diff options
Diffstat (limited to '2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html')
| -rw-r--r--[-rwxr-xr-x] | 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html | 970 |
1 files changed, 485 insertions, 485 deletions
diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html index aabc14d..cdc9601 100755..100644 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html @@ -117,11 +117,11 @@ languages are Turkish, Japanese, Swahili, and Esperanto.</P> <P align="justify"><EM>Synthetic</EM> languages (also called fusional, flexional, or inflecting languages) manipulate word roots via internal phonetic manipulation - and/or via affixes which function in multiple functional roles (known as portmanteau + and/or via affixes which function in multiple functional roles (known as “portmanteau” affixes). Examples are Latin, Russian, and Sanskrit.</P> <P align="justify"><EM>Polysynthetic</EM> (sometimes called incorporating) languages generally do not have pre-designated words, but rather join together semantic-formative - elements in sequential fashion, each resulting string constituting + elements in sequential fashion, each resulting “string” constituting a single word conveying an entire sentence of information. Examples are Inuit (Eskimo), Shawnee, and many other American Indian languages, as well as several Paleo-Siberian languages.</P> @@ -140,13 +140,13 @@ <P align="justify">For example, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the Ithkuil word <IMG src="assets/2-1a.gif" width="122" height="18" align="absbottom">(<FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-1.mp3">Listen:</A> </FONT><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-1.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>). - The stem of this word, <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>cik</STRONG></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17" align="absmiddle"></FONT>, - meaning derived product of a ewe, has been completely transformed + The stem of this word, <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ciůk</STRONG></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17" align="absmiddle"></FONT>, + meaning ‘derived product of a ewe,’ has been completely transformed into the nearly unrecognizable form <IMG src="assets/2-1c.gif" width="73" height="18" align="absbottom">, all due to the systematic mutation of its consonants and vowels. To this stem, are then added the prefix <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>eu</STRONG></FONT>-, an infix -<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>w</STRONG></FONT>-, - and the affix -[V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>]<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG>, + and the affix -[V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>]<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT>’</STRONG>, where [V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>] represents a vowel increment to be determined by other morphological factors. As a result the simple root is transformed into a word containing no less than eleven morphemes (i.e., eleven semantically distinct @@ -167,12 +167,12 @@ </TR> <TR valign="top"> <TD width="15%" height="53"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STEM:</FONT></TD> - <TD width="33%"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>cik</STRONG></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17" align="absmiddle"> + <TD width="33%"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ciůk</STRONG></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17" align="absmiddle"> <IMG src="assets/2-1f.gif" width="31" height="23" align="top"> < root: </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c </STRONG></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> k</STRONG></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17"></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> - sheep<BR> - = derived product of ewe </FONT></TD> + “sheep”<BR> + = “derived product of ewe” </FONT></TD> <TD width="52%"><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> </TR> <TR valign="top"> @@ -231,12 +231,12 @@ </TR> <TR valign="top"> <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix:</FONT></TD> - <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>t</FONT><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">- + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>t</FONT><FONT size="2">’</FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">- (8th degree) = specific derivation of stem (in this case: "ewe's wool")</FONT></TD> <TD><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> -<PRE><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT size="2"><STRONG>APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION:</STRONG></FONT> <EM>concerning a hypothetical diminishing in everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing</EM> +<PRE><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT size="2"><STRONG>APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION:</STRONG></FONT> <EM>“concerning a hypothetical diminishing in everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing”</EM> </FONT></PRE> <P align="justify"> </P> <TABLE width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -269,7 +269,7 @@ <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p + x </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tr - + c</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + + c’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ks + <IMG src="assets/q-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18" align="absbottom"></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xl @@ -284,7 +284,7 @@ </STRONG> radical interfix. For example, a vowel such as <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>a</STRONG></FONT> would be infixed into the radical interfix <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT> to give the stem <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tar</STRONG></FONT>, - an Ithkuil word for name. The manner in which such vowels are + an Ithkuil word for ‘name.’ The manner in which such vowels are infixed into radical interfixes to form stems is entirely systematic but quite complex. It is described in the next several sections.</P> <H3 align="justify"><BR> @@ -337,62 +337,62 @@ 1</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aî</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">eě</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aě</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem 2</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">u</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">o</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">u</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ö</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">uî</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">oi</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">u</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">uě</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem 3</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">i</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">o</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ü</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">eî</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">oě</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ëě</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD rowspan="3"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form II</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem 