the personal reference categories + they refer to.

+


+ 8.1.1 Personal Reference Categories

+

The morpho-semantic delineations of Ithkuil personal reference + categorization are based on inclusion or exclusion in relation to an utterance. + These delineations begin with identifying whether or not the party speaking + is included or excluded in relation to the utterance. The next delineation made + is whether the party being addressed (i.e., the audience/listener) is included + or excluded, then finally whether any third party (i.e., a party other than + the speaker and the addressee) is included or excluded.

+

There are 46 personal reference categories in Ithkuil, each + of which is represented by a single consonant affix plus a corresponding falling + or high tone as shown in Table 22 below. The various terms and abbreviations + used in the table are explained following the table.
+

+

Table 22(a) + and (b): Personal Reference Categories

+
+ + + + + +
+
+

Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

+
+

1 + = Inclusion of speaker
+ 2 = Inclusion of addressee
+ m = monadic (single party)
+ u = unbounded (more than one party)
+ a = animate 3rd party
+ i = inanimate 3rd party
+ E + = universal ('everyone/everything')
+ M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
+ IP = Impersonal ('one')
+ ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
+ Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
+ Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
+ Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)
+

+
+

The following sections explain the terminology in the above + table.

+

8.1.1.1 + + Monadic vs. Unbounded. These terms were discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.3 on Perspective. For simplicity’s sake, the difference between + a MONADIC third party versus an UNBOUNDED + third party can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ + and ‘they.’

+

8.1.1.2 + + Speaker and Addressee. These terms refer respectively to the party + speaking (in Western grammar the first person), the party being spoken to (the + second person), and a third party being considered or mentioned (the third person). + Unlike the standard six-person matrix common in Western grammar (the three persons + divided into singular and plural), Ithkuil divides personal reference along + logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance. +

+

From the viewpoint of Ithkuil grammar, only a single individual + can speak. Even if there are two or more persons speaking the same utterance + simultaneously it is but a collection of single individuals, each of which is + one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ithkuil, the speaker, + can be only MONADIC, never UNBOUNDED. + Thus, in Ithkuil, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” + since inherent in the various categories which translate “we” is + the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From this + we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s + utterance that determines the various personal reference categories.

+

The “second person” in Ithkuil is the addressee, + the person(s) being addressed or spoken to. There can be one addressee, or more + than one addressee, i.e., MONADIC or UNBOUNDED.

+

The “third person” in Ithkuil is where things get + very complicated, in that a party being referenced who is not the speaker or + the addressee can have many distinctions, including the presence or absence + of animacy, being MONADIC versus UNBOUNDED, + being referred to as a collective entity, being an intangible abstraction, being + indefinite, being an impersonal generic reference, or being a combination of + two or more of these categories. These distinctions are explained below.

+

8.1.1.3 + + Animate vs. Inanimate. This is as it sounds. As we saw in earlier chapters, + particularly Sec. 4.1, several + important morphological categories in Ithkuil are dependent on whether the party + to the act, condition, or event is a living entity or inanimate. Note that the + distinction between gender (he vs. she) found in most Western languages does + not exist in the Ithkuil personal reference system.

+

8.1.1.4 + “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible for the third + party being referenced to be two or more entities of different natures. For + example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” where + “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic + animate entity), three boxes (i.e., a polyadic inanimate entity), and an intangible + concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract entity). In such + cases, Ithkuil personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” + parties to be included in a particular personal referent.

+

8.1.1.5 + Collective Reference. This corresponds to the NOMIC + Perspective in which a noun can be spoken of as a generic collective. For example, + the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast + refers to all dogs in a collective sense, not any dog in particular. This COLLECTIVE + category has its own set of personal reference affixes in Ithkuil, depending + on what other entities are included in the context of the utterance.

+

8.1.1.6 + Abstract Reference. This corresponds to the ABSTRACT + perspective, equivalent to derivational abstract forms such as English nouns + ending with -hood, -ness, etc. In Ithkuil, all nouns can be + spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the + sense of being or functioning as a book), and the personal reference system + provides affixes for this category whose form again depends on what other entities + are included in the context of the utterance.

+

8.1.1.7 + Obviative (4th Person) Reference. This category has no equivalent in + Western languages, although it is found in various Native American languages. + It refers to a third party referent other than one previously mentioned, which + would otherwise be identically marked. In Native American grammatical treatises, + this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. + For example, the English sentence He saw his book is ambiguous because + we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer to the + same person or to two different persons (i.e., one who did the seeing and another + who owns the book). In Ithkuil, no such ambiguity occurs because the latter + third person referent, if a distinct person from the initial third person referent, + would be marked using the OBVIATIVE, not the third person. + This disambiguation of third person referents is the purpose of the OBVIATIVE. + Its translation into English is therefore dependent on a preceding personal + referent. (See Sec. 8.1.4 below for more information + about the OBVIATIVE).

+

8.1.1.8 + Indefinite Reference. This category indicates that the third party + refers to any third party within the specified parameters. For example, the + referent + indicates an indefinite animate party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or + ‘anybody,’ while the referent + indicates an indefinite inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’ +

+

8.1.1.9 + Universal Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers + to every third party within the specified parameters. For example, the referent + -l + indicates a universal animate party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or + ‘everybody,’ while the referent -l¯ + + indicates a universal inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’ +

+

8.1.1.10 + Impersonal Reference. This category corresponds to the German pronoun + man or French pronoun on, as well as the various circumlocutions + used in English to describe impersonal reference (e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ + ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). + Such impersonal reference is illustrated in the following English sentences:

+
+

· One should + never speak to clowns alone.
+ · To dance the tango you need a partner.
+ · They say it never rains in August.
+ · That town is said to be haunted.
+ · She just wants to talk to someone + without being criticized.

+
+

8.1.1.11 Inclusivity vs. Exclusivity. Since + Ithkuil personal reference adjuncts are designed to specify who among the speaker, + addressee(s), and any third party is included or excluded in the context of + the utterance, there are many possible personal reference distinctions possible + in Ithkuil for which English has no equivalent pronouns. Such exacting distinctions + would have to be made periphrastically in English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ + the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and + he but not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English + word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings equivalent to ‘you + (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ + ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and those things,’ etc.

+


+8.1.2 Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

+

Adjuncts with one personal referent are termed single-referent + adjuncts and have three forms: (1) a short form, (2) a long form, and (3) a + conjunct form, as shown in Table 23 below.
+

+

Table 23: + Morphological Structure of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Form 1: Example:
Form 2: Examples:
+
Form 3: Example:
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Where: 
+
+ =
consonant indicating + Referent 1 [from Table 22 above]
+
+ =
short form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table + 24 below]
+
+ =
vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, Designation & Focus of Referent + 1
+ _____ (see Table 25 + below)
+
+ =
long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 [see Table + 24 below]
+
+ =
vocalic suffix + (+ stress) showing Context:
+ _____-a = EXS; -u + = FNC; -a + ultimate stress = SYM; -u + + ultimate stress = AMG
+
+ =
vocalic infix + showing degree of (see + Table 26 below)
+
+ =
consonantal suffix + for Referent 1 from standard suffix tables
+
+ =
vocalic suffix + showing Context for Referent 1: -a = EXS; -u + = FNC; -û = SYM; -â + = AMG
+
+ =
consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 20 in Sec. + 6.6))
+
Form + 3:
Stress pattern + shows affix-type: penultimate = V1C, + ultimate = V2C, antepenultimate + = V3C
+
Forms +
+ 1, 2, & 3:
Tone + shift shows RPV essence for Referent 1: falling + broken, high + rising

+

The short form of the adjunct consists of a single consonant + (labeled CR in the diagram) plus tone, + corresponding to one of the 46 particular referents (as described in Sec. + 8.1.1 above). This is followed by a single vocalic suffix VC + indicating the case of the personal referent (see Chapter 4 on Case). The 81 + possible values for this suffix are shown in Table 24 below.
+

+Table 24: Case Suffixes/Infixes +for Personal Reference Adjuncts
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 
 
 
 
+

As for the long form of the adjunct, the first part is an optional + vocalic prefix + which indicates the Configuration, Affiliation, and Designation of the personal + referent (see Chapter 3 + for a discussion of these morphological categories). The possible values for + + are shown in Tables 25(a) and (b) below.

+


+ Table 25(a) and (b): Prefixes + for Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

+

25(a) Designation + of Referent 1 = INFORMAL
+
+
+ 25(b) Designation + of Referent 1 = FORMAL
+

+


+ The second part of the long form of the adjunct is the single consonant () + plus tone shown previously in Table 22, corresponding + to the personal referent. The third part of the long form of the adjunct is + a syllabic infix () + which shows the case of the personal referent; it is a combination of a vowel + or diphthong followed by the consonant y or w. + The 81 possible values for this + infix are shown in the last column of Table 24 above. + The final term of the long form of the adjunct is a single vowel suffix - + which, in conjunction with syllabic stress, indicates the Context of the personal + referenct (see Sec. + 3.6 on Context). The four values for this - + suffix are shown in Table 23 above.

+

As for the third type, or conjunct form of the adjunct, the + first three terms of are identical to those of the long-form. The new terms + are , + which is merely a standard suffix used with formatives, as analyzed in Sec. + 7.7, and a vocalic infix, , + which indicates the degree of . + The values of + are shown in Table 26 below. The affix-type + of is shown by the adjunct’s stress pattern. Optional terms are , + one of four vocalic suffixes showing the Context of the personal referent, and + , + a consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. + 6.6. The use of + is optional if the context of the referent is already known (or can be inferred) + from the utterance. The appearance of the + bias suffix is dependent on the appearance of , + i.e., + must appear if + is to appear, although + can appear in word-final position without any + bias suffix.
+

+

Table 26: + Values for

+ + + + + +
  + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1
ï
Degree 2
u
Degree 3
ë
Degree 4
e
Degree 5
a
Degree 6
ö
Degree 7
o
Degree 8
ä
Degree 9
i
+

For all three forms of the adjunct, shift from falling to broken + tone, or from high to rising, indicates the REPRESENTATIVE + essence of the personal referent.

+

8.1.2.1 Use of the Short Form. The short form + of a single-referent personal reference adjunct is used when it is clear from + the surrounding context of the utterance which previously identified noun participant + is being referred to, so that it is unnecessary to indicate the Configuration, + Affiliation, Designation, Focus, and Context of the referent. The short form + of the adjunct merely indicates the party itself and its case.

+

8.1.2.2 Use of the Long Form: The long form + of the adjunct is used when necessary to indicate the context and/or the Configuration, + Affiliation, Designation, and Focus of the referent when the surrounding sentences + do not provide or make clear this information.

+

8.1.2.3 Use of the Conjunct Form: Form 3 of + the adjunct, the conjunct form, is a single-referent adjunct which combines + with a standard formative affix, allowing an affix category to be applied to + a personal referent, just as an affix category would normally apply to the formative + to which it is affixed. This allows personal referents to be spoken of in contexts + created by affix categories, such as when combining -V1/7 + ‘there (by addressee)’ with paw(a) + + to give the form pawo + meaning ‘you people there.’

+
8.1.2.4 Examples of Single-Referent Personal Reference + Adjuncts in Use +

+ _Listen! + +
+
+
+
+

8.1.3 Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

+

Ithkuil allows a personal reference adjunct to show the personal + reference category and associated case for two separate parties all in one adjunct. + This is called a dual-referent adjunct and serves to combine two unrelated personal + referents into one adjunct, no matter what their associated cases may be. There + is only one form of a dual-referent adjunct, shown in Table 27 below.

+


+ Table 27: Morphological Structure + of a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct +

+ + + + + + + + +
Form 3:
+

Examples: p’awik
+ Examples: ûksaiwénz
+ Examples: ççäyokluss

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Where: 
+ =
vocalic prefix + showing Configuration, Affiliation, Designation & Focus of Referent + 1
+ _____ (see Table 25 + above and Table 28 below)
=
consonant(s) + indicating Referent 1 and Referent 2 [see Table + 30]
+ =
long form of + vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1 [see Table + 24 above]
+ =
vocalic infix + showing Context & Designation of Referent 2 (see Table + 29 below)
+ =
consonantal suffix + showing Case and Configuration of Referent 2 (see Table + 31; 9 degrees of case suffix correspond to the 9 configurations)
+ =
vocalic suffix + showing Affiliation of Referent 2: -a = CSD, -u + = ASO, -û = VAR, -â + = COA
+
=
consonantal bias + suffix (see Table 20 in Sec. + 6.6)
Tone + =
Combinations + of Ref. 1& 2:
+ _____ falling + falling = falling, high + + high = high, falling + high = rising,
+ _____ high + falling = broken
Stress + =
shows Ref. 2 + Essence & Focus: penultimate = -RPV/-FC, ultimate = -RPV/+FC, + antepenult = +RPV/-FC, preantepenult = +RPV/+FC
+

+ represents the same optional vocalic prefix as used with single-referent adjuncts + (see Section 8.1.2) and is used to give Configuration, + Affiliation, Focus, and Designation information about the first referent, Referent-1; + the values for + when Referent-1 is in the NORMAL essence are as shown in Tables + 25(a) and (b). For dual-referent adjuncts where the essence of Referent-1 + is the REPRESENTATIVE, the values for + are given in the Tables 28(a) and (b)below.

+


+ Table 28(a) - (b): + Prefixes for Dual-Referent Pers. Ref. Adjuncts
+ _______________( Where Essence of + Referent-1 = RPV)

+

28(a) Designation + of Referent 1 = INFORMAL
+

+

28(b) Designation + of Referent 1 = FORMAL
+

+

 

+

Table 29: Values for +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
DESIGNATION
 +
CONTEXT
 +
-FR
+ INFORMAL
EXS
a
FNC
e
RPS
o
AMG
ä
+FR
+ FORMAL
EXS
ï
FNC
i/u
RPS
ë
AMG
ü
+

+ is a vocalic suffix indicating the Context and Designation of Referent-2; its + values are shown in Table 29 immediately above. The composite prefix (labeled + ) + is a synthetic consonantal prefix formed from the combination of the Referent-1 + prefix and the Referent-2 prefix. For example, the combination of the prefix + s- with the + prefix f- + renders the composite prefix sf-, + while the combination of the prefix t- + with the prefix q- + gives the composite t’-. + Table 30 below illustrates how the 23 single-consonant prefixes combine with + each other.

+

Table 30: Personal Reference + Adjunct Prefixes
+

+

Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table:

+
+

1 + = Inclusion of speaker
+ 2 = Inclusion of addressee
+ m = monadic (single party)
+ u = unbounded (more than one party)
+ a = animate 3rd party
+ i = inanimate 3rd party
+ E + = universal ('everyone/everything')
+ M = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate + or MONADIC+UNBOUNDED)
+ IP = Impersonal ('one')
+ ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything')
+ Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below)
+ Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below)
+ Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below)

+
+

Note that when combining two referent prefixes to form the + composite + prefix the tones associated with each referent must also be combined (remember + it is the distinction between low and high tone that expands the 23 single-consonant + referents into 46). Since all single-referent adjuncts are either of falling + or high tone, their combination proceeds as follows:

+ +
+

falling + + falling + falling
+ high + high high
+ falling + high rising
+ high + falling broken

+
+

As for the Referent-1 case infix, this is the same vocalic + case-affix (VC1) we saw for single-referent adjuncts in Sec. + 8.1.2 above (with the vocalic increment ending in -y- + or -w-). The + forms for these case infixes were given in Table 24.

+

Deferring for a moment the explanation of the Referent-2 consonantal + case suffix (), + the last two terms of the dual-referent adjunct are + and . + The former is one of four vocalic affixes representing the affiliation of Referent-2, + while the latter is the consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. + 6.6. The use of + is optional if the affiliation of the referent is already known (or can be inferred) + from the context of the utterance. The appearance of the + bias suffix is dependent on the appearance of , + i.e., + must appear if + is to appear, although + can appear in word-final position without any + bias suffix.

+

The four-way combination of Essence and Focus for Referent-2 + is shown by the four available stress patterns: penultimate stress indicates + NORMAL + UNFOCUSED, ultimate stress + indicates NORMAL + FOCUSED, antepenultimate + indicates REPRESENTATIVE + UNFOCUSED, + and preantepenultimate indicates REPRESENTATIVE + FOCUSED. + (See Sec. 3.8 on + Essence, and Sec. 3.5 + on Focus.)

+

The Referent-2 consonantal case suffix () + is a consonantal suffix associated with each of the 81 noun cases. Note that + each of these case-frame adjunct markers has nine forms (a default form and + eight mutations). These nine variants are used to indicate the configuration + of Referent-2 (see Sec. + 3.1 on Configuration). The values for are shown in Tables 31 below.

+


+ Table 31: + Suffixes for Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

+ + + + + + + + + + +
+


+ 8.1.3.1 Special Use of Short Adjunct Form. The short form of + the single-referent adjunct discussed in Sec. 8.1.2 + above (utilizing the abbreviated + suffix from Table 24) can be used with the special dual-referent + + composite prefixes from Table 30 under the following + circumstance: to show that two different parties are governed by the same case + and participate equally with the verb, equivalent to connecting two pronouns + in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or + The man looked at them and me. Examples: ksau¯, + xnû, + hhea. + Note in the last example hhea + how the combination of a low-toned referent and a high-toned referent combines + to give a rising-toned adjunct.

+

8.1.3.2 Illustration of a Dual-Referent Adjunct: + Based on the above information, we can now analyze an example dual-referent + adjunct — diawàsmûç:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
( + )-
=
INFORMAL designation, UNIPLEX + configuration, CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation, NORMAL + essence and negative FOCUS for Referent No. 1
-d + -
=
combination of Referent No. 1, t- + , + plus Referent No. 2, ¯- + +
-iaw-
=
PROLATIVE case infix (meaning “along [the + surface of] X”) for Referent No. 1
-a-
=
INFORMAL designation and EXISTENTIAL + context for Referent No. 2
-sm-
=
POSSESSIVE case and MULTIFORM + configuration for Referent No. 2
-û-
=
VARIATIVE affiliation for Referent No. 2
-ç
=
REACTIVE bias
[stress]
=
ultimate stress indicating NORMAL essence and positive + FOCUS for Referent No. 2
+

Approximate translation: over me + [= along my body] + what belongs to a rag-tag amalgamation of you (singular) + and all those things + [sense of surprise].

+

While such a word might seem contrived at first, it nevertheless + proves quite functional in a sentence such as the following (which a Star Trek© + character might say to a Borg after the latter has produced an “assimilated” + spider from its pocket and let it loose during the night):

+
+


+
+ _Listen! + +

+
+

 

+

Other examples of the use of dual-referent personal reference adjuncts are + given below.

+
+


+ _Listen! + +

+
+


+ 8.1.4 Use of the Switch Reference Suffix

+

In Section + 7.7.13, the SWR switch reference suffix was introduced. + This affix works with the OBVIATIVE personal referent + (see Sec. 8.1.1.7) to specifically indicate which + party is being referred to. The following is a review of this affix for all + nine degrees. By use of this affix, reference can be made immediately to any + party relevant to a discourse, even to a third party not previously mentioned.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-V2_’
SWR
Switch Reference & Obviative Specification
Degree 1nearest + preceding referent
Degree 22nd to + nearest preceding referent
Degree 33rd party + not previously mentioned
Degree 4referring + to sentence focus
Degree 5first referent + mentioned
Degree 6referring + to sentence topic
Degree 73rd party + non-transrelative referent
Degree 8 2nd order + transrelative referent
Degree 9higher + order transrelative referent
+

The following example illustrates the use of the switch reference suffix:

+


+ _Listen! +

+

 

+

8.1.5 Details of Personal Reference Suffixes

+

Sec. 7.4 described + the existence of a special group of specialized suffixes derived from personal + reference adjunct consonantal infixes. As previously discussed in Sec. + 8.1.1, there are 23 single consonants associated with 46 single-referent + personal reference categories (based on a distinction between low and high tone). + These 23 consonants can be combined with Type 3 vocalic infix patterns (see + Sec. 2.7.2) to correspond + to certain Associative and Appositive noun cases. The low versus high tone distinction + for these 23 consonants (from which the 46 categories are derived) is shown + by distinguishing between the V+C standard form of the suffix and its reversed + C+V form (see Sec. 7.5.2 on + the “reversed” form of suffixes). Unlike other -V3C + suffixes, there are no -V1C or -V2C + counterparts to these suffixes (or rather, the -V1C or + -V2C counterparts have completely different meanings and + uses). The use of these suffixes is optional, since they are merely substitutes + for single-referent personal reference adjuncts. The noun cases associated with + the nine suffix degrees are as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Degree 1POSSESSIVE + Case
Degree 2PROPRIETIVE + Case
Degree 3GENITIVE + Case
Degree 4ATTRIBUTIVE + Case
Degree 5ORIGINATIVE + Case
Degree 6PRODUCTIVE + Case
Degree 7INTERPRETATIVE + Case
Degree 8 INHERENT + Case
Degree 9CONDUCTIVE + Case
+

Examples of Use:

+

+
+ _Listen! + +
+

+

+

 

+ + + + +

8.2 SUBSIDIARY ADJUNCTS

+

Subsidiary adjuncts refer to adjuncts which are essentially + subsets or “pieces” of the conflation adjunct first introduced in + Chapter 5. Conflation adjuncts comprise the morphological categories of Derivation, + Valence, Version, Format, Modality and Level, and are of the form CN + + VV + CK + Vm [+ tone], exemplified by the word t’uillia¯ + = t’+ui+ll+ia+¯.
+ However, it is possible to take this same adjunct and present only select portions + of it. We already saw this in Sec. 5.2 when we were introduced to valence adjuncts, + which are essentially composed of the VV + CK “subset” of a conflation + adjunct. Similarly we can have simple modality adjuncts of the form Vm + [+ tone] as in the word ia¯ which also shows + the category of Level (via the tone indication). A simple format adjunct is + possible by simply using CK by itself as a word, e.g., ll. + To this can be added the Vm [+ tone] increment to provide a + subsidiary adjunct showing Format, Modality and Level, as in llia¯.

+

 

+ +
+ + + + +

8.3 COMBINATION ADJUNCTS

+
+

Combination adjuncts refer to adjuncts which start with an + autonomous consonantal form indicating Mood (see Sec. + 6.5), then add on various morphological categories other than those combinations + seen in conflation, subsidiary, and aspectual adjuncts. The use combination + adjuncts is optional, determined primarily by euphonic (i.e., phonotactical + and phonaesthetic) concerns in order to decrease the number of syllables which + a formative might otherwise have due to multiple affixation and mutation of + its phonemes. The various combination adjunct structures are de-tailed in the + sections below.

+


+ 8.3.1 Mood + Aspect Adjuncts

+

The most basic combination adjunct combines Aspect with Mood. + In this adjunct, Mood is indicated by an initial w- + or y- plus + tone (the tone pattern is shown in Table 32 below). This is followed by one + of the 32 aspect suffixes from Table + 19 in Sec. 6.4.1. Examples: wea¯, + yaï. + Note that, in the absence of an aspectual adjunct (which normally shows mood), + this simple element can function by itself as a mood adjunct + by simply using the neutral -VS suffix, + e.g., wa, + ya¯.

+


+ Table 32: Consonant + Tone Values for Mood Adjuncts and Mood+Aspect Adjuncts
+
+
+
+
+ 8.3.2 Phase/Validation + Format + Level + Mood + Bias Adjuncts

+

This combination adjunct has the form Vj + + w/y + VF (+Cb) + [tone + & stress], where:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Vj
=
an initial vowel indicating either one + of the nine phases or one of the nine validations, as shown in Table 33 + below; a following -w- infix indicates that Vj + shows Phase, while a following -y- infix indicates Vj + shows Validation
VF
=
a vowel form indicating one of eight Formats and + four Levels (see Sec. 5.6), + as shown in Table 34 below
Cb
=
one of the 48 optional Bias affixes from Table + 20 in Sec. 6.6
tone+ + stress
=
The combination of four tones with ultimate versus + antepenultimate stress signifies one of the eight moods, consistent with + the tone/stress pattern for mood used with aspectual adjuncts, as described + in Section 6.5
+

Example: oweiç.

+


+ Table 33: Vj + Format + Level Vocalic Infixes for Combination Adjuncts
+
+

+

 

+

8.3.3 Affix + Format + Mood + Bias Adjuncts

+

This combination adjunct is structured identically to the immediately + preceding adjunct form except that the adjunct adds a word-initial affix (one + of the consonantal affix forms from Sec. + 7.7) and Vj now indicates one of + the nine affix-degrees associated with this affix. Additionally, the first three + forms of the Format/Focus infix from Table 33 above are now used to indicate + affix-type instead of Level. + Examples: psiyoul, + juwä’mm. +

 

+ + + + +

8.4 AFFIXUAL ADJUNCTS

+

Any single formative affix, or any two such affixes, may be + removed from the formative and positioned as an adjacent adjunct for purposes + of euphony. Additionally, since affix categories represent common concepts generally + applicable to many contexts, an affixual adjunct can also be informally used + as a “short cut” method of conveying a notion, essentially as an + abbreviated one-word sentence somewhat like an interjection or exclamation in + English, thus conveying the concept of the affix category. For example, the + affix -V1/7 + connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, ï.’a, + it can be used by itself as an informal expression translatable by the English + phrase How typical!

+


+ 8.4.1 Forms for Single- and Dual-Affix Adjuncts

+

The form of a single-affix affixual adjunct is CV’a, + where CV represents the word-final + “reversed” form of a standard suffix for formatives from Sec. + 7.7 (see Secs. 2.7.2 + and 7.5.2 on the alternate + “reversed” forms of suffixes). So, for example, the suffix -eu’/’iu + (i.e., -V2’/4) + becomes the autonomous word ’iu’a, + meaning ‘scattered all around here.’

+

The form for a dual-affix affixual adjunct is CV’’VC, + where the first part, CV, is + the same reversed form of a standard suffix as for the single-affix adjunct + above. The second part, VC, + represents the “normal,” unreversed form of a standard suffix. When + pronouncing such an adjunct, it is important to geminate (i.e., double) the + glottal stop, so as not to confuse the word with a simple formative in Secondary + Mode, Series B vowel mutation (see Sec. + 2.5). So, combining the two suffixes -V2v/7 + and -V1kt/9 + would give the adjunct vë’’ukt, + meaning ‘probably this one.’

