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| author | uakci <uakci@uakci.eu> | 2020-12-18 20:53:54 +0100 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | uakci <uakci@uakci.eu> | 2020-12-18 20:53:54 +0100 |
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diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..a9baa2f --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html @@ -0,0 +1,2153 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<!-- saved from url=(0044)ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm --> +<HTML><HEAD><META http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<TITLE>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 1: Phonology</TITLE> +<META name="resource-type" content="document"> +<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function."> +<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages"> +<META name="distribution" content="global"> + +<SCRIPT language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +function changenav1() { +top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; +} +//-->onLoad="javascript:changenav1();" +</SCRIPT> +</HEAD><BODY> +<DIV align="center"> + <P><FONT color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</STRONG></FONT><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Title-Script5.gif"><BR> + </P> +</DIV> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="center"> </P> +<H2 align="center">Chapter 1: Phonology</H2> +<DIV align="center"> + <TABLE width="34%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="321" valign="top"> <P><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o1">1.1 Note + On Orthography and Transliteration</A></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD valign="top"> <P><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o2">1.2 Phonemic Inventory</A></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD valign="top"> <P><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o3">1.3 Phonological Processes + and Rules</A></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD valign="top"> <P><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4">1.4 Phonotaxis</A></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound + system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized + phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically + convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system + of Ithkuil is detailed in the sections below. </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><STRONG><FONT size="4">1.1 NOTE ON + ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION<A name="Sec1o1"></A></FONT></STRONG></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The native script used to represent Ithkuil is both alien and + complex (employing over 3600 characters). It is explained in <A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html" onclick="javascript:changenav11();">Chapter + 11</A>. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed + throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic + structure of Ithkuil words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in + transliterating the large number of phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ithkuil, + the following diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system: the + acute, grave and circumflex accents, the umlaut or dieresis, the cedilla, a + superposed dot, and the apostrophe. The uses of these diacritics are explained + in the sections below. Additionally, digraphs with a superscript letter <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG></EM> + are employed to represent various aspirated consonants. </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><STRONG><FONT size="4">1.2 PHONEMIC + INVENTORY</FONT><A name="Sec1o2"></A></STRONG></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">In furtherance of morpho-phonological efficiency (one of the + language’s goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have + a large phonemic inventory, specifically 65 consonants and 17 vowels, illustrated + by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized + orthography. Because this is far more than most Western languages, Ithkuil has + many sounds alien to speakers of English or other Western languages. Consequently, + readers other than trained phoneticians (or perhaps speakers of such obscure + languages as Chechen or Abkhaz) will likely have difficulty pronouncing the + language accurately. <BR> +</P> +<P align="justify"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Tables 1(a) + and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory</STRONG></FONT></P> +<P align="justify"> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 1(a): Consonantal + Inventory</FONT></P> +<TABLE width="68%" border="1" cellpadding="2"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="10%"> </TD> + <TD colspan="4"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PLOSIVES</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD colspan="4"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AFFRICATES</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD colspan="2" rowspan="2"> <DIV align="center"></DIV> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fricatives</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%" rowspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Nasals</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="5%" rowspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Taps/<BR> + Trills</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%" rowspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Liquids</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="14%" rowspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Approximants</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD> </TD> + <TD colspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">plain</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">aspirated</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ejective</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD colspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">plain</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">aspirated</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ejective</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="30"> </TD> + <TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR> + </FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"> + <P><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR> + </FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></P> + </DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR> + </FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR> + </FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR> + </FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR> + </FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR> + </FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">BILABIAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>p</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>b</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/p-aspirated.gif" width="20" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>p</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">m</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LABIO-VELAR</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LABIO-DENTAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">f</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">v</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DENTAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/t-aspirated.gif" width="15" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>t</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/d-cedilla.gif" width="12" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">n</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALVEOLAR</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/z-bar.gif" width="9" height="11"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/c-aspirated.gif" width="18" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">z</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/z-dot.gif" width="9" height="15"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/C dot aspirated.gif" width="17" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/z-cedilla.gif" width="14" height="15"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">r</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">POST-ALVEOLAR</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>j</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Cv aspirated.gif" width="16" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Sv.gif" width="8" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Zv.gif" width="9" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PALATAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Jv.gif" width="9" height="20"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla aspirated.gif" width="18" height="20" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ç’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ç</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>y</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">VELAR</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">g</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Gv.gif" width="12" height="21"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">UVULAR</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/g-dot.gif" width="12" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/q-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PHARYNGAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/h-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">GLOTTAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="4">’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>h</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LATERAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/l-cedilla.gif" width="5" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>l</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">VELARIZED LATERAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory</FONT></P> +<TABLE width="423" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="81" height="26"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT></TD> + <TD colspan="2" valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FRONT</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD colspan="2" valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CENTRAL</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD colspan="2" valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">BACK</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="25"><DIV align="center"></DIV></TD> + <TD width="48" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">unrounded</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="48" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rounded</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="49" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">unrounded</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="55" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rounded</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="55" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">unrounded</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="55" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rounded</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">High</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>î</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ÿ</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ü</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ï</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>û</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mid-High</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>i</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>u</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="25"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mid</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ê</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ø</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ë</STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ô</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mid-Low</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>e</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ö</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + _ </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>o</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="27"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Low</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ä</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>a</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>â</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P><BR> + <STRONG>1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants </STRONG></P> +<P align="justify">The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal + sounds of Ithkuil. