diff options
Diffstat (limited to '2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html')
| -rw-r--r--[-rwxr-xr-x] | 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html | 334 |
1 files changed, 167 insertions, 167 deletions
diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html index a9baa2f..45864f5 100755..100644 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html @@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TBODY></TABLE> </DIV> <P align="justify">In furtherance of morpho-phonological efficiency (one of the - languages goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have + language’s goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have a large phonemic inventory, specifically 65 consonants and 17 vowels, illustrated by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized orthography. Because this is far more than most Western languages, Ithkuil has @@ -195,7 +195,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>p</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>b</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/p-aspirated.gif" width="20" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>p</STRONG></FONT><STRONG></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>p</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> @@ -246,7 +246,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/t-aspirated.gif" width="15" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>t</STRONG></FONT><STRONG></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>t</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> @@ -267,7 +267,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/z-bar.gif" width="9" height="11"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/c-aspirated.gif" width="18" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">z</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> @@ -284,7 +284,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/z-dot.gif" width="9" height="15"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/C dot aspirated.gif" width="17" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/z-cedilla.gif" width="14" height="15"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> @@ -301,7 +301,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>j</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Cv aspirated.gif" width="16" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Sv.gif" width="8" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Zv.gif" width="9" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> @@ -314,12 +314,12 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Jv.gif" width="9" height="20"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla aspirated.gif" width="18" height="20" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ç’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ç</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> @@ -331,11 +331,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">g</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k</STRONG></FONT><STRONG></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Gv.gif" width="12" height="21"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD> @@ -348,11 +348,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/g-dot.gif" width="12" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/q-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q</STRONG></FONT><STRONG></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> @@ -379,7 +379,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">GLOTTAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> - <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="4"></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="4">’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> @@ -449,14 +449,14 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD height="26"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">High</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>î</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>˙</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ü</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ď</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ű</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> @@ -475,20 +475,20 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TR> <TD height="25"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mid</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> - </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ę</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ř</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ë</STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ô</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="26"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mid-Low</FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>e</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ö</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ @@ -499,13 +499,13 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD height="27"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Low</FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ä</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>a</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>â</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> @@ -582,11 +582,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> - <TD height="95" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD height="95" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ç</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">Like the initial sound in English <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG>uman</EM>, <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG>uge</EM>, <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG>ue</EM>, or the sound in German <EM>i<STRONG>ch</STRONG></EM>. A voiceless dorso-palatal - non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG>]. + non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</FONT></STRONG>]. X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>C</STRONG></FONT>]. Example sound files:<BR> <A href="Sound_Files/cons-4a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-4a.gif" width="221" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> @@ -611,7 +611,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD height="20" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/d-cedilla.gif" width="12" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>th</STRONG>is</EM>, <EM>ba<STRONG>th</STRONG>e</EM>, <EM>wea<STRONG>th</STRONG>er</EM>. A - voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [<FONT size="3"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT>]. + voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [<FONT size="3"><STRONG>đ</STRONG></FONT>]. X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>D</STRONG></FONT>]. <BR> <BR> @@ -639,9 +639,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Inuit and several Paleo-Siberian languages such as Chukchi and Nivkh. Similar to the hard <EM>g</EM>-sound above - but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little punching - bag hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. - The resulting sound has a characteristic gulped quality. + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + The resulting sound has a characteristic “gulped” quality. The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil <STRONG>q</STRONG> below; IPA [<STRONG><IMG src="assets/IPA G-uvular.gif" width="10" height="9"></STRONG>]. X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>G\</STRONG></FONT>]. Example sound files:<BR> @@ -655,7 +655,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart of <STRONG>x</STRONG> below. Can be approximated by putting the tongue in the position to pronounce English g as in <EM><STRONG>g</STRONG>a<STRONG>g</STRONG></EM> - then, without moving the tongue, trying to say uh instead. + then, without moving the tongue, trying to say ‘uh’ instead. A voiced dorso-velar fricative; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA g-gamma.gif" width="12" height="13" align="absbottom">]. X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>G</STRONG></FONT>]. Example sound files:<BR> @@ -706,15 +706,15 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart of Ithkuil <STRONG> <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"></STRONG> below. Found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled <EM>gy</EM> and - <EM>d</EM> respectively. Sort of like a <EM>g</EM>+<EM>y</EM> sound + <EM>d´</EM> respectively. Sort of like a <EM>g</EM>+<EM>y</EM> sound as in English <EM>bi<STRONG>g y</STRONG>ear</EM> pronounced rapidly, with the <EM>g</EM>-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate as opposed to the soft palate. A voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive. IPA [<IMG src="assets/j-bar.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absbottom">]. X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>J\</STRONG></FONT>]. Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-10b.mp3"><BR> - <IMG src="assets/cons-10b.gif" width="38" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><EM>day - (24-hour period)</EM><A href="Sound_Files/cons-10b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"><BR> + <IMG src="assets/cons-10b.gif" width="38" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><EM>‘day + (24-hour period)’</EM><A href="Sound_Files/cons-10b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"><BR> </A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-10a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> <BR> </FONT></DIV></TD> @@ -747,9 +747,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD height="93" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>l</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The light <EM>l</EM>-sound + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The “light” <EM>l</EM>-sound of the Romance languages, or as in British English <EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>eader</EM>; - not the dark (velarized) <EM>l</EM>-sound of American English + not the “dark” (velarized) <EM>l</EM>-sound of American English <EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>u<STRONG>ll</STRONG></EM>. A voiced apico-dental dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>l</STRONG></FONT>]. Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-13a.mp3"><BR> @@ -761,9 +761,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD height="96" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle"></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The dark (velarized) <EM>l</EM>-sound + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The “dark” (velarized) <EM>l</EM>-sound of American English <EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>u<STRONG>ll</STRONG></EM>, not - the light <EM>l</EM>-sound of the Romance languages or British + the “light” <EM>l</EM>-sound of the Romance languages or British English <EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>eader</EM>. A voiced velarized apico-dental dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l-velarized.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>5</STRONG></FONT>]. @@ -829,8 +829,8 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiceless dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated <EM>k</EM>-sound - but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little punching - bag hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q</FONT></STRONG>]. Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-38b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> <BR> @@ -886,7 +886,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TR> <TD height="81" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. Like the throaty - or gargled <EM>r</EM>-sound found in colloquial French and + or “gargled” <EM>r</EM>-sound found in colloquial French and German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA R-uvular approxmt.gif" width="8" height="10">]. X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">R</FONT></STRONG>]. Example sound files:<BR> @@ -921,7 +921,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> - <TD height="59" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD height="59" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>š</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>sh</STRONG>oe<STRONG>sh</STRONG>ine</EM> but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA S-esh.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">]. @@ -1004,7 +1004,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TR> <TD height="78" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart - to <STRONG></STRONG> above. This is the intensive + to <STRONG>ç</STRONG> above. This is the “intensive” <EM>y</EM>-sound heard in Castilian and some Latin American varieties of Spanish. Like the sound in English <EM><STRONG>y</STRONG>et</EM>, <EM><STRONG>y</STRONG>am</EM> but with the blade of the tongue held more closely to the hard palate, @@ -1037,7 +1037,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD height="49" valign="top"><DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/Zv.gif" width="9" height="16"></DIV></TD> - <TD valign="top">The voiced counterpart of <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG> + <TD valign="top">The voiced counterpart of <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">š</FONT></STRONG> above. Similar to the sound in English <EM>plea<STRONG>s</STRONG>ure</EM> or <EM>lei<STRONG>s</STRONG>ure</EM>, but without lip-rounding. A voiced lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA ezh.