+


+ 8.4.2 Combining Mood with Affixual Adjuncts

+

Using stress and tone, it becomes possible to combine Mood + with both single- and dual-affix affixual adjuncts (with the exception of the + default FACTUAL mood which is unmarked). Because the standard forms for both + types of affixual adjuncts have at least two syllables, the regular indicators + for Mood used with aspectual adjuncts as described in Sec. + 6.5 (four tones + two stress patterns = 8 moods) can be applied to affixual + adjuncts as well.

+

 

+ +
+ + + + +

8.5 ALTERNATE INDICATORS FOR VOCALIC MUTATION

+
+

In looking at the tables in Sec. + 2.5, one can see that several vocalic mutational series cause an additional + syllable to be added to a formative (e.g., kad + ka’wed). + For phonaesthetic purposes (see Sec. + 1.4.5), it may become desirable to eliminate this extra syllable in the + formative by indicating the vocalic mutation series elsewhere. Ithkuil allows + this to be done by using word-initial vocalic prefixes to certain adjuncts as + an alternate way of indicating the vocalic mutation series of an adjacent formative. + As a result, the formative itself displays the default Series A form. The two + types of adjuncts which can take such prefixes are affixual adjuncts (both single- + and dual-affix types) and conflation adjuncts. The specific prefixes used with + the adjunct are shown in Table 34 below.

+


+ Table 34: Alternate Vocalic Mutation Prefixes For Affixual Adjuncts

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+
Series A
 +
Series B
 +
Series C
 +
Series D
 +
Series E
 +
Series F
 +
Series G
 +
Series H
 +
Series J
—
a-
i-
e-
u-
o-
ö-
ë-
ä-
+

To illustrate this process for the + two example adjuncts ’iu’a + and vë’’ukt, + adding Series B and Series G mutation respectively results in the forms a’iu’a + and + övë’’ukt. Illustrating the process + for conflation adjuncts, the adjunct p’uimû + plus Series C mutation becomes ip’uimû.

+

 

+ + + + +

8.6 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON BIAS +

+

Section + 6.6.1 describes the standard ways in which Bias is shown on aspectual adjuncts + and on formatives. In Sec. 8.1.2, we saw how the conjunct + form of a single-referent personal reference adjunct can take an optional affix, + Cb, + to indicate Bias. And in Sec. 8.3.2, we saw how a Bias + suffix can be added to a Mood-based combination adjunct. In the absence of these + possibilities, the following sections offer additional ways to display Bias.

+


+ 8.6.1 Adding Bias to Valence, Conflation or Subsidiary Adjuncts

+

Both valence and conflation adjuncts (see Secs. + 5.2 and 5.4), as well + as their subsidiary adjuncts (see Sec. 8.2) can take a + word-final Bias suffix if needed, as long as there is a vocalic Modality suffix + present as part of the adjunct. The Bias suffix is the same consonantal form + shown in Table 20 of Sec. + 6.6.1. As an example, adding the SUGGESTIVE bias suffix + -ps to the + valence adjunct oiiu + gives the resulting forms oiiups.

+


+ 8.6.2 Informal Bias Adjuncts

+

Just as affixual adjuncts can stand on their own as informal + expressions, so can the consonantal Bias affixes (shown Table 20 of Sec. + 6.6.1) be used autonomously to informally convey one’s attitude toward + a situation. For example, if one wishes to convey a sense of awe, one could + state the Ithkuil equivalent to the sentence, I feel a sense of awe! + or one can simply hiss out a long s-sound, ‘ss,’ + which is the intensive form of the affix for the STUPEFACTIVE + bias category, whose translation can be approximated by the English expressions + ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’

+

Other examples would be the expression + to signify fulfillment and contentment, the equivalent to a long sigh of satisfaction + ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression kšš + to convey contempt and disgust, similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ + or ‘What bullshit!’

+

It is even possible to combine two biases into a single bias + adjunct, using the form C+ï+C, where each C + represents a single consonantal bias affix. For example, combining the intensive + forms of the REVELATIVE and the ASSURATIVE + biases gives the adjunct llïnn, + translatable as ‘Aha! I told you so!’

+

 

+

Proceed +to Chapter 9: Syntax >>

+


+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

+ + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..239b2b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html @@ -0,0 +1,684 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 9: Syntax + + + + + + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+

 

+

Chapter 9: Syntax

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
9.1 Word Order
9.2 Semantic Focus and Pragmatic Relations
9.3 Morpho-Semantic Considerations
9.4 The “Carrier” + Root
+
+


+ Syntax refers to the rules for sequencing the order of words + within a phrase or sentence, including rules permitting more than one possible + sequential ordering of words. To understand the following discussion of Ithkuil + syntax it is necessary to have a cursory understanding of the notions of semantic + role, pragmatic role, and grammatical (or syntactical) + relations:

+
+
    +
  • Semantic role: This refers to the underlying semantic + function of a particular word, irrespective of overt morphological category. + We have already seen how Ithkuil marks its noun cases to reflect semantic + roles, not grammatical relations. Such roles include Agent, Patient, Experiencer, + Recipient, Instrument, etc., as previously explained in Section + 4.1 et seq.
    +
    • +
  • Pragmatic role: This refers to the function of a word + or phrase in relation to its predicate or the rest of the sentence in terms + of whether and how it represents “given” versus “new” + information, i.e., whether or not the word or phrase represents background + information already known to the addressee, or whether it represents new + information previously unknown to the addressee. Three such roles or relations + are generally delineated: topic, comment, + and focus. The topic of a sentence is the word + or phrase about which the speaker has been asked or is expected by the addressee + to talk about. The comment is the information (usually a predicate) + given by the speaker about the particular topic. The term focus + refers to whatever information in a sentence is new to the addressee, (i.e., + not previously known), and has been discussed in detail in Sec. + 3.5. To illustrate these concepts, consider the sentence I can see + why Mary’s angry, but what about Bill? (i.e., What happened + to make Bill angry, too?). In the hypothetical answer Bill (or + He) is angry because he lost his keys, ‘Bill’ (or ‘he’) + is the topic, ‘is angry because he lost his keys’ is the comment, + and ‘he lost his keys’ is the focus.
    +
    • +
  • Grammatical (or syntactical) + relations: the arbitrary word-ordering rules of a language, irrespective + of semantic or pragmatic roles, e.g., the subject of the sentence in English + normally precedes the main verb and the direct object normally follows the + main verb.
    • +
+
+

In general, the syntax of a language either (1) establishes + the permissible grammatical relations of the language, (2) reflects and/or reinforces + semantic roles, (3) reflects and/or reinforces pragmatic roles, or (4) any combination + of these. As one might surmise from the above, English syntax is weighted heavily + toward establishing grammatical relations at the near-total expense of identifying + semantic roles. As for pragmatic roles, English rarely reflects these in its + syntax (one exception is the strong tendency for placing wh- question + words in sentence-initial position in specialized questions, even if they represent + a direct object, e.g., What have you done? or Who[m] are they talking + about?), however, such roles do tend to be marked “supra-segmentally” + by inflection of vocal pitch and tone of voice.

+

We have already seen the extreme to which Ithkuil marks semantic + roles morphologically as opposed to syntactically. And since grammatial relations + in and of themselves are relatively arbitrary within language, Ithkuil uses + pure word order constraints only to an extent necessary to ensure avoidance + of ambiguity in determining which nouns belong as participants to a verb, which + nouns lie in apposition to their head, and which words of a compound sentence + lie within a case-frame as opposed to outside the case-frame. As for pragmatic + roles, we have already seen that semantic focus and optional topicalization + are accomplished morphologically in Ithkuil (see Sec. + 3.5 and the TPF affix in Sec. + 7.7.13). As a result, Ithkuil has relatively free word order which, subject + to a few constraints, is manipulated for euphonic and phonaesthetic reasons. + Those constraints on word order which do exist are explained below.

+

 

+ + + + +

9.1 WORD ORDER

+

The highly inflected nature of Ithkuil morphology allows the + order of words within a sentence to be quite flexible. Nevertheless, two neutral + or “default” patterns exist, one for main clauses, the other for + case frames.

+


+ 9.1.1 Word Order Within Main Clauses

+

The default word-order for a main clause is as follows:

+
+
 
+
+
+

Nt1/R (Nt2) (Na) (Ns) (A) (Cv) (Co) Vb, + where:

+
+

Nt1/R = first transrelative participant or + a personal reference adjunct
+ Nt2 = second transrelative participant
+ Na = attributive/associative/adverbial nouns
+ Ns = spatio-temporal nouns
+ A = aspectual adjunct
+ Cv = conflation or valence adjunct
+ Co = other adjuncts (e.g., affixual adjunct or combination + adjunct)
+ Vb = verb

+

Thus we see that a main clause normally starts with the highest-order + transrelative noun (see Sec. 4.2) + or any personal reference adjunct, followed by any nouns in lower-order transrelative + cases, followed by nouns in non-transrelative cases. The last part of the clause + consists of the verb in final position preceded by any aspectual adjunct, conflation + (or valence) adjunct, and combination or affixual adjunct, in that order. As + for “higher-” versus “lower-” order transrelative nouns, + this refers to the hierarchy or sequence of transrelative cases in which certain + cases take precedence over others. This hierarchy is as follows:

+

ERGATIVE + EFFECTUATIVE + INDUCIVE ABSOLUTIVE + DERIVATIVE +
+ SITUATIVE + AFFECTIVE + DATIVE INSTRUMENTAL + OBLIQUE

+

 

+

9.1.2 Word-order within Case-Frames

+

Within a case-frame (see Section + 5.7), a different default order is used in order to identify the clause + as a case frame:

+

Vc (A) (Cv) (Co) (Na) (Ns) (Nt2) Nt1/R, where:

+

Vc = verb inflected for case-frame
+ A = aspectual adjunct
+ Cv = conflation or valence adjunct
+ Co = other adjuncts (e.g., affixual adjunct or combination + adjunct)
+ Na = attributive/associative/adverbial nouns
+ Ns = spatio-temporal nouns
+ Nt2 = second transrelative participant
+ Nt1/R = first transrelative participant or a personal reference + adjunct

+

This is nearly the reverse order of the main clause, with the + case-marked verb appearing initially within the case-frame followed by its attendant + adjuncts, then any secondary nouns, followed by any transrelative nouns with + the highest-order transrelative noun or any personal reference adjunct in final + position within the case-frame. Additionally, the last noun within the case-frame + will usually take one of the –V1’ + suffixes (see Sec. 7.7.13) + signifying the end of the case-frame unless this is clear without the suffix + (e.g., because the case-frame is in sentence-final position).

+

+

+

9.1.3 Flexibility and Constraints in Word Order

+

Despite there being a normal word-order for main clauses and + case-frames, these are by no means grammatically required. In general, the order + of most words can be changed for purposes of euphony. Nevertheless, Ithkuil + word order is not completely free. The following word-order constraints exist + in order to avoid potential ambiguity or semantic incoherence.

+
+
    +
  • Nouns in Attributive, Associative and Adverbial cases (see Secs. + 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5) + which are dependent on, or in apposition to a “head” noun, must + immediately precede or follow that head noun, unless the relationship between + the two nouns is readily ascertainable without the two being in apposition.
    +
    • +
  • Sentences containing case-frames are most likely to follow the default, + normal word-order, in order to avoid ambiguity as to which formatives and + adjuncts belong to the main clause and which to the case-frame. Case-frames + especially often reflect a verb-initial pattern, in order to easily signify + the beginning of the case-frame.
    +
    • +
  • A case-frame cannot be broken apart into segments within a main sentence, + i.e., the case-frame must constitute a single cohesive clause and not contain + elements of the main clause within it. It is possible to “nest” + a second case-frame within a case-frame, similar to the way in which subordinate + or relative clauses can be nested in English and other Western languages, + e.g., [Despite owning a Picasso [that comes from his Blue period] [of + which I, [a mere student,] am fond,]] Joe is actually a very humble person.
    +
    • +
+
+

9.1.4 Phonotactically-Induced Syntactic Modifications

+

As mentioned above, word-order can shift in an Ithkuil sentence + to accommodate phonotactic or phonaesthetic ends, i.e., for purposes of euphony. + This is because suffixes on a formative, as well as morphemes associated with + categories of Bias and Mood, can be transformed into autonomous adjuncts (see + Secs. 8.3, 8.4 + and 8.6.2). As + was described in Sec. 1.4.5, words + of six syllables or more are generally undesirable, therefore any formative + with numerous affixes is potentially subject to having several of its morphemes + redistributed to adjuncts. As an example, the word umreiquçîîmšën + ‘series of bombs’ can separate out two of its four suffixes into + a separate word çu’’î + to give the form çu’’î_umreiqîmšën + whose morphological structure is .

+

When ordering such phonaesthetically-induced adjuncts, it is + important that they can be easily associated with the formative to which they + apply. Generally, this means that they will be adjacent to the formative, or + occur on either side of other adjuncts associated with the formative.

+


+ 9.1.5 Iconicity

+

English and other languages generally display phrase-structure + patterns and word-order patterns which reinforce, or even reflect, a cognitive + understanding of what is being described, i.e., the order of the words themselves + reflects information about how we are to understand the utterance. Such a phenomenon + is known as iconicity. In English and other Western languages, + the most common way in which iconicity is manifested is what is termed “sequential + order iconicity,” the idea that the actual sequential order of words in + a phrase or sentence reflects the sequential order of the events they describe. + For example, the phrases ‘eye it, try it, buy it,’ ‘I came, + I saw, I conquered,’ or ‘dine and dash’ describe sequential + events where the sequence of the words reflect the sequence of the events. What + is most important is that re-ordering of the words either changes the meaning + of the phrase or leads to semantic nonsense, e.g., ‘buy it, eye it, try + it’ implies that a different sequence of events actually takes place than + ‘eye it, try it, buy it.’ This can be more dramatically illustrated + with the following pair of sentences.

+
+

1) Jane got married and had a baby.
+ 2) Jane had a baby and got married.

+
+

In English, the ambiguous word ‘and’ is interpreted + as connecting a sequence of events, i.e., ‘and’ is interpreted to + mean sequential ‘then’ (= ‘and following that,’ ‘then + next’ or ‘then later’). As a result, the meanings of the two + sentences imply very different social interpretations about Jane.

+

Besides the reflection of sequential order, other types of + word-order iconicity are possible. For example, compare the subtle difference + in meaning between the following two sentences:

+
+

3) Sam painted the fence white.
+ 4) Sam painted the white fence.

+
+

In the first sentence, we do not know what color the fence + was prior to being painted, or even if it was a new fence that had never been + painted before. In the second sentence, not only do we know what color the fence + had been, but also that it was not previously unpainted, however, we do not + necessarily know what its new color is. This sort of iconicity is used to convey + a resultative state of affairs, i.e., by placing the adjective ‘white’ + after the word ‘fence’ (seemingly in violation of the usual adjective-before-noun + word order used in English), we describe a resulting state of affairs.

+

Yet another type of word-order iconicity is displayed in comparing + the following two sentences.

+
+

5) Loretta gave Sue a wedding gift.
+ 6) Loretta gave a wedding gift to Sue.

+
+

Most grammar textbooks would state that these two sentences + are semantically equivalent, the first employing a “ditransitive” + pattern (i.e., juxtaposing an indirect object ‘Sue’ with a direct + object ‘wedding gift’), while the second uses a “complement” + pattern in which the indirect object follows the direct object and is changed + to a prepositional phrase using ‘to.’ However, there is a subtle + semantic distinction between the two sentences. The first strongly implies that + the wedding gift is for Sue, i.e., Sue is the bride and intended recipient. + The second sentence, however, invites the possibility that Sue is only a temporary + or circumstantial goal for the act of giving, but not the bride and intended + recipient. For example, if Sue is merely a guest at the wedding and Loretta + needed Sue’s help carrying an armload of wedding gifts, she might give + a wedding gift to Sue, but that does not mean she would give Sue + a wedding gift. This type of iconicity distinguishing a recipient from a directional + goal is an example of what is termed “distance iconicity,” because + the two linked words are made more “distant” from each other in + the sentence as a reflection of their more circumstantial association.

+

Ithkuil does not display iconicity. While the order of words + in an Ithkuil phrase or sentence may coincidentally reflect a temporal or causative + sequence of events, this is not by syntactic design. Because of the myriad means + available in Ithkuil to morphologically distinguish sequence, cause-and-effect, + resulting states, and the distinction of recipients from directional goals, + no iconicity patterns are required.

+

For example, we saw in sentences (1) and (2) above how English + ‘and’ can be used to convey not just mere coordination, but also + a sequencing function. In Sections + 7.7.3 and 7.7.4, we saw + that Ithkuil has no less than thirty-six suffixes (four suffix categories, each + with nine different degrees) which convey various coordinative and sequencing + patterns with great specificity. Thus, Ithkuil has no morpheme directly equivalent + to the ambiguous English word ‘and.’ There is an affix corresponding + to ‘and’ in its use as a mere additive listing device (e.g., ‘pears + and apples and bananas’), another corresponding to its use as an indicator + of simultaneity (e.g., ‘I clenched my fists and scowled’), another + corresponding to its use as an indicator of additional information (e.g., ‘The + clown likes children and loves to eat’), another to its use as an indicator + of parallel description or activity (e.g., ‘We went dancing and so did + they’), and yet another as a temporal sequencing indicator (e.g., ‘I + went to the window and looked out’).

+

 

+ + + + +

9.2 SEMANTIC FOCUS AND PRAGMATIC RELATIONS

+

We first discussed semantic focus in Section + 3.5, describing it as a means to distinguish new from background information + in a sentence. In languages like English, such distinctions are generally accomplished + syntactically by means of word order, as illustrated by the distinction between + The clown selected a redheaded girl from the audience versus It + was a redheaded girl the clown selected from the audience. Because semantic + focus (along with optional topicalization) is shown morphologically (with affixes) + in Ithkuil, word order changes are not necessary to distinguish new from background + information in a sentence. Comparison between the word-order based system of + English and the morphology based system of Ithkuil is analyzed in Sec. 9.2.1 + below. Additionally, while Ithkuil’s system for indicating topics and + semantic focus does not require changes in word order per se, it does + allow for significant word deletion, creating abbreviated sentences which, in + effect, modify the default word order of a sentence. Such word deletion is analyzed + in Sec. 9.2.2.

+


+ 9.2.1 Using Focus and Sequencing Affixes in Lieu of Word-Order Changes

+

Focus, in conjunction with the sequencing affixes described + in Sec. 7.7.3, can be used + to subtle effect in Ithkuil, providing semantic nuance. For example, compare + the following English sentences:

+
+
    +
  • After I shopped, I went home.
    • +
  • I went home after I shopped.
    • +
  • I shopped before I went home.
    • +
  • Before I went home, I shopped.
    • +
+
+

All four sentences indicate two sequential events: shopping, + then going home. The difference between them is one of focus and viewpoint. + In the first two sentences, going home has semantic focus, as that is the new + information being conveyed, while in the latter two sentences it is shopping + that has focus. The first and third sentence have a “prospective” + viewpoint in that the sentence conveys the events in the same sequence in which + they occurred, looking upon the events from the viewpoint of the one that occurred + first. However, the second and fourth sentences have a “retrospective” + viewpoint, conveying the two events in a reverse order from how they occurred, + looking back on the events from the viewpoint of the event which occurred last.

+

In Ithkuil, the distinction in focus and viewpoint in these + four sentences would be accomplished morphologically, not syntactically. Positive + Focus would be used to identify those parts of the sentence which present new + information, while the two viewpoints would be accomplished using the aforementioned + sequencing suffixes.
+

+

+

9.2.2 Abbreviated Sentences Using Focus and Topicalization

+

Focus and topicalization allow Ithkuil, as with other languages, + to provide abbreviated sentences in direct answer to commands, the equivalent + of questions (see Sec. 5.1.6), + or to comment on a topic already under discussion. Because the topic is already + known within the contextual discourse, only the portion of the new sentence + carrying semantic focus need be spoken. Similarly, the topicalization + suffix in conjunction with the INTERROGATIVE + illocution affix, allows for abbreviated inquiries within a known contextual + discourse, similar to such abbreviated sentences in English, e.g., ‘and + Bill?’ in lieu of the full sentence ‘Comment on how this applies + to Bill.’

+

 

+ + + + +

9.3 MORPHO-SEMANTIC CONSIDERATIONS

+

It should be noted that when structuring an Ithkuil sentence, + particularly when translating from other languages such as English, care must + be given to avoid capturing irrelevant semantic information reflected by the + morphology of the source language and trying to find an equivalent or parallel + way to reflect those irrelevancies in the Ithkuil sentence. This can have a + profound effect on the morpho-syntactical structure of the resulting Ithkuil + sentence.

+

 

+

9.3.1 Arbitrary Delineations of Perspective or Point of View

+

One area where word-choice in English and other Western languages + arbitrarily affects sentence structure is in the unintentional schematicization + of a particular perspective or point of view. For example, consider the following + pair of sentences in English.

+
+

1) The path climbs steeply out of the canyon.
+ 2) That path descends steeply into the canyon.

+
+

Both of these sentences are describing the same property of + the path — its steepness. The distinction in the sentences comes from + the point of view being reflected by the speaker. In sentence (1) the implied + point of view is from the bottom of the canyon upward, while in sentence (2) + the viewpoint is from the top of the canyon downward. What is important is that, + semantically, the point of view is of no relevance to the steepness of the path + per se. So if the cognitive intent of the utterance is simply to describe + the vertical gradient of the path within the canyon, there would be only one + Ithkuil translation for both of these sentences, eschewing the point of view + entirely and restating the sentence to read:

+
+
+
+

+
+ _Listen! + +

+
+

 

+

9.3.2 Masking of Semantic or Participatory Roles

+

Similarly, care must be made, when comparing Ithkuil sentence + structure with other languages, to note that Ithkuil grammar allows for a more + overt reflection of the underlying semantic roles inherent in a given sentence. + As a result, sentence structures in Western languages which “mask” + potentially anomalous semantic structures are avoided in Ithkuil. For example, + compare the following pairs of sentences.

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
 3a) He supplied a report to the analyst.4a) She applied a solvent to the stain.
 3b) He supplied the analyst a report.4b) *She applied the stain a solvent.
+
+

The syntactical patterns of these two pairs of sentences are + identical, yet the word-order in sentence (4b) is ungrammatical (as indicated + by the asterisk), while the same word-order in sentence (3b) presents no problem. + The underlying reason for the difference is one of semantic role. While ‘analysts’ + can function in the role of Recipients, ‘stains’ cannot (they are + merely directional Goals, i.e., where the solvent gets applied). Cognitively, + stains cannot “possess” a solvent the way analysts can “possess” + a report. In Ithkuil, the semantic roles would be clearly defined by the case-markings + of the participants. Therefore, syntactically inconsistent pairs such as (3b) + and (4b) do not occur.

+

Sometimes, rather than semantic role, it is a participant’s + relationship to an underlying clause that presents the problem. For example, + He’s a tall president means ‘He’s a president who + is tall.’ So why doesn’t He’s a likely president + mean ‘*He’s a president who is likely’? The reason is that, + while ‘tall’ describes its adjacent referent ‘president,’ + ‘likely’ does not describe its adjacent referent. Rather, ‘likely’ + describes an underlying process in which that referent is or will be engaged, + i.e., ‘running for president.’ Therefore, while these two sentences + are morpho-syntactically identical in English, their Ithkuil translations are + quite different from one another morpho-syntactically:
+

+
+


+ [literally: There is much height to him who formally presides.] + _______Listen!

+

+


+ [literally: He is one who probably will begin to formally preside.] +

+

 

+
+

9.3.3 Negation

+

Negation is another morpho-semantic area where translation + from English or other Western languages can be tricky. Consider the English + sentence Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Note this + sentence does not mean what a literal word-for-word analysis implies, i.e., + ‘That they like her cooking is not something that Shelly is thinking.’ + Rather, the correct meaning is ‘Shelly thinks that they don’t like + her cooking.’ Ithkuil is very precise in specifying exactly what components + of a sentence are to be negated. Use of the four affirmation/negation affixes + from Sec. 7.7.9 () + in conjunction with a formative carries very specific information as to what + morphological components of a sentence are being affirmed or negated and to + what degree. Using these four affixes alone, Ithkuil can distinguish between + the following four sentences without any syntactic rearrangement of the words:

+
+

I don’t want to begin singing.

+

I’m beginning to not want to sing.

+

I want to not begin singing.

+

I’m beginning to want to not sing.

+
+

Thus when translating negative sentences into Ithkuil, care + must be taken to not syntactically “rearrange” a sentence as with + Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Additionally, Ithkuil + makes a morpho-semantic distinction not found in Western languages: the difference + between absolute negation and relative negation. + Absolute negation implies that the non-existence or non-occurrence of an entity, + state, or event is due to contextual inapplicability, while relative negation + indicates that the non-existence or non-occurrence is circumstantial. This distinction + is illustrated in the two sentences below:

+


+
+ The girl doesn’t sing [because she can’t, i.e., she is + mute].

+


+ .
+ The girl doesn’t sing [even though she can, i.e., she chooses + not to].

+

 

+ + + + +

9.4 THE “CARRIER” + ROOT

+

Since the Ithkuil declensional and conjugational system is + based on predictable multi-level patterns of consonant and vowel mutation, proper + nouns such as personal and place names, as well as non-Ithkuil words from other + languages are by nature morpho-phonologically incompatible with such as system. + Nevertheless, such words can be declined or conjugated like any other Ithkuil + formative by means of the “carrier” root k-r. + In addition to this use, the carrier root is employed in certain other contexts + as well, as described below.

+


+ 9.4.1 Words that Cannot Take Affixes or Be Mutated

+

The six primary stems of the carrier root (kar, + kur, kir and their Form II counterparts kâr, + kûr, kîr) are respectively associated with animate + beings (the two complementary derivatives being humans versus non-humans or + figuratively/metaphorically animate entities); inanimate entities (the two complementary + derivatives being objectively concrete entities versus subjective entities such + as thoughts, emotions, sensations, etc.); and finally intangible abstract referents + (the two complementary derivatives being place names and abstractions). The + carrier stem is placed immediately before the proper noun or foreign word or + phrase, then declined or conjugated normally for any desired morphological categories, + even verbal categories. The proper noun or foreign word or phrase itself is + left unchanged.
+

+
+ +
+

9.4.2 Emphasizing or Highlighting a Particular Category

+

Another use of the carrier root is to emphasize or topicalize + a particular affix or grammatical element associated with a word. For example, + in English we can say ‘a big house’ with extra intonation + on the word ‘big’ to emphasize that word. To accomplish such emphasis + in Ithkuil, the carrier root is used with the augmentative suffix in conjunction + with the noun ‘house’ as opposed to simply using the augmentative + suffix on the stem for ‘house.’ No change in vocal pitch or intonation + is required, as the grammatically unnecessary use of the carrier root serves + to accomplish the required emphasis. Any morphological category manifested by + a carrier root rather than an adjunct or mutation serves to emphasize that category. + (It should be noted that the use of optional combination and euphonic adjuncts + do not accomplish such emphasis. Their use versus non-use imparts no difference + in emphasis for the particular morphological categories contained in the adjunct.) +

+

+

9.4.3 Titles of Address

+

It should be noted that the use of the carrier root in front + of the names of persons serves to function as a title of address corresponding + to English Mister, Ms. or Miss. There is no distinction of + gender or marital status conveyed by the term.