1</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">â</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ę</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ae</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">a</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">a</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">a</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">aű</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ač</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">aů</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem 2 </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">o</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">o</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ű</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ô</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ř</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">oű</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">oů</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ëů</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem 3 </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">î</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">˙</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">iu</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">e</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">e</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">i</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">eű</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">eů</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">iů</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> <P align="justify"> The three patterns are labelled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and @@ -414,11 +414,11 @@ <P align="justify">Lastly, there are two modes, labelled Primary and Secondary. Mode is used to signify a rather complex morphological category called Essence, detailed in <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o8">Section - 3.8</A>. It differentiates alternate versions of entities within + 3.8</A>. It differentiates “alternate” versions of entities within hypothetical, imagined, or representational contexts, which would otherwise - be contradictory or nonsensical. An example would be the word boy + be contradictory or nonsensical. An example would be the word ‘boy’ in the sentence <EM>The brown-eyed boy had blue eyes</EM> (e.g., in the newspaper - account). A stems Essence category does not change its underlying meaning.</P> + account). A stem’s Essence category does not change its underlying meaning.</P> <P align="justify"> </P> <TABLE width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -429,7 +429,7 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> <P align="justify">We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into the above array of stems. First of all, because Mode distinguishes a morphological - category (Essence) that does not change a stems underlying meaning, it + category (Essence) that does not change a stem’s underlying meaning, it will be ignored in the analysis below. We will start with the six stems (three for each Form) associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems @@ -442,12 +442,12 @@ generates the following stems:</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P> 1. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tar</STRONG></FONT> - <EM>name of something or someone; to name something or someone</EM><BR> - 2. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tur</FONT></STRONG> <EM>designation - or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something</EM><BR> - 3. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tir</STRONG></FONT> <EM>a - (temporary or informal) reference, nickname; to give a (temporary - or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname</EM></P> + <EM>‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’</EM><BR> + 2. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tur</FONT></STRONG> <EM>‘designation + or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’</EM><BR> + 3. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tir</STRONG></FONT> <EM>‘a + (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary + or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’</EM></P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P align="justify">The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem @@ -458,14 +458,14 @@ Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship between the individual stems for the root <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT> above with that of the Form I root <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x</STRONG></FONT>+<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>n</STRONG></FONT> - (<FONT size="2">VISION/SIGHT</FONT>) below.</P> + (<FONT size="2">‘VISION/SIGHT’</FONT>) below.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P> 1. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>xan</STRONG></FONT> - <EM>a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something</EM><BR> - 2. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>xun</STRONG></FONT> <EM>an - eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use ones eye, etc.</EM><BR> - 3. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xin</FONT></STRONG> <EM>an - image in ones mind; to visualize, to picture in ones mind</EM></P> + <EM>‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’</EM><BR> + 2. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>xun</STRONG></FONT> <EM>‘an + eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’</EM><BR> + 3. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xin</FONT></STRONG> <EM>‘an + image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’</EM></P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P align="justify">Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal @@ -479,22 +479,22 @@ morphological shift in Designation earlier described. While Form I implies a temporary, contextual interpretation, Form II implies a permanent, authoritative interpretation beyond the mere context of a specific utterance. Note that the - vowel infixes associated with the three stems of Form II are <STRONG></STRONG>, - <STRONG></STRONG>, and <STRONG></STRONG>, as shown above in <A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Table + vowel infixes associated with the three stems of Form II are <STRONG>â</STRONG>, + <STRONG>ű</STRONG>, and <STRONG>î</STRONG>, as shown above in <A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Table 5</A>.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> - <P> 1. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tr</FONT></STRONG> - title; to (be) title(d)<BR> - 2. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tr</FONT></STRONG> - formal designation, label; to label<BR> - 3. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tr</FONT></STRONG> - formal role; to function in a formal role </P> - <P>1. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xn</FONT></STRONG> - visual observation; to visually observe<BR> - 2. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xn</FONT></STRONG> - optical device; to use an optical device<BR> - 3. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>xn</STRONG></FONT> - a rendered image; to render an image</P> + <P> 1. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">târ</FONT></STRONG> + ‘title; to (be) title(d)’<BR> + 2. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tűr</FONT></STRONG> + ‘formal designation, label; to label’<BR> + 3. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tîr</FONT></STRONG> + ‘formal role; to function in a formal role’ </P> + <P>1. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xân</FONT></STRONG> + ‘visual observation; to visually observe’<BR> + 2. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xűn</FONT></STRONG> + ‘optical device; to use an optical device’<BR> + 3. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>xîn</STRONG></FONT> + ‘a rendered image; to render an image’</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <H3 align="justify"><BR> 2.3.2 Complementary Stems</H3> @@ -503,7 +503,7 @@ component parts of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather than being holistic word-stems. </P> -<P align="justify">By complementary is meant that the manifestation +<P align="justify">By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil, @@ -537,7 +537,7 @@ tel</STRONG></FONT>, while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tal <STRONG><IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></STRONG> - tl</FONT></STRONG>. Several examples of complementary stem derivation + täl</FONT></STRONG>. Several examples of complementary stem derivation are given below:</P> <P align="justify"> Form I examples:</P> <TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -558,7 +558,7 @@ <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd Comp. Stem </FONT></TD> - <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qm</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qöm</FONT></STRONG>: female person</TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE></TD> @@ -579,7 +579,7 @@ <TR> <TD height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> - <TD> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>kld</STRONG></FONT>: + <TD> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>kläd</STRONG></FONT>: the channel or course of a flow of water</TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE></TD> @@ -598,13 +598,13 @@ <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> - <TD><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tl</STRONG></FONT>: + <TD><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tël</STRONG></FONT>: the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition</TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd Comp. Stem </FONT></TD> - <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tl</STRONG></FONT></STRONG>: + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tül</STRONG></FONT></STRONG>: the written content or message of a composition; to create written content</TD> </TR> @@ -622,13 +622,13 @@ <TD height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> <TD> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xen</FONT></STRONG>: - an act of seeing, a usage of ones faculty of sight; to see - with ones eyes, to undergo a sighting</TD> + an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see + with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting</TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> - <TD> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>xn</STRONG></FONT>: + <TD> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>xän</STRONG></FONT>: a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image</TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE></TD> @@ -642,19 +642,19 @@ <TBODY><TR> <TD width="38%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic Stem</FONT></TD> - <TD width="62%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qm</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD width="62%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qűm</FONT></STRONG>: an official </TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> - <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qm</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qôm</FONT></STRONG>: male official </TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd Comp. Stem </FONT></TD> - <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qm</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qřm</FONT></STRONG>: female official </TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE></TD> @@ -663,13 +663,13 @@ <TBODY><TR> <TD width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic Stem</FONT></TD> - <TD width="72%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kld</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD width="72%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">klâd</FONT></STRONG>: a river </TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> - <TD> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kld</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">klęd</FONT></STRONG>: the water in a river </TD> </TR> <TR> @@ -688,13 +688,13 @@ <TBODY><TR> <TD width="31%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic Stem</FONT></TD> - <TD width="69%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tl</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD width="69%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tîl</FONT></STRONG>: an act of creating a formal writing; to compose a formal written work</TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> - <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tl</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t˙l</FONT></STRONG>: physical act of composing a formal written work; to physically write a work</TD> </TR> @@ -711,14 +711,14 @@ <TBODY><TR> <TD width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic Stem</FONT></TD> - <TD width="72%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kl</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD width="72%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kâl</FONT></STRONG>: an act of speech; to speak (i.e., the physical vocal production + the communicative element)</TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> - <TD> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>kl</STRONG></FONT>: + <TD> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>kęl</STRONG></FONT>: an act of talking (i.e., vocal production of words); to talk (i.e., vocally emit words)</TD> </TR> @@ -734,14 +734,14 @@ <P align="justify"><BR> <STRONG>2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation</STRONG>. As illustrated above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often - neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., speak/speech - breaking down into the physical aspect of talking versus the communicative - aspect of saying/telling or person breaking down - into male and female. However, it is often the case + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is counterintuitive to Western semantic notions. </P> <P align="justify">For example, let us analyze the root <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<STRONG>n</STRONG></FONT> - <FONT size="2">NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER</FONT>. While most languages + ‘<FONT size="2">NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER</FONT>’. While most languages would consider the concept <EM>parent</EM> as fundamentally opposite from the concept <EM>child</EM> and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, @@ -749,13 +749,13 @@ archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is referred to by the holistic stem <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">han</FONT></STRONG>. One way to interpret the meaning, then, of <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">han</FONT></STRONG> - is to say that the word means both parent and child, + is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. - But in fact, the word does not mean either parent or child, + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. - Such bi-level derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual meanings of the stems for <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<STRONG>n</STRONG></FONT> in Form I.