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">]. @@ -1066,10 +1066,10 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> - <TD height="90" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="4"></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD height="90" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="4">’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">This sound is the glottal stop heard between the two vowels in English o<EM>h-oh</EM> or as the sound heard - in most American English speakers pronunciation of the word <EM>fa<STRONG>tt</STRONG>ening</EM>. + in most American English speakers’ pronunciation of the word <EM>fa<STRONG>tt</STRONG>ening</EM>. This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA glottal stop.gif" width="7" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. Example sound files: <BR> @@ -1102,7 +1102,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which - gives the sound a distinct popped or explosive quality. Ejectives + gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-2a.gif" width="245" height="21" align="absmiddle">. Note: the lateral affricate <IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="9" height="16" align="absbottom"> has an allophone (alternate pronunciation) as an ejective as well. Example sound @@ -1117,46 +1117,46 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P align="justify">In addition to the above ejectives, there are three additional - ejective consonants, all of them affricates, <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG>, - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x</STRONG></FONT>, - and <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT>, + ejective consonants, all of them affricates, <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç’</FONT></STRONG>, + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x’</STRONG></FONT>, + and <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT>, whose rather difficult and exotic pronunciations are described below.</P> <TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> - <TD width="5%" height="94" align="center" valign="top"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD width="5%" height="94" align="center" valign="top"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç’</FONT></STRONG></TD> <TD width="95%" valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"></FONT> - + Ithkuil <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG> + + Ithkuil <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</FONT></STRONG> (the voiceless palatal slit fricative described above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, - it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA c-bar & c-cedilla.gif" width="20" height="13" align="absbottom"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT>]. + it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA c-bar & c-cedilla.gif" width="20" height="13" align="absbottom"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT>]. X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c_C_></STRONG></FONT>]. Example sound file: <BR> <A href="Sound_Files/cons-40a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> - <TD height="96" align="center" valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD height="96" align="center" valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x’</STRONG></FONT></TD> <TD valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <STRONG>k</STRONG> + Ithkuil <STRONG>x</STRONG> (the voiceless velar fricative described above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, it should be a harsh, sudden, emphatic <EM>k</EM>-sound, accompanied by a high-pitched sound of static, as if someone is verbally - imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kx</FONT></STRONG>]. + imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kx’</FONT></STRONG>]. X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k_x_></STRONG></FONT>]. Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-40b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> - <TD height="84" align="center" valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD height="84" align="center" valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></TD> <TD valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q</FONT></STRONG> + Ithkuil <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"> </FONT>(the voiceless uvular fricative described above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, - it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [<STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q<IMG src="assets/IPA x-chi.gif" width="15" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></STRONG>]. + it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [<STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q<IMG src="assets/IPA x-chi.gif" width="15" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT>’</STRONG>]. X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q_X_></STRONG></FONT>]. This sound is found in a few obscure Northeast Caucasian languages (e.g., Dido, Archi). Example sound file:<BR> @@ -1169,15 +1169,15 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-3a.gif" width="118" height="18" align="absbottom">, can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions - such as hmm (as when pondering a thought), mm-hmm + such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants <EM>n</EM> and <EM>l</EM> as in the second syllable of words like <EM>button</EM> and <EM>little</EM>. - Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words <EM>nda</EM> no, - and <EM>ndghlii</EM> sunflower. In Ithkuil, these + Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words <EM>nda</EM> ‘no’, + and <EM>ndíghílii</EM> ‘sunflower.’ In Ithkuil, these six syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant as in <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-3b.gif" width="152" height="23" align="absmiddle"> However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where - the second half of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate + the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate syllable. Examples: <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-3c.gif" width="139" height="23" align="absbottom">.