A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language

From 7334b17885e12dcbf2cf425e8a5db21d780fb004 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: uakci Date: Fri, 18 Dec 2020 20:53:54 +0100 Subject: new mirror data thanks to kiepier --- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html | 2137 +++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 2137 insertions(+) create mode 100755 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html (limited to '2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html') diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..aabc14d --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html @@ -0,0 +1,2137 @@ + + + +A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology + + + + + + + +

Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language
+

+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Home	5a + Verb Morphology	9 + Syntax
Introduction	5b + Verb Morphology (continued)	10 + Lexico-Semantics
1 + Phonology	6 + More Verb Morphology	11 + The Script
2 + Morpho-Phonology	7a + Using Affixes	12 + The Number System
3 + Basic Morphology	7b + Using Affixes (continued)	The + Lexicon
4 + Case Morphology	8 + Adjuncts	Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh

Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

2.1 Grammatical Typology	2.5 Vocalic Mutation
2.2 Root and Stem Formation	2.6 Parts of Speech
2.3 Semantic Instantiation of Stems	2.7 Affixes
2.4 Consonantal Mutation	2.8 Note On Terminology

Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., + singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.

+ + + + +

2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY

The general method in which a language structures its morpho-phonology + determines what is known as its grammatical type. There are generally four distinct + grammatical types: analytic, agglutinative, synthetic, and polysynthetic.

Analytic languages (also called isolating languages) + rely on separate individual function words such as prepositions, determiners + and auxiliaries to morphologically manipulate root nouns and verbs. Example + languages are Chinese and Vietnamese.

Agglutinative languages rely upon affixes (e.g., prefixes, + suffixes) added one-by-one onto roots to morphologically manipulate words. Example + languages are Turkish, Japanese, Swahili, and Esperanto.

Synthetic languages (also called fusional, flexional, + or inflecting languages) manipulate word roots via internal phonetic manipulation + and/or via affixes which function in multiple functional roles (known as “portmanteau” + affixes). Examples are Latin, Russian, and Sanskrit.

Polysynthetic (sometimes called incorporating) languages + generally do not have pre-designated words, but rather join together semantic-formative + elements in sequential fashion, each resulting “string” constituting + a single word conveying an entire sentence of information. Examples are Inuit + (Eskimo), Shawnee, and many other American Indian languages, as well as several + Paleo-Siberian languages.

Many languages rely upon a mixture of the above in their morpho-phonology. + For example, the Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian, etc.) are primarily + analytic, secondarily synthetic, and occasionally agglutinative. On the other + hand, English is primarily analytic, secondarily agglutinative, and occasionally + synthetic.

Ithkuil morpho-phonology is primarily synthetic and secondarily + agglutinative. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily via phonetic modification of the word stem itself and secondarily + via affixation. Specifically, Ithkuil morpho-phonology utilizes both consonantal + and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different + kinds of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.

For example, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the + Ithkuil word (Listen: + ). + The stem of this word, ciùk, + meaning ‘derived product of a ewe,’ has been completely transformed + into the nearly unrecognizable form , + all due to the systematic mutation of its consonants and vowels. To this stem, + are then added the prefix eu-, + an infix -w-, + and the affix -[V1]t’, + where [V1] represents a vowel increment to be determined + by other morphological factors. As a result the simple root is transformed into + a word containing no less than eleven morphemes (i.e., eleven semantically distinct + word-components). These eleven morphemes and the mutation and affixation process + by which they combine to create this word can be analyzed as follows:

+ =

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Morphological + Category + +	Specific + morpheme	Shown + by:
STEM:	ciùk + < + root: c + + k + “sheep” + = “derived product of ewe”
Perspective:	ABSTRACT	(preantepenultimate + stress)
Affiliation:	COALESCENT	(prefix eu- + in conjunction with TERMINATIVE extension)
Extension: +	TERMINATIVE	(prefix eu- + in conjunction with COALESCENT affiliation)
Configuration:	COHERENT	(Grade 7 mutation of + C1 radical)
Focus:	POSITIVE FOCUS	(-w- + infix immediately following C1 radical)
Designation:	FORMAL	(Form II of root-vowel + mutation)
Essence:	REPRESENTATIVE	(Secondary Mode of + root-vowel mutation)
Case:	REFERENTIAL	(Series E root-vowel + mutation + Grade 4 mutation of C2 radical)
Context:	AMALGAMATE	(high tone)
Affix:	V1t’- + (8th degree) = specific derivation of stem (in this case: "ewe's wool")

APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION: “concerning a hypothetical diminishing in everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing”
+

+ + + + +

2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION

All words in Ithkuil which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic or disyllabic stem, which + in turn derives from an semantically abstract root. This process + is explained in the sections below.

+ 2.2.1 The Root

The root in Ithkuil forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a combination + of two consonantal forms, C1 and C2, + each of which we will call a radical. Together they create an interfix, + that is, an affix consisting of two parts, between which some other morpho-phonological + element is infixed (i.e., inserted). We will see that it is vowels + that will be infixed between the two radicals, . These radicals can consist + of a single consonant or a biconsonantal conjunct (i.e., made up of two consonants). + There are 60 possible forms for C1 and + 60 possible forms for C2, giving a total + of 3600 possible roots. Examples of these C1 + + C2 radical interfixes are shown below.

+ + + + + + + +

p + + x

tr + + c’

ks + +

xl + +

The root is the basic semantic unit in Ithkuil. For example, + the radical interfix t+r + is a root whose semantic referent is NAME/DESIGNATION. + To generate functional word-stems (or simply stems) from the + roots, vowels are infixed into the C1+C2 + radical interfix. For example, a vowel such as a + would be infixed into the radical interfix t+r + to give the stem tar, + an Ithkuil word for ‘name.’ The manner in which such vowels are + infixed into radical interfixes to form stems is entirely systematic but quite + complex. It is described in the next several sections.

+ 2.2.2 The Stem

The Ithkuil semantic root described in the previous section, + in turn diversifies into stems which are the actual bases of words in Ithkuil. + Furthermore, the stems of each root in turn divide into different Forms, Modes + and Patterns, all of which change the actual vowels infixed into the root. These + different vowel patternings for each stem are used to help differentiate the + complex array of morphological categories available to any stem. The specifics + of how Form, Mode, and Pattern operate for each stem are discussed below.

+ 2.2.3 Pattern, Form, and Mode

There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ithkuil roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate Patterns, + which in turn come in two Forms. Furthermore, this array of + Pattern and Form is duplicated within a two-fold framework called Mode. + Thus, each stem has twelve different vowel patternings associated with it, as + shown in Table 5 below.

+ Table 5: Vocalic Infixes for Stems + by Mode, Pattern and Form

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

		Primary + Mode			Secondary + Mode
		Pattern + 1	Pattern + 2	Pattern + 3	Pattern + 1	Pattern + 2	Pattern + 3
Form + I	stem + 1	a	e	ä	aî	eì	aì
	stem + 2	u	o	ö	uî	oi	uì
	stem + 3	i	ë	ü	eî	oì	ëì
Form + II	stem + 1	â	ê	ae	aû	aè	aù
	stem + 2	û	ô	ø	oû	où	ëù
	stem + 3	î	ÿ	iu	eû	eù	iù

The three patterns are labelled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a holistic stem and two complementary sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem spouse, with its two complementary + sub-stems husband and wife. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ithkuil systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ithkuil + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while + having such a small number of semantic word roots.

The two forms are labelled Form I and Form II. In Section + 3.7 we will see how Form is used to indicate a morphological category called + Designation. Designation is an important concept, in that, + like Pattern above, it operates to make morphological distinctions within a + stem that, in languages like English, often entail lexical differences, e.g., + the difference between English tool versus utensil.

Lastly, there are two modes, labelled Primary and Secondary. + Mode is used to signify a rather complex morphological category called Essence, + detailed in Section + 3.8. It differentiates “alternate” versions of entities within + hypothetical, imagined, or representational contexts, which would otherwise + be contradictory or nonsensical. An example would be the word ‘boy’ + in the sentence The brown-eyed boy had blue eyes (e.g., in the newspaper + account). A stem’s Essence category does not change its underlying meaning.