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol + of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well + as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these + phonetic representation systems. Sound files of actual Ithkuil words have been + provided for those consonants which are uncommon or difficult to pronounce for + English speakers, as well as in other cases to compare and distinguish two similar + but distinct phonemes, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k</FONT></STRONG> + versus <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"></FONT>,<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </FONT>or<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <STRONG>c</STRONG> </FONT>vs.<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"> + </FONT>vs.<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT><IMG src="assets/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle">, + etc.</P> +<TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="7%" height="21" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">b</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="93%" valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">As in English. A voiced + bilabial unaspirated plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>b</STRONG></FONT>].<BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="38" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"> <DIV align="justify"> + <P>As in English <EM>bi<STRONG>ts</STRONG></EM>. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ts</STRONG></FONT>]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> + t_s</STRONG></FONT> ]. Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + </FONT></P> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="134" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14"></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. Similar to the + sound immediately above except that the <EM>s</EM>-component of the affricate + is made up of the Ithkuil alveolar retroflex <EM>s</EM>-sound <IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"> + (see below). This sound occurs in most Chinese languages, as well as the + Basque language, where it is spelled <EM>ts</EM>. A voiceless unaspirated + apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA [<FONT color="#FF0000"><IMG src="assets/IPA ts.gif" width="14" height="16" align="absbottom"></FONT>]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> t_s`</STRONG></FONT> + ]. Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-2a.mp3"><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-2b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-2b.gif" width="217" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-2b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + <BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-2c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-2c.gif" width="365" height="14" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-2c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="114" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15"></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>ch</STRONG>in</EM> + but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff + of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA + [<IMG src="assets/IPA ts-v.gif" width="13" height="18" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [ <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>t_S</STRONG></FONT> + ]. Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-3a.mp3"><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-3b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-3b.gif" width="156" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-3b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + <BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-3c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-3c.gif" width="193" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-3c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + <BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="95" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ç</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">Like the initial sound in English <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG>uman</EM>, + <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG>uge</EM>, <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG>ue</EM>, or the + sound in German <EM>i<STRONG>ch</STRONG></EM>. A voiceless dorso-palatal + non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</FONT></STRONG>]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>C</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-4a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-4a.gif" width="221" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-4a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-4b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-4c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </FONT></FONT></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="57" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>d</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar + ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An unaspirated + voiced apico-dental plosive; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA d-dental.gif" width="10" height="18" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>d_d</STRONG></FONT>]. + <BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="20" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/d-cedilla.gif" width="12" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>th</STRONG>is</EM>, + <EM>ba<STRONG>th</STRONG>e</EM>, <EM>wea<STRONG>th</STRONG>er</EM>. A + voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [<FONT size="3"><STRONG>ð</STRONG></FONT>]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>D</STRONG></FONT>]. + <BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="19" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>f</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English. A voiceless labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>f</STRONG></FONT>]. + <BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="39" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>g</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Always as in English <EM><STRONG>g</STRONG>a<STRONG>g</STRONG></EM>; + never as in <EM>ginger</EM>. A voiced dorso-velar unaspirated plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>g</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-5a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="132" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/g-dot.gif" width="12" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced dorso-uvular + unaspirated plosive found in Inuit and several Paleo-Siberian languages + such as Chukchi and Nivkh. Similar to the hard <EM>g</EM>-sound above + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + The resulting sound has a characteristic “gulped” quality. + The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil <STRONG>q</STRONG> below; IPA [<STRONG><IMG src="assets/IPA G-uvular.gif" width="10" height="9"></STRONG>]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>G\</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-5b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-5c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="117" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Gv.gif" width="12" height="21"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of <STRONG>x</STRONG> below. Can be approximated by putting the tongue + in the position to pronounce English g as in <EM><STRONG>g</STRONG>a<STRONG>g</STRONG></EM> + then, without moving the tongue, trying to say ‘uh’ instead. + A voiced dorso-velar fricative; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA g-gamma.gif" width="12" height="13" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>G</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-6a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-6b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"><BR> + </A></FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-6c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="38" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>h</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG>all</EM>. + Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable + in Ithkuil. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>h</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-7b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="92" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/h-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiceless + radico-pharyngal fricative found in Arabic and several Northeast Caucasian + languages. A deep raspy sound produced by pronouncing an <EM>h</EM>-sound + while constricting the pharynx and trying to press the root of the tongue + against the back wall of the pharynx. IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA h-bar.gif" width="11" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>X\</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-8a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-8b.mp3"><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="73" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>j</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>j</STRONG>u<STRONG>dg</STRONG>e</EM> + but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. An unaspirated + non-labialized voiced lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA + [<IMG src="assets/IPA dz-v.gif" width="16" height="17" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>d_Z</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-9b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-9a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="111" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/Jv.gif" width="9" height="20"></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of Ithkuil <STRONG> <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"></STRONG> + below. Found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled <EM>gy</EM> and + <EM>d´</EM> respectively. Sort of like a <EM>g</EM>+<EM>y</EM> sound + as in English <EM>bi<STRONG>g y</STRONG>ear</EM> pronounced rapidly, with + the <EM>g</EM>-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate + as opposed to the soft palate. A voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive. + IPA [<IMG src="assets/j-bar.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>J\</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-10b.mp3"><BR> + <IMG src="assets/cons-10b.gif" width="38" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><EM>‘day + (24-hour period)’</EM><A href="Sound_Files/cons-10b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"><BR> + </A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-10a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="75" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similar to English <STRONG><EM>k</EM></STRONG> + but without aspiration. Like the <EM>k</EM>-sound of the Romance languages, + e.g., Spanish or Italian <EM><STRONG>c</STRONG>asa</EM>. A voiceless unaspirated + dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-11a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="118" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. Like a <EM>k</EM>-sound + but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced + farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, + not the soft palate as with English <STRONG><EM>k</EM></STRONG>. The result + should sound somewhat like a <EM>k</EM>+<EM>y</EM> as in <EM>ba<STRONG>cky</STRONG>ard</EM> + when spoken rapidly. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive; IPA + [<IMG src="assets/IPA c-bar.gif" width="12" height="10">]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-12a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR> + </FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-12b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="93" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>l</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The “light” <EM>l</EM>-sound + of the Romance languages, or as in British English <EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>eader</EM>; + not the “dark” (velarized) <EM>l</EM>-sound of American English + <EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>u<STRONG>ll</STRONG></EM>. A voiced apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>l</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-13a.mp3"><BR> + <IMG src="assets/cons-13a.gif" width="102" height="12" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-13a.mp3"> + <IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-13b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="96" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The “dark” (velarized) <EM>l</EM>-sound + of American English <EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>u<STRONG>ll</STRONG></EM>, not + the “light” <EM>l</EM>-sound of the Romance languages or British + English <EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>eader</EM>. A voiced velarized apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l-velarized.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>5</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-14a.mp3"><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-14b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="100" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/l-cedilla.gif" width="5" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-bilateral fricative as found in Welsh <EM><STRONG>ll</STRONG>an</EM>. + Can best be approximated by putting the tongue in position as if to say + an <EM>l</EM>-sound, and while holding the position, make a forceful <EM>h</EM>-sound + instead; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l-loop welsh.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>K</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-15a.mp3"><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="18" border="0" align="absbottom"><BR> + </A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-15a.wav"> + </A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-15b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-15b.gif" width="222" height="15" border="0"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-15b.mp3"> + <IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="19" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>m</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal + continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">m</FONT></STRONG>].<BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="38" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>n</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages, + not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant + obstruent; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA n-dental.gif" width="9" height="13" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">n_d</FONT></STRONG>].<BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="41" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The English <EM>ng</EM>-sound as in + <EM>so<STRONG>ng</STRONG></EM> or <EM>ri<STRONG>ng</STRONG>er</EM>; NEVER + as in <EM>fi<STRONG>ng</STRONG>er</EM>. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant + obstruent;. IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA n-eng.gif" width="9" height="13" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">N</FONT></STRONG>].<BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="38" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>p</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similar to English, but without aspiration. + As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p</FONT></STRONG>].<BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="80" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American + Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated <EM>k</EM>-sound + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q</FONT></STRONG>]. + Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-38b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="111" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">This sound is a combination of a heavily + aspirated and palatal Ithkuil <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">(see + above) released laterally (i.e., along the two sides of the tongue) into + a voiceless lateral fricative (IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l-loop welsh.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absmiddle">]). + This sound occurs in some North American Indian and North Caucasian languages. + An aspirated voiceless palatal-lateral affricate. IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l lambda-bar plus h.gif" width="16" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">c_K_h</FONT></STRONG>]. + Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-17b.mp3"><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-17a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="97" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">This sound is a single flap of the tongue + tip as in Spanish <EM>ca<STRONG>r</STRONG>o</EM> or <EM>pe<STRONG>r</STRONG>o</EM>. + When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish <EM>ca<STRONG>rr</STRONG>o</EM> + or <EM>pe<STRONG>rr</STRONG>o</EM>. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex + flap/trill; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA r-flap.gif" width="6" height="10">], + [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">r</FONT></STRONG>]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">4</FONT></STRONG>], + [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files: <BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-18a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-18a.gif" width="308" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-18a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"><BR> + </A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-18b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="116" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Pronounced similarly to the English + retroflex <EM>r</EM>-sound except that there is no lip-rounding and the + tongue is in direct contact with the alveolar gum ridge behind the upper + teeth, giving the sound an <EM>l</EM>-coloring. A voiced apico-alveolar + retroflex liquid continuant; the closest IPA symbol is [<IMG src="assets/IPA r plus l.gif" width="6" height="18" align="absbottom">] + (a voiced rhoticized retroflex lateral approximant). (No X-SAMPA equivalent). + Example sound files:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-19a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-19a.gif" width="310" height="14" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-19a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-19b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="81" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. Like the throaty + or “gargled” <EM>r</EM>-sound found in colloquial French and + German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA R-uvular approxmt.gif" width="8" height="10">]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">R</FONT></STRONG>]. + Example sound files:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-20a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-20b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="44" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>s</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>s</STRONG>i<STRONG>s</STRONG>ter</EM>. + A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA + [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>s</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-21a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="116" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The retroflex + <EM>s</EM>-sound heard in Castilian (but not Latin American) Spanish. + Also found in Basque, Catalan, and most Chinese languages. Similar to + an English <EM>s</EM>-sound, but with the blade of the tongue curved convexly + away from the roof of the mouth, as with an English <EM>r</EM>-sound, + so that the tongue curls back and touches the alveolar ridge. The result + should sound halfway between an English <EM>s</EM> and <EM>sh</EM>. A + voiceless apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA s-retroflex.gif" width="7" height="13" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> s`</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound file:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-22a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="59" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>š</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>sh</STRONG>oe<STRONG>sh</STRONG>ine</EM> + but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA S-esh.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>S</STRONG></FONT>].Example + sound file: <BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-23a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-23a.gif" width="375" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-23a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="58" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>t</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similar to English but without aspiration + and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against + the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless apico-dental + unaspirated plosive; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA t-dental.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t_d</FONT></STRONG>].<BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="22" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>th</STRONG>in</EM>, + <EM>ba<STRONG>th</STRONG></EM>. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; + IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA theta.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">T</FONT></STRONG>].<BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="21" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>v</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English. A voiced labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">v</FONT></STRONG>].<BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="42" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>w</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify"> + <P>As in English <EM><STRONG>w</STRONG>ell</EM>, <EM><STRONG>w</STRONG>orry</EM>. + A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>w</STRONG></FONT>].<BR> + </P> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="80" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless + dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</FONT></STRONG> + in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish <STRONG>j</STRONG>. + Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce + a <EM>k</EM>-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing + an <EM>h</EM>-sound instead. Should be distinguished from <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT> + below; IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</FONT></STRONG>]. + Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-24a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="61" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The rough voiceless + dorso-uvular fricative (or trill) found in German <EM>a<STRONG>ch</STRONG></EM>. + Can be approximated by means of a dry gargle without vocal chord vibration. + IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA x-chi.gif" width="15" height="14" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">X</FONT></STRONG>]. + Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-25a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="42" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>y</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>y</STRONG>et</EM>, + <EM><STRONG>y</STRONG>am</EM>. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [ <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">j + </FONT></STRONG>]. Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-26a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-26a.gif" width="293" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-26a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="78" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to <STRONG>ç</STRONG> above. This is the “intensive” + <EM>y</EM>-sound heard in Castilian and some Latin American varieties + of Spanish. Like the sound in English <EM><STRONG>y</STRONG>et</EM>, <EM><STRONG>y</STRONG>am</EM> + but with the blade of the tongue held more closely to the hard palate, + so that audible friction occurs. A voiced dorso-palatal fricative; IPA + [<IMG src="assets/IPA j-curl.gif" width="10" height="16" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">j</FONT></STRONG>\]. + Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-27a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="50" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>z</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>z</STRONG>oo</EM>, + <EM>wi<STRONG>z</STRONG>ard</EM>. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; + IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">z</FONT></STRONG>]. + Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-28a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="54" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/z-cedilla.gif" width="14" height="15"></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><P>No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT> + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative. IPA + [<IMG src="assets/IPA z-retroflex.gif" width="11" height="12" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> z`</FONT></STRONG>]. + Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-29a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-29a.gif" width="157" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-29a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <BR> + </P></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="49" valign="top"><DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/Zv.gif" width="9" height="16"></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top">The voiced counterpart of <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">š</FONT></STRONG> + above. Similar to the sound in English <EM>plea<STRONG>s</STRONG>ure</EM> + or <EM>lei<STRONG>s</STRONG>ure</EM>, but without lip-rounding. A voiced + lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA ezh.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Z</FONT></STRONG>]. + Example sound file:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-32a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-32a.gif" width="264" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-32a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="49" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/z-bar.gif" width="9" height="11"></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Like an English <EM>d</EM>+<EM>z</EM> + sound, as in <EM>roa<STRONG>ds</STRONG></EM>, <EM>a<STRONG>dz</STRONG>e</EM>. + A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">dz</FONT></STRONG>]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d_z</FONT></STRONG>]. + Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-30a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-30a.gif" width="170" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-30a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="53" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/z-dot.gif" width="9" height="15"></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to <IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"> + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA dz-retroflex.gif" width="21" height="17" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d_z`</FONT></STRONG>]. + Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-31a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="90" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="4">’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">This sound is the glottal stop heard + between the two vowels in English o<EM>h-oh</EM> or as the sound heard + in most American English speakers’ pronunciation of the word <EM>fa<STRONG>tt</STRONG>ening</EM>. + This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, + Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA glottal stop.gif" width="7" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + Example sound files: <BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-33a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-13b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"> <STRONG>1.2.1.1 Aspirated Consonants</STRONG>: The consonants + <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-1a.gif" width="172" height="20" align="top">are + all unaspirated, i.e., without the accompanying puff of air characteristic of + English voiceless stops and affricates. In Ithkuil each of these has an aspirated + counterpart, pronounced like the unaspirated version but with a distinct expulsion + of air, more so than in English. These aspirated counterparts are written with + a following superscript <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG></EM>; thus: <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-1b.gif" width="205" height="17" align="top"> + Example sound files: </P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-38a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-38a.gif" width="216" height="16" border="0"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-38a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-38b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-38b.gif" width="93" height="16" border="0"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-38b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-38c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-38d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>1.2.1.2 Ejective Consonants</STRONG>: The same eight + consonants immediately above also have ejective counterparts, which do not exist + in any major Western language, but are found in languages such as Armenian, + Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian + languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied + by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which + gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives + are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-2a.gif" width="245" height="21" align="absmiddle">. + Note: the lateral affricate <IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="9" height="16" align="absbottom"> + has an allophone (alternate pronunciation) as an ejective as well. Example sound + files:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-39a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-39a.gif" width="185" height="14" border="0"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-39a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-39b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A></FONT> + <BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-39c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-39d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">In addition to the above ejectives, there are three additional + ejective consonants, all of them affricates, <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç’</FONT></STRONG>, + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x’</STRONG></FONT>, + and <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT>, + whose rather difficult and exotic pronunciations are described below.</P> +<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="5%" height="94" align="center" valign="top"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç’</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD width="95%" valign="top"> +<DIV align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"></FONT> + + Ithkuil <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</FONT></STRONG> + (the voiceless palatal slit fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA c-bar & c-cedilla.gif" width="20" height="13" align="absbottom"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT>]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c_C_></STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound file: <BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-40a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="96" align="center" valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x’</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"> +<DIV align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <STRONG>k</STRONG> + + Ithkuil <STRONG>x</STRONG> (the voiceless velar fricative described + above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. + When pronounced properly, it should be a harsh, sudden, emphatic <EM>k</EM>-sound, + accompanied by a high-pitched sound of static, as if someone is verbally + imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kx’</FONT></STRONG>]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k_x_></STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-40b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="84" align="center" valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"> +<DIV align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q</FONT></STRONG> + + Ithkuil <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"> + </FONT>(the voiceless uvular fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [<STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q<IMG src="assets/IPA x-chi.gif" width="15" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT>’</STRONG>]. + X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q_X_></STRONG></FONT>]. + This sound is found in a few obscure Northeast Caucasian languages (e.g., + Dido, Archi). Example sound file:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-40c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>1.2.1.3 Syllabic consonants</STRONG>. Six consonants, + <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-3a.gif" width="118" height="18" align="absbottom">, + can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of + syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions + such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ + (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants <EM>n</EM> + and <EM>l</EM> as in the second syllable of words like <EM>button</EM> and <EM>little</EM>. + Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words <EM>nda</EM> ‘no’, + and <EM>ndíghílii</EM> ‘sunflower.’ In Ithkuil, these + six syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant + as in <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-3b.gif" width="152" height="23" align="absmiddle"> + However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where + the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate + syllable. Examples: <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-3c.gif" width="139" height="23" align="absbottom">.</P> +<P align="justify"></P> +<H3 align="justify">1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels</H3> +<P align="justify">There are 17 vowels, all of which are pure sounds, not glided + into diphthongs as in English. These include the five primary vowels <STRONG>a</STRONG>, + <STRONG>e</STRONG>,<STRONG> i</STRONG>, <STRONG>o</STRONG>, <STRONG>u</STRONG>. + The vowel <STRONG>a</STRONG> is phonetically an unrounded central low vowel, + IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">a</FONT></STRONG>], + as in Spanish or Italian. The vowels <STRONG>e</STRONG> and <STRONG>o</STRONG> + are similar to the vowels in American English <EM>l<STRONG>e</STRONG>t</EM> + and <EM>sh<STRONG>o</STRONG>rt</EM>, phonetically IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA e-epsilon.gif" width="8" height="10" align="bottom">] + and [<IMG src="assets/IPA o-open.gif" width="8" height="10">], + although both sounds are actually somewhat higher, being between low-mid and + mid in height. The vowels <STRONG>i</STRONG> and <STRONG>u</STRONG> are lower + than in Romance languages: <STRONG>i</STRONG> is about halfway between the vowels + in English <EM>p<STRONG>i</STRONG>t</EM> and <EM>mach<STRONG>i</STRONG>ne</EM>; + <STRONG>u</STRONG> is halfway between English <EM>c<STRONG>oo</STRONG>k</EM> + and <EM>k<STRONG>oo</STRONG>k</EM>. Sound files: <STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-1.mp3">a + e i o u</A> </FONT></STRONG> <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-1.