</P> <P align="justify"></P> <H3 align="justify">1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels</H3> @@ -1197,41 +1197,41 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <STRONG>u</STRONG> is halfway between English <EM>c<STRONG>oo</STRONG>k</EM> and <EM>k<STRONG>oo</STRONG>k</EM>. Sound files: <STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-1.mp3">a e i o u</A> </FONT></STRONG> <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-1.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></P> -<P align="justify">The vowel <STRONG></STRONG> is pronounced as in Western +<P align="justify">The vowel <STRONG>â</STRONG> is pronounced as in Western U.S. <EM><STRONG>a</STRONG>ll</EM>, IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA a-back.gif" width="9" height="13" align="absmiddle">]; - <STRONG></STRONG> and <STRONG></STRONG> are mid-height, IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">e</FONT></STRONG>] + <STRONG>ę</STRONG> and <STRONG>ô</STRONG> are mid-height, IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">e</FONT></STRONG>] and [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">o</FONT></STRONG>] as in Spanish <EM><STRONG>e</STRONG>st<STRONG>o</STRONG>s</EM> or in French - <EM>p<STRONG>o</STRONG>sie</EM>; <STRONG></STRONG> and <STRONG></STRONG> + <EM>p<STRONG>oé</STRONG>sie</EM>; <STRONG>î</STRONG> and <STRONG>ű</STRONG> are high (i.e., fully closed) as in Spanish or Italian <EM>i</EM> and <EM>u</EM>, IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>i</STRONG></FONT>] and [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>u</STRONG></FONT>]. - Example sound files: <STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-2.mp3"> - </A></FONT> </STRONG><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-2.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></P> -<P align="justify">The vowel <STRONG></STRONG> is slightly higher than the + Example sound files: <STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-2.mp3">â + ę î ô ű</A></FONT> </STRONG><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-2.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></P> +<P align="justify">The vowel <STRONG>ä</STRONG> is slightly higher than the vowel in American English <EM>s<STRONG>a</STRONG>t </EM>but not as high as in<EM> - s<STRONG>e</STRONG>t</EM>, IPA [<STRONG>^</STRONG>]. The vowel <STRONG></STRONG> + s<STRONG>e</STRONG>t</EM>, IPA [<STRONG>ć^</STRONG>]. The vowel <STRONG>ö</STRONG> is the rounded equivalent of <STRONG>e</STRONG>, that is, the vowel in French - <EM>b<STRONG>oeu</STRONG>f</EM> or German <EM>k<STRONG></STRONG>nnte</EM>, - IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT>]. - The vowel <STRONG></STRONG> is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American + <EM>b<STRONG>oeu</STRONG>f</EM> or German <EM>k<STRONG>ö</STRONG>nnte</EM>, + IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ś</STRONG></FONT>]. + The vowel <STRONG>ë</STRONG> is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American English <EM>c<STRONG>u</STRONG>t</EM> or <EM>n<STRONG>u</STRONG>t</EM>, although, - more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG></STRONG> but without rounding + more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ô</STRONG> but without rounding of the lips, a vowel which occurs in Estonian, IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA o-unrounded.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle">]. - The vowel <STRONG></STRONG> is pronounced as an unrounded <STRONG></STRONG>, + The vowel <STRONG>ď</STRONG> is pronounced as an unrounded <STRONG>ű</STRONG>, an obscure vowel found in Turkish and Japanese, IPA <IMG src="assets/IPA u-unrounded.gif" width="22" height="14" align="absbottom">. - The vowel <STRONG></STRONG> is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel, + The vowel <STRONG>ü</STRONG> is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel, as found in Norwegian <EM>h<STRONG>u</STRONG>s</EM> or the Highland Scottish pronunciation of English <EM>b<STRONG>oo</STRONG>k</EM> or <EM>g<STRONG>oo</STRONG>d</EM>, IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA u-bar.gif" width="11" height="15" align="absmiddle">]. - The vowel <STRONG></STRONG> is the rounded equivalent of <STRONG></STRONG>, - as in French <EM>f<STRONG>eu</STRONG></EM> or German <EM>sch<STRONG></STRONG>n</EM>, - IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG>]; - the vowel <STRONG></STRONG> represents the front rounded vowel of French - <EM>d<STRONG>u</STRONG></EM> and German <EM><STRONG></STRONG>ber</EM>, + The vowel <STRONG>ř</STRONG> is the rounded equivalent of <STRONG>ę</STRONG>, + as in French <EM>f<STRONG>eu</STRONG></EM> or German <EM>sch<STRONG>ö</STRONG>n</EM>, + IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ř</FONT></STRONG>]; + the vowel <STRONG>˙</STRONG> represents the front rounded vowel of French + <EM>d<STRONG>u</STRONG></EM> and German <EM><STRONG>ü</STRONG>ber</EM>, IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>y</STRONG></FONT>]. - Example sound files:<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-3.mp3"> <STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"></FONT></STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"><STRONG> - </STRONG></FONT></A><STRONG> </STRONG><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-3.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + Example sound files:<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-3.mp3"> <STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1">ä</FONT></STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"><STRONG> + ë ď ö ř ü ˙</STRONG></FONT></A><STRONG> </STRONG><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-3.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> </P> <H3 align="justify"><BR> 1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions</H3> @@ -1253,9 +1253,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning - a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable foreign - accent to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, - and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English top without + a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign + accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, + and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without aspirating the initial <EM>t</EM>-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration in Romance languages.)