+

+

Proceed + to Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics >>

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + AdjunctsRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
+
+©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author +and this website. + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-lexicon.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-lexicon.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..5f509b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-lexicon.html @@ -0,0 +1,7614 @@ + + + +Untitled Document + + +
Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+ +
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + Adjuncts
+

 

+

The Lexicon

+

Currently, the lexicon lists 16200 stems as derived from 900 roots (see + Sections 2.2, 2.3, + and 10.1.1 for an explanation + of the structure of individual roots and their 18 stems). This represents only + a random sampling from the 17 different morpho-semantic classes of Ithkuil roots + (see Sec. 10.2 for an explanation + of these classes). Additional roots and their stems will be periodically added +to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most recently added roots (August 2008) are marked in blue-colored font.

+

The reader should be aware that the glosses (i.e., the English translations + or definitions) for each of the stems below are at times somewhat arbitrary, + as Ithkuil roots and their stems have been conceptualized from the cognitive + level up, without regard as to whether they correspond necessarily to an existing + word or phrase in English or other languages. As a result, some of the English + glosses chosen as representations for the Ithkuil stems are approximations at + best. This is especially true for verbal glosses, since the translation of an + Ithkuil verbal formative is usually dependent on the specific Conflation, Format + or Derivation (see Sec. 5.4). +

+

Ideally, the best way to represent the meanings of Ithkuil stems would be to + use a semantic “meta-language” comprised of a closed set of semantically + universal (or near-universal) “primitives” to create semantic “formulas” + which define the use of a particular stem. (The design and use of such a meta-language + to translate the meanings of words from one language to another can be found + in the writings of linguist Anna Wierzbicka.) However, the author has chosen + not to pursue such an effort for the sake of time, as such an analysis for all + of the 3600 roots and their 64,800 stems would likely take decades to complete.

+

In regard to the list below, note that in some cases both a nominal (i.e., + noun) and verbal gloss have been provided, while in others only one or the other + is present. Nevertheless, the reader should keep in mind at all times that Ithkuil + stems always convey both a nominal and verbal meaning, as explained in detail + in Section 2.6.1.

+

 

+

CLASS 1 ROOTS: numerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics +

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

H-Š ‘WHOLE NUMBER/INTEGER’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. a (whole) number, numeral, digit, integer

Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to formal, authoritative, permanent context as per Section 3.7

2. having more than one aspect; multifaceted

3. numerical series/sequence

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. multiply (by)

1. divide (by)

2. consisting of more than instance; multiple instance(s) of

2. having more than one part; consisting of parts; non-unitary; non-unified

3. exponential/logarithmic progression

3. negative exponential/logarithmic progression

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

L-S   ‘ONE/UNITY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. one

1. single entity / single / singular

2. (something) alone/lone/sole

2. (something) isolated / apart / separate

3. (something) unique

3. 9something) independent / self-reliant / self-sufficient

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. unit (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

1. unify/unite; unit (in terms of being indivisible)

Same as above 3 stems in terms of there being no other instance/example thereof

Same as above 3 stems in terms of entity being indivisible

2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being indivisible)

3. unique (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, or their being no other instance/example thereof)

3. unique (in terms of being indivisible)

+

EXAMPLES OF MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  individual(ity), solitude, lonely, loneliness

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K-S   ‘TWO/DUALITY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. a set of two / a duo; to be two in number

FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

2. be/make dual / having 2 uses or aspects / bi- / twofold

3. second one in a sequence; be/make second in a sequence

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. twice the number of something; to double / multiply by two

1. half; halve / divide by or into two

2. two times [= iterations] / twice; to be/make/do twice

2. be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)

3. to the second power / squared; to square / raise to the second power

3. to the negative second power / inverse square; to divide by the square of

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

N-S   ‘SEVEN’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. a set or group of 7 / a septet; to be 7 in number

FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7

2. be/make seven-faceted / having 7 uses or aspects / septi- / sevenfold

3. seventh one in a sequence; be/make seventh in a sequence

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. 7 times the number of something; to septuple / multiply by 7

1. a seventh / divide by 7 or into 7 parts

2. 7 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 7 times

2. be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts

3. to the 7th power; raise to the 7th power

3. to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of

+

THE ABOVE PATTERN FOR ‘TWO’ AND ‘SEVEN’ APPLIES TO THE REMAINING NUMBER ROOTS AS FOLLOWS:
+ Š-S     ‘3’
+ P-S    ‘4’
+ Ţ-S    ‘5’
+ T-S    ‘6’
+ X-S    ‘8’
+ F-S    ‘9’
+ M-S   ‘10’
+ R-S    ‘100’
+ Q-S    ‘10,000’
+ Ç-S   ‘100,000,000’
+ Ċ-S    ‘10 QUADRILLION’
+

+
+


+ CLASS 2 ROOTS: intellectual concepts, thought, ideation

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

H-P   ‘FACT/KNOW/LEARN/UNDERSTAND/EXPERTISE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. ontological fact;  observe/notice an ontological fact

1. study/practice [= formal process to acquire skill or knowledge]

2. epistemological/conventionalized fact; know fact

2. realize/understand/comprehension via act of insight

3. experience/proficiency [= know via familiarity]

3. understand [= know via sharing/communication of knowledge]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of knowing

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing known

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or faculty of study/understanding

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the fact itself, the thing studied or understood

+

INFORMAL Stem Derivations:  find out, discover, determine, wisdom
+ FORMAL Stem Derivations:  learn, insight, enlightenment, education, school, scholar, student

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

H-T  - ‘(CRIMINAL) LAW/ADJUDICATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. statute, a particular law

1. act of official law enforcement (enforcement authority + manifested act of enforcement/administration)

2. applicability of a statute, law to a particular situation or geopolitical area, rule of law

2. jurisdiction/applicability of enforcement powers to particular situation or geopolitical area

3. investigate an alleged violation of law; act of criminal investigation

3. try/adjudicate a criminal complaint, go to trial

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. statement (the wording) of a law or statute

1. application of, or compliance with a law or statute

1. authority to enforce law or statute

1. act/manifestion of enforcing/administering law or statute

2. applicability of a statute or law

2. state of being subject to, or required to obey/ comply w/ a statute or law

2. jurisdiction of law enforcement powers

2. state of being subject to the jurisdiction of a law enforcement entity

3. gather material evidence as part of criminal investigation, e.g., questioning of witnesses, viewing of records, inspecting clues and material evidence

3. act by law enforcement for purposes of criminal identification or apprehension, e.g., interrogation or component of sting-type operation, or legal “trap” set up

3. presentation of evidence in support of alleged crime; prosecution

3. formal weighing of evidence by judge or jury

+

Morphological Derivations: code of law, rule of law, rule on an adjudicatory matter, verdict, justice
+ SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  obtaining of warrant/authorization to detain, seizure/detention of suspect, interrogation of suspect, gathering of evidence, arrest, detention in jail cell, indictment, preparation of prosecution, incarceration

+

SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  stake-out/surveillance, reconnaisance, infiltration of mole, component of sting operation, identification of suspect

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K-P   ‘GOOD/BENEFICIAL’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. good [= beneficial to context]

Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to concrete, range-of-moment tangible contexts, whereas INFORMAL stems are applied to general, metaphysical contexts.

2. good [= morally right; beneficial metaphysically]

3. good [= advantageous/effective]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act, event or situation itself

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on desired outcome/reward/benefit

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K-T   ‘QUESTION/INQUIRY/ANSWER/RESPONSE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. question & answer [statement requesting information + the answer/reply/response thereto]

1. inquire/inquiry + answer

2. query/investigate [investigative act + discovery made]

2. research + findings

3. ponder/introspect [self-questioning + conclusion]

3. analyze + results of analysis

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. question [statement requesting information]

1. response/reply/answer [information desired or given]

1. inquire/inquiry

1. answer [i.e., result of inquiry]

2. query

2. answer (to query) [i.e., cause/reason for what is being looked into or investigated]

2. research

2. finding(s)/discovery made via research

3. ponder/introspect; to question oneself mentally

3. conclusion [(desired) result of self-analysis]

3. analyze

3. conclusion/results of analysis

+

Morphological derivations:  problem; solution; solve; resolution; resolve; elucidate

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

L-T   ‘DEITY / SPIRITUAL ENTITY / SUPERNATURAL ENTITY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. (a) spirit / supernatural entity

1. angel

2. deity / god / “overseer” spirit

2. God / Supreme Being / Creator deity

3. demon

3. the Devil / Satan

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

same as above 3 stems referring to male gender

same as above 3 stems referring to female gender

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Q    ‘REMEMBER/RECALL/MEMORY/RECORD’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. memory; remember (= recall) [whether unwilled/affective or self -willed/voluntary]

1. trace/track/vestige

2. retain / retention of something past into present

2. memorial (object/action formally recognizing or acknowledging something/someone past)

3. remember [= commit to memory] / memorize

3. to record / a record

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. a memory itself (i.e., the content thereof)

1. faculty of memory/recall (i.e., the process of using one’s memory)

same as above 3 stems with focus on that which the physical manifestation memorializes or gives evidence/remembrance of

same as above 3 stems with focus on the object/event/physical manifestation itself which conveys the memory or record

2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the content thereof)

2. a memory retained or kept fresh (i.e., the process thereof)

3. thing remembered or memorized [=event/act/situation/state, etc. committed to memory]

3. process of committing something to memory

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  recollect(ion), remind, memorize, memento, monument, archive, commemorate, commemoration, souvenir/keepsake, relic, to bear in mind, ponder/relish a memory, sear into one’s memory

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

PŠ-K     ‘FANTASTIC OR IMAGINARY CREATURE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. fantastic or imaginary creature/beast

1. mythological/symbolic creature/beast

2. winged fantastic creature/beast

2. legendary being/creature/beast, allegedly real

3. reptilian/saurian fantastic creature/beast

3. alien/extraterrestrial being

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body or presence of creature/beast itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to the mind, personality, character, or interaction/communication with the creature/beast

+

SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 1: 
+ SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  5) dragon
+ SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:
+ SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  centaur, sphinx, satyr, unicorn, chimera, Phoenix, Scylla, Pegasus
+ SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  vampyre, werewolf, yeti,

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

R-K   ‘THOUGHT/IDEA/REASON’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. think / cogitate + thought or idea cogitated

1. to reason / use logic + content of reasoning

2. consider + idea considered

2. analyze + object of analysis

3. propose + argument or idea proposed

3. abstract (= to mentally construct) + concept

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. think / cogitate; an act of thinking

1. a thought / an idea

1. to reason / use logic; act of reasoning

1. object of reasoning

2. consider; an act of consideration

2. a thought or idea considered

2. analyze; act of analysis

2. object of analysis

3. propose / posit

3. a proposition or argument

3. to abstract / conceive / conceptualize; act of abstraction or conception

3. concept

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: ponder, deliberate/deliberation, plan, contemplate, theory, hypothesis, deduce/deduction, postulate, infer(ence), judge, conclude/conclusion

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

S-T  ‘MIND’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. mind / mental (faculty + use)

1. sentience / capacity for self awareness and self-identity + act of self-reflection

2. perception / awareness (faculty + use)

2. conscious + subconscious mind

3. instinct (faculty + practice)

3. intellect / wits /mind as efficacious tool

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. mental faculty / mind

1. application of mental faculty; act of mentation / use one’s mind

1. feeling of sentience

1. act of self-reflection

2. faculty of perception or awareness

2. use of perception or awareness; to perceive / be aware of

2. conscious mind

2. subconscious mind

3. instinct

3. instinctual act; to act instinctively

3. intellect; use one’s intellect

3. product of one’s intellect / intellectual feat

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: philosophy, metaphysics

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

ST-K   ‘COMPARISON/MEASUREMENT/WEIGH’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. compare/contrast

1. measure

2. discriminate/distinguish

2. discern

3. “weigh”/ponder choice/pro-con analysis

3. relate/collate/determine relationships between

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on act

Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose or outcome

+

 

+
+


+ CLASS 3 ROOTS: concepts relating to change and causation

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

H-C      ‘WEATHER CONDITION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. (current) weather condition

1. adverse weather condition

2. amenable weather condition (warm seasons)

2. adverse weather condition (warm seasons)

3. amenable weather condition (cold seasons)

3. adverse weather condition (cold seasons)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

Same as above 3 stems referring to condition itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: climate, the weather, clime
+ SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  mild, balmy, sunny, warm, still/calm, gently breezy
+ SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  brisk, cool, clear, still/calm, crisp, light snowfall, drizzle
+ SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2: mugginess, heat, drought, summer rainstorm, summer flood, mud, hurricane/cyclone/typhoon, smog, hot wind
+ SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  fog/mist, cloudy/overcast, wind, rain, snow, blizzard, rainstorm, tornado/twister, flood

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K-C  - ‘BAKE/SOMETHING BAKED’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. bake (something); something baked [method + result]

Same as INFORMAL stems except that context is that of a commercial venture, i.e., food for sale, as in a restaurant or grocery store

2. oven [= environment or primary infrastructure used for baking]

3. baking pan [= primary supporting interface for manipulating the food being baked]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. bake; baking (as a cooking method)

1. food cooked by baking; something baked

2. oven (as primary baking environment)

2. oven (as functional heating/cooking means)

3. baking pan (as supporting interface within the oven)

3. baking pan (as primary accessory/tool needed for manipulating, removing, shaping the baked food)

+

Derivatives:  baked goods, bakery, baker
+ The following roots follow the same model as the above:
+ T-C  roast
+ P-Ċ  toast
+Š-Č  fry
+F-C  griddle
+T-Ċ  smoke
+Ķ-Č  sun-dry
+X-C  sautee
+TL-Ċ  simmer
+T-Č  boil
+S-C  steam
+ŢL-Ċ  parboil
+Č-Č  stew
+R-C  brew
+KL-Ċ  marinade
+Ţ-Č  broil
+L-C  grill
+PL-Ċ  barbecue
+H-Č  poach
+N-C  pressure-cook
+XL-Ċ  slow-cook (e.g., in crockpot, Dutch oven, claypot, Tandoori pot, etc.)
+N-Č  flash-fry
+Ļ-C  sear
+FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing sushi, making a peanut butter sandwich, etc.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

L- Č ‘BINARY REVERSAL / POLARITY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. switch to opposing or complementary value

FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in Sec. 3.7.

2. switch or reverse [linear] direction

3. toggle between active/positive or inactive/negative state

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. set to positive, primary, or initial value

1. set to negative, secondary, or complementary value

2. change current course or direction

2. reverse course or direction

3. active / activate / turn on / render active / on / positive state

3. inactive / deactivate / turn off / render inactive / off / negative state

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

M-C  TOOL/INSTRUMENT

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. tool, instrument, implement as extension of bodily appendage(s) (e.g., as per force, strength, precision, reach, pressure, instrument as labor-saving or efficiency-increasing means etc.)

1. utensil, specialized implement for assisting in refined task

2. tool, instrument as means of “defying nature” (e.g., wheel, wedge, fulcrum, etc.

2. mechanical/motorized/electric/electronic implement/device

3. supply-like resource/implement used by itself or in  association with specific tool (e.g., nail, tack, clothespin, hook)

3. supply-like resource/implement used as fuel or input for mechanical/electrical/electronic implement/device

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

+

Morphological Derivatives:  equipment, gear (collection of associated tools/supplies), apparatus, appliance, paraphernalia, machine
+ SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1: awl, pliers, screwdriver, wrench, pick, shovel/spade, chisel, file, stick/pole/bar
+ SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  wheel, jack, wedge, fulcrum, pulley, sling, lever, gear, spool
+ SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3: nail, tack, clip/fastener, hook, screw, bolt, nut, piece of wire, screwdriver bit/head
+ SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  anvil, fork, spoon, scissors, vice/clamp, plane, saw, tweezers, puncher
+ SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  drill, power saw, engine/motor
+ SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  drill bit,

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

M-Č   ‘SWITCH/ALTERATION BETWEEN MULTI-VALUED SETTINGS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. switch to a different value or setting

Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

2. veer, change course

3. change to a less active or more active setting; increase or decrease intensity or setting

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. switch to higher/greater value or setting

1. switch to lower/lesser value or setting

2. change to more difficult, dangerous, or unpredictable course

2. change to easier, safer, or more predictable course

3. increase to higher/stronger intensity

3. decrease to lower/weaker intensity

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-C   ‘GROWTH/CULTIVATION/HUSBANDRY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. grow; stage of growth

1. stage of plant growth; grow (plant)

2. raise; look after; foster; function as guardian

2. till/cultivate/raise crop; stage of cultivation (e.g., etc.)

3. nurture / provide requirements for growth; husbandry

3. to garden/specialized act of plant nurturage (e.g., prune, graft, weed, etc.)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to (anticipated) result/effect

+

Stems of this root are often used with the MAT suffix
+ SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2:  plow, sow, irrigate, fertilize; hoe, reap, pick, dry, store
+ SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 3:  prune, graft, weed, transplant, thin out
+ Morphological Derivatives:  shepherd, garden, gardener, field (of crop), crop, harvest, plow/plough, hoe, etc.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Č ‘LARGE IMPLEMENT FOR COUNTERING GRAVITY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. ladder [object itself + use]

1. winch/windlass

2. stair

2. expandable boom

3. bridge; span

3. derrick

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

Same as above 3 stems referring to thing itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function/use thereof

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  staircase, stairway

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Q-Č ‘PHYSICAL CONTACT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. physical contact between 2 or more objects [contact + effect]

FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that the context is specific to physical contact by one’s “default” appendage(s) for volitional physical contact, i.e., hands/fingers, beak, snout, tongue, pseudopod, tendril, tentacle, etc.

2. application of physical pressure/force + effect

3. move or set in motion via physical contact + resulting motion

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems but with focus on physical act of contact

same as above 3 stems but with focus on resulting effect/movement

+

EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THESE STEMS: feel, push, stroke, caress, tap, nudge, hit, strike, slap, punch, shove, press, rub, knock over, fall [due to being pushed], injure [via striking], etc.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

X-Č   - WEAPON

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. hand-held or hand-thrown bladed weapon for cutting or stabbing [object + use]

1. ballistically launched projectile [projectile + use]

2. pointed-tipped handheld or propelled weapon for piercing [object + use]

2. explosive/incendiary substance/device [substance/device + use]

3. blunt force-driven hand-held or propelled weapon [object + use]

3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon [substance + use]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. bladed weapon itself

1. use/function of bladed weapon

1. ballistically launched projectile

1. use/function of ballistically launched projectile

2. pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon itself

2. use/function of pointed-tipped handheld or hand thrown weapon

2. explosive/incendiary substance/device

2. use/function of explosive/incendiary substance/device

3. blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon itself

3. use/function of blunt force-driven hand-held or hand-thrown weapon

3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon

3. use/function of gaseous/chemical/other weapon

+

SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1:  1) dagger  2) switchblade  3) axe  4) bayonet  5) sword  6) scimitar
+ SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2:  arrow, lance, spear, javelin, harpoon
+ SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  mace, club, hammer, catapult fodder, shot from slingshot. cudgel
+ SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  bullet, shell, shrapnel, cannonball, shot, rocket, self-propelled missile
+ SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2:  bomb, grenade, plastic explosive, firecracker, dynamite stick
+ SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  gas irritant/poison, poison chemical vapor, liquid irritant/poison, radioactive compound used as weapon

+

NOTE:  In Ithkuil, guns, catapults, slings and all other firearms or devices for shooting/hurling projectiles utilize Degree 1 of the UTE suffix ('tool/implement for doing X'), as it is not the firearm/shooting device that kills but the projectile shot/fired from it. Thus a gun is a "bullet-implementer".  Care must be taken in assigning appropriate noun Cases or verbal Formats to stems associated with ballistic aerial weapons to distinguish the fact that it is the projectile that is the actual "weapon" and not the object it was fired/projected from. This is the good old "shoot bullets" vs. "shoot guns" vs. "shoot bullets from a gun" vs. "shoot him with a gun" vs. "shoot him with bullets from a gun" problem . This which would translate into Ithkuil/Ilaksh as "I bulleted him due to/enabled by a gun" or incorparatively as "I gun-bulleted him" using either the RESULTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him as a result of concurrently gun-activating") or the INSTRUMENTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him by the enabling means of gun-activating").

+
+


+ CLASS 4 ROOTS: concepts relating to the physical attributes of organic + matter

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

C-M  ‘SENSE OF TASTE / THE TASTE OF SOMETHING’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. to taste a taste (taste faculty + flavor tasted)

1. to taste for an anticipated/expected flavor

2. tongue/palate (tissue containing taste buds + taste buds themselves)

2. instrument/device for detecting flavor + flavor detected

3. imagine a taste (act + the flavor imagined)

3. create/manufacture a flavor + flavor created

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. to taste; faculty of taste

1. flavor

1. to taste

1.

2. tongue/palate  (as sensory organs of tasting)

2. taste bud

2. instrument for detecting flavor

2. flavor detected via instrument

3. imagine a taste in one’s mind

3. an imagined taste

3. create/manufacture a flavor

3. flavor created

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  tasty, savory, flavorful
+ SSD Derivatives:  1) bitter 2) chemical-like taste 3)  salty  4) foul/rancid taste 5) sweet  6) sweet & sour  7) sour 8)  hot (= spicy)  9) umami

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

C-Ņ   ‘SPECIALIZED VOLITIONAL BODILY SOUNDS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. non-linguistic sound made by mouth (i.e., tongue, teeth, lips)

1.  consonant

2. non-linguistic sound made from throat or vocal chords

2. vowel

3. sound made by non-oral, non-vocal part of the body

3. phoneme

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to act of producing the sound

Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself

+

SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 1:  1) whistle 2) hum 3) “raspberry” 4) hoot/whoop 5) non-avian animal call 6) bird call 7) scream 8) click-sound (i.e., w/ ingressive airstream) 9) non-phonemic consonantal gibberish sound

+

SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 3:  1) slap 2) rubbing sound 3) footfall (--> stomp) 4) snap of fingers 5) finger tap 6) toe/foot tap 7) suction-based sound (e.g., “armpit fart”) 8) knuckle crack  9) other joint cracking

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ċ-N   ‘IN-LAW/FOSTER RELATIONS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. member of parent/child in-law relationship

1. member of foster family

2. male member of parent/child in-law relationship

2. male member of foster family

3. female member of parent/child in-law relationship

3. female member of foster family

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. parent in-law

1. child in-law

1. foster parent

1. foster child

2. father in-law

2. son in-law

2. foster father

2. foster son

3. mother in-law

3. daughter in-law

3. foster mother

3. foster daughter

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ç-M   ‘LOWER ORDER LIFE FORM’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. lower-order life form (i.e. non-vertebrate)

same as INFORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

2. microbe

3. non-microbial animal

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. bacterium

1. soft-bodied animal (e.g., jellyfish, sponge, slime mold)

2. virus

2. exoskeletal animal (e.g., insect, arthropod, crustacean)

3. protist

3. endoskeletal animal

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ç-Ņ    ‘HEAR(ING)/SOUND’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. hear a sound; aural faculty + sound heard

1. listen to a (specific) sound / discern aurally a (specific) sound

2. ear (aural organ + physical part of body, i.e., Spanish oído + oreja)

2. aural instrument / device for detecting sound waves + sound detected

3. imagine a sound (act + sound)

3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. to hear; aural faculty

1. sound

1. listen

1. (selected) sound

2. ear (aural organ)

2. ear (body part)

2. aural instrument

2. sound detected via aural instrument

3. imagine a sound / hear in one’s mind

3. imagined sound

3. create or manufacture a sound

3. sound created

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: speaker, megaphone, telephone, stereo, microphone, hearing aid

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

F-N  ‘COUSIN’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. cousin [male or female]

1. step-cousin [male or female]

2. male cousin

2. male step-cousin

3. female cousin

3. female step-cousin

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s mother]

1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s father]

1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepmother]

1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepfather]

2. male cousin [related through one’s mother]

2. male cousin [related through one’s father]

2. male cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

2. male cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

3. female cousin [related through one’s mother]

3. female cousin [related through one’s father]

3. female cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

3. female cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

FL-Ņ    ‘TYPES OF HARD OR NON-LIVING BODILY TISSUES’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. tooth

1. head hair

2. fingernail/toenail/claw

2. whisker / facial hair

3. hard growth of skin (e.g., wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar)

3. pubic/armpit hair

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical tissue itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose, or effect/impact

+

mustache, beard, sideburn, bald
+ incisor/fang, bicuspid, molar
+ wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

H-N   ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. nuclear family member

1. non-sanguine family member

2. male family member

2. non-sanguine male family member

3. female family member

3. non-sanguine female family member

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. parent

1. child/offspring

1. step-parent

1. step-child

2. father

2. boy child / son

2. step-father

2. step-son

3. mother

3. girl child / daughter

3. step-mother

3. step-daughter

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

KS-Ņ    ‘COMPONENT OF BODY’S RESPIRATORY/CARDIO-VASCULATORY SYSTEM

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. heart

1. lung

2. vascular component

2. component of respiratory system

3. (an amount of) blood

3. oxygen

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems

Same as above 3 stems

Same as above 3 stems

Same as above 3 stems

+

SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  ventricle, atrium, vein, coronary artery, capillary,
+ SSD Affix with Informal Stem 2:  blood vessel, vein, artery, capillary, aorta, vena cava
+ SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1: bronchus, bronchiolus, alveolar sac
+ SSD Affix with Formal Stem 21:  nasal cavity, trachea

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ķ-Ņ   ‘ABDOMEN/THORAX/TORSO/CHEST’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. thorax/torso [both body part and function]

FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “mid-section” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

2. abdomen/midsection (lower front half of torso) [both body part and function]

3. chest (upper front of torso) [both  body part and function)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

Same as above 3 stems referring to function

+

NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

M-Ņ  ‘CLASSES OF ANIMAL’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. animal of land or air (i.e., “terroid”)

Same as INFORMAL holistic stems but domesticated, tamed, captive, or bred

2. waterlife (i.e., “aquoid”)

3. amphibian

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems but domesticable

same as above 3 stems but undomesticable

same as above FORMAL stems but as pets or tamed

same as above FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, breeding stock, etc.)