+ + + + +

2.3 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS

We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. First of all, because Mode distinguishes a morphological + category (Essence) that does not change a stem’s underlying meaning, it + will be ignored in the analysis below. We will start with the six stems (three + for each Form) associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.

+ 2.3.1 Holistic Stems

The three stems for Form I, Pattern 1, have the designated + vowels a, u, and i. Thus, + the previously mentioned root t+r + generates the following stems:

+
1. tar + ‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’
+ 2. tur ‘designation + or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’
+ 3. tir ‘a + (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary + or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’
+

The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying + root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem + 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation + of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible + manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem + 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of + Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship + between the individual stems for the root t+r + above with that of the Form I root x+n + (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below.

+
1. xan + ‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’
+ 2. xun ‘an + eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’
+ 3. xin ‘an + image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’
+

Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology. It should also be noted that the meanings given for the verb forms + above are approximate and incomplete, as we will see later that the exact meaning + of a verb form in Ithkuil is determined by the important morphological categories + of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see Section + 5.4).

Looking at the Form II counterparts of the above two roots + below shows a difference in meaning from the Form I stems as determined by the + morphological shift in Designation earlier described. While Form I implies a + temporary, contextual interpretation, Form II implies a permanent, authoritative + interpretation beyond the mere context of a specific utterance. Note that the + vowel infixes associated with the three stems of Form II are â, + û, and î, as shown above in Table + 5.

+
1. târ + ‘title; to (be) title(d)’
+ 2. tûr + ‘formal designation, label; to label’
+ 3. tîr + ‘formal role; to function in a formal role’
+
1. xân + ‘visual observation; to visually observe’
+ 2. xûn + ‘optical device; to use an optical device’
+ 3. xîn + ‘a rendered image; to render an image’
+

+ 2.3.2 Complementary Stems

Any Ithkuil stem is capable of being further broken down into + two complementary stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems.

By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil, + for example, words such as male, night, speech, sit, + and happen are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole.

Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male + has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) + from the underlying concept translatable as day (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of speak(ing) divides into complementary concepts + of talking (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus + saying/telling (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound). +

Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word happen + or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as + event or situation.

2.3.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by mutation of the holistic stem vowel from Pattern 1 into Pattern 2, e.g., + tal + tel, while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation + from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., tal + + täl. Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:

Form I examples:

+ + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	qum: + human being, person
1st + Comp. Stem	qom: + male person
2nd + Comp. Stem	qöm: + female person

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	klad: + flow of water
1st + Comp. Stem	kled: + the water component of a flow of water
2nd + Comp. Stem	kläd: + the channel or course of a flow of water

+
+ + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	til: + an act of written composition; to compose something in writing
1st + Comp. Stem	tël: + the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition
2nd + Comp. Stem	tül: + the written content or message of a composition; to create written + content

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	xan: + sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing + seen)
1st + Comp. Stem	xen: + an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see + with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting
2nd + Comp. Stem	xän: + a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image

+ Form II examples:

+ + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	qûm: + an official
1st + Comp. Stem	qôm: + male official
2nd + Comp. Stem	qøm: + female official

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	klâd: + a river
1st + Comp. Stem	klêd: + the water in a river
2nd + Comp. Stem	klaed: + a riverbed

+
+ + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	tîl: + an act of creating a formal writing; to compose a formal written work
1st + Comp. Stem	tÿl: + physical act of composing a formal written work; to physically write + a work
2nd + Comp. Stem	tiul: + the content(s) of a formal written work; to create the content of + a writing

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	kâl: + an act of speech; to speak (i.e., the physical vocal production + + the communicative element)
1st + Comp. Stem	kêl: + an act of talking (i.e., vocal production of words); to talk (i.e., + vocally emit words)
2nd + Comp. Stem	kael: + spoken message; to say/tell (i.e., communicate via spoken words)

+ 2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is + counterintuitive to Western semantic notions.