</P> <P align="justify">The particular phonetic variants of a particular phoneme are @@ -1277,7 +1277,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD height="111" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hh</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The geminated version of Ithkuil h is - pronounced as a bi-dental fricative, in that the jaw is + pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English <EM><STRONG>th</STRONG>in</EM>) @@ -1321,7 +1321,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Normally pronounced as a voiced labio-velar approximant (i.e., labialized dorso-velar approximant) as in English wet (IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</FONT></STRONG>]), - when followed by the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG></STRONG>, this sound, + when followed by the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ű</STRONG>, this sound, takes on even greater lip-rounding to become a voiced labio-velar fricative (i.e., labialized dorso-velar fricative) (IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA beta-labialized.gif" width="18" height="18" align="absbottom">]). <BR> @@ -1330,18 +1330,18 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD height="40" valign="top"> - <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">In this word-initial combination of voiced labio-velar approximant followed by a glottal stop is found, the <EM>w</EM> is pronounced followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, - Ithkuil <STRONG></STRONG>, followed by the glottal stop (IPA [<IMG src="assets/w plus glottal.gif" width="22" height="14" align="absmiddle">]). + Ithkuil <STRONG>ď</STRONG>, followed by the glottal stop (IPA [<IMG src="assets/w plus glottal.gif" width="22" height="14" align="absmiddle">]). <BR> <BR> </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="44" valign="top"> - <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similarly to the combination above, this word-initial combination has its voiced dorso-palatal approximant followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, followed by the glottal @@ -1407,11 +1407,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends. <BR> </P> <H3 align="justify">1.3.1 Gemination</H3> -<P align="justify">Gemination refers to the audible doubling in +<P align="justify">Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological - grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase a natural - versus unnatural. There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based + grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ + versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, Finnish).</P> <P align="justify">In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy @@ -1463,10 +1463,10 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <P align="justify">The aspirated plosives <STRONG><IMG src="assets/1-3-1-3b.gif" width="135" height="17" align="absbottom"></STRONG> are likewise held momentarily before release, the aspiration occurring upon release, much like the two <EM>t</EM>-sounds in the English phrase <EM>ho<STRONG>t - t</STRONG>ar</EM> when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k, - <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">, - p, q, </STRONG></FONT>and<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> - t</STRONG></FONT> are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic + t</STRONG>ar</EM> when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k’, + <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">’, + p’, q’, </STRONG></FONT>and<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> + t’</STRONG></FONT> are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic ejectivization occurring upon release. Example sound files:</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-36a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-36a.gif" width="242" height="16" border="0"></A> @@ -1478,12 +1478,12 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative or sibilant portion. Aspiration or ejectivization, if present, occurs during release of the plosive into the sibilant or fricative component, e.g., <IMG src="assets/Cv-geminate.gif" width="18" height="15" align="absmiddle"> - is pronounced as IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tt</STRONG></FONT>]. + is pronounced as IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ttš</STRONG></FONT>]. For those affricates which can appear as word-final geminates (<IMG src="assets/1-3-1-3d.gif" width="137" height="16" align="absbottom">), geminated pronunciation in word-final position is achieved by simply lengthening the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of each affricate). Thus, <IMG src="assets/Cv-geminate.gif" width="18" height="15" align="absmiddle"> - in word-final position is pronounced as IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>t</STRONG></FONT>], + in word-final position is pronounced as IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tšš</STRONG></FONT>], <IMG src="assets/Qv-geminated.gif" width="19" height="18" align="absbottom"> as IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l lambda-bar plus l-loop.gif" width="21" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. Example sound files: </P> @@ -1498,14 +1498,14 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </BLOCKQUOTE> <P align="justify"><STRONG>1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates</STRONG>. Single character consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g., - <STRONG> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">bb, dd, nn, </FONT></STRONG>. + <STRONG> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">bb, dd, nn, šš</FONT></STRONG>. Aspirated digraph-consonants have the first letter of the digraph written doubled followed by a single superscript h, e.g., <IMG src="assets/1-3-1-4a.gif" width="118" height="17" align="absbottom"> Geminated ejective consonants are likewise written with the initial character doubled followed by a single apostrophe, e.g., <IMG src="assets/1-3-1-4b.gif" width="87" height="18" align="absbottom"> - Exceptions to this rule exist for the ejective affricates <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG>, - <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</FONT></STRONG>, - and <STRONG><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></STRONG>. + Exceptions to this rule exist for the ejective affricates <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</FONT>’</STRONG>, + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</FONT>’</STRONG>, + and <STRONG><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom">’</STRONG>. Because the non-apostrophed forms of these three characters do not correspond to non-ejectivized versions of the apostrophed form, these geminates are written as <IMG src="assets/1-3-1-4c.gif" width="116" height="18" align="absbottom"></P> @@ -1515,7 +1515,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages and some American Indian languages. This means that pitch or tone of voice is used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone - and pitch changes supra-segmentally to mark various morpho-semantic + and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words @@ -1589,17 +1589,17 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD>The grave accent ( <STRONG><FONT size="4" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">`</FONT></STRONG> ) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted, e.g., in distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as <STRONG>au</STRONG> - and <STRONG>ei</STRONG> from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts <STRONG>a - </STRONG>and<STRONG> e</STRONG>.</TD> + and <STRONG>ei</STRONG> from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts <STRONG>aů + </STRONG>and<STRONG> eě</STRONG>.</TD> </TR> <TR valign="top"> <TD height="70">3)</TD> <TD><STRONG>Penultimate stress</STRONG>. Polysyllabic words having penultimate stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing the dissyllabic - phonemes <STRONG></STRONG> or <STRONG></STRONG> as the penultimate - syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>iskot</STRONG></FONT> + phonemes <STRONG>ě</STRONG> or <STRONG>ů</STRONG> as the penultimate + syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>iskoůt</STRONG></FONT> (stress on the <STRONG>o</STRONG>), if adding the syllable -<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ma</STRONG></FONT>, - becomes <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>iskotma</STRONG></FONT> + becomes <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>iskoútma</STRONG></FONT> (stress on the <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">u</FONT></STRONG>).</TD> </TR> <TR valign="top"> @@ -1612,21 +1612,21 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD><UL> <LI>the unmarked vowels <STRONG>a</STRONG>, <STRONG>e</STRONG>, <STRONG>i</STRONG>, <STRONG>o</STRONG>, <STRONG>u</STRONG>, and the marked disyllabic vowels - <STRONG></STRONG> and <STRONG></STRONG> take an acute - accent, e.g., <STRONG></STRONG>, <STRONG></STRONG>, - <STRONG></STRONG>, <STRONG></STRONG>, <STRONG></STRONG>.</LI> + <STRONG>ě</STRONG> and <STRONG>ů</STRONG> take an acute + accent, e.g., <STRONG>á</STRONG>, <STRONG>é</STRONG>, + <STRONG>í</STRONG>, <STRONG>ó</STRONG>, <STRONG>ú</STRONG>.</LI> <LI>if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, or syllabic liquid or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate - syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rihnl</FONT></STRONG>.</LI> + syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rňihnäl</FONT></STRONG>.</LI> <LI>If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then a grave accent over the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress (as the grave accent would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate - stress), e.g. <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">sptlk</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">.</FONT></LI> + stress), e.g. <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ňspätlök</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">.</FONT></LI> <LI>if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate syllables already have diacritic marks (other than the grave accent) - then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>kstpr</STRONG></FONT>. + then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ksűtpäär</STRONG></FONT>. </LI> </UL></TD> </TR> @@ -1640,18 +1640,18 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD><UL> <LI>if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant) does not carry a diacritic (other than the grave accent), it takes the - acute accent, e.g., ksiyor</LI> + acute accent, e.g., áksiyor</LI> <LI>if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack of acute accent on the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate - stress, e.g., <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">itlrrun</FONT></STRONG>, - <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rmzl</FONT></STRONG>. + stress, e.g., <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëitlŕrrun</FONT></STRONG>, + <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ôrümzěl</FONT></STRONG>. (Note that the use of the grave accent over the <STRONG>i</STRONG> in - <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rmzl</FONT></STRONG> + <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ôrümzěl</FONT></STRONG> would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress, therefore its presence implies antepenultimate stress). </LI> <LI>if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules, - then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>molk</STRONG></FONT>.</LI> + then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>öömoläk</STRONG></FONT>.</LI> </UL></TD> </TR> <TR valign="top"> @@ -1683,7 +1683,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <P align="justify">Equally important are the optional rules each language employs to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly - responsible for the phonetic character or subjective sound + responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are described in the sections below.