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K-N   ‘GENDER’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. gender

1. psycho-sexual identity

2. neuter

2. asexual / psychologically neuter

3. androgynous

3. sexual preference/orientation

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. male (anatomically)

1. female (anatomically)

1. masculine (psycho-behaviorally)

1. feminine (psycho-behaviorally)

2. sterile (incapable of procreation)

2. genderless (neither male nor female anatomically)

2. celibate/chaste

2. asexual; devoid of sexual desire

3. androgyne / androgynous (difficultyfor others to determine gender)

3. hermophrodite / hermophroditic (anatomically both male & female)

3. sexual preference or orientation psychologically

3. sexual orientation in actuality (as manifested)

+

SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  homosexual, bisexual, heterosexual, bisexual with preference for heterosexuality, bisexual with preference for homosexuality, homosexual with preference for functioning in male role, homosexual with preference for functioning in female role

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

KL-Ņ    ‘BODILY JOINT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. bodily joint (physical joint + function); to flex joint

1. specialized bodily joint/juncture

2. ball & socket-type bodily joint

2. vertebra

3. standard-type joint

3. wrist/ankle/waist (lateral circular joint type)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to external hard or knob-like external body part

Same as above 3 stems referring to internal joint and its function/process

Same as above 3 stems referring to external hard or knob-like external body part

Same as above 3 stems referring to internal joint and its function/process

+

hip/flex hip, shoulder, flex shoulder
+ finger joint, toe joint, knee, elbow
+ spinal column; flex spine
+ wrist, ankle waist

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

KŞ-Ņ    ‘NECK’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. neck (as gestalt entity) [body part + function]

FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “neck” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

2. neck (as bodily support/swivel point for head) [body part + function

3. neck (as narrowest, most vulnerable body part) [body part + function]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. neck as physical body part

1. neck as functional body part

2. neck as bodily support/swivel point for head

2. neck as functional support/swivel point for head

3. neck as physically narrowest, most vulnerable body part)

3. neck as functionally narrowest, most vulnerable body part

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  nape, throat (i.e., front part of neck)

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

L-M  ‘SIBLING’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. sibling

1. step-sibling

2. brother

2. step-brother

3. sister

3. step-sister

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. half-sibling [shared mother]

1. half-sibling [shared father]

1. step-sibling [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

1. step-sibling [stepfather is father of other sibling]

2. half-brother [shared mother]

2. half-brother [shared father]

2. step-brother [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

2. step-brother [stepfather is father of other sibling]

3. half-sister [shared mother]

3. half-sister [shared father]

3. step-sister [stepmother is mother of other sibling]

3. step-sister [stepfather is father of other sibling]

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

L-N   ‘CLASSES OF WATERLIFE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. skeletal/vertebral waterlife form

Same as INFORMAL holistic stems referring to tamed, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

2. exoskeletal/arthropod form

3. soft-bodied waterlife form

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. jellyfish-like lifeform

1. gilled/finned fish

Same INFORMAL complementary stems referring to tamed, pet, domesticated, bred, etc. individual

2. crustacean

2. “non-standard”-shaped fish (e.g., ray, eel, squid, octopus, etc.)

3. shellfish

3. sea mammal (e.g., whale, seal, walrus, etc.)

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  fisherman, whale hunter, aquarium, fishery, fish hatchery

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ļ-Ņ     ‘CLASSES OF LAND/AIR ANIMAL’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. mammal

Same as INFORMAL stems referring to domesticated, tamed, bred, pet, etc. individual

2. non-mammalian, non-avian, non-reptilian animal, i.e.,  insect/arthropod/arachnid/worm/mollusk

3. avian or reptilian lifeform

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. insect

1. mollusc

2. worm

2. bird

3. arthropod/arachnid

3. reptile

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

M-L   ‘TRAGICOMIC-BASED VOCAL/FACIAL GESTURE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. mouth gesture

Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) gestures/vocalizations (INFORMAL stems are affective/non-volitional)

2. vocalization

3. facial expression

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. smile

1. frown

2. laugh

2. whine, moan

3. “light up” (referring to one’s face’)

3. crestfallen look, look of dejection

+

SSD DERIVATIONS:  scowl

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

N-N   ‘FOOD PLANT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. plant grown/harvested/cultured as food source

1. food dish/serving derived from plant

2. vegetable

2. food dish/serving derived from vegetable

3. fruit

3. food dish/serving derived from fruit

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to plant itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to edible part of plant or plant in edible condition following any necessary processing

Same as above 3 stems referring to serving/dish itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to consumption/ingestion  of the dish

+

SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL stems:  stem, leaf, seed/nut, pod/fruit, flower, juice, sap, rhizome, root/tuber
+ SSD Derivatives for FORMAL stems:  soup, stew, salad, sauteed, deep-fried, boiled, steamed, baked, fancy/other style of preparation

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-M   ‘SMELL/ODOR’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. to smell (= use olfactory sense) + odor smelled

1. examine or inspect via smelling + odor smelled

2. nose (olfactory organ + facial proboscis)

2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument + odor detected

3. imagine a smell (act + imagined odor)

3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. to smell (= use olfactory sense)

1. an odor, a smell; to give off an odor

1. examine or inspect via smelling

1. odor detected via inspection or examination

2. nose (= olfactory organ)

2. nose (= facial proboscis)

2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument

2. odor detected via olfactory instrument

3. imagine an odor

3. an imagined odor

3. create or manufacture an odor

3. manufactured odor

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sniff, aroma, “bouquet”, perfume, stench

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Ņ   ‘STATE OF HEALTH/ILLNESS/WELL-BEING’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. state of physical health / physical well-being

1. state of mental health / mental well-being

2. physical illness; sick(ness)

2. mental illness

3. physical injury/wound/lesion/trauma

3. mental trauma

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effect

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause

+

SSD affix used with Stem 2 of both INFORMAL and FORMAL stem in conjunction w/ the AGC2/7 affix give:  1) nurse 2) emergency technician 3) therapist 4) caregiver 5) doctor 6) surgeon 7) healer 8) “medicine man” 9) medical assistant
+ Derivations:  madness, craziness, insanity

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

PL-Ņ    ‘THROAT (interior tract of neck)/GULLET’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. throat (= interior respiratory/digestive tract of neck)

FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “throat/gullet” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

2. gullet (= tube- or trumpet-shaped digestive conduit from oral cavity)

3. interior chamber of throat (containing pharynx, larynx, plus epiglottal and glottal structures)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

Same as above 3 stems referring to function

+

SSD derivatives:  pharynx, larynx, syrinx, epiglottis, glottis, trachea/windpipe, vocal fold/chord, hyoid bone / “Adam’s apple”

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

PS-Ņ    ‘GASTRO-INTESTINAL/UROLOGICAL COMPONENT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. gastrointestinal component (body part + function)

1. urological component (body part + function)

2. gastrointestinal process / digestive process / digest(ion) (physical process + nutritive function

2. urological process (physical process + waste elimination function)

3. (amount/piece of) feces, dung, excrement

3. (an amount of) urine, piss, pee

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part/process  itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  gastrointestinal tract
+ SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1:  esophagus, stomach, guts/viscera/intestine, jejenum, ilium, colon, rectum, small intestine/bowel, anus
+ SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  kidney, ureter, adrenal gland, bladder, urethra

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

PŞ-Ņ    ‘PREGNANCY/GESTATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. pregnancy/gestation

Same as INFORMAL stems but referring exclusively to human pregnancy/gestation

2. manifestation of morning sickness

3. contraction during labor

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical condition/state
+  

Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

+

Morphological Derivatives:  conception, labor, birth/delivery

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Q-M   ‘HIGHER ORDER ANIMAL LIFE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. higher order being (i.e., large bilateral vertebrate with discrete organs)

1. authorized or officially designated person or animal/beast

2. human, person

2. official, authorized person

3. non-human higher order being or animal, beast

3. pet or zoo animal/beast

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. male higher order being

1. female higher order being

1. authorized male animal/ or officially designated man or beast

1. authorized or officially designated woman or female animal/ beast

2. human male, man

2. human female, woman

2. official, authorized man

2. official, authorized woman

3. male higher order animal or beast

3. female higher order animal or beast

3. male pet or zoo animal/beast

3. female pet or zoo animal/beast

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: boy, girl, child [developmentally, not as offspring], population, group of people, crowd, mob, assembly, people, masses, elder, crone, adult, youth, adulthood, fetus, adolescent, zoo
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

R-N  DÈ-  ‘HAND’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. hand (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “hand” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

2. hand (as holder, grasper, striker) [both physical body part and function]; to grasp-->hold

3. leg (as manipulator, handler, feeler) [both physical body part and function]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. hand as physical body part

1. function of hand as “feeler”- focuser of body’s tactile sense

2. hand as main tool of body

2. function of hand as holder/grasper

3. hand as limb/extension

3. function of hand as manipulator/handler

+

SSD derivatives:  1) fist 2) palm 3) knuckle 4) hand as flat “blade”, e.g., for karate chop 5) finger 6) thumb 7) “butt” of hand [=lower part of palm] 8) fingernail  9) bottom side of fist [as when pounding fist onto table; for individual fingers, use following affixes + SSD/5 for ‘finger’:  index = “main finger” or “first finger”, middle finger = “mid-finger” or “long finger” or “2nd finger”, ring finger = “3rd finger”, pinkie = 4th finger or small(est) finger

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

R-Ņ    ‘COLLATERAL FAMILY MEMBER/RELATIVE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. paternal collateral relative

1. maternal collateral relative

2. paternal male collateral relative

2. maternal male collateral relative

3. paternal female collateral relative

3. maternal female collateral relative

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. paternal aunt/uncle

1. paternal aunt/uncle

1. maternal nephew/neice

1. maternal aunt/uncle

2. paternal uncle

2. paternal uncle

2. maternal nephew

2. maternal uncle

3. paternal aunt

3. paternal aunt

3. maternal neice

3. maternal aunt

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

R-M  ‘NUTRITION / NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. food and drink; to eat and drink

1. eat a serving of food or drink; to dine

2. food; to eat

2. prepared/cooked food; to eat prepared food

3. drink (i.e., substance drunk); to drink

3. processed drink or spirits; to drink processed drink or spirits

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. eat and drink as biological process

1. food and drink (substances consumed)

same as abvoe 3 stems but with focus on the process of consumption

same as above 3 stems but with focus on the items consumed

2. eat/ingest/consume

2. item of solid food

3. drink/imbibe

3. liquid (to be) drunk

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: cooking, meal, repast, feast, become drunk, gorge(d); chef, cook, brewer

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ŗ-N    ‘CLASSES OF MAMMAL’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. marsupial

Same as INFORMAL stems referring to tamed, domesticated, pet, bred, etc. individual

2. egg-laying mammal, ovoviviparous mammal

3. placental mammal

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to male

Same as above 3 stems referring to female

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Ŗ-Ņ   - ‘INFIRMITY/PHYSICAL DISABILITY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. general weakness/infirmity (e.g., age-related or illness-related)

1. acute infirmity, attack, flare-up

2. specific physical disability or abnormality; disabled

2. injury; injure(d)

3. lame, crippled, handicapped, impaired (permanently or chronically)

3. impaired; decreased mobility (temporary)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

S-M    ‘LEG’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. leg (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

2. leg (as support) [both physical body part and function]

3. leg (as ambulator, extension, limb) [both physical body part and function]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. leg as physical body part

1. leg as manipulating body part (e.g., for kicking, stomping)

2. leg as or balancing appendage for body

2. leg as support against gravity

3. leg as limb/extension

3. leg as ambulatory organ

+

SIMILAR PATTERNS EXIST FOR:
+ Ņ-N  ‘TAIL’
+ K-Ņ   ‘FOOT’ -->   SSD Derivatives:  heel, ball of foot, upper side of foot, arch, plantar fascia, achilles tendon

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

S-N  ‘PLANT TYPES’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. branched/leaved plant including its fruit or flower

same as FORMAL stems but as resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.)

2. grass-like or stalked plant including its seed or grain

3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold including its spore or cyst

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. branched/leaved plant

1. flower, fruit, or blossom of branched/leaved plant

2. grass-like or stalked plant

2. seed, grain, or kernel of grass-like or stalked plant

3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold

3. spore or cyst of moss-like or fungal plant or mold

+

SSD for Stem 2:  1) grass  2) ground-covering plant 3) clover  4) weed 5) wildgrass
+ SSD for Stem 3:  1) lichen  2)  mushroom  3)  mold  4)  slime mold 5) moss  6) non-mushroom fungus

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

S-Ņ     ‘RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act + sound]

FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act + sound]

3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act + sound]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act]

1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [sound]

2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act]

2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [sound]

3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act]

3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [sound]

+

Morphological derivations:  clear throat, harrumph, hacking cough, cough up

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

SX-M   ‘MOUTH/ORAL’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. mouth [= oral orifice]

Same as INFORMAL Stems but for non-animal entity or figuratively

2. lip [use of DPX = lips]

3. interior of mouth/oral cavity

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on bodily location/physical aspect

Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on purpose, use, function

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ş-Ņ    ‘BODY PART’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. body part/component  (e.g., appendage, section, organ, gland, tissue, fluid, etc.)

1. bodily tissue/flesh/sinew

2. bodily organ

2. secondary organ/gland

3. bone

3. bodily fluid/secretion

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  body, corpse
+ SSD Affix with Informal Stem 3:  1) spine 2) rib 3) skull 4) limb bone (tibia, femur, ulna, etc.) 5) bone of hand/foot  6) “shield” bone (e.g., patella, shoulder blade) 7) hipbone
+ SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  1) membrane 2) tendon 3) ligament 4) nerve 5) muscle 6) skin/integument 7) sphincter/valve 8)  marrow 9) fat/gristle
+ SSD Affix with Formal Stem 2:  1) gonad 2) esophagus 3) adrenal gland 4) bowel/intestine 5) brain 6) lung 7) kidney 8) pancreas 9) liver
+ SSD Affix with Formal Stem 3:  1) tear  2) bile 3) semen 4) pus 5) blood 6) mucus/mucal secretion 7) saliva 8) lymph  9) sweat/perspiration

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Š-N   ‘NON-SANGUINE RELATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. member of godparent-godchild relationship

1. adoptive family member

2. male member of godparent-godchild relationship

2. male adoptive family member

3. female member of godparent-godchild relationship

3. female adoptive family member

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. godparent

1. godchild

1. adoptive parent

1. adopted child

2. godfather

2. godson

2. adoptive father

2. adopted son

3. godmother

3. goddaughter

3. adoptive mother

3. adopted daughter

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Š-Ņ    ‘SOIL/GROUND/DIRT (MIXED ORGANIC + MINERAL)’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. dirt/ground/soil [=substance + function as substrate/firmament]

1. peat

2. mud

2. dirt(y)/filth(y) [= soiled, unclean]

3. ground cover [organic-based, e.g., carpet of leaves]

3. mulch/compost/fertilizer

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

same as above 3 stems referring to substance itself

same as above 3 stems referring to function as substrate/firmament

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-M  ‘BREATHE/RESPIRATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. respire/inhale or exhale; a breath

1. inflate (w/ air)

2. yawn

2. blow (passage of air under pressure through narrow opening)

3. pump (by air)

3. suck/suckle/siphon

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to gaseous compound itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to effect/impact

Same as above 3 stems

Same as above 3 stems

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  breathe, pant, gasp, suffocate, suffocation, asphyxiate, asphyxiation, drown

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-N   ‘ALIVE/LIVING THING/LIVING BEING’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. living thing; be alive / to live

1. domesticated or civilized being

2. [wild] animal (all orders)

2. domesticated animal

3. [wild] plant (all orders)

3. cultivated plant

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. male being

1. female being

1. domesticated or civilized male being

1. domesticated or civilized female being

2. male [wild] animal

2. female [wild] animal

2. male [domesticated] animal

2. female [domesticated] animal

3. male [wild] plant

3. female [wild] plant

3. male [cultivated] plant

3. female [cultivated] plant

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: life, vegetation, flora, fauna, wildlife; farm, farmer, breeder, livestock

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-Ņ    ‘PLEASURE- or PAIN-BASED VOCALIZATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. sigh (affective/non-volitional)

Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) vocalizations

2. squeal/groan/moan (affective/non-volitional)

3. gasp (affective/non-volitional)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental  pleasure or satisfaction

Same as above 3 stems as triggered by physical or mental distress, pain, torment, or dissatisfaction

+

SSD DERIVATIONS:  cry, sob, howl, whimper, murmur
+ OTHER MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  weep

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

TL-Ņ    ‘COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. component of CNS

1. brain

2. CNS- eurological process

2. spinal cord

3. component of peripheral nervous system

3. nerve

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems

Same as above 3 stems

Same as above 3 stems

Same as above 3 stems

+

sympathetic nerve, parasympathetic nerve, vegus nerve
+ neuron, neuron firing, synapse, synaptic uptake, axon, dendrite, glial cell, blood-brain barrier

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ţ-N   ‘HEAD’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. head (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

2. head (as seat of brain/mind) [both body part and function]

3. head (as entity’s primary “interface” area of body)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. head as physical body part

1. head as functional body part

2. head as physical seat of brain/mind

2. head as functional seat of brain/mind

3. head as “top” or “forward” part or “access” point

3. head as vital seat of identity

+

SSD Derivatives = parts of head 1) cheek  2) chin  3) upper lip [plane between mouth and nose] 4) forehead 5) temple 6) crown of head 6) occipital area [back of head] 7) socket area around eye 8) upper part of back of head 9) cheekbone

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

ŢL-Ņ    ‘MISCELLANEOUS BODY PARTS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. buttock

1. haunch

2. breast/teat

2. snout/proboscis

3. navel

3. fin

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to function, purpose or impact/effect

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

X-M   ‘ARM’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. arm (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

2. arm (as holder, support, carrier) [both body part and function]

3. arm (as protective extension of body) [both body part and function]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. arm as single body part

1. arm as reacher or manipulator

2. arm as limb (focus on part/whole relation to body)

2. arm as holder/carrier

3. arm as extension of body

3. arm as natural protective/defensive implement of body

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

X-N   ‘VISION/SIGHT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. to sight (see + thing seen); sight

1. observe / visually examine + thing seen

2. eye (functional organ + visible facial feature)

2. optical instrument + image

3. visualize / imagine / picture a visual image in one’s mind + image

3. create image / render an image

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. see

1. a sight / image; to project an image

1. visually examine / observe

1. thing observed / visual evidence

2. eye (functional organ)

2. eye (visible facial feature)

2. optical instrument

2. thing observed via optical instrument

3. visualize / envision; act of visualization

3. an image / a vision (in one’s mind)

3. create image

3. image created

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: look (at), view, glimpse, glance, ogle, gawk, stare, spy, espy, peep, voyeur, panorama, scrutinize (visually), camera, telescope, microscope, binoculars, magnifying glass, lens, glasses

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

X-Ņ    ‘BACK/DORSAL AREA OF BODY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to the dorsal area of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

2. lower back/dorsal area (both body part and function)

3. upper back & shoulder blade area

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body part

Same as above 3 stems referring to function

+

NOTE:  Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

XL-M   ‘SENSE/SENSATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. sense/sensation, “feel” / “feeling” [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]

1. examine via the senses [both act and result/outcome]

2. sensor / sensory organ [function + sensor itself]

2. sensor(y) device/instrument [both use and device itself]

3. imagine a sensation or feeling / imagined sensation or feeling [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]

3. create/induce a sensory experience [both act and result/outcome]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. to sense / act of sensing

1. a sensation, a feeling

1. examine via the senses [the act thereof]

1. resulting evidence of senses

2. sense faculty/ability

2. sensor(y) organ

2. sensor(y) device/instrument [the use thereof]

2. sensor(y) device or instrument [the device/instrument itself]

3. imagine a sensation/feeling

3. a mentally imagined sensation

3. create a sensory experience or feeling [the act thereof]

3. sensation/feeling as externally created/induced

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

XL-Ņ    ‘DEGREE OF BODILY SLENDERNESS/FATNESS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. degree of slenderness/fatness

same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

2. decrease in degree of slenderness/fatness; lose weight; become thin(ner); slenderize

3. increase in degree of slenderness/fatness; gain weight; become fat(ter); fatten up

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring specifically to physical size/girth/volume

Same as above 3 stems referring to psycho-physiological effect/impact

+

The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
+ MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  skinny, rail-thin, obese, plump

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

x + cedilla-M  - ‘DISEASE/DISORDER/MALADY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. chronic systemic illness/condition/ailment; to suffer from

1. acute abnormal/unhealthy condition/illness/malady/ailment; “come down with”

2. chronic illness/condition/ailment – infectious in origin; to suffer from a chronic infectious illness

2. infection; infect(ed), to “catch” a disease

3.  chronic illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

3. acute illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on underlying condition itself

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical effect, impact, symptoms, manifestation

+

The following roots follow the same pattern as the above:
+ PS-M  neurological
+ PL-M  neuro-muscular/myalgic disorder 
+ PŞ-M  cardio-vascular disorder 
+ KL-M peripheral nervous system disorder
+ KŠ-M  pulmonary disorder
+ KŞ-M  non-malignant tumorous/neoplastic disorder; non-cancerous growth 
+ŠL-N  malignant tumorous /neoplastic disorder; cancer  SSD derivatives:
+TL-M  genetic disorder 
+ŢL-M  musculo-skeletal disorder 
+ŠL-M  lower gastro-intestinal disorder; bowel problem 
+PŠ-M  upper gastric disorder; throat/mouth disorder 
+SL-N  mid gastric disorder; stomach/esophagal disorder 
+KS-N  ocular/eye disorder 
+PS-N  nasal disorder 
+PŠ-N  mid/inner ear disorder; hearing problem 
+PŞ-N  topical skin disorder 
+KL-N invasive skin disorder 
+KŠ-N auto-immune condition 
+KŞ-N blood/hematological disorder 
+PL-N  glandular/endocrine disorder 
+TL-N  liver disorder  — SSD derivatives:
+ŢL-N  cellular/metabolic disorder — SSD derivative: 1) diabetes (Type 2 only)
+XL-N  inflammatory disorder
+ SL-M degenerative tissue disorder
+ FL-N physical brain disorder (i.e., discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives:  general dementia, multi-infarct dementia, stroke
+ŞL- M  mental disorder (i.e., no discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives:  1) schizo-affective 2) sociopathic condition 3) schizophrenia 4) personality disorder 5) depression 6) dissociative disorder 7) manic condition, mania 8) unknown disorder 9) bipolar condition
+ŞL- N  spinal condition or disorder
+FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

x + cedilla-Ņ    ‘GASTRONOMIC PAROXYSM’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act + sound]

FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that the act/sound is deliberate (i.e., volitional)

2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act + sound]

3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act + sound]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act]

1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [sound]

2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act]

2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [sound]

3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act]

3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [sound]

+

 

+
+


+ CLASS 5 ROOTS: concepts relating to communication, learning and language

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K-L   ‘SPEAK/VOICE/ORAL SOUND/INTERPRETATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. vocal utterance / oral sound; utter

1. meaning or interpretation of vocal utterance; to mean or signify

2. talk / speak / spoken utterance [parole]

2. meaning or interpretation of word; to mean or signify

3. rhetorical utterance / express [langue]

3. meaning or interpretation of sentence or phrase; to mean or signify

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to physical production of sound

same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

same as above 3 stems referring to objective meaning, signification or denotation

same as above 3 stems referring to subjective interpretation, connotation or “impact”

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: voice, (a) language, linguistic(s), yell, shout, cry, bark/meow/bleat/neigh, etc., [vocal] message, account, recount, story, tell, eloquence, glib(ness), smooth-talk, rhetoric, speech, dialect, slang

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

KŠ-L   ‘FOOL/CLOWN’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. fool(ish); dupe

1. town fool, village idiot

2. buffoon, laughingstock

2. clown

3. nerd, dweeb

3. jester

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems in non-serious context of “in fun” or “for laughs”

Same as above 3 stems in poignant, sorrowful, pathetic context

Same as above 3 stems in context of entertainment

Same as above 3 stems in context of parody or as a foil for society

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ķ-R  - ‘DESCRIPTION/ACCOUNT/STORY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. description/account; to describe, to informally communicate an account of something [process + contents]

1. narrative story; communicate a story [process + contents]

2. relate/report/recount = communication from memory or observations [process + contents]

2. recitation; recite (=communicate/describe from record or based on memorization) [process + contents]

3. historical narrative / historical account [work itself + contents]

3. fictional narrative / fictional story [work itself + contents]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to the process of describing/communi-cating

same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

same as above 3 stems referring to the process of describing/communi-cating

same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-L  - ‘SIGN/MARK/SYMBOL/VISUAL MEANS OF INDICATION/REPRESENTATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. sign, signal, gesture, indication (= general indication, not 2-D planar surface bearing graphic/written communication)

1. mark, token, single graphic representation

2. track, print, trail (=naturally produced bodily trace)

2. symbol, emblem, device, insignia

3. identifying characteristic or trait

3. formal representation

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to the indicator/sign itself

same as above 3 stems referring to content/meaning thereof

same as above 3 stems referring to the indicator/sign itself

same as above 3 stems referring to content/meaning thereof

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-L   ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/DOCUMENT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. inscribe [= make written symbol]; written symbol

1. written record / thing containing writing

2. write message; written content

2. document

3. “write” [= compose via writing] / to author

3. a writing / a written work

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to physical act of inscription

same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

ame as above 3 stems referring to the physical document

same as above 3 stems referring to the content

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: book, treatise, manuscript, author, archive

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-R   ‘NAME/DESIGNATION/TITLE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. name + referent; to be named, to be called

1. title + referent

2. designation/reference + referent; refer to as

2. formal designation + referent

3. label / nickname + referent; to go by

3. role

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the reference

Same as above 3 stems but with focus on the referent

+

 

+
+


+ CLASS 6 ROOTS: concepts relating to the physical attributes of matter + in general

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

H-Ġ ‘GAS / FLUME’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. cloud/flume of gas/vapor + gas/vapor itself

1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or liquid state

2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance + the derived gas itself

2. thing/object composed of gas + its function/purpose

3. source of a gas

3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a gaseous state

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. cloud/flume of a gas or vapor

1. gas/vapor itself

1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance

2. the derived gas itself

2. thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

2. function/purpose of thing created, molded or manufactured from a gas

3.  natural source of a gas

3.  derived or artificially created source of gas

3. gaseous/vapor state

3. semi-gaseous state (combination or gaseous + non-gaseous state, e.g., as w/ CO2 vapor rising from dry ice)

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

L-B  DIMENSIONAL/SPATIO-TEMPORAL RELATIONS

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. degree of (static) dimensional property (e.g., short/long)

same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to an applied contextual gestalt (e.g., the vicinity, the depths, the expanse, the interregnum, the surroundings, the perimeter, etc.)