</P> @@ -775,7 +775,7 @@ nuclear family member </TD> <TD width="34%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hen</FONT></STRONG>: parent</TD> - <TD width="34%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h<STRONG></STRONG>n</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD width="34%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h<STRONG>ä</STRONG>n</FONT></STRONG>: child</TD> </TR> <TR> @@ -784,16 +784,16 @@ male nuclear family member </TD> <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hon</FONT></STRONG>: father </TD> - <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hn</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hön</FONT></STRONG>: son</TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 3</TD> <TD><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>hin</STRONG></FONT>: female nuclear family member </TD> - <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hn</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hën</FONT></STRONG>: mother </TD> - <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hn</FONT></STRONG>: + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hün</FONT></STRONG>: daughter</TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> @@ -874,12 +874,12 @@ <STRONG>k</STRONG></FONT> and <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">pl</FONT></STRONG>:</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> - g <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> k + g <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> k’ <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> kf <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> km <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> - k/<IMG src="assets/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">k - <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> k/<IMG src="assets/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">k</FONT></STRONG></P> + çk/<IMG src="assets/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">k + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> çk’/<IMG src="assets/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">k’</FONT></STRONG></P> <P><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> pl <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> bl <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> pr <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> @@ -916,7 +916,7 @@ tt <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> rt <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> lt <IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">t - <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> t + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> št <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> sst</FONT></STRONG></P> </BLOCKQUOTE> @@ -954,7 +954,7 @@ radicals, each of these specific stem-infixes can in turn mutate into eight variations for a total of nine mutations, termed Series A, Series B, Series C, etc. (Note that the ninth series is termed Series J rather than Series I, - in order not to confuse the use of I as a letter versus a Roman + in order not to confuse the use of ‘I’ as a letter versus a Roman numeral). Consequently each root has a total of 324 different vocalic infixes depending on the Stem, Mode, Form, Pattern, and Series. These series of vowel mutations are shown in Tables 8(a) through 8(f) below, with each table indicating @@ -998,27 +998,27 @@ <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai<BR> ui<BR> ei</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a()<BR> - u()<BR> - i()</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aw<BR> - uw<BR> - iw</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">awa<BR> - uwa<BR> - iwa </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">awe<BR> - uwe<BR> - iwe</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">awi<BR> - uwi<BR> - iwi </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aw<BR> - uw<BR> - iw</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">awo<BR> - uwo<BR> - iwo</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’(ď)<BR> + u’(ď)<BR> + i’(ď)</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’wď<BR> + u’wď<BR> + i’wď</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’wa<BR> + u’wa<BR> + i’wa </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’we<BR> + u’we<BR> + i’we</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’wi<BR> + u’wi<BR> + i’wi </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’wë<BR> + u’wë<BR> + i’wë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’wo<BR> + u’wo<BR> + i’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> @@ -1026,33 +1026,33 @@ <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> stem 2<BR> stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><BR> - <BR> - </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â<BR> + ű<BR> + î</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au<BR> ou<BR> eu </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">()<BR> - ()<BR> - () </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ay<BR> - uy<BR> - iy</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aya<BR> - uya<BR> - iya</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aye<BR> - uye<BR> - iye </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ayu<BR> - uyu<BR> - iyu </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ay<BR> - uy<BR> - iy</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ayo<BR> - uyo<BR> - iyo</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’(ď)<BR> + ű’(ď)<BR> + î ’(ď) </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’yď<BR> + u’yď<BR> + i’yď</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’ya<BR> + u’ya<BR> + i’ya</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’ye<BR> + u’ye<BR> + i’ye </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’yu<BR> + u’yu<BR> + i’yu </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’yë<BR> + u’yë<BR> + i’yë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’yo<BR> + u’yo<BR> + i’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> <P><BR> @@ -1088,31 +1088,31 @@ stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e<BR> o<BR> - </FONT></DIV></TD> + ë</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ia<BR> io<BR> ie</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e()<BR> - o()<BR> - ()</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ew<BR> - ow<BR> - w</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ewa<BR> - owa<BR> - wa</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ewe<BR> - owe<BR> - we </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ewi<BR> - owi<BR> - wi </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ew<BR> - ow<BR> - w</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ewo<BR> - owo<BR> - wo</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’(ď)<BR> + o’(ď)<BR> + ë’(ď)</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’wď<BR> + o’wď<BR> + ë’wď</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’wa<BR> + o’wa<BR> + ë’wa</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’we<BR> + o’we<BR> + ë’we </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’wi<BR> + o’wi<BR> + ë’wi </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’wë<BR> + o’wë<BR> + ë’wë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’wo<BR> + o’wo<BR> + ë’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> @@ -1120,33 +1120,33 @@ <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> stem 2<BR> stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><BR> - <BR> - </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ę<BR> + ô<BR> + ˙ </FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ua<BR> uo<BR> ue</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">()<BR> - ()<BR> - ()</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ey<BR> - oy<BR> - y</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">eya<BR> - oya<BR> - ya</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">eye<BR> - oye<BR> - ye</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">eyu<BR> - oyu<BR> - yu</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ey<BR> - oy<BR> - y</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">eyo<BR> - oyo<BR> - yo</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ę’(ď)<BR> + ô’(ď)<BR> + ˙’(ď)</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’yď<BR> + o’yď<BR> + ë’yď</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’ya<BR> + o’ya<BR> + ë’ya</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’ye<BR> + o’ye<BR> + ë’ye</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’yu<BR> + o’yu<BR> + ë’yu</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’yë<BR> + o’yë<BR> + ë’yë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’yo<BR> + o’yo<BR> + ë’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> <P> <BR> @@ -1180,33 +1180,33 @@ <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> stem 2<BR> stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><BR> - <BR> - </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä<BR> + ö<BR> + ü</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ea<BR> - i<BR> - i </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">()<BR> - ()<BR> - ()</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">w<BR> - w<BR> - w</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">wa<BR> - wa<BR> - wa</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">we<BR> - we<BR> - we </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">wi<BR> - wi<BR> - wi </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">w<BR> - w<BR> - w</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">wo<BR> - wo<BR> - wo</FONT></DIV></TD> + ië<BR> + ëi </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’(ď)<BR> + ö’(ď)<BR> + ü’(ď)</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’wď<BR> + ö’wď<BR> + ü’wď</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’wa<BR> + ö’wa<BR> + ü’wa</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’we<BR> + ö’we<BR> + ü’we </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’wi<BR> + ö’wi<BR> + ü’wi </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’wë<BR> + ö’wë<BR> + ü’wë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’wo<BR> + ö’wo<BR> + ü’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> @@ -1215,32 +1215,32 @@ stem 2<BR> stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ae <BR> - <BR> + ř<BR> iu</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">oa<BR> - u<BR> - u</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ae()<BR> - ()<BR> - iu()</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">y<BR> - y<BR> - y </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ya<BR> - ya<BR> - ya</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ye<BR> - ye<BR> - ye </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">yu<BR> - yu<BR> - yu </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">y<BR> - y<BR> - y</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">yo<BR> - yo<BR> - yo</FONT></DIV></TD> + ëu<BR> + uë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ae’(ď)<BR> + ř’(ď)<BR> + iu’(ď)</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’yď<BR> + ö’yď<BR> + ü’yď </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’ya<BR> + ö’ya<BR> + ü’ya</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’ye<BR> + ö’ye<BR> + ü’ye </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’yu<BR> + ö’yu<BR> + ü’yu </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’yë<BR> + ö’yë<BR> + ü’yë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’yo<BR> + ö’yo<BR> + ü’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> <P> <BR> @@ -1275,33 +1275,33 @@ <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> stem 2<BR> stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a <BR> - u<BR> - e</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai <BR> - ui<BR> - ei </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><BR> - <BR> - </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aiw<BR> - uiw<BR> - eiw</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aiwa<BR> - uiwa<BR> - eiwa</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aiwe<BR> - uiwe<BR> - eiwe</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aiwi<BR> - uiwi<BR> - eiwi</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aiw<BR> - uiw<BR> - eiw</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aiwo<BR> - uiwo<BR> - eiwo</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aî <BR> + uî<BR> + eî</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’i <BR> + u’i<BR> + e’i </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">âě<BR> + űě<BR> + ęě </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’wď<BR> + ui’wď<BR> + ei’wď</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’wa<BR> + ui’wa<BR> + ei’wa</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’we<BR> + ui’we<BR> + ei’we</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’wi<BR> + ui’wi<BR> + ei’wi</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’wë<BR> + ui’wë<BR> + ei’wë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’wo<BR> + ui’wo<BR> + ei’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> @@ -1309,33 +1309,33 @@ <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> stem 2<BR> stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a<BR> - o<BR> - e</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au<BR> - ou<BR> - eu</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><BR> - o<BR> - </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">auy<BR> - ouy<BR> - euy</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">auya<BR> - ouya<BR> - euya</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">auye<BR> - ouye<BR> - euye</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">auyu<BR> - ouyu<BR> - euyu</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">auy<BR> - ouy<BR> - euy</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">auyo<BR> - ouyo<BR> - euyo</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aű<BR> + oű<BR> + eű</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’u<BR> + o’u<BR> + e’u</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">âů<BR> + oî<BR> + ęů</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’yď<BR> + ou’yď<BR> + eu’yď</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’ya<BR> + ou’ya<BR> + eu’ya</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’ye<BR> + ou’ye<BR> + eu’ye</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’yu<BR> + ou’yu<BR> + eu’yu</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’yë<BR> + ou’yë<BR> + eu’yë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’yo<BR> + ou’yo<BR> + eu’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> <P> <BR> @@ -1370,33 +1370,33 @@ <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> stem 2<BR> stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e<BR> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">eě<BR> oi<BR> - o</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ia<BR> - ie<BR> - io</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a<BR> - o<BR> - e</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">w<BR> - w<BR> - w</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">wa<BR> - wa<BR> - wa</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">we<BR> - we<BR> - we</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">wi<BR> - wi<BR> - wi</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">w<BR> - w<BR> - w </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">wo<BR> - wo<BR> - wo</FONT></DIV></TD> + oě</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">i’a<BR> + i’e<BR> + i’o</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">îa<BR> + îo<BR> + îe</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’wď<BR> + ę’wď<BR> + ô’wď</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’wa<BR> + ę’wa<BR> + ô’wa</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’we<BR> + ę’we<BR> + ô’we</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’wi<BR> + ę’wi<BR> + ô’wi</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’wë<BR> + ę’wë<BR> + ô’wë </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’wo<BR> + ę’wo<BR> + ô’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> @@ -1404,33 +1404,33 @@ <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> stem 2<BR> stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a<BR> - o<BR> - e </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ua<BR> - ue<BR> - uo</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a<BR> - o<BR> - e</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">y<BR> - y<BR> - y </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ya<BR> - ya<BR> - ya </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ye<BR> - ye<BR> - ye</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">yu<BR> - yu<BR> - yu </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">y<BR> - y<BR> - y</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">yo<BR> - yo<BR> - yo</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ač<BR> + oů<BR> + eů </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">u’a<BR> + u’e<BR> + u’o</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">űa<BR> + űo<BR> + űe</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’yď<BR> + ę’yď<BR> + ô’yď </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’ya<BR> + ę’ya<BR> + ô’ya </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’ye<BR> + ę’ye<BR> + ô’ye</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’yu<BR> + ę’yu<BR> + ô’yu </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’yë<BR> + ę’yë<BR> + ô’yë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’yo<BR> + ę’yo<BR> + ô’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> <P> <BR> @@ -1465,33 +1465,33 @@ <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> stem 2<BR> stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a<BR> - u<BR> - </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ea<BR> - i<BR> - i </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">i<BR> - <BR> - a </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">w<BR> - w<BR> - w </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">wa<BR> - wa<BR> - wa </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">we<BR> - we<BR> - we </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">wi<BR> - wi<BR> - wi </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">w<BR> - w<BR> - w </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">wo<BR> - wo<BR> - wo</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aě<BR> + uě<BR> + ëě</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’a<BR> + i’ë<BR> + ë’i </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ię<BR> + îů<BR> + üa </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’wď<BR> + ř’wď<BR> + î’wď </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’wa<BR> + ř’wa<BR> + î’wa </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’we<BR> + ř’we<BR> + î’we </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’wi<BR> + ř’wi<BR> + î’wi </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’wë<BR> + ř’wë<BR> + î’wë </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’wo<BR> + ř’wo<BR> + î’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> @@ -1499,33 +1499,33 @@ <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> stem 2<BR> stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a<BR> - <BR> - i</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">oa<BR> - u<BR> - u</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a<BR> - e<BR> - i </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">y<BR> - y<BR> - y </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ya<BR> - ya<BR> - ya </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ye<BR> - ye<BR> - ye</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">yu<BR> - yu<BR> - yu</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">y<BR> - y<BR> - y </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">yo<BR> - yo<BR> - yo</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aů<BR> + ëů<BR> + iů</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">o’a<BR> + ë’u<BR> + u’ë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aę<BR> + üe<BR> + iű </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’yď<BR> + ř’yď<BR> + î’yď </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’ya<BR> + ř’ya<BR> + î’ya </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’ye<BR> + ř’ye<BR> + î’ye</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’yu<BR> + ř’yu<BR> + î’yu</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’yë<BR> + ř’yë<BR> + î’yë </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ű’yo<BR> + ř’yo<BR> + î’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> <P align="justify"> </P> @@ -1563,8 +1563,8 @@ a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative - <STRONG>kld</STRONG> illustrated above in Section 2.3.2.1 means both - river and to flow/run (as a river) with neither + <STRONG>klâd</STRONG> illustrated above in Section 2.3.2.1 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such @@ -1576,18 +1576,18 @@ <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/2-6-1a.gif" width="190" height="25"><FONT color="#FFFFFF"> ______</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-2.mp3">Listen!</A> <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-2.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR> - <EM>by the time of his death</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> - <EM>by the time he dies</EM></P> + <EM>‘by the time of his death’</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> + <EM>‘by the time he dies’</EM></P> <P align="justify"><BR> <IMG src="assets/2-6-1b.gif" width="194" height="24"><BR> - <EM>the awful-smelling woman</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> - <EM>the woman smells awful</EM></P> + <EM>‘the awful-smelling woman’</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> + <EM>‘the woman smells awful’</EM></P> <P align="justify"><BR> <IMG src="assets/2-6-1d.gif" width="208" height="23"><FONT color="#FFFFFF"> ______</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-2.mp3">Listen!</A> <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-2.