For example, let us analyze the root h+n + ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages + would consider the concept parent as fundamentally opposite from the + concept child and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem han. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of han + is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for h+n + in Form I.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

	Holistic + Stem	1st + Complementary Stem	2nd + Complementary Stem
Stem 1	han: + nuclear family member	hen: + parent	hän: + child
Stem 2	hun: + male nuclear family member	hon: + father	hön: + son
Stem 3	hin: + female nuclear family member	hën: + mother	hün: + daughter

Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ithkuil lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Concept	Complementary + Concepts
eating	food	ingestion
think, act of thinking	a thought (thing considered)	process of consideration
liquid	fluid (= ontological nature)	wet[ness] (=defining attribute)
measuring	a measurement	process of measuring
transference of possession	giving	taking
traversal between points	coming, arrival	going, departure
commercial transaction	buying	selling

+
+ 2.3.3 The Total Number of Stems

As each of the 3600 roots has six holistic stems (three in + each Form) and twelve complementary stems (six in each Form), there are a total + of 64,800 possible stems. We have begun to see how the dynamics of Ithkuil morphology + and morpho-semantics allow this limited number to permutate into a myriad of + imaginative and dynamic forms for application to any semantic context.

+ + + + +

2.4 CONSONANTAL MUTATION

Both of the consonantal radicals from Section + 2.3.1 above, C1 and C2, + are capable of undergoing mutation, that is, shifting to a different consonantal + form. The specific rules governing such mutation, however, are quite distinct + for C1 radicals as compared to C2 + radicals.

+ 2.4.1 C1 Mutation

As stated earlier, there are 60 forms for radical C1. + Each can mutate into eight other forms, giving a total of nine possible manifestations + of each C1 radical. These are labelled + Grade 1, Grade 2, etc., up to Grade 9. The nine grades of all 60 C1 + radicals are shown in Table No. 6 below. As examples, we can examine the nine + grades of the C1 radicals + k and pl:

+
k + g k’ + + kf km + + çk/k + çk’/k’
+
pl + bl pr + + p + + + + bw/by
+

+ Table No. 6: C1 + Mutation Patterns by Grade

+ + + + + + + + + +

2.4.2 C2 Mutation

As with C1, there are + 60 forms of the second radical, C2. These + in turn can mutate into eight other forms, for a total of nine possible forms + for each C2 radical. These are shown + in Table No. 7 below. As an example, note the mutations of the C2 + radical t: +

+
t + tt rt + + lt t + št + + sst
+

By combining the above mutational patterns for C1 + and C2, along with the various vocalic + mutational patterns we will explore in the next section, we can see that any + given stem can easily mutate into myriad forms which, on the surface, bear scant + visual (or phonetic) resemblance to the original stem.
+

Table No. 7: C2 + Mutation Patterns by Grade

+ + + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + +

2.5 VOCALIC MUTATION

+ +

In Section 2.2.3 above we saw how the + morpho-phonological distinctions of Mode, Form and Pattern are accomplished + by stem-specific vocalic infixes as illustrated in Table + 5. Like the consonantal C1 and C2 + radicals, each of these specific stem-infixes can in turn mutate into eight + variations for a total of nine mutations, termed Series A, Series B, Series + C, etc. (Note that the ninth series is termed Series J rather than Series I, + in order not to confuse the use of ‘I’ as a letter versus a Roman + numeral). Consequently each root has a total of 324 different vocalic infixes + depending on the Stem, Mode, Form, Pattern, and Series. These series of vowel + mutations are shown in Tables 8(a) through 8(f) below, with each table indicating + a different combination of Mode and Pattern.