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></P> +<P align="justify">The vowel <STRONG>â</STRONG> is pronounced as in Western + U.S. <EM><STRONG>a</STRONG>ll</EM>, IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA a-back.gif" width="9" height="13" align="absmiddle">]; + <STRONG>ê</STRONG> and <STRONG>ô</STRONG> are mid-height, IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">e</FONT></STRONG>] + and [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">o</FONT></STRONG>] + as in Spanish <EM><STRONG>e</STRONG>st<STRONG>o</STRONG>s</EM> or in French + <EM>p<STRONG>oé</STRONG>sie</EM>; <STRONG>î</STRONG> and <STRONG>û</STRONG> + are high (i.e., fully closed) as in Spanish or Italian <EM>i</EM> and <EM>u</EM>, + IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>i</STRONG></FONT>] + and [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>u</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files: <STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-2.mp3">â + ê î ô û</A></FONT> </STRONG><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-2.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></P> +<P align="justify">The vowel <STRONG>ä</STRONG> is slightly higher than the + vowel in American English <EM>s<STRONG>a</STRONG>t </EM>but not as high as in<EM> + s<STRONG>e</STRONG>t</EM>, IPA [<STRONG>æ^</STRONG>]. The vowel <STRONG>ö</STRONG> + is the rounded equivalent of <STRONG>e</STRONG>, that is, the vowel in French + <EM>b<STRONG>oeu</STRONG>f</EM> or German <EM>k<STRONG>ö</STRONG>nnte</EM>, + IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>œ</STRONG></FONT>]. + The vowel <STRONG>ë</STRONG> is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American + English <EM>c<STRONG>u</STRONG>t</EM> or <EM>n<STRONG>u</STRONG>t</EM>, although, + more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ô</STRONG> but without rounding + of the lips, a vowel which occurs in Estonian, IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA o-unrounded.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle">]. + The vowel <STRONG>ï</STRONG> is pronounced as an unrounded <STRONG>û</STRONG>, + an obscure vowel found in Turkish and Japanese, IPA <IMG src="assets/IPA u-unrounded.gif" width="22" height="14" align="absbottom">. + The vowel <STRONG>ü</STRONG> is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel, + as found in Norwegian <EM>h<STRONG>u</STRONG>s</EM> or the Highland Scottish + pronunciation of English <EM>b<STRONG>oo</STRONG>k</EM> or <EM>g<STRONG>oo</STRONG>d</EM>, + IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA u-bar.gif" width="11" height="15" align="absmiddle">]. + The vowel <STRONG>ø</STRONG> is the rounded equivalent of <STRONG>ê</STRONG>, + as in French <EM>f<STRONG>eu</STRONG></EM> or German <EM>sch<STRONG>ö</STRONG>n</EM>, + IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ø</FONT></STRONG>]; + the vowel <STRONG>ÿ</STRONG> represents the front rounded vowel of French + <EM>d<STRONG>u</STRONG></EM> and German <EM><STRONG>ü</STRONG>ber</EM>, + IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>y</STRONG></FONT>]. + Example sound files:<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-3.mp3"> <STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1">ä</FONT></STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"><STRONG> + ë ï ö ø ü ÿ</STRONG></FONT></A><STRONG> </STRONG><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-3.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> +</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions</H3> +<P align="justify">Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation + of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that + phoneme occurs. These variances, while audible to a trained linguist, are often + indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these + allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional + role in the language. As an example, compare the two <EM>t</EM>-sounds in the + English words <EM><STRONG>t</STRONG>op</EM> and <EM>s<STRONG>t</STRONG>op</EM>. + The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while + the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. + However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, + the difference in the two <EM>t</EM>-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers + of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages + where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other + Indic languages). </P> +<P align="justify">Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within + a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely + regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration + in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning + a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign + accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, + and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without + aspirating the initial <EM>t</EM>-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration + in Romance languages.)</P> +<P align="justify">The particular phonetic variants of a particular phoneme are + known as allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ithkuil are + as follows:</P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="6%" height="90" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="94%" valign="top"><DIV align="justify">This phoneme is a simple + (bi-)glottal fricative as in English head when in a syllable-initial position + and in word-final position. However, at the end of a syllable when preceded + by a vowel and followed by another consonant, this sound approaches a + voiceless bilabial fricative, similar to the bilabial sound of Japanese + <EM>h</EM> as pronounced before <EM>u</EM> (usually transliterated into + Roman orthography as <EM>f</EM>). IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA phi.gif" width="12" height="16" align="absbottom">]. + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="111" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hh</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The geminated version of Ithkuil h is + pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is + completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along + their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre + to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English <EM><STRONG>th</STRONG>in</EM>) + as well as the English <EM>f</EM>-sound, however there is absolutely no + contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound. + No IPA equivalent. Example sound files: <BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-42a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-42b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR> + <BR> + </FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="74" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18"></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">This aspirated lateral affricate is + in free variation with (i.e., may be alternately pronounced as) its non-aspirated + ejective counterpart (IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l lambda-bar ejective.gif" width="14" height="15" align="absbottom">]); + in word-initial position it is more common to pronounce it ejectively. + Example sound files:<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-17c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-17d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-17a.gif" width="122" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-17d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + <BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="68" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced + as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar + to the throaty <EM>r</EM>-sound found in colloquial French and German, + IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA R-uvular approxmt.gif" width="8" height="10">]. + However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound + becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA R-uvular trill.gif" width="8" height="11">].<BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="70" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Normally pronounced as a voiced labio-velar + approximant (i.e., labialized dorso-velar approximant) as in English wet + (IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</FONT></STRONG>]), + when followed by the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>û</STRONG>, this sound, + takes on even greater lip-rounding to become a voiced labio-velar fricative + (i.e., labialized dorso-velar fricative) (IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA beta-labialized.gif" width="18" height="18" align="absbottom">]). + <BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="40" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">In this word-initial combination of + voiced labio-velar approximant followed by a glottal stop is found, the + <EM>w</EM> is pronounced followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, + Ithkuil <STRONG>ï</STRONG>, followed by the glottal stop (IPA [<IMG src="assets/w plus glottal.gif" width="22" height="14" align="absmiddle">]). + <BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="44" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similarly to the combination above, + this word-initial combination has its voiced dorso-palatal approximant + followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, followed by the glottal + stop (IPA [<IMG src="assets/j plus glottal.gif" width="17" height="17" align="absbottom">]). + <BR> + <BR> + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD colspan="2"> + <BLOCKQUOTE> + <DIV align="justify"> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">bm, + dn, km, kn, pm, tn</FONT></STRONG></DIV> + </BLOCKQUOTE></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="99"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">When in word-initial position, the first + consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral + release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to + pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to + pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the + tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead. IPA [<IMG src="assets/prenasalized group.gif" width="119" height="17" align="absbottom">]. + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="23" colspan="2"> + <BLOCKQUOTE> + <DIV align="justify"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>hl, + hm, hn, h<IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, + hw</STRONG></FONT> </DIV> + </BLOCKQUOTE></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="110"> + <DIV align="center"></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Each of these consonant conjuncts, when + word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not + pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts + to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct, + i.e., IPA <IMG src="assets/voiceless liquids & nasals.gif" width="243" height="21" align="absmiddle"> + To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce + an Ithkuil <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">l</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">,<STRONG> + m</STRONG>,<STRONG> n</STRONG>,<STRONG> n, r</STRONG>,</FONT><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></STRONG></FONT>, + or <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>w</STRONG></FONT>, + and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear <EM>h</EM>-sound + instead. </DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <STRONG><FONT size="4">1.3 PHONOLOGICAL + PROCESSES AND RULES<A name="Sec1o3"></A></FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages + have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are + combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, + the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ithkuil + productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and + tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends. <BR> +</P> +<H3 align="justify">1.3.1 Gemination</H3> +<P align="justify">Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in + length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination + does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological + grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ + versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based + gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, + Finnish).