2. dynamic decrease in degree of dimensional property (e.g., shorten/ing)

3. dynamic increase in degree of dimensional property (e.g., lengthen/ing)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems applied to spatial context

same as above 3 stems applied to temporal context

+

The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
+ THE PATTERN FOR THIS ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
+ T-B    ‘PROXIMITY/DISTANCE’
+ K-B    ‘LENGTH’
+ Ķ-B    ‘WIDTH (= “SLENDERNESS”)’
+ Q-B    ‘GIRTH (= 2-DIMENSIONAL X-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
+ P-B    ‘AMPLITUDE (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Z-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
+ C-B    ‘ “REACH” (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Y-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
+ Č-B    ‘DEPTH’
+ Ċ-B    ‘INTERVAL/GAP’
+ Ç-B    ‘VOLUME (= 3-DIMENSIONAL SIZE)’
+ Ņ-B    ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF A POINT’
+ M-B    ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF AN EDGE’
+ ST-B    ‘SPEED/VELOCITY/ACCELERATION’
+ Ŗ-B    ‘HEIGHT (= “TALLNESS” – RELATTIVE TO GRAVITY)
+ H-B    ‘FLATNESS/LEVELNESS (RELATIVE TO GRAVITY)’
+ KS-B    ‘PERIPHERY/CIRCLE/RING’
+ PL-B    ‘CONVEXITY/ROTUNDITY’
+ KŢ-B    CONCAVITY/DEPRESSION
+ S-B     ‘PERPENDICULARITY/UPRIGHTNESS’
+ Š-B     ‘PLANARITY/FLATNESS RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
+ Ş-B    ‘STRAIGHTNESS/LINEARITY RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
+ x + cedilla-B    ‘SPHERICALNESS/ROUNDNESS’
+ KL-B    ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-SURFACED IN PLANAR CONTEXT)’
+ TL-B     ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-EDGED IN LINEAR CONTEXT)’
+ XL-B    ‘RECTILINEAR/POLYHEDRAL/STRAIGHT-ANGLED’
+ Ļ-B    ‘ELASTICITY / STRETCH CAPACITY’

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: big/large, small/little, shrink, expand, grow, diminish, huge, immense, tiny, enormous, shallow

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

SX-B  ‘QUALITY OR PROPERTY OF MATTER’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. degree of quality/property of matter

same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm

2. decrease in degree of quality/property of matter

3. increase in degree of quality/property of matter

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

+

The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
+ PS-B      ‘THICKNESS (= VISCOSITY/RUNNINESS)
+ KŠ-B      ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
+ SL-B      ‘SOLIDITY/HOLLOWNESS (= PERMEABILITY)’
+ SP-B      ‘DURABILITY/FRAGILITY’ (= CAPACITY FOR BEING DAMAGED)
+ SŢ-B      ‘RESILIENCE/DELICATENESS’ (= CAPACITY FOR RECOVERY)
+ ŢL-B      ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
+ PŠ-B      ‘SMOOTHNESS/ROUGHNESS (= TACTILE COARSENESS)
+ FL-B      ‘FULLNESS/EMPTINESS’
+ Ţ-B    ‘FLEXIBILITY/RIGIDITY’
+ X-B    ‘HARD/SOFT (= MALLEABILITY)’
+ F-B    ‘TIGHTNESS/SLACK’ (= TAUTNESS)
+ R-B     ‘WEIGHT/MASS’

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

PL-D   ‘COLOR/HUE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. something having a color plus the color

same as INFORMAL stems but tinted/painted/stained, etc. to have other than its natural color

2. something light-colored plus the color

3. something dark-colored plus the color

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. something having a color

1. a color

2. something having a light color

2. a light color

3. something having a dark color

3. a dark color

+

NOTE: This stem patterns for the above root are a template for all other roots donating a specific color. The following root K-D ‘RED’ provides an example.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K-D   ‘RED’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. something red plus the color red

same as INFORMAL stems but referring to something tinted/painted/stained red

2. something light-red plus the color light-red

3. something dark-red plus the color light-red

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. something red

1. red

2. something light red

2. light red

3. something dark red

3. dark red

+

SIMILARLY: T-D  ‘BLUE’, N-D   ‘GREEN’, H-D  ‘YELLOW’, Q-D   ‘ORANGE’, L-D  ‘SKY BLUE’, F-D  ‘PINK’, Ç-D  ‘PURPLE’, R-D   ‘OCHRE’, Ķ-D  ‘ECRU’, Ţ-D  ‘BEIGE/TAN’, Ņ-D   ‘PEACH’, Ļ-D   ‘MAUVE’, Ŗ-D  ‘LAVENDER’, C-D   ‘BURGUNDY’, Ş-D   ‘TEAL’, x + cedilla-D   ‘TURQUOISE’, Š-D   ‘AQUAMARINE’, Č-D  ‘BROWN’, X-D   ‘WHITE’, M-D  ‘BLACK’, S-D  ‘GRAY’, P-D    ‘YELLOW-GREEN’, Ċ-D   ‘MAROON’
+ The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions for all color-stems: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

XL-D   ‘WATER AS SUBSTANCE AND TOOL’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. (some) water; (be/make) wet / moist(en)

1. (some) water as component of life

2. (some) water in context of usage [both substance and use]

2. (some) water as nourishment; to consume/drink water

3. ice

3. (some) water as biological environment or medium

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. (some) water [substance itself]

1. degree of moisture [from water]

1. (some) water of one’s corporeal body

1. hydration; hydrate

2. water as “tool” (e.g., for washing, for powering a turbine, etc.)

2. wash, clean [with water]

2. act of drinking water; to drink water

2. to water (e.g., plants)

3. ice / freeze

3. float

3. (some) water from a natural environmental setting

3. to inhabit water / live in water / water-dwelling

+

EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THIS STEM: bathe, lave, submerge, sink, dunk, immerse, dry, drench(ed), irrigate, swim, the sea (as environment); dehydrate; thirst; freeze

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

KL-D   ‘WATER IN NATURAL MOTION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. a flow of water / to flow or run

1. river / to flow as a river / to run as a river

2. sprinkle / shower; to sprinkle or shower upon

2. rain(fall); to rain

3. cascade / pour [= free falling of water]

3. waterfall

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. water component of a flow of water

1. channel or course of a flow of water

1. water component of a river

1. channel or course of a river

2. water component of a sprinkle/shower

2. trajectory or course of a sprinkle/shower

2. water component of rain

2. “path” or course of a rain shower

3. water component of a cascade or pouring of water

3. trajectory or course of a pouring of water

3. water component of a waterfall

3. channel or “groove” of a waterfall

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: flood, downpour, to rain “cats and dogs”, brook, stream, rivulet, arroyo, floodplain

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

TL-D   ‘WATER IN STATIC SETTING’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. container of water

1. (standing) body of water

2. water/moisture located in confined space

2. ambient/atmospheric water/moisture

3. (something) imbued/drenched with water; waterlogged

3. artificial body of water (e.g., reservoir)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. some water in/from a container

1. holder/container which holds water

1. water component of a body of water

1. the basin or bed of a body of water

2. degree of moisture contained

2. the volume/space occupied by water/moisture

2. water/moisture in the air or atmosphere

2. volume of air(space) containing the water or moisture

3. the water imbued within an object, substance, or substrate

3. the object, substance or substrate imbued/soaked with water

3. water within an artificial body of water

3. the basis or bed of an artificial body of water, e.g., reservoir bed

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  lake, pool, pond, tern, tank, sink, canteen, cistern, puddle, sea, ocean, water vapor

+

NOTE:  The above three roots associated with water, XL-D, KL-D and TL-D, form the patterns for three parallel roots referring to any liquid other than water:   SL-D,  PŢ-D and  PS-D, respectively.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

M-G  ‘HORIZONTAL SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. “ground”/firmament

1. floor

2. table-like horizontal flat object / slab

2. table

3. shelf-like flat object

3. shelf

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

same as above 3 stems referring to physical gestalt/shape/form

same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose as functional supporting surface against gravity

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

L-G    ‘ARTICLE OF CLOTHING’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. piece of clothing as covering or fashion; to wear such

1. piece of clothing as part of uniform or costume; to wear such

2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker or indicator of station; to wear such

2. part of uniform or costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

3. piece of clothing as ornament or accessory; to wear such

3. part of uniform or costume as ornament; to wear such

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. piece of clothing as covering; to wear such

1. piece of clothing as fashion; to wear such

1. part of uniform as covering; to wear such

1. part of costume as covering; to wear such

2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker; to wear such

2. piece of clothing as indicator of station; to wear such

2. part of uniform as indicator of station/job; to wear such

2. part of costume as indicator of station/job; to wear such

3. piece of clothing as ornament; to wear such

3. piece of clothing as accessory; to wear such

3. part of uniform as ornament; to wear such

3. part of costume as ornament; to wear such

+

THE STEM PATTERN OF THIS ROOT APPLIES TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
+ P-G    ‘SHIRT/BLOUSE’
+ T-G     ‘PANTS’
+ Č-G   ‘COAT/JACKET’
+ Ķ-G    ‘GLOVE’
+ Q-G    ‘SCARF’
+ S-G   ‘HAT’
+ Š-G    ‘FOOTWEAR’
+ K-G    ‘LEGGING/SOCK’
+ Ç-G   ‘BELT’
+ X-G   ‘APRON’
+ PL-G   ‘COLLAR’
+ TL-G   ‘NECKTIE/CRAVATTE
+ KL-G   ‘HELMET’
+ Ţ-G   ‘SKIRT/KILT’
+ F-G   ‘DRESS’
+ PS-G   ‘VEIL’
+ KS-G   ‘SARI’
+ Ċ-G   ‘TUNIC’
+ Č-G   ‘ROBE(S)/TOGA’

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ļ-G   ‘PLANETARY BODY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. planet/planetary body

1. The Earth/Terra

2. moon/satellite of planetary body

2. The Moon/Luna

3. other spatial body

3. artificial satellite

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

Same as above 3 stems referring to physical body

Same as above 3 stems referring to human interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, speculation upon, contact with, experimentation involving, etc.)

+

SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3:  asteroid, comet, cosmic dust, cosmic gas, cosmic ray, component of Oort Cloud, cosmic string, quantum filament

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

N-Ġ ‘LIQUID/FLUID’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. drop of liquid/fluid + liquid/fluid itself

1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal solid or gaseous state

2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance + the derived liquid subtance itself

2. thing/object composed of liquid + its function/purpose

3. source of a liquid/fluid

3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a liquid/fluid state

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. drop of liquid/fluid

1. liquid/fluid subtance itself

1. substance in an abnormal solid (i.e., frozen) state

1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state (i.e., vapor)

2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance

2. the derived liquid/fluid subtance itself

2. object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a liquid

3.  natural source of a liquid/fluid

3.  derived or artificially created source of a liquid or fluid

3. liquid/fluid state

3. viscous state (quasi-liquid but able to be deformed/shaped; semi-solid)

+

The stem pattern above also applies to the root P-Ġ  ‘liquid chemical’.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

R-G   ‘LIGHT / RADIANT ENERGY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. ray of sunlight

1. ray of radiant light or energy (non-solar)

2. the Sun / Sol

2. flame / “tongue” of fire

3. star

3. artificial source of light or energy

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. light from a ray of sunlight

1. heat from a ray of sunlight

1. ray of light (non-solar)

1. ray of energy/heat (non-solar)

2. the Sun as light source

2. the Sun as energy/heat source

2. ray of firelight

2. flame as energy/heat source

3. starlight

3. energy of a star

3. lamp light / light from artificial source

3. energy/heat from artificial energy/heat source

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: fire, sunshine, illuminate, light a fire, flare (up), lamp, fireplace; galaxy, heater, to warm, warmth, to cook [= transform by heat], to melt, to smelt, to expose [via illumination], burn

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

SP-G   ‘ROCK/MINERAL-BASED SOIL/GROUND’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. stone [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

1. rock(y) [= specific natural embodiment of stone]

2. sand [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

2. gravel

3. clay [as substance/material or substrate/ground]

3. lava [w/ CPT = volcanic rock/lava-based rock]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on substance

Above 3 stems used to identify material nature of the substrate, ground or firmament

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-Ġ   ‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + substance/compound itself

1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an abnormal liquid or gaseous state

2. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from a another subtance +  the derived substance itself

2. thing/object composed of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + its function/purpose

3. source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

3. status of substance/compound as being or not being (quasi-) solid

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a material substance

1. substance/compound itself

1. substance in an abnormal liquid state

1. substance in an abnormal gaseous state

2.  elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from refinement, distillation or processing of material substance or compound

2. derived substance / compound itself

2. object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

2. function/purpose of object created, molded or manufactured from a material substance

3. natural source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound

3. derived or artificially created source of a (quasi-) solid material substance / compound

3. solid (= hard to the touch)

3. quasi-solid (= non-gaseous and non-liquid but not hard; able to be deformed by touch)

+

 

+
+


+ CLASS 7 ROOTS: spatial concepts, form and motion

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ċ-Ļ   ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPHEROID SHAPES/FORMS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. sphere(oid) [rigid or solid]

1. ball-like form [flexible/mutable or hollow]

2. ovoid / elliptoid / round [rigid or solid]

2. ovoid /elliptoid / round [flexible/mutable or hollow]

3. torus / toroid (hoop/ring-like form with circular/elliptical/oval cross-section) [rigid or solid]

3. torus / toroid [flexible/mutable or hollow]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

F-Ç   ‘COMPONENTIAL PART OF WHOLE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. component/part of something + its function/purpose

Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to a separable/detachable component/part, as opposed to INFORMAL stems which refer to an inalienable or integrated component/part

2. appearance/condition of component/part + its function/purpose

3. component/part as seen in relation to the greater whole

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. component/part itself

1. function/purpose of component/part

2. phsycial appearance/condition of component/part

2. impact/effect of component’s/part’s condition on its function/purpose

3. component/part itself as seen in relation to the greater whole

3. function/purpose of component/part itself in relation to the greater whole

+

THE ABOVE PATTERN APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS
+ Ţ-Ç    ‘front [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
+ Ç-Ç   ‘rear, back part of [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
+ X-Ç   ‘side/flank, lateral area’
+ x + cedilla-Ç   ‘middle, center (as seen perpendicular to long axis of entity)
+ S-Ç   ‘middle, center (as seen parallel to long axis of entity)
+ Ş-Ç   ‘top, peak, summit’
+ SP-Ç   ‘bottom, lowest part of, foundation’
+ ST-Ç   ‘upper part or “half”’
+ SK-Ç   ‘lower part or “half”’
+ SF-Ç   ‘edge’
+ SŢ -Ç   ‘interior, inner/internal part of, insides, innards’
+ SX-Ç   ‘exterior, outer/external part of, outside, “skin”’

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

F-Ļ   ‘VERTICAL ELEVATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. level [= relative vertical elevation]

Same as INFORMAL stems but as applied to buildings and other architectural forms/constructs

2. layer/stratum

3. degree of size/expanse of level relative to adjacent or surrounding level

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. low spot in relative elevation

1. high spot in relative elevation

2. low-layered; deep

2. upper-layered; shallow

3. plateau-like level, abuttmant; loft-like

3. ridge-like formation; crest-like formation

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

H-F   ‘PATH-ORIENTED TRANSLATIVE MOTION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. move from one place to another; translative motion (i.e., motion from one place toward another)

1. journey; to travel, traverse, to journey

2. course/way/route/trajectory followed between two points

2. route travelled/traversed on journey

3. move between two points; motion along path from one point to another; to cross/go across from one side to another

3. travel between two points / make a crossing / travel across

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. motion “outward”; go

1. motion “inward”; come

1. go travelling / be off

1. journey toward

2. movement away; go away (= increase distance between two objects)

2. close in / get close(r) (= decrease distance between two objects)

2. travel further away from

2. reach vicinity of / close in on

3. leave (= move away from one point toward some distant point)

3. approach (= approach one point from direction of some distant point)

3. departure; depart

3. arrival; arrive / reach destination

+

Morphological derivations:  sojourn, set off / set out, set in motion; self-directed movement
+ THE PATTERN FOR THE ABOVE ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
+ P-Ţ   ‘VERTICAL MOTION / ASCENT & DESCENT / UP & DOWN’
+ S-Ţ    ‘OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION’
+ L-Ţ   ‘PLANAR RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional horizontal plane)
+ T-Ţ   ‘VERTICAL RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional vertical plane)
+ SK-Ţ   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE 3-DIMENSIONAL RANGE OF MOTION/3-DIMENSIONAL PERVASIVE MOVEMENT / MOVEMENT THROUGHOUT 3-D VOLUME’
+ N-Ţ     ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG Y-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
+ Č-Ţ     ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG X-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
+ KŢ-F   ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN HORIZONTAL PLANE’
+ FL-F   ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN VERTICAL PLANE’
+ ŠK-F   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE CIRCULAR MOTION’
+ ŞQ-F   ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG HORIZONTAL PLANE’
+ ŢL-F   ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG VERTICAL PLANE’
+ ŞK-F   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE SPIRAL MOTION’
+ KŢ-Ţ   ‘CIRCULAR VECTOR MOTION’ (i.e., “corkscrew” motion)
+ QŢ-Ţ   ‘SPIRAL VECTOR MOTION (i.e., corkscrew motion with increasing or decreasing amplitude)
+ X-Ţ     ‘ARC / PARABOLIC MOTION RELATIVE TO GRAVITY’
+ ST-Ţ   ‘CURVED MOTION / CURVE’
+ XL-F      ‘SWITCH BACK / VEER’
+ SL-F      ‘OBLIQUELY LINEAR  MOTION (relative to XYZ grid)
+ SP-F  ‘2-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR OUTSIDE EDGE’ encircle, surround
+ Q-Ţ   ‘2-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG BOUNDARY OR INSIDE EDGE’
+ KL-F  ‘3-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR SURFACE OF’
+ SL-Ţ   ‘3-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG INTERNAL 3-D BOUNDARY OF’

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

H-Ļ   ‘LONGITUDE / EAST-WEST’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. east-west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

1. longitude

2. west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

2. West longitude

3. east axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

3. East longitude

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. east-west axial direction or orientation

1. east-west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

1. meridian

1. zero meridian (Greenwich meridian)

2. west direction or orientation

2. west geographical or geopolitical areal designation

2. time zone

2. Western Hemisphere

3. east direction or orientation

3. east geographical or geopolitical areal designation

3. International Date Line

3. Eastern Hemisphere

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K-Ļ   ‘LATITUDE / NORTH-SOUTH’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. north-south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

1. latitude

2. north axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

2. north latitude

3. south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation

3. south latitude

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. north-south axial direction or orientation

1. north-south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

1. polar area

1. parallel [= line of latitude]

2. north direction or orientation

2. north geographical or geopolitical areal designation

2. north polar area (Arctic)

2. Northern Hemisphere

3. south direction or orientation

3. south geographical or geopolitical areal designation

3. south polar area (Antarctic)

3. Eastern Hemisphere

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K-Ţ   ‘ANGULAR STRUCTURE / CORNER’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. (two-dimensional) angle

Same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to permanent, authoritative, formal contexts or to social or analogical contexts

2. (three-dimensional) vertex

3. angle-based constraint on access or movement

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. interior angle of two-dimensional surface or analog

1. exterior corner/vertex of two-dimensional surface or analog

2. interior vertex/corner of three-dimensional space

2. exterior corner/vertex of three dimensional space

3. corner as constraint

3. corner as opportunity for choice of movement

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

KL-Ç   ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL BLOCK-LIKE SHAPES/FORMS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. cube [solid volume]

Same as INFORMAL stems but as outline edges/frame only, not as solid volumes

2. rectilinear block [solid volume]

3. disc

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

M-Ļ  ‘CURVATURE/BENDING/OPEN LINEAR FORMS OR SHAPES’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

1. obtuse angle [degree of size/openness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

2. acute angle [degree of size/narrownness + object or bounded space manifesting such an angle]

3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself + object manifesting such a line]

3. mathematically determined form made of lines (e.g., polygon, quadrilateral, etc.) [pattern + object having the pattern]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

1. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate

1. obtuse angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of openness]

1. obtuse angled object or bounded space

2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate [the line itself]

2. object manifesting a linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate

2. acute angle [in reference to its size, i.e., degree of narrowness]

2. acute angled object or bounded space

3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic) [the line itself]

3. object manifesting a linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g.,  algebraic or logarithmic)

3. mathematically determined form made of lines [the pattern]

3. object manifesting a mathematically determined form made of lines

+

Morphological Derivatives:  fold, bend, pleat, zig-zag/“sawtooth”/serrated pattern, undulate/undulation, S-curve, wave(s)/wavy, bent, crooked, jagged, serrated, curvature
+ The above root use PHASE and the iterative series of affixes to specify extent/number/pattern of folds.
+ SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 3:  parabola, hyperbola, exponential curve

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

M-Ţ    ‘ACCESS/PASSAGE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. access point / passage; pass through, access

1. doorway (= the access portal itself, not the door which opens/closes off access)

2. passage or infiltration of one substance into another

2. gateway / portal

3. filter / screening [selective access]

3. checkpoint

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. enter / go in / pass within / ingress

1. exit / go out / egress

1. enter (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

1. exit (through primary/official entrance/access portal)

2. infiltrate / imbue / immerse

2. emit / dispense

2. receive (= welcome) ; reception

2. remove / dispel

3. filter through

3. filter out

3. admittance; admit

3. oust / eject

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: door, gate, let in, insert, introduce, take out, remove, penetrate, emanate, emerge

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

N-Ļ  ‘PRESSURE-BASED or REACTION-BASED
+ or GRAVITATION-BASED EQUILIBRIUM/MOTION/PROPULSION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. something hovering or floating; for something to hover, float, or be suspended upon (based on equilibrium, via pressure or volume-dispersion, against other medium such as air, water, gas, vapor, etc.) [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

The Formal stems for this root are identical + to the Informal roots in meaning, with the distinction of referring specifically to man-made, mechanical means/vehicles/vessels or contexts involving reaction-based (i.e., fuel-driven) propulsion, as opposed to the naturally occurring or non-mechanical contexts + implied by use of the Informal stems. +

 

2. something hovering or floating; for something to hover, float, or be suspended upon (based on gravitational equilibrium or nullification, e.g. at the top of an arc of trajectory or at a La Grange point) [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

3. something in orbit around another body; to orbit [both the object hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as the above 3 stems but with specific reference to the object which hovers, floats, or is suspendedSame as the above 3 stems but with specific reference to the act or state of hovering, floating, or suspension
+
+ NOTE: this root was added to the lexicon on December 23, 2009 +

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Ç   ‘INVERSION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. orientational inversion

FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is formal/authorized/permanent/abstract as described in Sec. 3.7

2. unidirectional topological inversion [= mirror-image]

3. three-dimensional topological inversion [= inside-out]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. orientational inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

1. mirror-image inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

2. mirror-image inversion along y-axis [= backwards]

2. orientational inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

3. orientational inversion along x-axis [= lateral/sideways]

3. mirror-image inversion along z-axis [= upside down]

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Ļ    ‘RECLINE / PRONE POSITION OR ORIENTATION / HORIZONTALITY

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. recline(d) / prone position (relative to long axis of object) / lie (down) / lay (out)

1. horizontal (relative to gravity or plane of the earth’s surface) / orientation perpendicular to direction of gravity

2. recumbent position / position of relaxation relative to gravity --> sprawl, loll

2. occupying position of maximum repose or having a positional or dynamic orientation based on the path of least resistance relative to gravity

3. flush / flat against / position or orientation level with some flat or even firmament / lay flat

3. flatten(ed); collapse(d) or configure(d) to minimum height perpendicular to background firmament

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself

same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

SF-Ļ   ‘QUASI-TWO-DIMENSIONAL SHAPES/FORMS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. strip [solid/rigid]

1. ribbon-like shape [flexible]

2. plane/planar [solid/rigid]

2. sheet-like shape [flexible]

3. tube/cylinder/cylindrical [solid/rigid]

3. tube-like shape [flexible]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

SK-F    ‘SPATIAL ORIENTATION / POSITION / DIRECTION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. general spatial position [currently or within context of utterance]; be situated at

1. specific spatial position at “end point”; be situated at “end point” of

2. general orientation (along or relative to directional axes); to “face” [toward]

2. specific orientation toward “end point” of; to “face” squarely

3. general direction/axis of movement; direct/move along axis of

3. specific direction/axis of movement toward “end point” of; to head straight for

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. general position toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

1. general position toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

1. specific position at “one end” of opposed spatial points

1. specific position at “other side” of opposed spatial points

2. general orientation toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

2. general orientation toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

2. specific orientation toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

2. specific orientation toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

3. general direction toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

3. general direction toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

3. specific direction toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

3. specific direction toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

+

THE ABOVE PATTERN OF STEMS IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA:
+ -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT
+ -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD
+ -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE
+ 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS
+ PL-F   ‘+X/+Y/+Z’
+ Ņ-F    ‘+X/+Y/-Z’
+ R-F    ‘+X/-Y/+Z’
+ Ŗ-F    ‘+  X/-Y/-Z’
+ Ļ-F    ‘-X/+Y/+Z’
+ PS-F    ‘-X/+Y/-Z’
+ KS-F    ‘-X/-Y/+Z’
+ PŢ- F    ‘-X/-Y/-Z’
+ Ķ-F   ‘+X/+Y/0’
+ K-F    ‘+X/-Y/0’
+ Q-F    ‘-X/+Y/0’
+ M-F    ‘-X/-Y/0’
+ F-F    ‘+X/0/+Z’
+ Ţ-F    ‘+X/0/-Z’
+ Ç-F    ‘-X/0/+Z’
+ x + cedilla-F    ‘-X/0/-Z’
+ S-F    ‘0/+Y/+Z’
+ Ş-F    ‘0/+Y/-Z’
+ C-F    ‘0/-Y/+Z’
+ Ċ-F    ‘0/-Y/-Z’
+ Č-F    ‘+X/0/0’
+ Š-F    ‘-X/0/0’
+ L-F     ‘0/+Y/0’
+ N-F     ‘0/-Y/0’
+ P-F     ‘0/0/+Z’
+ T-F     ‘0/0/-Z’
+ SK-F    ‘0/0/0’
+ SF-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [linear unidimensional context, e.g., between two others in a queue]
+ ŠL-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [planar 2-dimensional context, e.g., among others in a crowded room]
+ ŠP-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [volume-based 3-dimensional context, e.g., sky crowded with balloonists]
+ ŠT-F   ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components separable/extractable]
+ TL-F   ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components inseparable/mixed/permanently combined]

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

SL-Ç   ‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL (i.e., LINEAR) SHAPES/FORMS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. point / dot [solid/fixed/rigid]

1. point / dot [flexible/movable/fluid]

2. line / linear [solid/fixed/rigid]

2. line / linear [flexible/movable/fluid] / string-like

3. hoop / ring [solid/fixed/rigid]

3. hoop / ring [flexible/movable/fluid] / loop

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

SP-Ţ   ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE SHAPES’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1.   generic 2-D outline shape (e.g., the shape of a close-course race-track, the outline of the shore of a lake, a drawing of a national border on a map, etc.)