Tables 8(a)-(f): Vocalic + Mutation by Stem, Mode, Pattern, Form and Series
+
+ Table 8(a): Primary Mode, Pattern + 1

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

		Series + A	+ B	+ C	+ D	+ E	+ F	+ G	+ H	+ J
Form + I	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	a + u + i	ai + ui + ei	a’(ï) + u’(ï) + i’(ï)	a’wï + u’wï + i’wï	a’wa + u’wa + i’wa	a’we + u’we + i’we	a’wi + u’wi + i’wi	a’wë + u’wë + i’wë	a’wo + u’wo + i’wo
Form + II	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	â + û + î	au + ou + eu	â’(ï) + û’(ï) + î ’(ï)	a’yï + u’yï + i’yï	a’ya + u’ya + i’ya	a’ye + u’ye + i’ye	a’yu + u’yu + i’yu	a’yë + u’yë + i’yë	a’yo + u’yo + i’yo

+ Table 8(b): Primary Mode, Pattern + 2

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

		Series + A	+ B	+ C	+ D	+ E	+ F	+ G	+ H	+ J
Form + I	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	e + o + ë	ia + io + ie	e’(ï) + o’(ï) + ë’(ï)	e’wï + o’wï + ë’wï	e’wa + o’wa + ë’wa	e’we + o’we + ë’we	e’wi + o’wi + ë’wi	e’wë + o’wë + ë’wë	e’wo + o’wo + ë’wo
Form + II	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	ê + ô + ÿ	ua + uo + ue	ê’(ï) + ô’(ï) + ÿ’(ï)	e’yï + o’yï + ë’yï	e’ya + o’ya + ë’ya	e’ye + o’ye + ë’ye	e’yu + o’yu + ë’yu	e’yë + o’yë + ë’yë	e’yo + o’yo + ë’yo

+ Table 8(c): Primary Mode, Pattern + 3

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

		Series + A	+ B	+ C	+ D	+ E	+ F	+ G	+ H	+ J
Form + I	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	ä + ö + ü	ea + ië + ëi	ä’(ï) + ö’(ï) + ü’(ï)	ä’wï + ö’wï + ü’wï	ä’wa + ö’wa + ü’wa	ä’we + ö’we + ü’we	ä’wi + ö’wi + ü’wi	ä’wë + ö’wë + ü’wë	ä’wo + ö’wo + ü’wo
Form + II	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	ae + ø + iu	oa + ëu + uë	ae’(ï) + ø’(ï) + iu’(ï)	ä’yï + ö’yï + ü’yï	ä’ya + ö’ya + ü’ya	ä’ye + ö’ye + ü’ye	ä’yu + ö’yu + ü’yu	ä’yë + ö’yë + ü’yë	ä’yo + ö’yo + ü’yo

+
+ Table 8(d): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 1

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

		Series + A	+ B	+ C	+ D	+ E	+ F	+ G	+ H	+ J
Form + I	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	aî + uî + eî	a’i + u’i + e’i	âì + ûì + êì	ai’wï + ui’wï + ei’wï	ai’wa + ui’wa + ei’wa	ai’we + ui’we + ei’we	ai’wi + ui’wi + ei’wi	ai’wë + ui’wë + ei’wë	ai’wo + ui’wo + ei’wo
Form + II	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	aû + oû + eû	a’u + o’u + e’u	âù + oî + êù	au’yï + ou’yï + eu’yï	au’ya + ou’ya + eu’ya	au’ye + ou’ye + eu’ye	au’yu + ou’yu + eu’yu	au’yë + ou’yë + eu’yë	au’yo + ou’yo + eu’yo

+
+ Table 8(e): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 2

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

		Series + A	+ B	+ C	+ D	+ E	+ F	+ G	+ H	+ J
Form + I	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	eì + oi + oì	i’a + i’e + i’o	îa + îo + îe	â’wï + ê’wï + ô’wï	â’wa + ê’wa + ô’wa	â’we + ê’we + ô’we	â’wi + ê’wi + ô’wi	â’wë + ê’wë + ô’wë	â’wo + ê’wo + ô’wo
Form + II	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	aè + où + eù	u’a + u’e + u’o	ûa + ûo + ûe	â’yï + ê’yï + ô’yï	â’ya + ê’ya + ô’ya	â’ye + ê’ye + ô’ye	â’yu + ê’yu + ô’yu	â’yë + ê’yë + ô’yë	â’yo + ê’yo + ô’yo