</P> +<P align="justify">In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy + is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and + word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination + in Ithkuil:</P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination</STRONG>. All consonants + are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except + for <STRONG>y</STRONG> and <STRONG>w</STRONG>. </P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination</STRONG>. + The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, + are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: +</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/1-3-1-2a.gif" width="575" height="20"></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">The consonant <IMG src="assets/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19" align="absbottom"> + can be geminated in word-initial position. </P> +<P align="justify"> <STRONG>1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants</STRONG>. + Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite + duration), specifically <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/1-3-1-3a.gif" width="432" height="20" align="absmiddle"></STRONG></FONT>are + simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT> is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like + <EM>rr</EM> in Spanish or Italian. Example sound files: </P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-34a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-34a.gif" width="322" height="16" border="0"> + </A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-34a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35b.gif" width="270" height="15" border="0"></A> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A></FONT><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A> <FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> <A href="Sound_Files/cons-35d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35d.gif" width="132" height="15" border="0"></A> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A></FONT><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-35g.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35g.gif" width="232" height="15" border="0"> + </A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35g.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">The non-aspirated plosive consonants <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">b</FONT></STRONG>, + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d</FONT></STRONG>, <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">g</FONT></STRONG>, + <IMG src="assets/g-dot.gif" width="12" height="19" align="absmiddle">, + <IMG src="assets/Jv.gif" width="9" height="20" align="absmiddle">, + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k</FONT></STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absmiddle">, + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p</FONT></STRONG>, <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q</FONT></STRONG>, + and <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG>, when + geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two <EM>d</EM>-sounds + in the English phrase <EM>ba<STRONG>d d</STRONG>og</EM> when spoken rapidly. + Example sound file: </P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-33a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A> + </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">The aspirated plosives <STRONG><IMG src="assets/1-3-1-3b.gif" width="135" height="17" align="absbottom"></STRONG> + are likewise held momentarily before release, the aspiration occurring upon + release, much like the two <EM>t</EM>-sounds in the English phrase <EM>ho<STRONG>t + t</STRONG>ar</EM> when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k’, + <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">’, + p’, q’, </STRONG></FONT>and<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> + t’</STRONG></FONT> are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic + ejectivization occurring upon release. Example sound files:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-36a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-36a.gif" width="242" height="16" border="0"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-36a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">The pronunciation of affricates (<IMG src="assets/1-3-1-3c.gif" width="337" height="15" align="absbottom">) + when geminated depends on whether or not they are in word-final position. If + not in word-final position, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial + stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative + or sibilant portion. Aspiration or ejectivization, if present, occurs during + release of the plosive into the sibilant or fricative component, e.g., <IMG src="assets/Cv-geminate.gif" width="18" height="15" align="absmiddle"> + is pronounced as IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ttš</STRONG></FONT>]. + For those affricates which can appear as word-final geminates (<IMG src="assets/1-3-1-3d.gif" width="137" height="16" align="absbottom">), + geminated pronunciation in word-final position is achieved by simply lengthening + the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of + each affricate). Thus, <IMG src="assets/Cv-geminate.gif" width="18" height="15" align="absmiddle"> + in word-final position is pronounced as IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tšš</STRONG></FONT>], + <IMG src="assets/Qv-geminated.gif" width="19" height="18" align="absbottom"> + as IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l lambda-bar plus l-loop.gif" width="21" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + Example sound files: </P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35c.gif" width="302" height="15" border="0"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-35c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-35e.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35e.gif" width="315" height="15" border="0"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-35e.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A><BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> <A href="Sound_Files/cons-35f.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35f.gif" width="384" height="16" border="0"></A> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35f.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates</STRONG>. + Single character consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g., + <STRONG> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">bb, dd, nn, šš</FONT></STRONG>. + Aspirated digraph-consonants have the first letter of the digraph written doubled + followed by a single superscript h, e.g., <IMG src="assets/1-3-1-4a.gif" width="118" height="17" align="absbottom"> + Geminated ejective consonants are likewise written with the initial character + doubled followed by a single apostrophe, e.g., <IMG src="assets/1-3-1-4b.gif" width="87" height="18" align="absbottom"> + Exceptions to this rule exist for the ejective affricates <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</FONT>’</STRONG>, + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</FONT>’</STRONG>, + and <STRONG><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom">’</STRONG>. + Because the non-apostrophed forms of these three characters do not correspond + to non-ejectivized versions of the apostrophed form, these geminates are written + as <IMG src="assets/1-3-1-4c.gif" width="116" height="18" align="absbottom"></P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 1.3.2 Pitch and Tone</H3> +<P align="justify">Ithkuil is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other + Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages + and some American Indian languages. This means that pitch or tone of voice is + used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone + and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic + features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, + while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other + attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words + themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories). </P> +<P align="justify">There are five tones used in Ithkuil, one of which, mid-low + tone, is considered morpho-phonologically neutral. The other four tones are + falling, high, broken (i.e., mid to low to mid-low), and rising (i.e., mid-low + to mid-high) and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries + one significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously + carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed + syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid-low tone. Therefore, + the function of mid-low tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since + any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid-low. Like most tone languages, + the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual + speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:</P> +<TABLE width="78%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%" height="74"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/1-3-2a.gif" width="59" height="6" align="absbottom"></DIV></TD> + <TD width="22%"><DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/1-3-2b.gif" width="92" height="39"></DIV></TD> + <TD width="18%" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/1-3-2a.gif" width="59" height="6" align="absbottom"></DIV></TD> + <TD width="20%"><DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/1-3-2c.gif" width="59" height="37"></DIV></TD> + <TD width="24%"><DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/1-3-2d.gif" width="96" height="36"></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(mid-low)</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">falling</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">high</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">broken</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rising</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The four significant tones are indicated in the Roman transliteration + by small superscript symbols at the end of each word, as follows: falling tone + is unmarked, high tone is marked by a superscript hyphen (or macron), broken + tone by a superscript backslash, and rising tone by a superscript forward slash. + This is illustrated in the example words/sound files below.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P><A href="Sound_Files/cons-37a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-37a.gif" width="212" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-37a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + [falling tone]<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-37d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-37d.gif" width="170" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-37d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + [high tone]<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-37b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-37b.gif" width="268" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-37b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + [broken tone]<BR> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-37c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-37c.gif" width="308" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + <A href="Sound_Files/cons-37c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A> + [rising tone]<BR> + </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 1.3.3 Syllabic Stress<A name="Sec1o3o3"></A></H3> +<P align="justify">Stress normally falls on the <STRONG>penultimate</STRONG> (next-to-last) + syllable but can shift to either the <STRONG>ultimate</STRONG> (last) syllable + of a word, to the <STRONG>antepenultimate</STRONG> (third-from-last) syllable, + and occasionally to the <STRONG>preantepenultimate</STRONG> (fourth-from-last) + syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations. </P> +<P align="justify">When transliterating Ithkuil into Roman characters, the number + of vowels in Ithkuil requires the use of diacritics due to the limited number + of Roman vowel characters. As a result, the orthographic representation of stress + using the system of romanization becomes complicated. It is explained as follows: +</P> +<TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR valign="top"> + <TD width="4%" height="35">1)</TD> + <TD width="96%">All monosyllabic words are unmarked for stress.</TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="52">2)</TD> + <TD>The grave accent ( <STRONG><FONT size="4" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">`</FONT></STRONG> + ) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted, + e.g., in distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as <STRONG>au</STRONG> + and <STRONG>ei</STRONG> from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts <STRONG>aù + </STRONG>and<STRONG> eì</STRONG>.</TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="70">3)</TD> + <TD><STRONG>Penultimate stress</STRONG>. Polysyllabic words having penultimate + stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing the dissyllabic + phonemes <STRONG>ì</STRONG> or <STRONG>ù</STRONG> as the penultimate + syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>iskoùt</STRONG></FONT> + (stress on the <STRONG>o</STRONG>), if adding the syllable -<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ma</STRONG></FONT>, + becomes <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>iskoútma</STRONG></FONT> + (stress on the <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">u</FONT></STRONG>).</TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="19">4)</TD> + <TD><P><STRONG>Ultimate stress</STRONG>. Polysyllabic words which have ultimate + stress indicate this in one of the following ways:</P></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="184"> </TD> + <TD><UL> + <LI>the unmarked vowels <STRONG>a</STRONG>, <STRONG>e</STRONG>, <STRONG>i</STRONG>, + <STRONG>o</STRONG>, <STRONG>u</STRONG>, and the marked disyllabic vowels + <STRONG>ì</STRONG> and <STRONG>ù</STRONG> take an acute + accent, e.g., <STRONG>á</STRONG>, <STRONG>é</STRONG>, + <STRONG>í</STRONG>, <STRONG>ó</STRONG>, <STRONG>ú</STRONG>.</LI> + <LI>if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other + than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, or syllabic liquid + or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate + syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ròihnäl</FONT></STRONG>.</LI> + <LI>If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs + in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then a grave accent over + the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress + (as the grave accent would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate + stress), e.g. <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">òspätlök</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">.</FONT></LI> + <LI>if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate + syllables already have diacritic marks (other than the grave accent) + then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ksûtpäär</STRONG></FONT>. + </LI> + </UL></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD>5)</TD> + <TD><STRONG>Antepenultimate stress</STRONG>. To show antepenultimate stress + (third syllable from the end):</TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="162"> </TD> + <TD><UL> + <LI>if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant) + does not carry a diacritic (other than the grave accent), it takes the + acute accent, e.g., áksiyor</LI> + <LI>if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave + accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack of acute accent on + the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate + stress, e.g., <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëitlàrrun</FONT></STRONG>, + <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ôrümzìl</FONT></STRONG>. + (Note that the use of the grave accent over the <STRONG>i</STRONG> in + <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ôrümzìl</FONT></STRONG> + would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress, therefore + its presence implies antepenultimate stress). </LI> + <LI>if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules, + then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>öömoläk</STRONG></FONT>.</LI> + </UL></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD>6)</TD> + <TD><STRONG>Preantepenultimate stress</STRONG>. To show preantepenultimate + stress (i.e., fourth syllable from the end) apply the same rules as for + antepenultimate stress above, but to the preantepenultimate syllable.</TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"> Note that the acute accent on the stressed second member of + the bi-syllabic geminate clusters <IMG src="assets/1-3-3a.gif" width="132" height="18" align="absmiddle"> + distinguishes them from their standard geminate counterparts <IMG src="assets/1-3-3b.gif" width="165" height="16" align="absbottom">. +</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><STRONG><FONT size="4">1.4 PHONOTAXIS<A name="Sec1o4"></A></FONT></STRONG></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, + and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to + what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or + word. This concept is called <STRONG>phonotaxis</STRONG> and such rules are + known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain + why <EM>sprelch</EM> could be a hypothetical word in English, while <EM>znatk</EM> + could not be, even though <EM>znatk</EM> is as easily pronounced by a linguist + as <EM>sprelch</EM>. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, + and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis</P> +<P align="justify">Equally important are the optional rules each language employs + to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics + or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly + responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” + of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are + described in the sections below.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + <A name="Sec1o4o1"></A>1.4.1 Syllable Structure</H3> +<P align="justify">The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable + forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable, + or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are + shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents + a mandatory vowel or diphthong. </P> +<P align="justify"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table 2: + Syllabic Structure</STRONG></FONT></P> +<TABLE width="97%" border="1" cellpadding="5"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="15%" height="35"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Syllable + Type</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Structure</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="48%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Examples</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="48" valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Consonantal + Word</FONT></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>C(C)(C)</STRONG> + <FONT size="2"><EM>where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless + fricative continuant</EM></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s, + h,<IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, + ll, mm, pçç</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="32" valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Monosyllabic</FONT></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">a, ui, öt, + isk, du, tuil, kleb, tliqs, pskarn, xxoršt</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="30" valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-initial</FONT></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>(C)(C)(C)V(C)-</STRONG> + <EM><FONT size="2">or</FONT></EM> <STRONG>l</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle">, + <IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, + <STRONG>m</STRONG>, <STRONG>n</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2"><STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">u</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ran, + <FONT color="#0000FF">ta</FONT>hin, <FONT color="#0000FF">ui’</FONT>wá, + <FONT color="#0000FF">pri</FONT>nu, <FONT color="#0000FF">klat</FONT>ma, + <FONT color="#0000FF">xmois</FONT>kra, <FONT color="#0000FF">kstol</FONT>lap, + <FONT color="#0000FF">ltuir</FONT>bis, <FONT color="#0000FF">mpeil</FONT>t’um</FONT></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-medial</FONT></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>-(C)(C)V(C)(C)-</STRONG> + <EM><FONT size="2"> or</FONT></EM> <STRONG>l</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle">, + <IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, + <STRONG>m</STRONG>, <STRONG>n</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ki<FONT color="#0000FF">a</FONT>lun, + ru<FONT color="#0000FF">en</FONT>tik, is<FONT color="#0000FF">teix</FONT>lam, + ïk<FONT color="#0000FF">spûz</FONT>qai, <IMG src="assets/1-4-1a.gif" width="68" height="16" align="texttop"></FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-final</FONT></TD> + <TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>-(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)-</STRONG> + <EM><FONT size="2">or</FONT></EM> <STRONG>l</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle">, + <IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, + <STRONG>m</STRONG>, <STRONG>n</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">lu<FONT color="#0000FF">a</FONT>, + an<FONT color="#0000FF">toi</FONT>, ti<FONT color="#0000FF">al</FONT>, eif<FONT color="#0000FF">qés</FONT>, + pox<FONT color="#0000FF">šurn</FONT>, ul<FONT color="#0000FF">trönn</FONT>, + <IMG src="assets/1-4-1b.gif" width="25" height="16" align="baseline"> + </FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The following rules apply: </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <UL> + <LI>A single non-syllabic intervocalic consonant is syllabically part of the + vowel following, not preceding. <BR> + </LI> + <LI>An intervocalic bi-consonantal conjunct is considered dissyllabic (i.e., + each consonant is part of a different syllable), even if the conjunct is + a geminate consonant. <BR> + </LI> + <LI>If a triple-consonant conjunct occurs in the middle of a word, the first + consonant of the three must be in a separate syllable from the last consonant + of the three. The middle consonant will be in the same syllable as whichever + of the two surrounding consonants it forms a permissible word-initial or + word-final cluster. If it can form permissible clusters with either surrounding + consonant, it will be considered part of the syllable with which it is morphemically + associated. <A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4o4">Section 1.4.4</A> below details which specific + consonants can form such clusters.<BR> + </LI> + </UL> +</DIV> +<H3 align="justify">1.4.2 Diphthongs</H3> +<P align="justify"> An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination + of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil diphthongs are + “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives + the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred + to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 24 diphthongs + in Ithkuil, described as follows:</P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="10%" height="33" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ai + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-4.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="90%" valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Pronounced as in Spanish + or Italian; like English <EM>i</EM> in <EM>white</EM> or <EM>ice</EM>. + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="33" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">äi + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-5.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ä</STRONG> plus an English <EM>y</EM>-sound. + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="33" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ei + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-6.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; like English + <EM>ai</EM> in <EM>rain</EM> or <EM>ei</EM> in <EM>rein</EM>.</DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="55" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëi + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-7.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English <EM>rut</EM> + an English <EM>y</EM>-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the <EM>i</EM> + in <EM>ice</EM>. </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="33" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">oi + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-8.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; as in English + <EM>boy</EM> or <EM>voice</EM>.</DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="55" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">öi + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-9.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ö</STRONG> plus an English <EM>y</EM>-sound. + Somewhat like the French word <EM>oeil</EM>. </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="74" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ui + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-10.