1. 2-D outline shape generically distorted

2. generic 2-D outline horizontally elongated

2. 2-D outline shape obliquely elongated / skewed along one axis

3. generic 2-D outline vertically elongated

3. 2-D outline shape medially compressed, i.e., “squished/pinched in the middle”

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

Same as above 3 stems referring to shape itself as abstract archetype

Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form

+

The above root’s stem pattern is applied to all of the following roots:
+ XL-Ţ  : ‘square/rectangle/rhombus’
+ R-Ļ  :  ‘circle/ellipse’
+ PS-Ç  : ‘oval’
+ ŠF-Ţ   :  ‘egg-shaped’
+ Š-Ç  : ‘half-circle/semi-circle’
+ K-Ç  :  ‘sliver-moon shaped’
+ SX-Ţ  :  ‘irregular/amorphous outline’

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

ST-F    ‘FIT/HOLD/CONTAIN AS INTERNAL-EXTERNAL PARTITION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. holding area / containment area; hold/keep/contain

1. room, chamber

2. fit; to fit, contain (= have sufficient room for)

2. reside, situate; room as place of residence, quasi-permanent situation or default location

3. volume or boundary of containment area

3. room boundaries (i.e., walls, floor, ceiling)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to the physical boundaries (“walls”) which define the containment area and prevent contents from leaking or escaping

same as above 3 stems referring to the space (“room”) within the holding area and protection of contents from external environment

same as above 3 stems referring to the room as a container separating inside from outside

same as abvoe 3 stems referring to the space within the room as shelter or sanctuary

+

SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3:  ceiling, wall, floor, dividing panel, piece of furniture serving to divide room space
+ EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: house, building, cell, booth, closet; snug, snugness, loose, looseness, baggy, bagginess

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

ST-Ļ    ‘2-DIMENSIONAL CURVATURE/DISTORTION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself + object manifesting such curvature]

1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself + object manifesting the depression]

2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself + object manifesting the distortion]

3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the curvature itself]

1. object manifesting a curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

1. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the depression itself]

2. object manifesting a dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial volume itself]

2. object manifesting a volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2-dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object

3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself]

3. object manifesting an undefined distortion, blurring or anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself]

3. object manifesting a volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object

+

Morphological Derivatives:  crease, pleat, wrinkle(s), curl up, crumple(d), wad(ded), zig-zag, groove/furrow
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ş-Ţ   ‘EXTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION OUTSIDE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. position/orientation somewhere outside (of), i.e., beyond or on other side of surface or boundary layer

1. the space beyond/outside/excluded from an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

2. position/orientation somewhere outside of (2-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the area defined by a boundary line

2. an external surface / functional planar area beyond/outside the boundaries of (e.g., the “out of bounds” area of a tennis court)

3. position/orientation somewhere outside of (3-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

3. the space beyond/outside an interior volume / functional space outside the boundaries of

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

same as above 3 stems with focus on exterior position (i.e. position other than on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

+

compare to root SX-Ç 

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Š-Ţ    ‘PATH/WAY/COURSE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. course/way [taken]

1. route [taken]

2. [marked] path [taken]

2. road [taken]

3. trajectory; move(ment) along a trajectory / “sail” / arc

3. channel [taken]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to the course/way/path/trajectory itself

same as above 3 stems referring to following or travelling along the course/path/trajectory

same as above 3 stems with focus on the route/road/channel itself

same as a stems with focus on following or travelling along the route/road/channel

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: walkway, sidewalk, highway, street, slide, tunnel, conduit

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-Ļ   ‘UPRIGHT POSITION OR ORIENTATION/VERTICALITY/PERPENDICULAR/PROTRUSION

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. upright/erect position or orientation (relative to long axis of object) / stand (up)

1. vertical (i.e., parallel to gravity or plane of earth’s surface)

2.  stick up or out/ protrude

2. occupying position of maximum contrast to a position of repose; position of maximum “alertness” or readiness or action

3. perpendicular / position or orientation at right angles  to background firmament (relative to long axis of object); be or stand on end

3. stretch(ed) outward; pull(ed) or configure(d) to maximum height perpendicular to background firmament

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

same as above 3 stems with focus on the position itself as an abstract concept

same as above 3 stems with focus on object/thing in that position

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

X-F   ‘AMBULATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. ambulate (as natural to specific species, e.g., walk, slither, fly, crawl, etc.)

1. “formal” ambulation, e.g., march, prance

2. rapid ambulation (as per specific species, e.g., run, gallop, scamper, scurry, etc.)

2. purposeful rapid ambulation, e.g., flee, race

3. unnatural or affected ambulation

3. deliberately unnatural or affected ambulation, e.g., swagger, saunter

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

same as above 3 stems referring to the nature of the bodily movement/gait

same as above 3 stems referring to  the translative/directional motion from one point toward another

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: skip, shuffle, slink; lead, follow
+ SSD Derivatives:  1) swim on surface  2) swim/glide underwater 3) slither 4) crawl 5) walk  6) hop 7) jump/leap  8) swing (e.g., through trees, from vines, etc.)  9) fly

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

X-Ļ     ‘TERRAIN-BASED/GEOGRAPHICAL ELEVATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. relative elevation in comparison to other geological feature/terrain

FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as INFORMAL stems except that context is geo-political or in terms of formal property [geographic ownership]

2. geological layer/stratum

3. flatland area/plain

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. v alley / geographic depression relative to surrounding terrain

1. hill / upland / raised geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

2. deep underground

2. near-surface / shallow [in terms of depth underground]

3. plateau / raised flat-topped geographic feature relative to surrounding terrain

3. ridge / crest / flat-linear edge between different geographic/geologically-based elevations

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

X-Ţ   ‘INTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION INSIDE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. position/orientation somewhere inside (of), i.e., underneath or on other side of surface or boundary layer

1. entirety of an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.)

2. position/orientation somewhere inside of (2-D context), i.e., within the area defined by a boundary line

2. entirety of an interior surface / functional planar area within the boundaries of

3. position/orientation somewhere inside of (3-D context), i.e., within the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

3. entirety of an interior volume / functional space within the boundaries of

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

same as above 3 stems with focus on interior position (i.e. position other than on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior

+

compare to roots SŢ -Ç 

+

 

+
+


+ CLASS 8 ROOTS: taxonomies of organic life

+
+

The stem pattern of the following Class 8 Roots is identical to the pattern for the Class 4 Root N-N ‘FOOD PLANT’:
+ P-Paspiration   cabbage (plant/leaves of sp. Brassica oleracea capitata)
+ Ķ-Paspiration   lettuce (plant/leaves of genus Lactuca)
+ Ċ-Paspiration   spinach (plant/leaves of sp. Spinacia oleracea)
+ F-Paspiration     tea (plant/leaves of sp. Camellia sinensis)
+ ŠL-Taspiration  kelp (seaweed of orders Laminariales and Fucales)
+ QŢ-Taspiration    mustard (plant of sp. Brassica hirta / B. nigra / B. juncea)
+ Ţ-Paspiration   corn, maize (plant/seeds of sp. Zea mays)
+ KŢ-Taspiration    oat (plant/seed of genus Avena)
+ Ç-Paspiration   wheat (plant/seed of sp. Triticum aestivum)
+ PŢ-Taspiration    tobacco (plant/leaves of sp. Nicotiana tabacum)
+ SP-Taspiration    hemp, marijuana (plant/material of sp. Cannabis sativa)
+ ŞP-Taspiration    sesame (plant/seed of genus Sesamum)
+ M-Paspiration   pea (plant/seed of sp. Pisum sativum)
+ PS-Paspiration   bean (lima/snap/etc.: plant/seed of genus Phaseolus or similar)
+ ST-Taspiration    lentil (plant/seeds of sp. Lens culinaris)
+ ŞT-Taspiration    soya, soybean (plant/seed of sp. Glycine max)
+ PŞ -Paspiration   peanut (plant/seed/pod of sp. Arachis hypogaea)
+ S-Paspiration   rice (plant/seed of sp. Oryza sativa)
+ ŠT-Taspiration    pepper (hot/sweet/bell pepper -- plant/pod of genus Capsicum)
+ Ş-Paspiration   pepper (black -- plant/seed of sp. Piper nigrum)
+ SK-Taspiration    millet
+ ŞK-Taspiration    amaranth
+ ŠK-Taspiration    sorghum
+ SF-Taspiration    teff
+ ŞF-Taspiration    ginseng (plant/root of genus Panax)
+ KŠ-Paspiration   potato (plant/tuber of sp. Solanum tuberosum)
+ PŠ -Paspiration   carrot (plant/root of sp. Daucus carota sativus)
+ ŠF-Taspiration    yam, sweet potato
+ SX-Taspiration    garlic (herb of sp. Allium sativum)
+ Ŗ-Paspiration   onion (plant/bulb of sp. Allium sepa)
+ L-Paspiration   grape (plant/fruit of genus Vitis)
+ SŢ-Taspiration    tomato (plant/berry of genus Lycopersicon)
+ ŞŢ-Taspiration    squash, melon (plant/fruit of genus Cucurbita grown for edible fruit)
+ ŠŢ-Taspiration    gourd (plant/hard-rinded fruit of genera Lagenaria & Cucurbita)
+ ŞX-Taspiration    date (tree/fruit of sp. Phoenix dactylifera)
+ ŠX-Taspiration    cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
+ Š-Qaspiration     bamboo (plant/stem of genera Bambusa / Arundinaria / Dendrocalamus)
+ N-Qaspiration      cork (tree/elastic tissue of sp. Quercus suber)
+ L-Qaspiration      cotton (plant/fibers of genus Gossypium)
+ H-Qaspiration      ginger (plant/rhizome of genus Zingiber)
+ Ņ-Qaspiration      mint (plant of family Labiatae)
+ Ŗ-Qaspiration      safflower (Carthamus tinctorius)

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Taspiration        ‘BRANCHED AND/OR LEAVED PLANT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. genus of branched tree/bush and/or leaved plant

1. wood product

2. leaf

2. leaf product

3. bark

3. bark product

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. wood

1. seed/fruit/nut

1. wood as resource

1. seed/fruit as food or resource

2. root

2. flower/blossom

2. root as food or resource

2. flower as food or resource

3. branch

3. sap

3. branch as resource

3. sap product/syrup

+

SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) meat of fruit, 2) seed within fruit, 3) rind, 4) juice, 5) flavor, 6) odor of fruit, 7) oil, 8) [unassigned/specific to individual root] 9) fermented juice, i.e., wine
+ THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
+ C-Taspiration       ‘BIRCH’
+ T-Taspiration       ‘SPRUCE’
+ Ķ -Taspiration       ‘CEDAR’
+ X-Taspiration       ‘OAK’
+ K-Taspiration       ‘PINE’
+ Ċ-Taspiration       ‘PALM’
+ F-Taspiration       ‘CHERRY’
+ Č-Taspiration       ‘WALNUT’
+ Ţ-Taspiration       ‘MAPLE’
+ Ç-Taspiration       ‘ASH’
+ aspiration       ‘CYPRESS’
+ S-Taspiration       ‘BEECH’
+ Ş-Taspiration       ‘MAHOGANY’
+ M-Taspiration       ‘COCONUT’
+ N-Taspiration       ‘EUCALYPTUS’
+ Ņ-Taspiration       ‘MAGNOLIA’
+ Š-Taspiration       ‘REDWOOD’
+ H-Taspiration       ‘LARCH’
+ L-Taspiration       ‘ELM’
+ Ļ-Taspiration       ‘FIG’
+ R-Taspiration       ‘BANANA’
+ Ŗ-Taspiration       ‘YEW’
+ PS-Taspiration       ‘ALMOND’
+ PŞ-Taspiration       ‘CHESTNUT’
+ PŠ-Taspiration       ‘ALDER’
+ KS-Taspiration       ‘OLIVE’
+ KŞ-Taspiration       ‘POPLAR’
+ TL-Taspiration       ‘PINEAPPLE’
+ KŠ-Taspiration       ‘APPLE’
+ PL-Taspiration       ‘ORANGE’
+ KL-Taspiration       ‘LEMON’
+ FL-Taspiration       ‘LIME’
+ ŢL-Taspiration       ‘PEAR’
+ XL-Taspiration       ‘PLUM’
+ SL-Taspiration       ‘PEACH’
+ ŞL-Taspiration       ‘TANGERINE’
+ Q-Taspiration       ‘COFFEE’
+ ŠP-Taspiration      FLAX

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

  Q-Paspiration   ‘INSECT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. member of genus

1. membe r of genus as resource

2. male member of genus

2. male as resource

3. female member of genus

3. female as resource

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. wild member of genus

1. bred or domesticated member of genus

1. member of genus as food/prey

1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

2. wild male member of genus

2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

2. male as food/prey

2. male as derived resource or processed product

3. wild female member of genus

3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

3. female as food/prey

3. female as derived resource or processed product

+

MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: larvae/grub, chrysalis, cocoon, adult, etc.
+ SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) wing, 3) oil/secretion, 4) silk/web, 5) skin/pellicle, 6) tail, 7) horn, 8) leg(s) 9) [open]
+ THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
+ ŠT-Paspiration      ‘BUMBLEBEE’
+ ST-Paspiration      ‘HONEYBEE’
+ SL-Paspiration      ‘ANT’
+ ŞL-Paspiration      ‘COCKROACH’
+ SX-Paspiration     ‘BUTTERFLY’
+ ŠX-Paspiration     ‘MOTH’
+ ŞT-Paspiration      ‘HOUSEFLY’
+ SK-Paspiration     ‘WASP’
+ ŞK-Paspiration     ‘HORNET’
+ SŢ-Paspiration     ‘GNAT’
+ ŠK-Paspiration     ‘MOSQUITO’
+ ŞŢ-Paspiration      ‘APHID’
+ SF-Paspiration      ‘FIREFLY’
+ ŠŢ-Paspiration      ‘FLEA’
+ ŠL-Paspiration      ‘BEETLE’
+ QŢ-Paspiration     ‘SPIDER’
+ ŠF-Paspiration      ‘TICK’
+ Ş-Paspiration       ‘TERMITE’
+ ŞF-Paspiration      ‘WATERBUG’
+ SP-Paspiration      ‘GRASSHOPPER’
+ ŠP-Paspiration      ‘LOCUST’
+ ŞX-Paspiration      ‘DRAGONFLY’
+ KŞ-Paspiration     ‘MANTIS’
+ PŢ-Paspiration    BLẠ-  ‘GENERIC CRAWLING BUG’
+ KŢ-Paspiration    GLẠ-  ‘GENERIC FLYING BUG’

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

SK-Kaspiration     ‘GENERIC MAMMAL/AVIAN/REPTILE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. member of mammalian/avian/reptilian genus

1. member of genus as resource

2. male member of genus

2. male as resource

3. female member of genus

3. female as resource

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. wild member of genus

1. bred or domesticated member of genus

1. member of genus as food/prey

1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

2. wild male member of genus

2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

2. male as food/prey

2. male as derived resource or processed product

3. wild female member of genus

3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

3. female as food/prey

3. female as derived resource or processed product

+

MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: e.g., foal, fawn, yearling, adult, etc.
+ SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) milk, 3) oil/secretion/venom, 4) fat, 5) skin/hide, 6) tail, 7) tusk/horn, 8) fur/feathers 9) flesh/meat
+ THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
+ P-Kaspiration      ‘HORSE’
+ T-Kaspiration      ‘COW’
+ Ķ-Kaspiration       ‘PIG’
+ C-Kaspiration       ‘SHEEP’
+ F-Kaspiration       ‘GOAT’
+ Ċ-Kaspiration        ‘DEER’
+ K-Kaspiration       ‘BISON/BUFFALO’
+ M-Kaspiration       ‘CHICKEN’
+ Š-Kaspiration        ‘DUCK’
+ PL-Kaspiration         ‘GOOSE’
+ Ş-Kaspiration         ‘SWAN’
+ Q-Kaspiration        ‘TURKEY’
+ Ţ-Kaspiration         ‘OSTRICH’
+ Ç-Kaspiration         ‘DOLPHIN’
+ Č-Kaspiration         ‘MULE’
+ X-Kaspiration         ‘DONKEY’
+ aspiration         ‘ZEBRA’
+ XL-Kaspiration         ‘LION’
+ L-Kaspiration       ‘TIGER’
+ R-Kaspiration        ‘BEAR’
+ S-Kaspiration       ‘ELK’
+ Ņ-Kaspiration      ‘MOOSE’
+ Ļ-Kaspiration         ‘BOAR’
+ PS-Kaspiration         ‘YAK’
+ KS-Kaspiration         ‘CAMEL’
+ PŞ -Kaspiration         ‘WALRUS’
+ Ŗ-Kaspiration        ‘ELEPHANT’
+ PŠ-Kaspiration         ‘GIRAFFE’
+ N-Kaspiration         ‘CAT’
+ H-Kaspiration         ‘DOG’
+ KŠ-Kaspiration        ‘RABBIT’
+ TL-Kaspiration        ‘CHIMPANZEE’
+ KŞ-Kaspiration        ‘GORILLA’
+ ŢL-Kaspiration        ‘LEMUR’
+ KL-Kaspiration        ‘ORANGUTAN’
+ FL-Kaspiration        ‘OTTER’
+ SL-Kaspiration       ‘WHALE’
+ ŠL-Kaspiration        ‘SEAL’
+ ŞX-Kaspiration        ‘SEA LION’
+ PŢ-Kaspiration        ‘ANTELOPE’
+ ŞL-Kaspiration       ‘GAZELLE’
+ KŢ-Kaspiration       ‘BABOON’
+ QŢ-Kaspiration        ‘FOX’
+ SP-Kaspiration       ‘WOLF’
+ ST-Kaspiration        ‘COYOTE’
+ ŠP-Kaspiration       ‘SKUNK’
+ SF-Kaspiration         ‘PORCUPINE’
+ ŞP-Kaspiration       ‘POSSUM’
+ ŞT-Kaspiration         ‘KANGAROO’
+ SŢ-Kaspiration       ‘MOUSE’
+ SX-Kaspiration       ‘RAT’
+ SF-Kaspiration      ‘LEOPARD’
+ ŠK-Kaspiration      ‘CHEETAH’
+ ŠX-Kaspiration        ‘PANTHER’
+ ŠF-Kaspiration         ‘JAGUAR’
+ ŞF-Kaspiration        ‘MOLE’
+ ŞK-Kaspiration        ‘SQUIRREL’
+ ŞŢ-Kaspiration        ‘VOLE’
+ ŠT-Kaspiration         ‘CHIPMUNK’
+ ŠŢ-Kaspiration        ‘SHREW’
+ P-Qaspiration        ‘ROBIN’
+ T-Qaspiration        ‘LARK’
+ F-Qaspiration        ‘SPARROW’
+ Ţ-Qaspiration        ‘OWL’
+ Ç-Qaspiration         ‘PIGEON’
+ Č-Qaspiration        ‘EAGLE’
+ Ċ-Qaspiration         ‘GULL’
+ Ķ-Qaspiration       ‘ALBATROSS’
+ C-Qaspiration        ‘HAWK’
+ Q-Qaspiration       ‘VULTURE’
+ K-Qaspiration        ‘PHEASANT’
+ S-Qaspiration        ‘NIGHTINGALE’
+ R-Qaspiration         ‘SNAKE’
+ TL-Qaspiration        ‘VIPER’
+ KS-Qaspiration       ‘COBRA’
+ PS-Qaspiration         ‘RATTLESNAKE’
+ SX-Qaspiration       ‘PYTHON’
+ SF-Qaspiration        ‘ASP’
+ SK-Qaspiration       ‘ALLIGATOR’
+ ST-Qaspiration         ‘CROCODILE’
+ PL-Qaspiration        ‘LIZARD’
+ KŞ-Qaspiration       ‘GILA MONSTER’
+ PŞ-Qaspiration        ‘IGUANA’
+ KŠ-Qaspiration        ‘FROG’
+ PŠ-Qaspiration        ‘TOAD’
+ KL-Qaspiration       ‘TURTLE’

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-Paspiration    ‘GENERIC WATERLIFE ’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. member of genus

1. member of genus as resource

2. male member of genus

2. male as resource

3. female member of genus

3. female as resource

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. wild member of genus

1. bred or domesticated member of genus

1. member of genus as food/prey

1. member of genus as derived resource or processed product

2. wild male member of genus

2. bred or domesticated male member of genus

2. male as food/prey

2. male as derived resource or processed product

3. wild female member of genus

3. bred or domesticated female member of genus

3. female as food/prey

3. female as derived resource or processed product

+

SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) meat, 3) skin/shell, 4) fluid/ink, 5) smoked meat, 6) as bait, 7) as fodder, 8) as ingredient in food or as fishmeal 9) cooked meat
+ THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
+ N-Paspiration      ‘OCTOPUS’
+ X-Paspiration      ‘SQUID’
+ R-Paspiration      ‘EEL’
+ Ş-Paspiration      ‘LAMPREY’
+ Ņ-Paspiration      ‘RAY’
+ K-Paspiration      ‘SHARK’
+ XL-Paspiration     ‘CLAM’
+ FL-Paspiration     ‘SCALLOP’
+ PL-Paspiration      ‘MUSSEL’
+ ŢL-Paspiration      ‘CRAB’
+ TL-Paspiration      ‘SHRIMP/PRAWN’
+ KL-Paspiration     ‘LOBSTER’
+ aspiration       ‘TROUT’
+ H-Paspiration       ‘TUNA’
+ Ļ-Paspiration       ‘COD’
+ Ç-Paspiration       ‘BASS’
+ C-Paspiration     ‘PIKE’

+
+

+

CLASS 9 ROOTS: taxonomies of physical substances

+
+

The stem pattern of the following Class 9 roots is identical to that of the Class 6 root T-Ġ ‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’:
+ P-P’ ‘brass’
+ P-T’  ‘chalk’
+ P-K’  ‘cloth/fabric’
+ P-Q’ ‘coal’
+ T-P’ ‘spice/herb/seasoning’
+ T-T’ ‘glass’
+ T-K’ ‘jade’
+ T-Q’ ‘metal/ore’
+ Ķ-P’ ‘mineral’
+ Ķ-T’ ‘oil (petroleum)’
+ Ķ-K’ ‘plastic’
+ Ķ-Q’ ‘quartz’
+ K-P’ ‘rubber’
+ K-T’ ‘salt’
+ K-K’ ‘steel’
+ K-Q’ ‘silk’
+ C-P’ ‘tar’
+ C-T’ - ‘wax’
+ C-K’ Aluminium
+ C-Q’ Antimony
+ Ċ-P’ Arsenic        
+ Ċ-T’ Beryllium     
+ Ċ-K’ Bismuth      
+ Ċ-Q’ Boron                      
+ Č-P’ Cadmium     
+ Č-T’  Calcium      
+ Č-K’ Carbon        
+ Č-Q’ Chromium   
+ Ç-P’ Cobalt          
+ Ç-T’ Copper
+ Ç-K’ Gallium       
+ Ç-Q’ Gold
+ F-P’ Iridium         
+ F-T’ Iron
+ F-K’ Lead
+ F-Q’ Lithium        
+ Ţ-P’ Magnesium  
+ Ţ-T’ Manganese   
+ Ţ-K’ Molybdenum           
+ Ţ-Q’ Nickel
+ X-P’ Palladium    
+ X-T’ Phosphorus  
+ X-K’ Platinum     
+ X-Q’ Plutonium   
+ S-P’ Potassium
+ S-T’ Radium        
+ S-K’ Rubidium    
+ S-Q’ Selenium      
+ Ş-P’ Silicon          
+ Ş-T’ Silver            
+ Ş-K’ Sulfur
+ Ş-Q’ Tin
+ Š-P’ Titanium
+ Š-T’ Uranium       
+ Š-K’Vanadium
+ Š-Q’ Tungsten
+ M-P’ Zinc
+ M-T’Zirconium
+ KL-P’ Germanium
+ KL-T’ Krypton     
+ KL-K’ Osmium
+ M-K’   asbestos     magnesium silicate
+ M-Q’ aspirin          acetylsalicylic acid
+ N-P’ baking soda               
+ N-T’ bicarbonate of soda               
+ N-K’ graphite (carbon)
+ N-Q’ diamond       
+ Ņ-P’ marble            
+ Ņ-T’ emery powder           
+ Ņ-K’  epsom salts              
+ Ņ-Q’ fluorspar     
+ L-P’  gypsum       
+ L-T’ linoleum       
+ L-K’ lime             
+ L-Q’ magnesia     
+ H-P’ milk of magnesium 
+ H-T’ plaster of Paris           
+ H-K’  potash        
+ H-Q’ saltpeter      
+ R-P’ silica             
+ R-T’ sugar, table 
+ R-K’ talc or talcum          
+ R-Q’  washing soda         
+ Ŗ-P’  zinc white   
+ PS-P’  NATURALLY OCCURRING ACTINIDE OR UNSTABLE/RADIOACTIVE HEAVY ELEMENT
+ SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Actinium + 2) Thorium + 3) Protactinium + 4) Neptunium + 5) any radioactive isotope of an element + 6) Astatine + 7) Francium + 8) Polonium + 9) Technetium
+ PŠ-P’  SYNTHETIC ACTINIDE ELEMENT
+ SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Americium + 2) Curium + 3) Berkelium 4) Californium + 5) Einsteinium + 6) Fermium + 7) Mendelevium + 8) Nobelium + 9) Lawrencium
+ PŞ-P’  NATURALLY OCCURRING ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES
+ SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Barium + 2) Caesium (Cesium)  + 3) Hafnium + 4) Niobium + 5) Rhenium + 6) Rhodium 
+ 7) Ruthenium + 8) Strontium + 9) Tellurium
+ x-cedilla-P’ RARE NATURAL ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES
+ SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Indium + 2) Scandium + 3) Yttrium + 4) Tantalum + 5) source compound for such elements + 6) + 7) + 8) + 9) primary source ore in which element is found
+ KS-T’  SYNTHETIC HEAVY ELEMENT
+ SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Rutherfordium + 2) Dubnium + 3) Seaborgium + 4) Bohrium + 5) Hassium + 6) Meitnerium   7) Darmstadtium + 8) Roentgenium + 9) trans-Roentgenium synthetic element (i.e., Ununbium, Ununtrium, etc.)
+ KŞ-T’   LANTHANIDE ELEMENT
+ SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Lanthanum + 2) Cerium + 3) Praseodymium + 4) Neodymium + 5) Promethium + 6) Samarium + 7) Europium + 8) Gadolinium + 9) Terbium
+ KŠ-T’  HEAVIER LANTHANIDE ELEMENT
+ SSD Derivatives specify exact element: + 1) Dysprosium + 2) Holmium + 3) Erbium + 4) Thulium + 5) Ytterbium + 6) Lutetium 7)
+ 8) + 9) lanthanide-based compound