+
+ Table 8(f): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 3

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

		Series + A	+ B	+ C	+ D	+ E	+ F	+ G	+ H	+ J
Form + I	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	aì + uì + ëì	e’a + i’ë + ë’i	iê + îù + üa	û’wï + ø’wï + î’wï	û’wa + ø’wa + î’wa	û’we + ø’we + î’we	û’wi + ø’wi + î’wi	û’wë + ø’wë + î’wë	û’wo + ø’wo + î’wo
Form + II	stem 1 + stem 2 + stem 3	aù + ëù + iù	o’a + ë’u + u’ë	aê + üe + iû	û’yï + ø’yï + î’yï	û’ya + ø’ya + î’ya	û’ye + ø’ye + î’ye	û’yu + ø’yu + î’yu	û’yë + ø’yë + î’yë	û’yo + ø’yo + î’yo

+ + + + +

2.6 + PARTS OF SPEECH

Ithkuil has only two parts of speech: formatives and + adjuncts. While Ithkuil does employ words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term formative. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.6.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ithkuil, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.

Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will, of course, + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).

+ 2.6.1 Formatives

The stem formed as per the discussion in Section + 2.3 above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the formative. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative + klâd illustrated above in Section 2.3.2.1 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ithkuil formative exclusively into a noun or verb form + is arbitrary. For example, the following Ithkuil phrases can be translated using + either verbal predicates or purely nominal phrases:
+

+ ______Listen! +
+ ‘by the time of his death’ OR + ‘by the time he dies’

+
+ ‘the awful-smelling woman’ OR + ‘the woman smells awful’

+ + ______Listen! +
+ ‘what the eagle sees’ OR + ‘the eagle’s seeing something’

+ The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either spatially “reify” this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:

+

+
+

2.6.2 Adjuncts

Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”). +

Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, + most of which are described in detail in Chapter + 8: Adjuncts. These include:

+
Personal Reference Adjuncts: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship.
+
+
+
Valence Adjuncts and Conflation Adjuncts: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Version, Derivation, Format, + Level, and Modality. Each of these categories is discussed in Chapter + 5: Verb Morphology.
+
+
+
Aspectual Adjuncts: These are used in + conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information on the morphological + categories of Aspect, Mood, Validation, Phase, Sanction, and Bias. Each + of these categories is discussed in Chapter + 6: Additional Verb Morphology.
+
+
+
Affixual Adjuncts: These function as + whole-word substitutes for the consonantal affixes usually added to formatives. + Their use is governed primarily by phonaesthetic principles (see + Section 1.4.5).
+
+
+
Combination Adjuncts: A blanket category + covering several types of complex adjuncts which combine several distinct + morphological categories into a single adjunct. Used primarily for euphonic + and phonaesthetic purposes.
+

+ + + + +

2.7 AFFIXES

+ Ithkuil, like English, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. The rules governing the formation of these affixes + are rather complex. The fundamentals are discussed below, while the actual affixes + themselves are explored later in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes.

+ 2.7.1 Consonant-based Affixes

Ithkuil makes a fundamental distinction between purely vocalic + affixes (i.e., containing no consonants) and affixes which are based on a consonant + (which may or may not contain vowels). In this section we will explore consonant-based + affixes.

Every consonant-based affix used with a formative is composed + of an invariable (i.e., non-mutating) consonant, but has a variable vocalic + form associated with it. The suffix form of a consonant-based affix is of the + form V+C (i.e., vowel + consonant), with an optional alternate + form of C+V when in word-final position and in certain other + circumstances. This word-final alternate form is explained in more detail in + Chapter 7. As for + the optional prefix form of consonantal affixes, this will also be discussed + in Chapter 7; the discussion below applies only to the suffix form of affixes.

While the consonantal portion of the affix is always invariable, + the vocalic portion mutates depending on two morphological factors known as + degree and affix-type. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for affix-type, + every consonantal-based V+C (or C+V) affix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before (or after) the invariable consonant + C. The three affix-types are labelled V1, + V2, and V3, + in reference to the vowel portion of the affix.