</P> <H3 align="justify"><BR> @@ -1710,13 +1710,13 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; fricative continuant</EM></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s, h,<IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, - ll, mm, p</FONT></STRONG></TD> + ll, mm, pçç</FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="32" valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Monosyllabic</FONT></TD> <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> - <TD><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">a, ui, t, - isk, du, tuil, kleb, tliqs, pskarn, xxort</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">a, ui, öt, + isk, du, tuil, kleb, tliqs, pskarn, xxoršt</FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="30" valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-initial</FONT></TD> @@ -1725,10 +1725,10 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, <STRONG>m</STRONG>, <STRONG>n</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><FONT size="2"><STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">u</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ran, - <FONT color="#0000FF">ta</FONT>hin, <FONT color="#0000FF">ui</FONT>w, + <FONT color="#0000FF">ta</FONT>hin, <FONT color="#0000FF">ui’</FONT>wá, <FONT color="#0000FF">pri</FONT>nu, <FONT color="#0000FF">klat</FONT>ma, <FONT color="#0000FF">xmois</FONT>kra, <FONT color="#0000FF">kstol</FONT>lap, - <FONT color="#0000FF">ltuir</FONT>bis, <FONT color="#0000FF">mpeil</FONT>tum</FONT></STRONG></FONT></TD> + <FONT color="#0000FF">ltuir</FONT>bis, <FONT color="#0000FF">mpeil</FONT>t’um</FONT></STRONG></FONT></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-medial</FONT></TD> @@ -1738,7 +1738,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <STRONG>m</STRONG>, <STRONG>n</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="middle"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ki<FONT color="#0000FF">a</FONT>lun, ru<FONT color="#0000FF">en</FONT>tik, is<FONT color="#0000FF">teix</FONT>lam, - k<FONT color="#0000FF">spz</FONT>qai, <IMG src="assets/1-4-1a.gif" width="68" height="16" align="texttop"></FONT></STRONG></TD> + ďk<FONT color="#0000FF">spűz</FONT>qai, <IMG src="assets/1-4-1a.gif" width="68" height="16" align="texttop"></FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-final</FONT></TD> @@ -1747,8 +1747,8 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, <STRONG>m</STRONG>, <STRONG>n</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">lu<FONT color="#0000FF">a</FONT>, - an<FONT color="#0000FF">toi</FONT>, ti<FONT color="#0000FF">al</FONT>, eif<FONT color="#0000FF">qs</FONT>, - pox<FONT color="#0000FF">urn</FONT>, ul<FONT color="#0000FF">trnn</FONT>, + an<FONT color="#0000FF">toi</FONT>, ti<FONT color="#0000FF">al</FONT>, eif<FONT color="#0000FF">qés</FONT>, + pox<FONT color="#0000FF">šurn</FONT>, ul<FONT color="#0000FF">trönn</FONT>, <IMG src="assets/1-4-1b.gif" width="25" height="16" align="baseline"> </FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> @@ -1777,9 +1777,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <H3 align="justify">1.4.2 Diphthongs</H3> <P align="justify"> An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil diphthongs are - falling diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives + “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred - to as semi-consonantal or an off-glide). There are 24 diphthongs + to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 24 diphthongs in Ithkuil, described as follows:</P> <TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1793,11 +1793,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD height="33" valign="top"> - <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">i + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">äi <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-5.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination - of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG></STRONG> plus an English <EM>y</EM>-sound. + of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ä</STRONG> plus an English <EM>y</EM>-sound. </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> @@ -1809,7 +1809,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD height="55" valign="top"> - <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">i + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëi <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-7.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No standard English equivalent; a combination @@ -1826,11 +1826,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD height="55" valign="top"> - <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">i + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">öi <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-9.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination - of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG></STRONG> plus an English <EM>y</EM>-sound. + of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ö</STRONG> plus an English <EM>y</EM>-sound. Somewhat like the French word <EM>oeil</EM>. </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> @@ -1839,10 +1839,10 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-10.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; no English - equivalent. A combination of Spanish or Italian pure <EM>u</EM> + equivalent. A combination of Spanish or Italian “pure” <EM>u</EM> (i.e., without the glide into -<EM>w</EM> as in English <EM>rude</EM>) + an English <EM>y</EM>-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this - diphthong to become a rising diphthong where the <EM>u</EM>-sound + diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the <EM>u</EM>-sound is reduced to a <EM>w</EM>- (the result sounding like English <EM>wee</EM>). </DIV></TD> </TR> @@ -1856,11 +1856,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD height="31" valign="top"> - <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">u + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">äu <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-12.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination - of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG></STRONG> plus an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. + of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ä</STRONG> plus an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> @@ -1869,13 +1869,13 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-13.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; no English - equivalent. A combination of pure <EM>e</EM> (i.e., without - the glide into y as in English <EM>they</EM>) + an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. + equivalent. A combination of “pure” <EM>e</EM> (i.e., without + the glide into –y as in English <EM>they</EM>) + an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="50" valign="top"> - <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">u + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëu <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-14.