+

 

+

The stem pattern for the following Class 9 roots are identical to the pattern for the Class 6 root N-Ġ ‘LIQUID/FLUID’:
+ SK-P’ ‘paint’
+ Ŗ -T’ ‘oil (fatty liquid derived from plants/animals)’
+ Ŗ -K’‘honey’
+ Ŗ -Q’‘vinegar’
+ Ļ-P’ acetone           
+ Ļ-T’ alcohol, grain             
+ Ļ-K’ alcohol, wood
+ Ļ-Q’  ammonia
+ PL-P’ iodine         
+ PL-T’  mercury
+ PL-K’ brine           aqueous sodium chloride solution
+ PL-Q’ benzene
+ TL-P’  lye or soda lye       sodium hydroxide
+ TL-T’ formalin      aqueous formaldehyde solution
+ TL-K’ rubbing alcohol      isopropyl alcohol
+ TL-Q’ methanol    methyl alcohol

+

 

+

The stem pattern of the following Class 9 roots is identical to the pattern of the Class 6 root H-Ġ ‘GAS / FLUME’:
+ SL-P’ ‘carbon dioxide’
+ SL-T’  ‘carbon monoxide’
+ SL-K’ Chlorine    
+ SL-Q’ Argon        
+ PŢ-P’ Helium       
+ PŢ-T’ Hydrogen  
+ PŢ-K’ Fluorine     
+ PŢ-Q’ Nitrogen    
+ SP-P’ Oxygen      
+ SP-T’  Neon         
+ SP-K’ Radon       
+ SP-Q’ Xenon
+ ST-P’ ozone
+ ST-T’ laughing gas             
+ ST-K’ air

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

ST-P’   ‘STICKY/ADHESIVE MATERIAL’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. sticky substance or material; to stick/be mired in

1. adhesive substance material; adhere/stick (via adhesive)

2. goo / ooze / slime

2. glue / liquid adhesive

3. sap / resin

3. cement / mortar / grout

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

Same as above 3 stems referring to organic-based substance

Same as above 3 stems referring to non-organic or synthetic substance

+

 

+
+

CLASS 10 ROOTS: relational concepts, identity, associations

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

L-C’   ‘SIMILARITY/SAMENESS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. similar(ity) to oneself (on another occasion)

1. same (= selfsame)

2. similar(ity) to (an)other entity/instance

2. same (= identical to (an)other entity/instance)

3. remind (one) of / reminder

3. same (= copy/replacement)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on appearance or superficial impression

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on identity or appearance

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on function, purpose or behavior

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

M-C’   ‘VALUE/WORTH/PRICE/COST’
+ (Often used in conjunction with various Quantifying and Modulative affixes from Sections 7.7.6 and 7.7.7 to show relative degree of value within context)

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of usefulness, convenience, efficacy, service, applicability]

1. cost appraisal, assessment, estimate, quote

2. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of personal desire or emotional attachment]

2. cost, expense, expenditure [what is (to be) given up or released in exchange for something, either a commercial or non-commercial context]

3. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of financial benefit or gain, profit, or remuneratively]

3. rate (of payment); formula/terms for determining payment

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on intrinsic value

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on actual value (i.e., degree to which the intrinsic value can actually be utilized, consumed or manifested)

same as above 3 stems w/ reference to cost quoted or agreed to

same as above 3 stems w/ reference to actual payment

+

SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2: 1) fee/toll or service charge 2) tithe 3) duty/tariff/levy 4) ransom 5) tax 6) dues 7) wage(s) 8) fare  9) price/charge [in money or legal tender]

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-C’ ‘POSSESSION / OWNERSHIP’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. have/possess; possession (temporary/circumstantial and alienable – e.g., a library book in one’s hand)

1. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right and in one’s immediate possession-, e.g., a hat I bought and am wearing)

2. have/possess; possession (circumstantial and affective + (quasi-) inalienable, either permanent or temporary – e.g., a medical condition, an office at work I occupy, a seat at a cinema showing)

2. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right, not necessarily in one’s immediate possession -, e.g., a hat I bought/own but am not necessarily wearing)

3. have/possess; possession (genetic, intrinsic and inalienable, but not considered property – e.g., a sibling, a child, a limb, a memory)

3. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (quasi-permanent and legally inalienable except through formal/legal separation process – e.g., a house I own, a pet dog I registered

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession

Same as above 3 stems referring to thing possessed

Same as above 3 stems referring to act/state of possession/ownership

Same as above 3 stems referring to thing owned; piece of property

+

 

+
+

CLASS 11 ROOTS: concepts relating to order, arrangement, configuration

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

F-Časpiration   ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS (ORNAMENTAL/SPECIALIZED)’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. tower

1. window opening

2. dome

2. doorway

3. spire/steeple

3. balcony/terrace

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

M-Časpiration   ‘CONTAIN / HOLD / CONTENTS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. contain(ment) via gravity (e.g., basin) + contents

Same as INFORMAL stems but in quasi-permanent context or by intrinsic nature as opposed to the INFORMAL stems which convey an incidental or circumstantial context

2. contain(ment) via enclosure / surrounding conveyance + contents

3. contain(ment) via imbuement / as ingredient; to “carry” [as integrated component or ingredient] + contents

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to contents

same as above 3 stems referring to the container

+

The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions: 1) bottle 2) jar/pot 3) barrel/cask 4) bin 5) vat / tub / basin [distinguished via SIZ affix] 6) can/tin 7) piece of furniture 8) purse/bag/satchel/pack 9) case/trunk

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Časpiration - ‘TEXTURE/TACTILE SENSATION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. texture, tactile sensation (tactile sensation + physical-emotional reaction)

1. act/process to render (an object/entity having) a particular texture (tactile sensation + physical-emotional reaction)

2. material impact/benefit/effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that consistency

2. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that consistency

3. material impact/benefit/effect of having a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

3. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of having a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. object having a particular texture

1. the texture itself

1. act/process designed to render a certain texture

1. actual results of an act or process to render a certain texture

2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that texture

2. actual material impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the object/entity having that texture

2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the entity having that texture

2. actual psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular texture to the entity having that texture

3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact/benefit of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

3. actual material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

3. actual psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture

+

SSD suffix specifies reaction:  sensuous, delightful/fun, soothing, as-expected, surprising/positive, surprising/negative, annoying/irritating, painful

+

ROOTS BELOW ARE MODELED LIKE THE ABOVE; OFTEN USED WITH DEGREE/EXTENT AFFIX

+

P-Caspiration gummy
+ T-Ċaspiration chewy
+ PL-Časpiration slimy
+ T-Caspiration sticky
+Ķ-Ċaspiration prickly
+TL-Časpiration burning, heat conductive
+Ķ-Caspiration tingly
+K-Ċaspiration soft like fur
+KL-Časpiration soft like a cushion
+ Q-Caspiration liquidy
+ Q-Ċaspiration lumpy
+ FL-Časpiration cartilaginous
+ F-Caspiration viscous
+ M-Ċaspiration rough (like sandpaper)
+ŢL-Časpiration coarse (like handling gravel)
+Ţ-Caspiration powdery
+N-Ċaspiration gritty (like fine sand)
+XL-Časpiration grainy/granular
+Ç-Caspiration mushy
+L-Ċaspiration slushy
+PS-Časpiration gooey
+ X-Caspiration slippery
+Ņ-Ċaspiration ice-cold, numbing cold
+KS-Časpiration numbing (= loss of sensation)
+ aspiration “pins & needles” sensation
+ H-Ċaspiration needle-like sharpness (e.g., a cactus)
+ PŠ-Časpiration bristly
+ S-Caspiration feathery
+ PS-Ċaspiration wispy/wafting
+ KŠ-Časpiration “cobwebby”/like cotton-candy
+ M-Caspiration curvaceous/sensual (= soft/smooth/squeezable/rounded)
+ PŞ-Ċaspiration rubbery
+ L-Časpiration hard + semi-smooth (like wood)
+ N-Caspiration hard + natural mix of smooth/rough (like a rock)
+ PL-Ċaspiration complexly textured + hard/honeycombed (like handling a pine cone)
+ R-Časpiration metallic
+ L-Caspiration plastic-like
+Ŗ-Časpiration papery
+TL-Ċaspiration sponge-like
+Ņ-Caspiration downy
+KL-Ċaspiration woolly
+Ļ-Časpiration fluffy/puffy/airy
+ H-Caspiration hairy
+ FL-Ċaspiration dusty
+ XL-Časpiration soggy/waterlogged

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Ċaspiration   ‘CONSISTENCY/MALLEABILITY/FLEXIBILITY/PLASTICITY/RHEOLOGICAL PHENOMENON’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. consistency, degree of malleability/flexibility/ plasticity

1. act/process to render (an object having) a certain consistency or degree of malleability / flexibility / plasticity

2. material impact/benefit/effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

2. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

3. material impact/benefit/effect of having a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

3. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of having a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. object having a particular consistency

1. the consistency itself

1. act/process designed to render a certain consistency or degree of malleability/plasticity

1. actual results of an act or process to render a certain consistency or degree of malleability/plasticity

2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

2. actual material impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the object/entity having that consistency

2. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the entity having that consistency

2. actual psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the entity having that consistency

3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

3. actual material impact/benefit of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

3. assumed, expected, potential, or theoretical psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

3. actual psychological or emotional impact/effect of a particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency

+

THE STEMS OF THE ROOTS BELOW ARE MODELED ON THE SAME STRUCTURE AS THE ABOVE ROOT; THESE ROOTS USE THE EXTENT/DEGREE SUFFIX TO SPECIFY THE POINT ON A SPECTRUM BETWEEN TWO EXTREMES AS INDICATED
+Ċ-Ċaspiration suppleness/pliancy/flexibility/ductility/bendability <--> stiffness/rigidity
+T-Časpiration squeezability/compressability <--> stiffness/rigidity
+ R-Caspiration sponginess <--> stiffness/rigidity
+ X-Ċaspiration elasticity <--> stiffness/rigidity
+ K-Časpiration springiness/spring <--> inertness/immobility
+ XL-Caspiration jiggliness <--> inertness/immobility
+Ç-Ċaspiration limpness/flaccidity <--> stiffness/rigidity
+Ķ-Časpiration buoyancy
+ FL-Caspiration bounce/recoil <--> inertness/immobility
+Ţ-Ċaspiration brittleness <--> resiliency
+Š-Časpiration flimsiness/fragility <--> resiliency/strength
+ KL-Caspiration flabbiness <--> cohesiveness / compactness
+ F-Ċaspiration tendency to disintegrate/crumble/fall apart <--> coherence/cohesiveness/compositional integrity
+ S-Časpiration spreadability
+ PL-Caspiration deformability / “dentability”

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Q-Časpiration   ‘GEOGRAPHICAL/GEOPOLITICAL ELEMENTS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. geographical feature or element

1. geopolitical feature or element

2. geographical area / “land”

2. geopolitical area / “land” or “country”

3. natural piece of territory

3. (piece of) property

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on geophysical feature or element

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus as natural habitat

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus as political entity

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on political boundaries/borders

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

TL-Caspiration   ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS/FORMS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. column/pillar

1. strut/buttress

2. “side”/wall (external)

2. partition

3. floor [= base/ground]

3. roof

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

same as above 3 stems referring to physical shape/form

same as above 3 stems referring to function/purpose

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

X- Časpiration   ‘MAKE/CONSTRUCT/INTEGRATE/FORM’
+ (NOTE:  This root does not refer to ‘make/create’ meaning ‘emit/secrete/produce’as in ‘make noise’ or ‘make milk’, etc.)

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. make/construct/create (non-mechanical) [= construct via integration of material resources]

1. mechanically construct / build from a design

2. to form/fashion/mix  (non-mechanical) [= combine ingredients/parts to form]

2. integrate parts / integration of parts

3. integrate/organize (non-mechanical)

3. machine / mechanical device

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on effort/work involved

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

+

NOTE:  The above meanings represent these stems as used in conjunction with the COMPLETIVE (CPT) version.  Their default PROCESSUAL (PCT) counterparts would translate as ‘plan (to)’, ‘design’, etc.
+ Derivations:  cobble together, rig, system, conspire

+
+

 

+


+ CLASS 12 ROOTS: socially or externally-induced affectations

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

L-q + hacek   ‘MUSIC’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. musical note or tone / produce [i.e., play] musical note or tone [sound + its playing]

Same as INFORMAL stems except that they apply to the production of song, i.e., vocal music or for voice with musical accompaniment

2. consciously select musical note [for purpose of composition] + sound of note

3. a musical beat or measure [sound + its playing]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. sound of musical note or tone

1. producing/playing of musical note or tone

2. sound of selected musical note

2. conscious selection of musical note [for purpose of composition]

3. sound of a musical beat or measure

3. production/playing of a musical beat or measure

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: piece of music, melody, music [abstract concept], composition, musical instrument, musician, composer, rhythm, band, orchestra, song

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

N-x + cedilla’  ‘GOODWILL/FRIENDLINESS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. being nice [= emotional/spiritual/physical support of another’s interests]

1. good samaritanship, going out of the way to help

2. goodwill, benevolent intent, kind(ness)

2. peace / fellowship

3. amicability / friendliness

3. friendship (unidirectional)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act(ions) or behavior

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on emotion or feeling

+

Derivations:  altruism, being friends, affable

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-X’    ‘CELEBRATORY ACT/ CEREMONIAL RITE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. act of jubilation (as manifestation of personal joy, contentment, freedom, self-indulgence, etc.) [both act + cause/reason]

1. solemn act of commemoration/memorial

2. act of celebration (in positive recognition of something) [both act + cause/reason]

2. solemn act of recognition/acknowledgement

3. joyful or celebratory symbolic/ceremonial rite [both act + cause/reason]

3. solemn symbolic/ceremonial rite

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

Same as above 3 stems referring to act itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  party, celebration, fête, festivities, ceremony

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

q-q + hacek   ‘SALUTATION/GREETING/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. acknowledge/demonstrate awareness of

1. greet(ings) / salutation(s)

2. hail / get attention of / bring attention to

2. formal welcome or farewell

3. congratulate

3. socially introduce / to socially present

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on purpose or desired outcome

+

SSD affix for FORMAL Stem Nos. 1 and 2 by degree:  1) bow upon arrival/introduction 2) shake hands upon arrival/introduction  3) wave hand or arm upon arrival/introduction/seeing 4)verbal salutation only upon arrival/introduction/seeing 5) words used in greeting/salutation/farewell  6) say goodbye  7) wave goodbye 8) shake hands upon farewell/leavetaking 9) bow upon farewell/leavetaking

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-X’    ‘REPUTE/NOTORIETY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. repute/reputation

1. distinction/mark

2. public image/persona

2. degree of eminence [= power or influence]

3. notoriety [= degree of renown/recognition by others]

3. degree of prestige/status

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of person reputed

same as above 3 stems referring to perspective of audience

+

This root is usually used in conjunction with the NOTORIETY affix.

+

 

+
+

CLASS 13 ROOTS: personal affect, emotion, feelings, preferences

+
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Č-Ř   ‘DEGREE OF FUN/MERRIMENT/JOVIALITY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. fun/ merriment; feel/be merry, have fun (both cause/source + feeling derived)

1. be jovial/jocular/jolly; express/manifest joviality, jollity

2. frolic, skylark = aimless, innocent pursuit of fun and amusement (both cause/source + feeling derived)

2. formal amusement (activity or cause + feeling derived), e.g., from/at party, fete, show, performance, etc.

3. whim, impulsive moment for purpose of amusement

3. revel; an instance of revelry

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of merriment derived

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of merriment/amusement derived

+

carouse, with wild abandon, spree, escapade, jaunt, romp, party, fete

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

F-Ř   ‘HUMOR/WIT/JEST’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. something funny or humorous = comical

1. a jest or prank; make a jest or pull a prank = act or situation designed to evoke humor

2. something witty = subtlely and cleverly humorous

2. a joke; make a joke  = communicated situation or message designed to evoke humor

3. something farcical = something humorous based in irony

3. something sardonic = double-edged humor based in sarcasm

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the joke or source of humor

Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus on the humorous effect/impact

+

SSD derivatives:  pun, riddle

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

h-d + cedilla   ‘LOVE/AFFECTION/EMOTIONAL BOND’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. act of affection / display of fondness or endearment

1. like / value as source of emotional fulfillment

2. familial/genetically-tied bond of love

2. love of country, heritage, race, etc.

3. romantic love

3. love of or emotional allegiance to abstract idea (e.g., freedom, life, wealth)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act or display

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the emotion/feeling itself

+

Morphological Derivations:  love, tenderness, infatuation, obsession, passion, passionate
+ SSD Derivatives from INFORMAL Stem 1:  kiss, embrace, hug, hold hand, cuddle, caress, massage, pat, wink

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

L-Ř   ‘ “HEART” / “ESSENCE” / VALUES ’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. metaphorical/psychological seat of one’s personality and emotions, i.e., “heart”, “soul”, mind

1. personal value(s)/ what one holds dearest or as most important

2. degree/depth of one’s emotions / “feelings” / experience a certain depth of emotion

2. personal virtues/ personality traits

3. essence; essential subjective/intangible qualities of an entity

3. personal principles

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

same as above 3 stems referring to volitionally controllable aspect(s) thereof

same as above 3 stems referring to non-volitional aspect(s) thereof

+

Derivations:  personality

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P- Ğ   ‘EXPERIENCE / UNDERGO A STATE OR FEELING’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of a state/feeling/emotion; feel (an) emotion [state + content]

Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of the particular emotion.

2. act or action caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling

3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on process itself

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential state/feeling itself

+

The stem patterns of the above root are applied to all of the following roots:
+ P-d + cedilla    ‘excitement/thrill’
+ Č-Ğ    ‘agitation/disquietude’
+ ST-V    ‘awe / be or feel impressed / humbleness in face of something’
+ N-Ř    ‘depression / be or feel depressed’
+ T-d + cedilla   ‘eagerness / fervor / zeal’
+ Š-Ř    ‘cordiality/benevolence’
+ X-Ğ    ‘hysteria/loss of control’
+ SX-V    ‘commitment/loyalty’  Derivations:  ‘intransigence’, ‘stubbornness’
+ PŠ-Ř    ‘tenderness/nuturing/caring’
+ Ķ-d + cedilla   ‘feel hurt/offended’
+ Ķ-Ř   ‘spite’
+ K-d + cedilla  ‘stoicism/repression’
+ Ş-Ğ  ‘nonchalance/indifference’ Derivations:  ‘callousness’
+ Ţ-Ř  ‘torpor/lethargy’ Derivations: ‘stupor’, ‘catatonia’
+ R-Ğ   ‘numbness / emotional saturation’
+ Q-V    ‘wonder/enthrallment’
+ C-V   ‘inspiration / feeling of positive energy’
+ M-V  ‘fear/fright’ Derivation:  panic
+ H-V    ‘uplift/inspiration (e.g., by beauty, art, music, etc.)
+ FL-Ğ    ‘jollity/merriment/gayness’
+ M-d + cedilla  ‘feeling carefree / frivolity / relaxed’
+ ŠX-Ř    ‘stress / feel pressured’
+ KŢ-Ř    ‘worry / feel preoccupied’
+ ŠK-d + cedilla    ‘grief / sadness from loss’
+ KS-d + cedilla  ‘angst / weltschmertz’
+ P-V    ‘regret, repining, ruefulness’
+ T-Ř   ‘woe, despair, desolation’
+ SL-V    ‘sorrow, lamentation’
+ Q-Ř   ‘wistfulness, bittersweetness’
+ X-d + cedilla    ‘bittersweet longing’ (Portuguese “saudade”)
+ T-V    ‘anticipate (something positive); feeling of anticipation (for something positive)’
+ QŢ-V  ‘feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that achievement of long-awaited vengeance or vindication is hollow and meaningless due to personal maturation or present irrelevance of original circumstances’
+ XL-V    ‘mix of humor and shame felt upon pulling joke on someone or at their expense but the target doesn’t “get it” or remains ignorant of the joke’
+ K-V  serenity, peace of mind
+ T-Ğ schadenfreude; malicious glee at another’s (implicitly deserved) discomfort or inconvenience
+ KL-d + cedilla impatience due to feeling that time/resources being wasted
+Ņ-Ř bother, annoyance (based on displeasure at or disagreement with external circumstances)
+Ķ-V bother, annoyance at self due to one’s own actions/behavior
+K-Ğ feeling of disappointment at being letdown by another
+ TL-d + cedilla feeling of disappointment/let-down at one’s own actions/behavior
+Ċ -Ř  anticipate a negative; dread
+Ċ-V  feeling of emotional maturity/superiority; feeling “above it all”
+Ķ -Ğ  feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that one can get past, and need not succumb to, feelings of defensiveness or “victimhood” upon being criticized, maligned, slandered, or disrespected
+Č-V  achievement of zen-like enlightenment through meditation
+Q-Ğ  meditative bliss
+Ņ-d + cedilla post-orgasmic/post-coital bliss; “afterglow”
+C-Ř feeling of being “on edge”; at cusp of loss-of-control or loss of one’s actions/inhibitions
+ F-V being ultra-alert with senses heightened
+ M-Ğ ecstatic/euphoric feeling of joie-de-vivre
+ L-d + cedilla feeling of inherent “connection” to or oneness with the universe through space and time
+Ç-Ř feeling of puzzlement and curiosity, a desire to solve a mystery
+Ţ-V  feeling of piquancy, stimulated curiosity, a desire for a new experience
+N-Ğ feeling of “devilishness” and spontaneous non-conformity
+Ş-d + cedilla feeling flustered at not knowing how to react or what to think
+M-Ř embarrassment due to social faux pas, behavioral misstep, or others seeing through one’s façade or airs
+Ç-V embarrassment at being unable to perform a task or activity as expected
+L-Ğ humiliation
+ N-d + cedilla poignancy, “aaaaw” reaction to irresistable cuteness
+ R-Ř material lust, avarice, greed (for sexual lust see root H-Z   ŠŬ-)
+ S-V  shock, reeling (e.g., from bad news or an unexpected discovery)
+Ņ-Ğ swooning, feeling of faintness due to emotional overload
+ S-d + cedilla repugnance, repellant feeling, disgust
+ H-Ř  discomfiture at having been socially snubbed or at being ill-prepared for a situation after believing that one was accepted or was well-prepared
+Š-d + cedilla solace, comfort in the face of sadness/grief

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Ř   ‘AFFECTIVE/NON-VOLITIONAL MENTAL STATE/PROCESS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. mood; be in a mood

1. rationalization; rationalize

2. instinct; act/behave on instinct [state + content]

2. delusion; (be) delude(d)

3. psychic phenomenon, altered state of consciousness

3. dream [state + content]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

+

SSD Derivatives for Stem 3:  1) “high”, under-the-influence of a psycho-active substance  2) hallucination; hallucinate, (observe) apparition 3) trance 4) instance of telepathy 5) (experience) premonition/vision 6) synaesthetic experience 7) sensory illusion 8) out-of-body experience  9) state of prescience/clairvoyance

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Q-d + cedilla   ‘DEGREE OF PLEASURE/FULFILLMENT/SATISFACTION/HAPPINESS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. degree of physical/sensual pleasure [both feeling and cause]

1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented pleasure/contentment [both feeling and cause]

2. degree of emotional/psychological contentment/pleasure [both feeling and cause]

2. degree of happiness
+ (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

3. degree of physical satisfaction/satiety [both feeling and cause]

3. degree of emotional/psychological satisfaction and fulfillment [both feeling and cause]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a pleasant visit’ or ‘a satisfying meal’

Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a happy home’ or ‘a fulfilling job’

+

Derivations:  gratify/gratification, satiety, ecstasy, joy

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

S-Ř   ‘PRIDE/EGO/RESPECT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. feel proud (of oneself); feeling of pride (in oneself)

1. self-esteem

2. feel proud (of someone); feeling of pride (of someone)

2. respect/admiration

3. one’s feelings/sensibilities (e.g., to hurt one’s feelings)

3. ego/sense of self-identity; to sense (some)one’s ego / to gain an impression of someone’s self-identity

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling

+

Morphological Derivatives:  arrogance/arrogant, haughtiness/haughty, pomposity/pompous, put on airs, vainglorious; magisterial/imperious