+ 2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting

In addition to the three affix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three affix-types. + Table 9 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each affix-type.

Under certain circumstances where the final stem consonant + and the consonant portion of the consonantal suffix can be conjoined without + causing confusion (i.e., where the conjoined consonants will not be mistaken + for a mutation of the final consonantal radical C2), + Ithkuil permits the option to reverse the order of the vowel and consonant of + the suffix. This alternate form is shown in the second column of the table for + each degree. In this alternate form, the vocalic portion follows, rather than + precedes the consonant portion of the suffix.

Table 9: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Affix Type

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

	Affix + Type 1: -V1C		Affix + Type 2: -V2C		Affix + Type 3: -V3C
	standard + form	optional + reversed form	standard + form	optional + reversed form	standard + form	optional + reversed form
Degree + 1	-iC	-Cai	-îC	-Cëi	-ieC	-Caï
Degree + 2	-eC	-Cei	-êC / -eiC	-Ceu	-iëC	-Ceï
Degree + 3	-äC / -aeC	-Cia	-âC /-aiC	-Câ	-iuC	-Ciï
Degree + 4	-öC	-Cua	-øC / -euC	-Ciu	-ioC	-Coï
Degree + 5	-(a)C	-Ca	-uiC	-Cui	-iäC	-Cuï
Degree + 6	-üC / -ëuC	-Cü	-ÿC / -auC	-Cau	-uäC	-Cäi
Degree + 7	-ïC / -ëiC	-Cï	-ëC	-Cëu	-uoC	-Cöi
Degree + 8	-oC	-Coi	-ôC / -oiC / -ouC	-Cou	-uëC	-Cäu
Degree + 9	-uC	-Cu	-ûC	-Cû	-ueC	-Cöu

Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 10 below how these suffixes (and their alternate word-final forms) + would actually appear in conjunction with the stem rit:

+ TABLE 10: EXAMPLE OF ALTERNATION + OF VOWEL POSITION IN SUFFIXES

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

	Suffix: + -V1k	Affix + Type 2: -V2k	Affix + Type 3: -V3k
Degree + 1	ritik / ritkai	ritîk / ritkëi	ritiek / ritkaï
Degree + 2	ritek / ritkei	ritêk / riteik / ritkeu	ritiëk / ritkeï
Degree + 3	ritäk / ritaek / ritkia	ritâk / ritaik / ritkâ	ritiuk /ritkiï
Degree + 4	ritök / ritkua	ritøk / riteuk / ritkiu	ritiok / ritkoï
Degree + 5	ritk / ritak / ritka	rituik / ritkui	ritiäk / ritkuï
Degree + 6	ritük / ritëuk / ritkü	ritÿk / ritauk / ritkau	rituäk / ritkäi
Degree + 7	ritïk / ritëik / ritkï	ritëk / ritkëu	rituok / ritköi
Degree + 8	ritok /ritkoi	ritôk / ritoik / ritouk / ritkou	rituëk / ritkäu
Degree + 9	rituk / ritku	ritûk / ritkû	rituek / ritköu

Because the “reversed” -CV form of the suffix + reinforces a CVC syllabic structure for the stem syllable of the word, such + reversed word-final suffixes are common in Ithkuil (see + Sec. 1.4.5).

As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ithkuil to create a gradient system for all consonantal affixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + affix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated + with the nine degrees for the affix -V1d.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Degree	Suffix	Meaning
+ 1	-id / -dai	wholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all
2	-ed / -dei	way too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough
+ 3	-äd / -aed / -dia	not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]
+ 4	-öd / -dua	not quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]
+ 5	-d / -ad / -da	enough (of) / sufficient(ly)
+ 6	-üd / -ëud / -dü	a little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]
+ 7	-ïd / -ëid / -dï	too / too much / over-[+verb]
+ 8	-od /-doi	way too much / totally over-[+verb]
+ 9	-ud / -du	nothing but / to the exclusion of all else