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No standard English equivalent; a combination @@ -1890,7 +1890,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent; a combination of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>i</STRONG> (which is more open than the Spanish - or Italian pure <EM>i</EM> (i.e., closer to English <EM>i</EM> + or Italian “pure” <EM>i</EM> (i.e., closer to English <EM>i</EM> in <EM>bit</EM>) + an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> @@ -1904,17 +1904,17 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; </TR> <TR> <TD height="52" valign="top"> - <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>u<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>öu<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-17.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> </FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination - of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG></STRONG> plus an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. + of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ö</STRONG> plus an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the word <EM>oh!</EM>. </DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> - <TD colspan="2" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>a, - e, , i, o, u <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <TD colspan="2" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>aď, + eď, ëď, iď, oď, uď <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-18.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> @@ -1922,9 +1922,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD height="132" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Each of these is a combination of a - vowel with the back central vowel <STRONG></STRONG>. No English + vowel with the back central vowel <STRONG>ď</STRONG>. No English equivalents, although the sound can be approximated by pronouncing the - first vowel followed by the velarized dark <EM>l</EM>-sound + first vowel followed by the velarized “dark” <EM>l</EM>-sound of American English <EM>lull</EM> but without touching the tip of the tongue to the gum ridge behind the upper teeth; the tongue tip should remain low instead. The resulting diphthongs should sound somewhat like @@ -1935,30 +1935,30 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; may be represented as <IMG src="assets/1-4-2a.gif" width="251" height="19" align="absbottom"></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> - <TD colspan="2" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>, - , <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-19.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD colspan="2" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>äď, + öď, üď<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-19.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD height="56" valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As with the series of diphthongs immediately - above, these are combinations of the Ithkuil vowels <STRONG></STRONG>, - <STRONG></STRONG>, and <STRONG></STRONG> with the back central - vowel <STRONG></STRONG>. IPA<IMG src="assets/1-4-2b.gif" width="129" height="18" align="absbottom"></DIV></TD> + above, these are combinations of the Ithkuil vowels <STRONG>ä</STRONG>, + <STRONG>ö</STRONG>, and <STRONG>ü</STRONG> with the back central + vowel <STRONG>ď</STRONG>. IPA<IMG src="assets/1-4-2b.gif" width="129" height="18" align="absbottom"></DIV></TD> </TR> <TR> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ae<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-20.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> </FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. A combination - of Ithkuil <STRONG>a</STRONG> + <STRONG></STRONG>. Sounds like - a more open version of Ithkuil <STRONG>ai</STRONG>. Tolkiens + of Ithkuil <STRONG>a</STRONG> + <STRONG>ę</STRONG>. Sounds like + a more “open” version of Ithkuil <STRONG>ai</STRONG>. Tolkien’s Sindarin language also has this diphthong.</DIV></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> <P align="justify">All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing the many two-vowel combinations beginning with <STRONG>u</STRONG>- and <STRONG>i</STRONG>- - into rising diphthongs beginning with a <EM>w</EM>-sound or <EM>y</EM>-sound. + into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a <EM>w</EM>-sound or <EM>y</EM>-sound. This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives the syllabic stress. </P> <H3 align="justify"><BR> @@ -1970,10 +1970,10 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <LI> <DIV align="justify">In a word of two syllables or more, the only vowels, diphthongs, or vowel conjuncts that may occur in word-final position are: - -<STRONG>a</STRONG>, -<STRONG></STRONG>, -<STRONG></STRONG>, - -<STRONG>u</STRONG>, -<STRONG></STRONG>, <STRONG></STRONG>, + -<STRONG>a</STRONG>, -<STRONG>â</STRONG>, -<STRONG>ď</STRONG>, + -<STRONG>u</STRONG>, -<STRONG>ü</STRONG>, <STRONG>ű</STRONG>, -<STRONG>ia</STRONG>, -<STRONG>ua</STRONG> and diphthongs ending in <STRONG>i</STRONG>, - <STRONG>u</STRONG>, or <STRONG></STRONG>. Note that this constraint + <STRONG>u</STRONG>, or <STRONG>ď</STRONG>. Note that this constraint does not apply to monosyllabic words.<BR> </DIV> </LI> @@ -1991,11 +1991,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; and <IMG src="assets/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19" align="absbottom">cannot appear in syllable-final position and must always be followed by a vowel, or in the case of <STRONG>w</STRONG> and <STRONG>y</STRONG>, by a glottal - stop plus a vowel (e.g., <STRONG>w</STRONG>+vowel).<BR> + stop plus a vowel (e.g., <STRONG>w’</STRONG>+vowel).<BR> </DIV> </LI> <LI> - <DIV align="justify">The glottal stop (<STRONG></STRONG>) does not + <DIV align="justify">The glottal stop (<STRONG>’</STRONG>) does not occur word-initially except as a juncture feature (i.e., where two separate words come together). Specifically, when a word ends in a vowel and the next word begins with a vowel, Ithkuil phonetically separates the words @@ -2054,8 +2054,8 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; Ithkuil. </P> <UL> <LI> - <DIV align="justify">While open syllables (syllables ending - in a single vowel) are tolerated in Ithkuil, closed syllables + <DIV align="justify">While “open” syllables (syllables ending + in a single vowel) are tolerated in Ithkuil, “closed” syllables (i.e., ending in a consonant) are preferred, especially for the stressed syllable of a word. Ithkuil morphology often allows for more than one way to structure the various morphemes of a particular word, especially words @@ -2139,7 +2139,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> -<P align="justify"><FONT size="-1">2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or +<P align="justify"><FONT size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website. </FONT></P> <P align="justify"> </P> |