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR> - <EM>what the eagle sees</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> - <EM>the eagles seeing something</EM></P> + <EM>‘what the eagle sees’</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> + <EM>‘the eagle’s seeing something’</EM></P> <P align="justify"><BR> The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns @@ -1597,8 +1597,8 @@ these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to - either <EM>spatially reify</EM> this formative into an object - or entity (i.e., a noun) or to<EM> temporally activize</EM> it + either <EM>spatially “reify”</EM> this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to<EM> temporally “activize”</EM> it into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can be diagrammed as follows:</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> @@ -1609,8 +1609,8 @@ <H3>2.6.2 Adjuncts <A name="Sec2o6o2"></A></H3> <P align="justify">Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the - formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., may, will, - would, do, have) or like noun determiners (e.g., the, this, those). + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”). </P> <P align="justify">Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, @@ -1737,40 +1737,40 @@ 1</FONT></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-iC</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cai</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ci</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-îC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cëi</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ieC</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ca</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Caď</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 2</FONT></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-eC</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cei</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C / -eiC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ęC / -eiC</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ceu </STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-iC</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ce</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-iëC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ceď</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 3</FONT></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C / -aeC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-äC / -aeC</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cia</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C /-aiC</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-âC /-aiC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Câ</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-iuC</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ci</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ciď</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 4</FONT></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-öC</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cua</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C / -euC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-řC / -euC</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ciu</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ioC</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Co</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Coď</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree @@ -1779,48 +1779,48 @@ <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ca</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uiC</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cui</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-iC</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-iäC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cuď</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 6</FONT></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C / -uC</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C / -auC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-üC / -ëuC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cü</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-˙C / -auC</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cau</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uC</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ci</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uäC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cäi</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 7</FONT></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C / -iC</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ďC / -ëiC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cď</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ëC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cëu</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uoC</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ci</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cöi</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 8</FONT></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-oC</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Coi</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C / -oiC / -ouC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ôC / -oiC / -ouC</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cou</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uC</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uëC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cäu</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 9</FONT></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uC</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cu</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-C</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-űC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cű</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ueC </STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cöu</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> <P align="justify">Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see @@ -1843,67 +1843,67 @@ <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 1</FONT></TD> <TD width="27%"><DIV align="left"><STRONG> ritik / ritkai</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD width="34%"><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / ritki</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD width="28%"><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiek / ritka</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="34%"><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritîk / ritkëi</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="28%"><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiek / ritkaď</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 2</FONT></TD> <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritek / ritkei </STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / riteik / ritkeu</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritik / ritke</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritęk / riteik / ritkeu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiëk / ritkeď</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 3</FONT></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / ritaek / ritkia</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / ritaik / ritk</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD> <DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiuk /ritki</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritäk / ritaek / ritkia</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritâk / ritaik / ritkâ</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD> <DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiuk /ritkiď</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 4</FONT></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / ritkua</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / riteuk / ritkiu</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiok / ritko</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritök / ritkua</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritřk / riteuk / ritkiu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiok / ritkoď</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 5</FONT></TD> <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / ritak / ritka</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituik / ritkui</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritik / ritku</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiäk / ritkuď</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 6</FONT></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / rituk / ritk</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / ritauk / ritkau</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituk / ritki</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritük / ritëuk / ritkü</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rit˙k / ritauk / ritkau</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituäk / ritkäi</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 7</FONT></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / ritik / ritk </STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / ritku</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituok / ritki</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritďk / ritëik / ritkď </STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritëk / ritkëu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituok / ritköi</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 8</FONT></TD> <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritok /ritkoi</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / ritoik / ritouk / ritkou</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituk / ritku</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritôk / ritoik / ritouk / ritkou</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituëk / ritkäu</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree 9</FONT></TD> <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituk / ritku</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / ritk</STRONG></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituek / ritku</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritűk / ritkű</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituek / ritköu</STRONG></DIV></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> -<P align="justify"> Because the reversed -CV form of the suffix +<P align="justify"> Because the “reversed” -CV form of the suffix reinforces a CVC syllabic structure for the stem syllable of the word, such reversed word-final suffixes are common in Ithkuil (<A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4o5">see Sec. 1.4.5</A>).</P> @@ -1941,14 +1941,14 @@ <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 3</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><STRONG>-d / -aed / -dia</STRONG></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-äd / -aed / -dia</STRONG></TD> <TD>not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]</TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 4</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><STRONG>-d / -dua</STRONG></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-öd / -dua</STRONG></TD> <TD>not quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]</TD> </TR> <TR> @@ -1962,14 +1962,14 @@ <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 6</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><STRONG>-d / -ud / -d</STRONG></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-üd / -ëud / -dü</STRONG></TD> <TD>a little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]</TD> </TR> <TR> <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 7</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><STRONG>-d / -id / -d</STRONG></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-ďd / -ëid / -dď</STRONG></TD> <TD>too / too much / over-[+verb]</TD> </TR> <TR> @@ -1991,14 +1991,14 @@ 2.7.3 Vocalic Affixes</H3> <P align="justify">Other than the stem-infixes previously discussed in <A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o3">Section 2.3</A> et seq., the use of vocalic affixes (i.e., affixes based on vowels rather - than consonants) in Ithkuil occurs in several contexts vocalic prefixes + than consonants) in Ithkuil occurs in several contexts — vocalic prefixes to formatives, vocalic prefixes and suffixes to adjuncts, and the anaptyctic - affixes -<STRONG></STRONG>-, and -<STRONG>a</STRONG>. Each of these contexts + affixes -<STRONG>ď</STRONG>-, and -<STRONG>a</STRONG>. Each of these contexts is discussed below:</P> <P align="justify"><STRONG>2.7.3.1 Vocalic Prefixes</STRONG>. Vocalic prefixes are used with both formatives and adjuncts, and consist of either single vowels or two-vowel conjuncts or diphthongs (e.g., <STRONG>a</STRONG>-, <STRONG>ui</STRONG>-, - <STRONG>ae</STRONG>-, <STRONG>ia</STRONG>-, <STRONG></STRONG>-, <STRONG>eu</STRONG>-, + <STRONG>ae</STRONG>-, <STRONG>ia</STRONG>-, <STRONG>ö</STRONG>-, <STRONG>eu</STRONG>-, etc.). Additionally, these prefixes can take an initial <STRONG>w</STRONG>- or <STRONG>y</STRONG>- increment. While these prefixes are often highly synthetic morphologically (i.e., a single prefix can carry information for multiple grammatical @@ -2012,17 +2012,17 @@ can be multiple vocalic suffixes on an adjunct, joined agglutinatively (i.e., added on one after the other) with intervening consonantal affixes.</P> <P align="justify"><STRONG><A name="Sec2o7o3o3"></A>2.7.3.3 Anaptyctic Vowels - -- and -a</STRONG>. Sometimes the grammatical rules of a language require + -ď- and -a</STRONG>. Sometimes the grammatical rules of a language require a meaningless phonemic increment to be affixed to a word, whether as a prefix, suffix, or infix. This is known as anaptyxis. As will be discussed in <A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter - 7: Using Affixes</A>, an anaptyctic infix, -<STRONG></STRONG>-, is used + 7: Using Affixes</A>, an anaptyctic infix, -<STRONG>ď</STRONG>-, is used in Ithkuil to separate consonantal prefixes from the <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> stem consonantal radical wherever necessary for phonotactical euphony or to prevent confusion in misinterpreting the prefix consonant(s) as part of the <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> radical. For example, while the prefix <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s</FONT></STRONG>- is phonotactically permissible before the stem <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kaf</FONT></STRONG>, - the resulting word must be <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>skaf</STRONG></FONT>, + the resulting word must be <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>sďkaf</STRONG></FONT>, not <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">skaf</FONT></STRONG>, as the latter is a completely different stem employing a <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> radical <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>sk</STRONG></FONT>-.</P> @@ -2032,10 +2032,10 @@ In such cases, the number of syllables must be increased to three. Sometimes this can be done by restructuring any consonantal affixes the word may have, but more often than not, anaptyctic vowels must be affixed. In this case the - anaptyctic vowel <STRONG></STRONG>- can be prefixed to a word beginning + anaptyctic vowel <STRONG>ď</STRONG>- can be prefixed to a word beginning with a consonant (usually nominal formatives), and/or an anaptyctic vowel -<STRONG>a</STRONG> can be suffixed to the end of a word, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kfuil - <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> kfila</FONT></STRONG>. + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> ďkfůila</FONT></STRONG>. This anaptyctic suffix -<STRONG>a</STRONG> is also required for phonotactical euphony when grammatical rules require the mutation of the second radical <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG> to a form which is not permissible in word-final position, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t @@ -2115,7 +2115,7 @@ <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> -<P align="justify"><FONT size="-1">2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or +<P align="justify"><FONT size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website. </FONT></P> <P> </P> |