+ 2.7.3 Vocalic Affixes

Other than the stem-infixes previously discussed in Section + 2.3 et seq., the use of vocalic affixes (i.e., affixes based on vowels rather + than consonants) in Ithkuil occurs in several contexts — vocalic prefixes + to formatives, vocalic prefixes and suffixes to adjuncts, and the anaptyctic + affixes -ï-, and -a. Each of these contexts + is discussed below:

2.7.3.1 Vocalic Prefixes. Vocalic prefixes + are used with both formatives and adjuncts, and consist of either single vowels + or two-vowel conjuncts or diphthongs (e.g., a-, ui-, + ae-, ia-, ö-, eu-, + etc.). Additionally, these prefixes can take an initial w- + or y- increment. While these prefixes are often highly synthetic + morphologically (i.e., a single prefix can carry information for multiple grammatical + categories), they do not mutate. A word can take only one such prefix. The usage + and function of these vocalic prefixes will be discussed as they are encountered + in the chapters on morphology which follow.

2.7.3.2 Vocalic Suffixes. Purely vocalic suffixes + (other than the anaptyctic vowels discussed below) occur only in adjuncts, not + formatives. Like vocalic prefixes described immediately above, they can be highly + synthetic morphologically but do not mutate. Unlike vocalic prefixes, there + can be multiple vocalic suffixes on an adjunct, joined agglutinatively (i.e., + added on one after the other) with intervening consonantal affixes.

2.7.3.3 Anaptyctic Vowels + -ï- and -a. Sometimes the grammatical rules of a language require + a meaningless phonemic increment to be affixed to a word, whether as a prefix, + suffix, or infix. This is known as anaptyxis. As will be discussed in Chapter + 7: Using Affixes, an anaptyctic infix, -ï-, is used + in Ithkuil to separate consonantal prefixes from the C1 + stem consonantal radical wherever necessary for phonotactical euphony or to + prevent confusion in misinterpreting the prefix consonant(s) as part of the + C1 radical. For example, while the prefix + s- is phonotactically + permissible before the stem kaf, + the resulting word must be sïkaf, + not skaf, + as the latter is a completely different stem employing a C1 + radical sk-.

An anaptyctic vowel is also sometimes required in Ithkuil when + grammatical rules call for antepenultimate stress on a word (i.e., the third-from-last + syllable is stressed), but the word in question has only one or two syllables. + In such cases, the number of syllables must be increased to three. Sometimes + this can be done by restructuring any consonantal affixes the word may have, + but more often than not, anaptyctic vowels must be affixed. In this case the + anaptyctic vowel ï- can be prefixed to a word beginning + with a consonant (usually nominal formatives), and/or an anaptyctic vowel -a + can be suffixed to the end of a word, e.g., kfuil + ïkfùila. + This anaptyctic suffix -a is also required for phonotactical + euphony when grammatical rules require the mutation of the second radical C2 + to a form which is not permissible in word-final position, e.g., t + tt + as in reit + reitta.

+ + + + +

2.8 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY

While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ithkuil, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Ibero-Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity + of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.

Proceed + to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >>

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Home	5a + Verb Morphology	9 + Syntax
Introduction	5b + Verb Morphology (continued)	10 + Lexico-Semantics
1 + Phonology	6 + More Verb Morphology	11 + The Script
2 + Morpho-Phonology	7a + Using Affixes	12 + The Number System
3 + Basic Morphology	7b + Using Affixes (continued)	The + Lexicon
4 + Case Morphology	8 + Adjuncts	Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh

+
+
+
+
+
+

+ + + \ No newline at end of file -- cgit v1.2.3

Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology

+ 2.2.1 The Root

+ 2.2.2 The Stem

+ 2.2.3 Pattern, Form, and Mode

+ 2.3.1 Holistic Stems

+ 2.3.2 Complementary Stems

+ + 2.3.3 The Total Number of Stems

+ 2.4.1 C1 Mutation

2.4.2 C2 Mutation

+ 2.6.1 Formatives

2.6.2 Adjuncts

+ 2.7.1 Consonant-based Affixes

+ 2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting

+ 2.7.3 Vocalic Affixes

+
+ 2.3.3 The Total Number of Stems