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of Spanish or Italian “pure” <EM>u</EM> + (i.e., without the glide into -<EM>w</EM> as in English <EM>rude</EM>) + + an English <EM>y</EM>-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this + diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the <EM>u</EM>-sound + is reduced to a <EM>w</EM>- (the result sounding like English <EM>wee</EM>). + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="31" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">au + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-11.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; like English + <EM>ou</EM> in <EM>loud</EM> or <EM>ow</EM> in <EM>cow</EM>. </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="31" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">äu + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-12.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ä</STRONG> plus an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="48" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">eu + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-13.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of “pure” <EM>e</EM> (i.e., without + the glide into –y as in English <EM>they</EM>) + an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="50" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëu + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-14.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English <EM>rut</EM> + an English w-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word <EM>oh!</EM>. + </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="51" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">iu + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-15.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent; a combination + of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>i</STRONG> (which is more open than the Spanish + or Italian “pure” <EM>i</EM> (i.e., closer to English <EM>i</EM> + in <EM>bit</EM>) + an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="33" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ou<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-16.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Like the <EM>o</EM> + <EM>w</EM>-glide + of English <EM>road</EM> or <EM>mode</EM>. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese + <EM>roupa</EM>. </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="52" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>öu<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-17.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ö</STRONG> plus an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. + Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the + word <EM>oh!</EM>. </DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD colspan="2" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>aï, + eï, ëï, iï, oï, uï <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-18.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="132" valign="top"> + <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Each of these is a combination of a + vowel with the back central vowel <STRONG>ï</STRONG>. No English + equivalents, although the sound can be approximated by pronouncing the + first vowel followed by the velarized “dark” <EM>l</EM>-sound + of American English <EM>lull</EM> but without touching the tip of the + tongue to the gum ridge behind the upper teeth; the tongue tip should + remain low instead. The resulting diphthongs should sound somewhat like + English <EM>all</EM>, <EM>ell</EM> (as in <EM>bell</EM>), <EM>ull</EM> + (as in <EM>dull</EM>), <EM>eel</EM>, <EM>ole</EM> (as in <EM>pole</EM>), + and <EM>ool</EM> (as in <EM>tool</EM>), as pronounced by someone speaking + in an indistinct, slurred voice. For those familiar with IPA, these diphthongs + may be represented as <IMG src="assets/1-4-2a.gif" width="251" height="19" align="absbottom"></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD colspan="2" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>äï, + öï, üï<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-19.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="56" valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As with the series of diphthongs immediately + above, these are combinations of the Ithkuil vowels <STRONG>ä</STRONG>, + <STRONG>ö</STRONG>, and <STRONG>ü</STRONG> with the back central + vowel <STRONG>ï</STRONG>. IPA<IMG src="assets/1-4-2b.gif" width="129" height="18" align="absbottom"></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ae<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-20.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A> + </FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. A combination + of Ithkuil <STRONG>a</STRONG> + <STRONG>ê</STRONG>. Sounds like + a more “open” version of Ithkuil <STRONG>ai</STRONG>. Tolkien’s + Sindarin language also has this diphthong.</DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are + pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing + the many two-vowel combinations beginning with <STRONG>u</STRONG>- and <STRONG>i</STRONG>- + into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a <EM>w</EM>-sound or <EM>y</EM>-sound. + This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives + the syllabic stress. </P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 1.4.3 Constraints on Vowels</H3> +<P align="justify">All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts + previously mentioned can occur in any syllable in any position with the following + exceptions:</P> +<UL> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify">In a word of two syllables or more, the only vowels, + diphthongs, or vowel conjuncts that may occur in word-final position are: + -<STRONG>a</STRONG>, -<STRONG>â</STRONG>, -<STRONG>ï</STRONG>, + -<STRONG>u</STRONG>, -<STRONG>ü</STRONG>, <STRONG>û</STRONG>, + -<STRONG>ia</STRONG>, -<STRONG>ua</STRONG> and diphthongs ending in <STRONG>i</STRONG>, + <STRONG>u</STRONG>, or <STRONG>ï</STRONG>. Note that this constraint + does not apply to monosyllabic words.<BR> + </DIV> + </LI> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify">No more than two vowels may occur in conjunction within + a word, i.e., combinations of three vowels, even if two represent a diphthong, + are not permissible.</DIV> + </LI> +</UL> +<P> </P> +<H3 align="justify"> 1.4.4 Constraints on Consonants<A name="Sec1o4o4"></A></H3> +<UL> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify">The consonants <STRONG>w</STRONG>, <STRONG>y</STRONG>, + and <IMG src="assets/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19" align="absbottom">cannot + appear in syllable-final position and must always be followed by a vowel, + or in the case of <STRONG>w</STRONG> and <STRONG>y</STRONG>, by a glottal + stop plus a vowel (e.g., <STRONG>w’</STRONG>+vowel).<BR> + </DIV> + </LI> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify">The glottal stop (<STRONG>’</STRONG>) does not + occur word-initially except as a juncture feature (i.e., where two separate + words come together). Specifically, when a word ends in a vowel and the + next word begins with a vowel, Ithkuil phonetically separates the words + by inserting a glottal stop at the beginning of the second word so that + the word-final vowel of the first word does not combine with the word-initial + vowel of the second. This serves to keep the two words separate and distinct. + This glottal stop is unmarked in both the Roman transliteration and in the + Ithkuil script. Elsewhere, the glottal stop may appear following <STRONG>w</STRONG> + or <STRONG>y</STRONG> if preceding a vowel, or may follow a vowel.<BR> + </DIV> + </LI> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify">No more than four consonants can occur in conjunction. + Such four-consonant conjuncts can only occur intervocalically (or across + word boundaries), and the first two and last two consonants must each form + permissible syllable-final and syllable initial pairs respectively, or alternately, + the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-final + conjunct or the last three of the four consonants must form a permissible + syllable-initial conjunct. <BR> + </DIV> + </LI> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify">For intervocalic three-consonant conjuncts either the + first consonant or the last consonant of the conjunct must be in a separate + syllable than the other two consonants. If the first consonant is dissyllabic + from the other two, then those other two consonants must be a permissible + syllable-initial conjunct. If the third consonant is dissyllabic from the + first two, then the first two must be a permissible syllable-final conjunct.<BR> + </DIV> + </LI> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify">For word-initial and word-final triple consonant conjuncts, + these are generally permissible if the both the first two consonants are + permissible as a conjunct by themselves and the last two consonants of the + conjunct are permissible as a conjunct by themselves.</DIV> + </LI> +</UL> +<P align="justify">Table 3 below shows the permissible structures for word-initial + consonant conjuncts, while Table 4 shows the permissible structures for consonant + conjuncts in word-final position. Note that not all the possible conjuncts are + shown, merely examples of each type of combination. There are many combinations + of consonants permitted in Ithkuil which would never be allowed as conjuncts + in Western languages.</P> +<P align="justify"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><BR> + <STRONG>Table 3: Permissible Structure of Initial Consonant Conjuncts</STRONG><BR> + <BR> + <IMG src="assets/1-4-4a.gif" width="552" height="613"> </FONT></P> +<P align="justify"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><BR> + <STRONG>Table 4: Permissible Structure of Word-Final Consonant Conjuncts </STRONG></FONT></P> +<H3 align="justify"><IMG src="assets/1-4-4b.gif" width="531" height="551"></H3> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + <A name="Sec1o4o5"></A>1.4.5 Phonaesthetic Rules</H3> +<P align="justify">Phonaesthetic rules refer to the generally applied rules and + preferences peculiar to each language for structuring the patterns of phonemes + for purposes of phonological euphony. The following such principles apply to + Ithkuil. </P> +<UL> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify">While “open” syllables (syllables ending + in a single vowel) are tolerated in Ithkuil, “closed” syllables + (i.e., ending in a consonant) are preferred, especially for the stressed + syllable of a word. Ithkuil morphology often allows for more than one way + to structure the various morphemes of a particular word, especially words + of three syllables or more. (Morphemes are the individual meaningful parts + of a word, e.g., the root, any affix, any mutation, or any other phonological + manifestation of a grammatical category.) It is common to restructure words + via morpho-phonological manipulation so that they contain closed syllables, + particularly in the stressed syllable. This rule is not often applied to + two-syllable words, which have fewer options in their structure. The rule + is inapplicable to monosyllabic words, where open syllables are common.<BR> + </DIV> + </LI> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify">Words of six syllables or more are considered euphonically + undesirable, and it is common to morphologically restructure a word to reduce + the number of syllables to five or less. This morpho-phonological restructuring + is accomplished by alternating adjunct and suffix forms (as explained in + <A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html" onclick="javascript:changenav6();">Chapters + 7</A> and <A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8</A>).<BR> + </DIV> + </LI> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify"> In words having multiple affixes, it is common to use + one of the affixes in an adjunct form instead, if this will reduce the number + of syllables. </DIV> + </LI> +</UL> +<P align="right"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html" onclick="javascript:changenav2();">Proceed + to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >></A></STRONG></FONT></P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"><FONT size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. 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