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

X-V    ‘DEGREE OF PAIN/LOSS/DISSATISFACTION/MISERY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. degree of physical pain [both feeling and cause]

1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented displeasure/discontent [both feeling and cause]

2. degree of emotional/psychological discontent/pain [both feeling and cause]

2. degree of unhappiness/misery
+ (spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and cause]

3. degree of physical dissatisfaction/lack [both feeling and cause]

3. degree of emotional/psychological dissatisfaction and loss/lack [both feeling and cause]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unpleasant visit’ or ‘a terrible meal’

Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unhappy home’ or ‘a miserable job’

+

 

+
+


+ CLASS 14 ROOTS: concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

F-Z     ‘ATTRACTION

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. feel/be attracted to (physical attraction to other person)

1. feel/be attracted/drawn to (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

2. feel/be attractive (physical attraction to other person)

2. be attractive/seductive (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing, idea or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

3. act/gesture indicating or hinting of attraction to; “(give) clue/hint” (physical attraction to other person)

3. “selling point” / a “pro” (vs. “con”)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of others

Same as above 3 stems referring to viewpoint of party feeling attraction

+

MORPHOLOGICAL Derivations:  seduce, seduction

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

H-Z    ‘ROMANTIC AND/OR SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1.  state of sexual/romantic relationship

1. significant other / boyfriend or girlfriend

2.  erotic/sexual act; engage in a sexual/erotic activity

2. lover / sex partner

3.  to date / to court; pursue romantic relationship

3. dating partner

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. sexual/romantic relationship itself

1. emotional / hormonal basis underlying sexual relationship

1. boyfriend

1. girlfriend

2. sexual/erotic act itself

2. feeling of lust or other motive underlying sexual act

2. male lover

2. female lover

3. particular act involved in dating or courtship

3. feeling of hope or long-term goal of monogamous relationship or marriage underlying pursuit of romantic relationship

3. male dating partner

3. female dating partner

+

MORPHOLOGICAL Derivations:  have sex, make love, cheat, monogamous relationship

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

H-Ž   ‘CONFLICT-BASED HOSTILITY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. hostility / anger / be angry [both emotion and display/actions]

1. authoritative/official (i.e., police/military, etc.) use of force / act of aggression

2. threat(en) [reason for plus act]

2. threat of official/authoritative use of force

3. defend oneself / defense [reason for plus act]

3. official/authoritative defense

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. feeling of anger

1. show/display of anger

1. rationale/cause behind military agression

1. official/authoritative act of force/agression

2. cause/rationale for threat

2. effect of threat or being threatened

2. cause/rationale for official/authoritative/ military threat

2. effect of official/authoritative/ military threat or being threatened

3. situation/rationale for defensive act

3. defend / take defensive action

3. situation/rationale for official/authoritative/ military defensive act

3. defend / take official/authoritative/ military defensive action

+

Derivations:  peeved, conflict, intimidate, fight, battle, skirmish, military operation or campaign, war

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K-Z     ‘TRANSFER OF POSSESSION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. temporary, circumstantial, incidental direct transfer of possession (i.e., give / take)

1. quasi-permanent or official transfer of possession (i.e., rendering/reception; render, receive)

2. temporary, circumstantial, incidental indirect transfer (i.e., to leave for someone / to take based on discernment of availability)

2. quasi-permanent or official transfer (i.e., bestowal or bequest/acquisition; bestow/acquire)

3. temporary, circumstantial, incidental transfer over distance (i.e., to bring something / to leave with something)

3. deliver/take ownership of

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. give, lend

1. take, borrow

1. donate; donation

1. receive; reception

2. leave (something for someone), make available

2. get, obtain

2. leave to heir

2. inherit; inheritance

3. thing given, gift (given)

3. thing taken, gift (taken)

3. bestow; bequest

3. acquire; acquisition

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  procure(ment), requisition, accept (= willingly receive)

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

L-Z     ‘MANAGE/GUIDANCE/COMPLIANCE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. guide / guideline + compliance

1. rule, precept + obedience

2. manage / direct + compliance

2. preside over / mete out law / govern + abidance

3. discipline + submission/obedience

3. moral guideline + personal rectitude

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. guide / guideline

1. follow guide / follow guideline

1. rule, precept

1. obey rule or precept

2. manage / direct

2. comply / follow direction(s)

2. preside over / met out law / govern

2. abide by law / obey law

3. apply discipline

3. submit to discipline

3. moral guideline

3. personal rectitude

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: guidance, management, morality, law, president, ruler; set of rules, steer, administer, order, drive; oversee, custom, “norm”, authority

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

N-Z - ‘SOCIAL INTERRELATION/INTERACTION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. act/state of social interaction/interrelation + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

1. expected/natural role of member of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

2. act/state of “dominant” or initiating partner in social interaction/relationship

2. expected/natural role of “dominant” or initiating partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

3. act/state of “passive” or secondary/complementary partner in social interaction/relationship

3. expected/natural role of “passive” or secondary or complementary partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems with focus on act/state of social interaction or interrelation itself

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on benefits, consequences, or implications of act/state of social interaction or interrelation

Same as above 3 stems with focus on act/state of social interaction or interrelation itself

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on benefits, consequences, or implications of act/state of social interaction or interrelation

+

Note:  The above root (and those immediately below) are likely to be used in conjunction with the various Valence categories (see Section XXX) to specify the exact nature of the relationship between the parties involved.  Note also that, for relationships where the parties are acting in equivalent roles or positions of equal stature (i.e., no “dominant” vs. “passive” roles), use of Stems 2 and 3 above would be inapplicable.

+

THE STEMS OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS DESCRIBING SPECIFIC TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS ARE STRUCTURED IDENTICALLY WITH THE ROOT ABOVE:
+Ķ-Ž   close loving friendship
+ x-cedilla-Z  business partnership
+ K-Ž   marriage
+ M-Z,  temporary or youthful romantic dalliance/lovers (with or without involving sex)
+ F-Ž   sexual partners
+ N-Z,  club members
+Ţ-Ž   fellow hobbyists or enthusiasts
+L-Z,  fan + celebrity
+Ç-Ž   sage + disciples
+Ņ -Z  “center of attention” + sycophants
+X-Ž   master/servant
+Ķ-Z  sibling relations
+X,-Ž   fellowship, “band of brothers”, fraternity, sorority, etc.
+Ţ-Z  members of secret society
+S-Ž   members of stigmatized/isolated/oppressed societal group
+Ç-Z  owner + pet
+M-Ž   co-workers/associates
+PL-Z  co-authors/creators of joint opus or artistic work
+L-Ž   autocrat or autarch + subjects
+TL-Z  official/agent of authority + supplicant/petitioner/applicant
+Ņ-Ž   interviewer/interrogator + interviewee
+KL-Z  seller + buyer
+PL-Ž   members of same religion or belief system
+FL-Z  members of holy order or spiritual fellowship
+TL-Ž   members of business/executive management
+ŢL-Z  strangers brought together by circumstances of the moment
+KL-Ž   romantic love relationship
+XL-Z  parent-child relationship
+FL-Ž   relationship between business associates
+Ŗ-Z  supervisor/boss + employee
+ŢL-Ž   partners or team members in sporting match or sporting activity
+Ļ-Z  adversaries or opposing team members in sporting match or sporting activity
+XL-Ž   socially adversarial based on social one-upmanship/ego gratification
+ x-cedilla-Z,  socially adversarial based on enmity/hatred
+ PŢ-Ž   relationship based on compulsion/threat
+ X-Z,  adversarial based on a feud
+ KŢ -Ž   adversarial based on jealousy/coveting of one’s situation
+Ç-Z,  adversarial based on material envy/coveting of one’s possessions
+QŢ -Ž   enmity based on revenge
+Ţ-Z,  adversarial based on anger/resentment
+SL-Ž   allies
+F-Z,  predator + prey
+SP-Ž   invader + invadee
+Q-Z,  co-participants in general activity
+ST-Ž   matchmaker + parties being matched
+Ņ-Z  member of couple being matched or “set up” with each other
+SK-Ž   lender + borrower
+Ķ-Z,  perpetrator + victim
+SF-Ž   traders/barterers
+K-Z,  lessor + lessee
+SŢ-Ž   creditor + debtor
+T-Z,  advisor + party seeking advise
+SX-Ž   warring parties
+P-Z,  entertainer/emcee + audience
+R-Ž   speaker/speechmaker/presenter + audience

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

N-Ž    ‘MARITAL/SPOUSAL RELATIONSHIP’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1.  state of marriage / marital state / state of being married

1. spouse

2. act of infidelity / extramarital liaison / to be unfaithful / to betray spouse

2. extramarital sex partner / mistress or gigolo

3.  betrothal / engagement; be betrothed, be engaged

3. fiancé(e) / being a fiancé(e)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1.  formal/legal state of marriage

1. emotional bond of love/fidelity underlying marriage

1. husband

1. wife

2. physical act of infidelity/betrayal

2. breaking of emotional bond underlying marriage

2. gigolo, kept man (male equivalent of mistress)

2. mistress

3. formal/legal status of being betrothed/engaged

3. emotional bond of love/fealty underlying betrothal/engagement

3. fiancé

3. fiancée

+

 

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  wed, wedded, marry, get married, marriage, wedding ceremony, cuckold (male or female)

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Z     ‘EXCHANGE/PURCHASE’
+ Note: The stems below are generally used in conjunction with PROCESSUAL versus COMPLETIVE version (See Secs. 5.3.1 and 5.3.2) in order to distinguish an offer of exchange from a completed exchange. Alternately, the distinction between MONOACTIVE and COMPLEMENTARY valence (Sec. 5.2) can be used for the same purpose.

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. exchange / swap

1. act of trade / act of barter

2. substitute / transpose / interchange

2. purchase / commercial transaction; buy(ing) and sell(ing)

3. change out / supplant / replace

3. invest(ment)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. exchange (focus on entity given)

1. exchange (focus on entity taken)

1. to trade for / acquire through trade; act of acquiring via trade

1. to trade away / give up through trade; act of given away via trade

2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted into new function/place)

2. substitute / transpose / interchange (focus on entity substituted out of old function/place)

2. buy; acquisition via purchase

2. sell; act of selling

3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity newly placed)

3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity taken out of action)

3. acquire via investment; act of acquisition via investment

3. release interest in / sell one’s investment

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: commercial venture, a purchase, acquisition via trade, acquisition via investment; purvey, goods, thing sold, market, warehouse, buyer, seller, agent, business

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Ž  - ‘MASTERY/AUTHORITY/SERVITUDE/OBEDIENCE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. act/state of mastery/ownership/overlordship + servitude/subservience/subjugation to that mastery

1. military command/office + obedience/following of orders

2. act/state of supervision or formal oversight + following of orders/instructions

2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight by noble right + recognition/submission to that rule

3. take charge of; act/state of leadership + following that leadership

3. formal authorization, appointed/elected authority / political authority; being official, being authorized + recognition/compliance with that authority

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. act/state of mastery, ownership, overlordship

1. servitude, subservience, subjugation to mastery or overlordship

1. military command/office

1. obedience/following of military orders

2. act/state of supervision or formal oversight

2. following of orders or instructions from super-visor/overseer

2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight by noble claim or “right”

2. recognition/submission to claim of noble rule

3. take charge of; act/state of leadership

3. follow/obey a leader

3. formal authorization, appointed/elected authority / political authority; being official, being authorized

3. recognition/compliance with appointed, elected, official/political authority

+

Morphological derivatives: boss, supervisor, master, owner, lord, commander, leader, person-in-charge, officer
+ SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1:  general, commodore, admiral, colonel, major, captain, lieutenant

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Q-Ž  - ‘PSYCHOLOGICAL or PSYCHO-LINGUISTIC MANIPULATION/TREATMENT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. to fool someone (into doing/believing something); state of being fooled

1. state of delusion (both state + content)

2. to “play games” (with someone) = mentally manipulate via words/behavior/actions; state of being toyed with mentally

2. means of psychiatric treatment; component of psychotherapy

3. be mesmerized, entranced (by something)

3. hypnotic state; be hypnotized

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

same as above 3 stems referring to state or process itself

same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof

+

Derivations:  to delude, to hypnotize, to “do a number” on someone mentally, to entrance

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

R-Z    ‘EFFORT/WORK’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. exert / expend energy

1. perform / operate / act / function

2. work / labor / effort

2. job task / employment-related task; perform job task

3. handiwork / craftsmanship

3. act of industry or enterprise

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

Same as above 3 stems referring to activity itself

Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: strain, struggle, “fight”, toil, strenuous, persevere, operation, job, achievement, industry, enterprise, employment, employer, employee

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-Z   ‘OCCUPANCY/RESIDENCY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. entity present + presence

1. tenant + domicile

2. occupant + place occupied

2. resident + residence

3. denizen + claimed property

3. citizen + property

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. entity present

1. presence of entity

1. tenant

1. domicile

2. occupant

2. place occupied

2. resident

2. residence

3. denizen

3. claimed property

3. citizen

3. property

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dwelling, quarters, population, community, town, village, city, hamlet, county, geopolitical area, state/province, nation, geopolitical bloc; nest, lair, den

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-Ž   ‘MANNERS/DECORUM/DIGNITY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. well-mannered, well-behaved; display a sense of manners

1. decorum/cultural appropriateness; have/display a sense of decorum, politeness and civility

2. dignified; have/display a sense of dignity

2. courtly/stately/refined; stateliness

3. noble, distinguished, cultivated; have/display a noble, distinguished or cultivated air

3. aristocratic, well-bred; having/displaying a sense of aristocracy, nobility and breeding

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the cause

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect

+

Morphological derivatives:  polite(ness); courtesy/courteous

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

X-Z   ‘GRATITUDE/THANKFULNESS/PRAISE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to unexpected favor or convenience performed

1. praise

2. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to being relieved/rescued from negative situation

2. gratefulness; feeling or manifestation of being beholden to someone or something [feeling is justified and an honor to be feeling]

3. thank(s) / offer gratitude within ironic circumstances or merely as a courtesy, i.e., where expectation of thanks is for an unwanted, unnecessary, or purely symbolic act or required little or no effort on doer’s part

3. feeling or manifestation of being beholden or obliged to someone or something [feeling is resented and unwanted]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems with focus on intent to convey gratitude

same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of gratitude

same as above 3 stems with focus on desire/intent to convey the feeling

same as above 3 stems with focus on actual display of the feeling

+

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  worship, indebted(ness)

+

 

+
+


+ CLASS 15 ROOTS: concepts relating to existence, state, occurrence, subjectiveness

+
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K-R  ‘APPEARANCE/SEMBLANCE/IMPRESSION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. appear to be/seem/look as if/give (off) the impression of; appearance/semblance/impression

1. ostensible/ostensibly

2. on the face of it, on first blush

2. resemble, look like

3. on the surface/superficially/seemingly

3. façade, veneer

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing giving off the impression or appearance

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on affective impression to the observer

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

M-J   ‘HAPPEN/OCCUR(ENCE)/MANIFEST/EVENT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. happen / occur / take place / to “pass”

1. step / act / action

2. manifest / be or make real / reify

2. phenomenon

3. event (spacio-temporal context)

3. incident

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on physical manifestation itself

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect or consequence

+

Various derivations from the above stems:  turn out, situation, chain of events, doings, process, phase, deed, result(s), consequence(s)

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-J   ‘EXISTENCE/ONTOLOGY/METAPHYSICS’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. exist objectively; something that exists; be(ing) [both ontological and metaphysical]

Same as INFORMAL stems except in reference to epistemological context [i.e., in relation to knowledge/awareness of ontological or metaphysical existence]

2. law of nature / existential axiom

3. natural/inherent

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to ontology / ontological aspect

same as above 3 stems referring to metaphysics / metaphysical aspect

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

K- z-bar    ‘TRANSCENDENCE / SPIRIT / RELIGION’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. one’s spirit or soul / transcendent “connection” to the universe

1. religious belief

2. universal oneness / metaphysical interconnectedness between all things

2. feeling of religious fervor or zeal

3. striving/quest for ultimate destiny/purpose/”Omega point”

3. striving/quest for salvation/redemption/enlightment (specific to particular religion)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

same as above 3 stems referring to ontological nature

same as above 3 stems referring to belief/faith therein

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-R  ‘APPEAR/MANIFEST/SHOW/EXHIBIT/DISPLAY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. appear/manifest/show = be/make observable to the senses of others; manifestation, appearance

1. exhibit; display

2. expose; exposure

2. show off, flaunt

3. bring/call attention to = make others aware of the appearance/showing of something

3. announce; advertise

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of manifestation/showing

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing manifested or shown

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of exhibiting or display

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on thing exhibited or displayed

+

Morphological derivations:  demonstrate, flourish, show off, display, spectacle, parade, promenade, procession, ostentation, gaudy, garish, pomp, pompous

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

SP-R   ‘MANNERCONDUCT/BEHAVIOR/DEMEANOR’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. manner (= the way something or someone acts or behaves)

1. method, the way something happens, course of action; conduct

2. guise, form; to take the form/guise of

2. behave/comport/conduct onself = outward display of one’s personality/thoughts/emotions/motives; behavior/conduct/deportment

3. practice/policy

3. bearing/carriage/demeanor

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the manner/form/practice itself

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the method or behavior itself

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the effect, impact or outcome

+

Morphological Derivatives:  process, procedure, regimen, strategy

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

X-J   ‘TEMPORARY ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence + manifestation/effect]

1. zone of high or low barometric pressure relative to surrounding pressure

2. flash of lightning + peal of thunder [electrical phenomenon + associated sound]

2. cold or warm air front

3. cloud [in the sky]

3. eye of a storm

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical occurrence]

1. manifestation/effect of momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon

1. low pressure zone

1. high pressure zone

2. flash of lightning

2. peal of thunder

2. cold air front

2. warm air front

3. cloud [in the sky] – physical occurrence

3. impact/effect of cloud [in the sky], e.g., its hiding of the sun, it causing zero visibility as a plane flies through it, etc.

3. eye of storm [physical occurrence]

3. short-lived calm/still conditions associated with the eye of a storm

+

 

+
+

CLASS 16 ROOTS: concepts relating to individual volition and choice

+
+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

C-H     ‘PLAY/RECREATION/LEISURE’
+ (These stems are often used with the various Valence categories (Section 5.2) to specify the manner of participation)

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. play/recreate/amuse oneself (activity + feeling of enjoyment derived) = self-involved activity, e.g., play w/ a toy, play hide-and-seek, etc.

1. play/recreate (activity + feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived) = formal rule-oriented activity, e.g., a board game, a sport, etc.

2. element of participitory or self-involved leisure activity (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived), e.g., a dance, a hike, fishing, camping

2. attend/view a formal entertainment (activity + feeling of enjoyment/diversion derived), e.g., view a show, live performance, movie, a sporting event, etc.)

3. practice hobby or pastime (activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived)

3. engage in (a) sport activity (activity + feeling of competitive spirit) for motive of formal competition, e.g., victory-oriented

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed, i.e., a toy, game or diversion

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the thing/activity being enjoyed

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the feeeling of amusement/enjoyment derived

+

SSD Derivatives:
+ sports, toys, traditional board games, participitory outdoor games

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Č-H     ‘DEGREE OF WAKEFULNESS OR CONSCIOUSNESS’
+ Note: Stems from this root are used in conjunction with various degree indicator affixes such as the EXN, EXD and SUF affixes from Sec. 7.7.6 in order to distinguish which polarity (awake vs. asleep) is implied.

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. degree of consciousness or unconsciousness

1. degree of activity/vivaciousness/“energy”

2. degree of wakefulness or sleepiness

2. degree of dormancy or hibernation

3. degree of alertness/focus/attention/awareness or lack thereof

3. degree of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. capacity for or faculty of consciousness

1. object/entity/thought of which one is conscious

1. state of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

1. object of activity / vivaciousness / liveliness / energy

2. capacity for or faculty of wakefulness/sleepiness

2. that which stimulates awakening or lulls into sleep

2. state of dormancy/hibernation

2. object of dormancy/hibernation

3. capacity for or faculty of alertness/attention/awareness

3. that to or of which one is alert/attentive/aware

3. state of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

3. object of one’s intent/diligence/enterprise

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sleepy, listless(ness), grogginess, “fresh”, unconscious, dull, inattentive, vigilant, to “stir”, frisky, ardent, eager, persevere, bustling, zeal

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-H   ‘SEEK/SEARCH’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. search, seek, look for something unknown [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

1. hunt, hunt for [i.e., location/existence uncertain]

2. search, seek, look for something lost [i.e., something known to exist which is missing]

2. pursue, track down [i.e., existence certain, location surmisable]

3. inspect

3. quest / seek to accomplish/achieve something

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

same as above 3 stems w/ reference to search/quest itself

same as above 3 stems w/ reference to thing being looked for or sought

+

Morphological Derivations: find, scan, reconnoiter, ransack, pry, ferret out, winnow through, fulfill a quest

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-X     ‘WANT/DESIRE/REQUEST’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. affective (i.e., unwilled) want/desire [emotion + object of desire]

1. request [desire + thing requested]

2. conscious desire based on need/lack/goal

2. need/lack/necessity + thing needed or lacking

3. hope/wish [feeling + thing wished/hoped for]

3. ambition/goal/aspiration; aspire

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire

same as above 3 stems referring to the thing desired

same as above 3 stems referring to the feeling of desire/need

same as above 3 stems referring to the thing requested/needed

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: whim, fancy, inclination, appetite, “hunger”, greed, covet, propensity, aptness, eagerness, longing, crave, urge, passion, attract, tempt, persuade, allure, popularity, demand

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Q-H - ‘HUNTING & GATHERING/PLANTING & HARVESTING/SUBSISTENCE FROM THE LAND’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. searching for and gathering/collection of plants, vegetable matter for purposes of sustenance

1. plant/sow and harvest an annual crop

2. nomadic hunting/harvesting, subsistance-style nomadic sustenance [practices + products]

2. plant/sow and harvest a permanent seasonal crop (e.g., vines, trees, bushes, etc.)

3. live off the land [hunting/gathering practice + product(s) derived]

3. manage crop(s) and practice animal husbandry [sowing/raising + reaping/product(s) derived]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the hunting or gathering process

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the products hunted or gathered

1. till/plow & plant seeds or seedlings

1.  harvest/reap an annual crop

2. raise/grow a permanent seasonal crop

2. harvest/reap a permanent seasonal crop

3. raise/grow crop(s) & manage domesticated food-producing animal(s)

3. harvest/reap crop products and process/collect animal products

+

Morphological Derivations:  to farm, a farm, practice agriculture

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-H   ‘CHOICE/ALTERNTIVE’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. choose/choice [from open selection]

1. select/pick [from limited selection]

2. prefer(ence)

2. alternative/option

3. settle (for)

3. vote [w/ CPT = elect]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on act of choosing/preferring

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on choice or preference made

+

 

+
+

CLASS 17 ROOTS: temporal concepts

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

k-j + hacek    ‘DAY/NIGHT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. day [= 24-hour period]

same as for INFORMAL stems except applied to a particular date or scheduled day as in “my first day at work” or “Independence Day”

2. sky

3. degree of sunlight [use with EXN, EXD, SUF affixes, etc. from Sec. 7.7.6]

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. daytime

1. nighttime

2. daytime sky

2. nighttime sky

3. daylight

3. natural darkness

+

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dawn, sunrise, daybreak, evening, sunset, twilight, morning, evening, afternoon, mid-day, noontime, midnight, the “wee” hours [= Spanish ‘madrugada’]

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

M-Ķ   ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION LESS THAN ONE DAY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. moment/instant

1. ‘second’ [= basic unit of cyclic time, based on clapping of hands once together then once with back of hands together]

2. a ‘while’

2. ‘minute’ = 100 seconds

3. portion of a day

3. ‘hour’ = 100 minutes

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

+

SSD affix used with FORMAL stems by degree:  1) 1/100 of time period 2) 1/10 3) ¼ 4) ½  5) exactly/precisely 6) twice the duration 7) 4 times 8) 10 times 9) 100 times

+

SSD affix used with INFORMAL Stem No. 3 by degree:  1) midnight to dawn period [Spanish ‘madrugada’] 2) dawn [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunrise’] 3) early morning 4) morning 5) midday 6) afternoon [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunset’] 7) twilight 8) evening 9) late night, from darkness till midnight

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

N-Ķ   ‘WAIT/AWAIT’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. wait (for), await; waiting, a wait

1. vigil/a watch; be vigilant/watchful

2. expect; expectation; expected/impending

2. foresee; foresight; prospective/foreseeable

3. predict; prediction

3. prognosticate, forecast

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the process

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on what is awaited, expected, predicted

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

P-Ķ   ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION MORE THAN ONE DAY’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. expanse of time/period/duration more than 1 day

1. subjective long-term period/era

2. lunar period / month

2. geologic era

3. solar year

3. ‘lifetime’; timespan from beginning to end of something

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

Same as above three stems w/ focus on elapsed time

Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which

+

Use of SSD affix give equivalents to ‘decade’, ‘century,’ ‘millenium’, etc.

+

 

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

T-Ķ   ‘SEASON’

INFORMAL Stems

FORMAL Stems

1. season, time of year

1.  social behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., celebration, recreation, vacation, etc.)

2. weather associated w/ particular season / seasonal weather

2. weather-determined practice/behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., migration, mating, nesting, hibernation, etc.)

3. cyclic state/condition of flora/fauna associated with a particular season

3. practice/behavior/custom relating to maintenance/upkeep of crops, game and other material resources associated with a particular season (e.g., foraging, hunting, planting, harvest, storage, etc.)

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

COMPLEMENTARY Stems

Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

Same as above 3 stems referring to the timeframe itself relative to the greater annual cycle or calendar year

Same as above 3 stems referring to the context of the season itself irrespective of the greater annual cycle

+

THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS:
+ R-Ķ    ‘SPRING’
+ L-Ķ    ‘SUMMER’
+ S-Ķ    ‘AUTUMN/FALL’
+ C -Ķ    ‘WINTER’
+ PS-Ķ    ‘TROPICAL RAINY SEASON’
+ TL-Ķ    ‘TROPICAL DRY SEASON’

+
+

+


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+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
 2 + Morpho-Phonology 7a + Using Affixes 12 + The Number System
  3 + Basic Morphology7b + Using Affixes (continued) The + Lexicon
 4 + Case Morphology  8 + Adjuncts
+

©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website.

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